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THE 


FARMER'S    GUIDE 


TO 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 


DETAILING 


THE  LABORS  OF  THE  FARMER, 

IN    ALL    THEIR    VARIETY,    AND 

ADAPTING  THEM  TO  THE  SEASONS  OF  THE  YEAR 

AS    THEY    SUCCESSIVELY    OCCUR. 


BY    HENRY    STEPHENS,    F.R.S.E., 

AUTHOR     OF     "THE     BOOK     OF     THE     FARM,"     ETC.,    ETC.,     ETC., 

ASSISTED     BY 

JOHN    P.    NORTON.    M.A,, 

PROFESSOR     OF     SCIENTIFIC     AGRICULTURE     IN     YALE     COLLEGE,     NEW     HAVEN. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES— WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


NEW     YORK: 

LEONARD      SCOTT      &    Co., 
79     FULTON     STREET    AND     54    GOLD     STREET. 

1850. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


124 
129 


INITIATION. 

Pag? 

On  the  best  of  the  existing  methods  for  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge 

of  practical  husbandry,    -------1 

On  the  DIFFICULTIES  THE  PUPIL  HAS  TO  ENCOUNTER    IN  LEARNING    PRACTICAL 

HUSBANDRY,  AND  ON  THE  MEANS  OF  OVERCOMING  THEM,          -                 -                 -  3 

On  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FARMING,  AND  ON  SELECTING  THE  BEST,       -                 -  9 
On  THE   PERSONS   REQUIRED   TO   CONDUCT   AND   EXECUTE    THE    LABOUR  OF  THE 

FARM,                  _.-------  13 

On  the  BRANCHES  OF  SCIENCE  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE,            -                 -  18 

On  the  INSTITUTIONS  OF  EDUCATION  BEST  SUITED  TO  AGRICULTURAL  STUDENTS,  117 
On  the  EVILS  ATTENDING  THE  NEGLECT  OF  LANDOWNERS  AND  OTHERS  TO  LEARN 

PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE,        ------- 

On  OBSERVING  THE  DETAILS  AND  RECORDING  THE  FACTS  OF   FARMING  BY  THE  AGRI 

CULTURAL  STUDENT,  ------- 

PR  ACTI CE— WINTER. 

Summary  of  the  field  operations,  and  of  the  weather  in  winter,             -  134 

On  THE  PLOUGH,  SWING-TREES,  AND  PLOUGH-HARNESS,                       -                 -                 -  149 

On  PLOUGHING  AND  PLOUGHING-MATCHES,                -                 -                 -                 "          ■       "  160 

On  PLOUGHING  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RIDGES,        -----  171 

On  PLOUGHING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND,              -----  183 

On  THE  OCCUPATION  OF  THE  STEADING  IN  WINTER,               ...                 -  187 
On   pulling    and   storing   turnips,   MANGOLD-WURTZEL,    carrots,   PARSNIPS, 

AND  CABBAGE,  FOR  CONSUMPTION  IN  WINTER,  .  .  .  . 

On  THE  VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS  CULTIVATED,             -                  -                  -                  .                  -  197 

On  THE  FEEDING  OF  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER,             -                 -                 .                 .  208 

On  THE  ACCOMMODATION  AFFORDED  TO  CATTLE  IN  WINTER  BY  THE  STEADING,       -  242 

On  the  REARING  AND  FATTENING  OF  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER,         -                 -  256 

On  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES  FOR  FARM  HORSES,      -                 -                 -                 -  298 

On  the  TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER,                   -                 -                 -                 -  307 

On  the  TREATMENT  OF  THE  FARMER'S  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS-HORSE  IN  WINTER,  331 

On  THE  FATTENING  OF  SWINE  IN  WINTER,                  .                 -                 -                 .                 .  343 

On  the  treatment  of  fowls  in  winter,            .....  351 

On.  the  rationale  of  the  feeding  of  animals,            -            .             _            -  362 

On  the  accommodation  of  the  grain  crops  in  the  steading,             -            -  374 

On  the  thrashing  and  winnowing  of  grain,              -           .            .           -  400 


189 


4'4^'64 


iv  CONTENTS. 

Page 

On  the  forming  of  dunghills  in  winter,        ...            -           -  459 

On  the  fouming  of  composts  in  winter,           .            .            -            -            -  470 

On  the  constriction  of  liquid-manure  tanks  and  carts,      -            .            -  474 

On  liquid  manure,          .--..---  481 

On  sea- weed  as  manure,            -....--  488 

On  gaulting  or  claying  the  soil,        ...-.-  490 

PRACTICE— SPRING. 

Summary  of  the  field  operations  and  of  the  weather  in  spring,                -  492 
On  the  advantages  of  having  field  work  always  in  a  state  of  for- 
wardness,   ---------  503 

On  the  calving  of  cows,           ..-..--  505 

On  the  milking  of  cows,           ....---  521 

On  the  rearing  of  calves,       ..--.--  527 

On  the  sowing  of  spring  w^heat,          ....--  534 

On  the  drilling  up  of  land,     -------  558 

On  the  sowing  of  beans,           ..-----  565 

On  the  sowing  of  pease,            .......  575 

On  the  sowing  of  takes,            ...----  576 

On  the  rolling  of  land,            .._..--  578 

On  the  transpl-^jnting  of  turnip  bui.bs  for  producing  seed,            -            -  579 

On  the  sowing  of  oats,              ..,-.--  580 

On  lucerne,        -            -            -            -            -            -            -            -            -_  585 

0»s' sainfoin,        .--...---  587 

On  the  lambing  oe  ewes,           ....---  589 

On  cross  ploughing  land,         ..__.--  606 

On  RIBBING  LAND  FOR  the  seed  FURROW%  -  -  -  -  -611 

On  the  sowing  of  grass-seeds,             -...--  612 

On  the  sowing  of  barley,          ..-----  621 

On  the  turning  of  dunghills,               ...---  624 

On  the  planting  of  potatoes,   -------  G2U 

On  paring  and  burning  the  surface,               .            _           -           -           -  646 

On  the  farroa^ng  of  sows,       ...--.-  652 

On  the  hatching  of  fowls,       -------  659 


LIST  OF  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOL.  L 


ENGRAVINGS  ON  STEEL. 


PLATE 

I.   ISOMETRICAL  ELEVATION  OF  THE  STEADING. 

II.  Ground  Plan  of  the  Steading. 

III.  DOUBLE-HOESE  CaKT  IN  YOKE. 

IV.  Draught  Stallion. 


PLATR 

v.  Brood-Sow. 
"VI.  Short-Horn  Cows. 
VII.  Leicester  Ewe  and  Lamb. 
VIII.  Draught  Mare. 


ENGRAVINGS  ON  WOOD. 


Fig. 

Page 

Fig. 

1. 

Sections  of  Soils  and  Subsoils, 

91 

23. 

2. 

Furrow-side  of  a  Plough, 

150 

24. 

3. 

Land-side  of  a  Plough, 

ib. 

4. 

Plan  of  a  Plough, 

151 

25. 

5. 

Plough-Staff, 

ib. 

6. 

Swing-Trees  for  Two  Horses, 

152 

26 

7. 

Trussed  Iron  Swing-Trees, 

ib. 

27. 

8. 

Swing-Trees  for  Three  Horses, 

153 

9. 

Swing-Trees  for  Four  Horses, 

154 

28. 

10. 

Swing-Trees  also  for  Four  Horses, 

156 

11. 

Lothian  Draught- Horse  Collar  and 

29 

Haims,      -             .             .             . 

ib. 

30 

12. 

Forfarshire  Draught-Horse  CoUar, 

157 

31 

13. 

English  Draught-Horse  Collar, 

ib. 

14. 

Scotch  Plough  at  Work,     - 

159 

32 

15. 

Rectangular  Furrow-Slice, 

161 

33 

16. 

Trapezoidal    or   Crested    Furrow- 

Shce,         -            .            -            . 

ib. 

34 

17. 

Movement  of  the  Furrow-Slice, 

165 

18. 

A  Peering  Pole,    •  - 

172 

35. 

19. 

Mode  of  Peering  Ridges,     - 

ib. 

36 

20. 

Gathering-up    Ridges     from     the 

37. 

Flat,         -            .            -            . 

174 

38. 

21. 

An  Open  Furrow  with  Mould  or 

Hint-End  Furrow-Slices, 

ib. 

22. 

Casting,  Yoking,  or  Coupling  Ridges, 

176 

Making  a  Gore-Furrow, 
Peering  for  Ploughing  Ridges,  Two- 
out  and  Two-in,   - 
Ploughing    Ridges    Two-out    and 
Two-in,     -  -  -  . 

Twice-gathering-up  Ridges, 
Cleaving  -  down     Ridges     without 

Gore-Furrows, 
Cleaving  down  Ridges  with  Gore- 
Furrows, 
Ridge  ill-ploughed, 
Rib-Ploughing  Stubble-Land, 
Stripping  the  Ground  of  Turnips 

m  any  given  Proportions, 
Pulling  Turnips  for  stoiing. 
Instrument  for  topping  and  tailing 

Turnips, 
Another  Instrument  for  the  same 

purpose, 
Turnip  Trimming-knife, 
Topping  and  tailing  Turnips, 
Ti-iangular  Turnip-Store,    - 
White  Globe  Turnip.— The  Purple 
Top      Swedish     Turnip.  —  The 
Aberdeenshire    Yellow    Bullock 
Turnip,    .... 


Page 
176. 

178 

ib. 

179 

180 

ib. 
181 
182 

190 
191 

192 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

195 


198 


Tl 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig. 

39.  An  ill-shaped  Turnip.— The  Tank- 

ard Turnip, 

40.  Hurdles  or  Flakes  set  for  confining 

Sheep  on  Turnips, 

41.  The  Shepherds  Wood  Mallet, 

42.  The  Driver, 

43.  The  Shepherd's  Knot, 

44.  The  Net  set  for  Sheep, 

45.  The  Sheep  Straw  or  Hay  Rack,      - 

46.  The  Best  Form  of  Turnip-Picker,  - 

47.  Objectionable    Form    of    Turnip- 

Picker,     .  -  -  - 

48.  The  Lever  Tuniip-Slicer,   - 

49.  The  Wheel-Barrow  Turnip-Slicer,  - 

50.  The     Turnip-Trough    for     Sheep- 

Feeding,  -  -  -  - 

5L  Occupying  Turnip- Land  for  Sheep, 
52.  TheUil-Cake  or  Corn  Box  forSheep, 
63.  The  Oil-Cake  Breaker, 

54.  A   Moveable  Shed  for   Sheep   on 

Turnips,  -  -  -  - 

55.  Steading  for  the  Arable  Part  of  a 

Sheei^Farm, 

56.  The  Outside  Stell,  - 

57.  Outside  Stell  without  Plantation, 

58.  Ancient  Stells, 

59.  An  Inside  Stell,      - 

60.  The  Circular  Stell, 

61.  A  Bratted  Sheep,    - 

62.  Englisli  Hurdle,      - 

63.  The  Fold-Pitcher  in Hui-dle Setting, 

64.  The  Corn-Box  for  Sheep  on  Tur- 

nips,        .... 

65.  Vertical  Section  of  the  Interior  of 

the  Com- Box, 

66.  Turnip-Trough  for  Courts, 

67.  Covered  .Straw-Rack  for  Courts, 

68.  Wooden  Straw-Rack, 

69.  Iron  Straw-Rack,     - 

70.  Water-Troughs,       - 

71.  Drain-Grating  for  Courts,  - 

72.  Liquid-Manure  Drain, 

73.  Door   through    which    to    supply 

Mangei-s  with  Turnips,     - 

74.  Byre-Travis,  Manger,  and  Stake,    - 

75.  A  Baikie,    -  -  .  - 

76.  Cattle-Seal  or  Binder, 

77.  Byre- Window, 

78.  The    Elevation    of  an    Improved 

Window, 

79.  The  Vertical  Section  of  an  Improved 

Window, 

80.  The  Plan  of  an  Improved  Window, 

81.  A  Ventilator, 

82.  The  Graip, 

83.  Tlie  Square-Mouthed  Shovel, 

84.  The   Hand   Turnip-Chopper,  with 

Cross  Blades, 

85.  The   Hand    Turnip-Chopper,  with 

Parallel  Blades,    - 

86.  The  Lever  Turnip-Slicer  for  Cattle, 

87.  Wlieol-Barrow, 

88.  The  Wire  Turnip-Basket,   - 

89.  A  Safe  Lantera, 

90.  The  Cooler  for  a  Byre, 

91.  'J'he    Cyhnder    Straw-Cutter  with 

Straight  Kiiives,  • 


Page 

Fig. 

92. 

204 

93. 

94. 

209 

95. 

ib. 

210 

96. 

ib. 

211 

97. 

214 

98. 

ib. 

99. 

100. 

ib. 

215 

101. 

216 

102. 

103. 

217 

ib. 

104. 

218 

105. 

219 

106. 

222 

107. 

108. 

229 

231 

109. 

232 

ib. 

110. 

234 

111. 

ib. 

112. 

236 

113. 

237 

238 

114. 

115. 

239 

116. 

240 

117. 

243 

244 

118. 

ib. 

ib. 

245 

119. 

247 

il. 

120. 

250 

251 

121. 

252 

ib. 

122. 

ib. 

123. 

253 

124. 

ib. 

ib. 

125. 

254 

126. 

258 

ib. 

127. 

ib. 

128. 

259 

129. 

ib. 

130. 

261 

ib. 

131. 

264 

268 

132. 

133. 

ib. 


The  Canadian  Straw-Cutter, 

Byre  for  a  large  Dairy- Farm, 

Stone  Trough  for  a  Byre,  - 

Steading  for  the  Cattle  of  a  Pastoral 
Fann,       .  .  -  - 

Steading  for  the  Cattle  of  a  Carse 
Farm,       -  .  -  - 

The  Linseed  Bruiser, 

The  Hand  Corn-Bruiser,     - 

The  Power  Cora-Bruiser,   - 

The  Ox-Louse,  Hcematopinus  Eury- 
stemics,     -  -  -  - 

The  Ox-Louse,  TrichodecteiScalaris, 

The  Cattle  Probang, 

The  Mouth-Piece  for  the  Cattle 
Probang, 

The  Trochar, 

A  Stall  for  a  Work-Horse  Stable, 

A  Stall  with  Cast-iron  Hind- 
Posts,       -  .  .  - 

A  Stable  Window, 

The  Corn-Chest  for  the  Work- 
Hoi-ses,    -  -  -  - 

The  Curry-Comb,  Brush,  Foot 
Picker,  and  JIane-Comb, 

The  Common  Straw  Fork, 

The  Lincolnshire  Steel  Straw  Fork, 

The  Whin- Bruiser, 

The  Closed-Boiler  Steaming  Ap- 
paratus,   .  -  -  - 

Boiler  and  Furnace, 

The  Horse  Louse,  Trichodectes 
Equi,         .  .  .  . 

The  Water  Brush, 

The  Horse's  Foot  in  the  Natural 
State,        .  -  -  - 

The  Transparent  Shoe,  showing 
the  close  fitting  of  the  Shoe  to 
the  Fore  Foot, 

The  Transparent  Shoe,  showing  the 
Usual  Seat  given  to  the  Shoe 
upon  the  Fore-Foot, 

Shoeing  the  Fore-Foot  with  Five 
Nails,       .  -  -  - 

Shoeing  the  Fore-Foot  with  Seven 
Nails,       .  .  -  - 

Plan  of  Loose  Boxes  for  Saddle 
Horses,     -  -  -  - 

The  Horse  Muzzle  for  Saddle 
Horses,     -  -  -  - 

The  Ring  Pigs'-Trough,  to  stand  in 
a  Court,   -  -  -  - 

,  Door  for  a  Pig-Sty, 

The   Pigs'  Troughs,  with  subdivi- 
sions, to  stand  in  an  opening  of 
the  outer  wall  of  the  Sty, 
,  The    Sow     Louse,     J/wmatopinua 
Suis,         .  .  -  - 

,  The  Corn-Barn  Door, 
.  Section  of  the  Com-Bara  Floor,     - 
,  Plan   of  Upper   Bam,    Granaries, 

and  Wool- Room, 
,  Granary  Window,  and  Section  of 

Shutters, 
,  A  Wooden  Stathel  for  Stacks, 
,  The  Arrangement  of  the  Ground- 
Floor  of  the  Bams, 


Pag« 

270 

ib. 

271 

273 

ib. 
276 

282 
283 

295 
ib. 

296 

ib. 

297 
301 

302 
304 

306 

310 
ib. 
ib. 

318 

320 
323 

326 
333 

336 


838 

ib. 
339 

ib. 
340 

ib. 

345 
346 

ib. 

350 
376 
377 

378 

379 
380 

382 


LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Vll 


Fig. 

Page 

Fig. 

134. 

The   Arrangement  of  the  Upper 

178. 

Floor  of  the  Barns, 

383 

135. 

The    Elevation    of    a    Thrashing 

179 

Machine, 

384 

136. 

The    Longitudinal   Section    of    a 

180 

Thrashing  Machine, 

385 

137. 

The   Crank   High-Pressiire  Steam 

181. 

Engine,     -             -             -             - 

387 

182 

138. 

The  Horse  Wheel  for  a  Thrashing 

183 

Machine, 

393 

184 

139. 

The  Lever  for  Equalising  Draught 

185 

in  the  Thrashing  Machine, 

394 

186 

140. 

The    Section   and    Elevation  of  a 

187. 

Bucket  Water  Wheel, 

397 

188 

141. 

Casting    down    a    Stack    to     be 

189. 

Thrashed, 

401 

190. 

142. 

The  Corn-Barrow,  - 

402 

191 

143. 

The  Ladder, 

403 

192 

144. 

The  Oil-Can, 

404 

193 

145. 

Feeding  in  Com  into  the  Thrash- 

194 

ing  Machine  in  the  Upper  Bam, 

406 

195 

146. 

The    Elevation    of   the    Dressing 

Fanner,     -            -            -            - 

410 

196. 

147. 

The   Longitudinal  Section  of  the 

197 

Dressing  Fanner,   with  Riddles 

198. 

and  Sieves, 

ib. 

199. 

148. 

The   Transverse    Section    of   the 

200. 

Dressing  Fanner, 

411 

201. 

149. 

The    Elevation   of   the  Finishing 

202. 

Fanner  or  Duster, 

412 

150. 

The   Longitudinal  Section  of  the 

Finishing  Fanner  or  Duster, 

413 

203. 

151. 

The    Transverse    Section    of   the 

204. 

Finishing  Fanner  or  Duster, 

ib. 

205. 

152. 

The  Wooden  Wheat  Riddle, 

414 

153. 

The  Wooden  Barley  Riddle, 

ib. 

206 

154. 

The  Wooden  Oat  Riddle, 

ib. 

155. 

The  Wooden  Bean  Riddle, 

ib. 

207. 

156. 

The  Wooden  Riddle  for  the  Roughs 

of  ^Vheat  and  Oats, 

415 

157. 

The  Iron  Wire  Wheat  Riddle, 

ib. 

208. 

158. 

The  Iron  Wire  Barley  Riddle, 

ib. 

159. 

The  Iron  Wh-e  Oat  Riddle, 

ib. 

209 

160. 

The  Iron  Wire  Riddle  for  Roughs, 

ib. 

210. 

161. 

The  Wooden  Sieve, 

ib. 

211. 

162. 

The  Iron  Wire  Sieve, 

416 

212. 

163. 

The  Corn-Basket  of  Wicker- Work, 

ib. 

164. 

The  Barn  Stool,      - 

ib. 

213 

165. 

The  Barn  Wooden  Hoe,    - 

ib. 

166. 

The  Com  Scoop,     - 

ib. 

214. 

167. 

The  Measuring  up  of  Grain  in  the 

Com  Barn, 

419 

215. 

168. 

The  Imperial  Bushel  of  a  conve- 

216. 

nient  Form,          ... 

419 

217. 

169. 

The  Flat  and  Cylinder  Corn-Strikes, 

421 

218. 

170. 

The  Elevation  of  the  Cylinder  Hum- 

219 

meller,     .... 

422 

220 

171. 

The  Hand  Hummeller, 

ib. 

221 

172. 

Filled   Sacks   as  they   should   be 

222. 

placed  on  the  Bam  Floor, 

423 

223 

173. 

The  Sack-Barrow. 

425 

174. 

The  Balance  Weighing  Machine, 

426 

175. 

The  Single  Horse  Tilt  Cart, 

429 

224 

176. 

Classification    of   Wheat    by   the 

225 

Ear,          .... 

433 

177 

Short,  Roimd,  Plump  Form,  and 

226 

Small  Size  of  Wheat, 

ib. 

227 

Rather  Long,  Medium-Sized  Form 
of  Wheat, 

Large  Size  and  Long  Form  of 
Wheat,     ...  - 

Foui'-Rowed  Bere  or  Bigg,  Sis- 
Rowed  Barley,  Two-Rowed, 

Scotch  Bere  or  Bigg, 

English  Barley, 

The  Potato  Oat,      - 

The  White  Siberian  Early  Oat, 

The  Potato  Oat,      - 

The  Tartarian  Oat, 

Ear  of  Rye, 

Grains  of  Rye,         ... 

The  Horse  Bean,     ... 

The  Partridge  Field  Pea,    - 

The  Dung  Spade,    ... 

A  Dung-Pit  for  Four  Fields, 

The  Mud  Hoe  or  Harle,     - 

The  Liquid  Manure  Cart,  - 

The  Apparatus  for  Regulating  the 
discharge  of  Liquid  Manure, 

The  Claying  of  the  Soil,      - 

The  Milk  Pail, 

The  Milking  Stool, 

A  Calf's  Crib  Door, 

The  Pickling  of  Wheat,      - 

The  Seed  Corn  Rusky, 

The  Method  of  putting  on  the 
Sowing  Sheet,  and  of  Hand  Sow- 
ing, -  -  -  - 

The  English  Sowing  Basket, 

The  Broadcast  Sowing  Machine,     - 

The  East  Lothian  Grain  DrUl 
Machine,  ... 

Slight's  new  Lever-Drill  Sowing 
Machine, 

The  Wooden  Rhomboidal  Har- 
rows, with  then-  Yoke  of  Swing 
Trees,       .... 

The  Iron  Rhomboidal  Harrows, 
with  their  Yoke  of  Swing  Trees, 

The  Double  Mould-Board  Plough, 

The  Sowing  of  Corn  by  Hand, 

The  Presser-Rollei', 

Action  of  the  edge  of  the  Pressing 
Wheels,     -  -  -  - 

The  Mode  of  Ploughing  Single 
Drills,       -  -  -  - 

The  Double  Mould-Board  Plough 
for  forming  Drills, 

Kirkwood's  Gi-ubber, 

The  Ducie  Cultivator, 

The  Dung  Drag,      -  -  - 

The  Three-Pronged  Dimg  Graip,    - 

The  Bean-Drill  or  Barrow, 

The  Drill  Harrow, 

The  Section  of  the  Drill  Harrow, 

The  Land-Roller,     - 

The  large  Insect  which  produces 
the  Grub  m  Oat  Fields  — The 
Wheat  Fly, 

The  Shepherd's  Crook, 

The  Mode  of  holding  Lambs  for 
Castration,  ... 

The  Ewe  House,     ... 

The  Mountain  Snow  Harrow, 


434 

ib. 

445 
446 

ib. 
448 
449 

ib. 

ib. 
451 

ib. 
452 
454 
464 
467 
470 
478 

479 
491 
523 
ib. 
528 
536 
637 


538 

ib. 

541 

544 

546 

547 

548 
552 
553 
554 

655 

660 

565 
567 
568 
570 
ib. 
571 
573 
574 
579 


683 
598 

599 

605 

ib. 


Vlll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig. 

228.  The  Mountain    Tum-Wrist  Suow 

Plough,    -  -  -  - 

229.  A  Field  Peered  for  being  Cross- 

Ploughed, 

230.  The  Small  or  Ribbing  Plough, 

231.  The  Kibbmg  Coultx;rs, 

232.  The  Gi-ass-Seed  Iron  Harrows,  w-ith 

Wings  and  Swing  Trees, 

233.  The  Frying  Pan  or  Lime  Shovel,  - 


Page 


Fig. 


34.  How  a  Potato  may  be  cut  into 
606  Sets, 

235.  A  Potato  Hand  Basket,      - 
608    236.  Potato  Planting,     - 

611  237.  The  Common  No.  5  Spade, 

612  238.  The  Flauchter  Spade  at  Work, 
239.  The  Paring  Sock  or  Share, 

616  I  240.  The  Leicester  Paring  Plough, 
627  I  241.  Sties,  for  Brood  Sows  under  Cover, 


Page 

630 
632 
633 
647 

a. 

648 

ib. 

652 


PREFACE. 

BY    HENRY    STEPHENS. 


The  call  for  another  Edition  of  the  Booh  of  the  Farm,  so  soon  after 
the  issue  of  the  former  one,  and  the  gratifying  reception  of  the  work 
by  agriculturists  of  the  highest  repute,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  justify 
me  in  believing  that  the  object  for  which  it  was  undertaken  has  been 
attained,  and  that  the  plan  upon  which  it  is  arranged  has  met  with 
general  approval. 

My  chief  object,  in  preparing  the  work,  was  to  construct  such  a  hand- 
book as  should  be  of  service  in  instructing  young  men  who  might  desire 
to  become  farmers,  in  practical  husbandry.  Not  that  I  ever  supposed 
the  mere  perusal  of  a  book  could  make  any  young  man  a  practical 
farmer  ;  but  my  own  experience  as  an  agricultural  pupil,  for  some  years, 
having  convinced  me  that  it  is  most  difficult  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
husbandry  even  on  a  farm,  unless  through  an  expenditure  of  time  which 
few  young  men  can  afford  to  spare,  I  became  assured  that,  with  a  work  at 
hand  containing  clear  explanations  of  the  details  of  each  farm-operation, 
and  of  its  relation  to  that  which  preceded  and  followed  it  in  the  re- 
volution of  the  agricultural  year,  a  young  man,  residing  on  a  farm  in 
the  capacity  of  pupil  to  an  intelligent  farmer,  would  much  sooner 
and  much  better  become  acquainted  with  rural  aifairs  than  he  possibly 
could  do  without  the  advantages  of  such  reference.  The  farmer,  who 
unquestionably  is  the  proper  agricultural  instructor,  cannot  always  be 
on  the  spot  to  answer  inquiries,  nor  can  a  pupil  always  put  his  ques- 
tions distinctly,  or  be  aware  of  the  proper  time  to  put  them,  so  as  to 
elicit  the  information  wanted.  But  the  pupil  can,  in  the  intervals 
when  direct  information  is  impossible,  peruse  his  hand-book,  wherein 
he  will  find  not  only  every  detail  of  the  particular  operation  proceeding  in 
the  field  fully  explained,  but  its  relative  position  correctly  indicated  in 

JVote  by  the  American  Publishers.— Thai  portion  of  the  Farmer's  Guide  written  by  Mr.  Stephens  is  a  reprint  of 
the  second  edition  of  the  Book  of  the  Farm.  The  reader  « ill  see  by  Mr.  Stephens's  Preface,  that  this  second  edition 
is  virliiiilly  a  new  liook,  eiiibracin;;  the  more  important  (features  of  the  first  edition  and  all  the  later  discoveries  in 
Agricultural  Science.  This  improvement  in  the  character  of  Ihe  work,  tocether  with  the  additions  of  Professor 
Norton,  has  induced  the  American  Publishers  to  adopt  a  new  title.  The  change  is  sanctioned  by  the  British 
Publishers,  who  have  an  interest  in  the  sale  of  the  American  Edition,  and  it  meets  the  approbation  of  the  American 
Public. 


Ti  PREFACE. 

reference  to  the  operations  preceding  and  following  it.  To  explain  still 
more  explicitly  the  nature  of  field-operations,  I  have  first  arranged  each 
in  the  agricultural  season  in  N?hich  it  should  be  begun,  and  then  con- 
tinued it  through  those  in  which  it  should  be  carried  on,  down  to  that 
in  which  it  ought  to  be  brought  to  a  conclusion  ;  and  I  have,  moreover, 
carefully  preserved  its  relation  to  those  operations  which  precede  and 
follow  it  through  all  the  seasons.  I  am  satisfied  that  no  better  mode 
exists  of  teaching  farming  successfully,  to  pupils  in  agriculture,  from 
books.  Systematic  works  on  agriculture,  as  hitherto  written,  are  couched 
m  too  general  terms  to  be  practically  useful,  and  the  narrative  is  rarely 
so' arranged  as  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  method  which  is  really 
adopted  in  the  fields.  A  work  in  the  cyclopaediac  form,  besides 
this  objection,  presents  a  greater,  by  placing  the  operation  in  the  midst 
of  subjects  which,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  bear  no  relation  whatsoever 
to  its  peculiar  antecedents  or  progress. 

The  aim  and  plan  of  the  former  edition  of  the  Book  of  the  Farm, 
which  the  pubhc  approval  has  sanctioned  in  the  most  unequivocal 
manner,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  disturb  in  the  present  edition.  Still, 
with  the  view  of  conveying  more  instruction  to  the  agricultural  pupil, 
considerable  alterations  have  been  made  in  the  arrangement  of  the  sub- 
jects ;  and  these  have  been  so  emended,  enlarged,  and  in  some  instances 
curtailed — a  large  proportion  having  been  also  rewritten,  to  suit  the 
altered  influences  under  which  husbandry,  as  an  art,  is  now  placed — 
as,  I  am  persuaded,  to  make  the  Mork  more  useful  to  the  agriculturist 
and  the  student. 

The  subjects  treated  of  I  have  airanged  under  three  prominent  divi- 
sions, M'ith  the  view  of  bringing  them  successively  under  the  notice  of 
the  agricultural  student.  The  First  Division  directs  him  to  avail  him- 
self of  the  experience  of  some  farmer  who  practises  the  species  of 
husbandry  he  desires  to  acquire ;  it  makes  him  acquainted  with 
the  various  sorts  of  farming  practised  in  this  country ;  and  it 
indicates  the  peculiar  form  of  the  ground,  and  the  locality,  which 
determine  the  adoption  of  each  of  those  sorts  of  farming.  He  is 
then  warned  of  the  difficulties  which  he  will  have  to  encounter  at 
the  outset  of  his  agricultural  career,  and  apprised  of  the  means  by 
which  he  may  overcome  these,  if  he  chooses  to  adopt  them.  The  ne- 
cessity of  a  good  general  education  to  agriculturists  is  dwelt  on  with 
peculiar  earnestness,  because  every  farm-operation  clearly  indicates  its 
dependence  for  its  right  performance  on  some  branch  of  physical  science 


PREFACE.  vH 

The  work,  I  trust,  may  be  consulted  with  as  much  advantage  by  the 
country  gentleman,  unacquainted  with  practical  agriculture,  as  by  the 
pupil ;  and  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain  my  reasons  for  thinking  so, 
by  pointing  out  the  particular  evils  which  inevitably  arise  from  inac- 
quaintance  with  rural  affairs  by  the  proprietors  of  the  soil.  This  First 
portion  I  have  designated  Initiation,  because  it  indicates  the  sort  of 
discipline  which  the  agricultural  pupil  should  voluntarily  undergo,  before 
his  mind  can  become  fitted  to  master  the  details  of  practical  agriculture. 

The  Second  Division  explains  the  details,  even  to  the  most  minute 
particular,  of  every  farm-operation,  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the 
other ;  and  as  the  treatment  of  each  is  materially  affected  by  the  parti- 
cular season  in  which  it  is  undertaken,  great  care  has  been  taken  to 
treat  of  each  in  the  manner  peculiar  to  the  season  in  which  it  is  con- 
ducted. The  seasons  having  a  predominating  influence  over  farm- 
operations,  all  the  operations  are  necessarily  classed  under  their  re- 
spective seasons.  The  Winter  commences  the  operations  of  the  farm, 
when  most  of  the  preparations  for  the  succeeding  busy  seasons  are  made. 
Upon  the  foundation  laid  in  Winter,  the  Spring  consigns  every  variety 
of  seed  used  in  husbandry  to  the  ground,  and  witnesses  the  reproduction 
of  every  species  of  live  stock.  The  Summer  fosters  the  growth  both  of 
plants  and  animals.  The  Autumn  reaps  the  fruits  of  all  the  labour  that 
has  been  bestowed  in  the  preceding  seasons.  To  render  the  explanations 
of  the  operations  more  particular  and  explicit  throughout  the  seasons,  I 
have  found  it  necessary,  by  way  of  practical  example,  to  assume  the  work- 
ing of  one  of  the  sorts  of  farming  for  twelve  months ;  and  have  selected 
that  which  embraces  the  greatest  variety  of  particulars — the  Mixed  Hus- 
bandry, which  has  for  its  subjects  not  only  the  cultivation  of  the  plants 
raised  in  the  field,  but  also  the  breeding,  rearing,  and  fattening  of  live 
stock.  This  part  necessarily  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  work,  and 
is  appropriately  designated  Practice. 

In  the  Third  Division,  the  agricultural  pupil  is  regarded  no  longer 
as  a  mere  student,  but  as  a  young  farmer  on  the  look-out  for  a  farm. 
To  assist  him  in  this  object,  he  is  made  acquainted  with  the  best  and 
worst  physical  conditions  in  which  a  farm  can  be  placed,  in  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  farming,  as  regards  variety  of  ground  and  locality.  He  is 
next  shown  the  manner  of  judging  of  land  ;  of  computing  its  rent ;  of 
negotiating  the  covenants  of  a  lease  ;  of  stocking  the  farm  which  was 
chosen  as  an  example  for  his  guidance ;  and  of  arbitrating  on  minor 
subjects  with  his  predecessor  before  he  leaves  the  farm. 


viH  PREFACE. 

This  extent  of  instruction  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  young  fanner 
in  ordinary  cases,  where  the  farm  is  complete,  and  its  farming  has  been 
long  settled.  Where  the  farm  is  incomplete,  he  may  further  require 
information  on  subjects  that  might  never  have  been  presented  to  his  notice 
in  tlie  course  of  his  stay  on  the  educational  farm,  but  which  it  is  incum- 
bent on  him  to  know  before  he  can  become  a  thoroughly  good  farmer. 
The  farm  he  is  about  to  enter  may  require  a  new  steading — the  young 
tenant  should  become  acquainted  with  plans,  specifications,  and  expenses 
of  buildings.  To  assist  him,  I  have  given  these,  based  upon  such  principles 
as  are  applicable  to  all  sizes  of  steadings,  and  all  modes  of  farming. 
The  ground  may  require  enclosure  : — he  should  know  the  principles  upon 
which  fields  should  be  planned  for  convenience  of  work,  and  the  method 
of  constructing  fences,  whether  of  thorn  or  of  stone.  The  land  may 
require  draining  : — he  ought  to  become  acquainted  with  the  principles 
upon  which  drainage  depends,  so  far  as  these  have  been  ascertained, 
and  the  method  of  applying  them  practically.  There  may  be  waste 
land  to  bring  in  : — its  treatment,  whether  by  trenching  with  the  spade,  or 
trenching  and  subsoiling  after  drainage  with  the  plough,  should  be 
familiarised  to  him.  The  embankment  of  land  against,  and  irrigating 
it  with  water  may  be  requisite  in  some  localities  : — he  ought  to  know 
the  best  method  of  effecting  both.  On  all  these  subjects  I  have 
endeavoured  to  afford  the  young  farmer  the  best  intrinsic  information  in 
an  easy  shape  for  reference,  and  not  clouded  with  unnecessary  techni- 
calities. 

After  the  treatment  of  those  important  and  fundamental  topics,  which 
have  reference  alone  to  the  soil,  the  principles  upon  which  the  purity 
of  blood  and  the  symmetrical  form  of  animals  are  secured  and  main- 
tained, are  then  explained.  The  points  of  animals  which  illustrate  those 
principles  are  fully  indicated,  and  the  portraits  of  some  which  possessed 
these  in  an  eminent  degree  embellish  the  work.  No  fanner  can  under- 
stand the  position  of  his  affairs  without  keeping  accurate  accounts,  so 
that  a  system  of  book-keeping  must  be  of  service  to  him,  and  the  simple 
one  I  have  given  possesses  the  advantage  of  having  been  found  practi- 
cally useful.  With  a  few  precepts  for  the  guidance  of  the  young  farmer, 
at  the  outset  of  life,  in  his  conduct  toM'ards  his  dependents  and  equals, 
as  M'cll  as  his  superiors,  I  conclude  my  task.  These,  I  trust,  will  be 
accepted,  or  at  least  perused,  in  the  same  good  spirit  with  which  they 
are  offered ;  my  object  being  to  inculcate  that  unity  of  feeling  among 
agriculturists  of  every  class,  without  which  no  pursuit  can  prosper,  and 


PREFACE.  iSt 

which  is  not  only  a  social  but  a  sacred  duty,  seeing  that  our  dependence- 
lies  with  Him  who  holds  the  elements  in  His  hands.  Because  the  wishes 
of  the  young  farmer  are  realised,  more  or  less,  by  one  and  all  of 
these  means,  I  have  designated  this  part  Realisation. 

It  may  be  proper  for  me  to  state,  in  a  few  words,  the  opportunities  I 
have  had  of  acquiring  such  an  extent  of  knowledge  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  practical  agriculture,  and  the  other  subjects  enumerated  above, 
as  to  warrant  me  in  assuming  the  part  of  monitor  to  the  agricultural 
student.  The  following  short  narrative,  I  trust,  may  be  sufficient  to 
satisfy  the  reasonable  inquirer. 

After  receiving  what  is  commonly  called  a  liberal  education  at  the 
Parochial  and  Grammar  Schools  of  Dundee,  at  the  Academy  there,  under 
Mr  Duncan,  the  Rector,  now  Professor  of  mathematics  in  St  Salvador's 
College,  St  Andrews,  and  at  the  College  of  Edinburgh,  I  boarded  myself 
■with  Mr  George  Brown,  of  Whitsome  Hill,  a  farm  in  Berwickshire,  of 
about  600  acres,  with  the  view  of  learning  agriculture.  Mr  Brown  was 
universally  esteemed  one  of  the  best  farmers  of  that  well-farmed  county ; 
and  so  high  an  opinion  did  the  late  Mr  Robertson  of  Ladykirk,  the 
most  celebrated  breeder  of  short-horns  in  Scotland  of  his  day,  enter- 
tain of  his  farming,  both  in  stock  and  crop,  that  he  gave  him  per- 
mission to  send  his  cows  to  the  bulls  at  Ladykirk — a  singular  favour 
"which  he  extended,  I  believe,  to  no  one  else,  with  the  exception 
of  his  old  tenant  and  intimate  friend,  Mr  Heriot  of  Fellowhills.  I 
remained  three  years  at  Whitsome  Hill,  during  the  first  two  of  which 
I  laboured  with  my  own  hands  at  every  species  of  work  which  tlie  plough- 
man, the  field-worker,  and  the  shepherd  must  perform  in  tlie  field,  or 
the  steward  and  the  cattle-man  at  the  steading :  and  even  in  the  dairy 
and  poultry  house  part  of  my  time  was  spent.  All  tliis  labour  I  under- 
took, not  of  necessity,  but  voluntarily  and  with  cheeifulness,  in  the 
determination  of  acquiring  a  thoroughly  practical  knowledge  of  my 
profession.  In  my  tliird  year,  when  there  happened  to  be  no  steward, 
Mr  Brown  permitted  me  to  manage  the  farm  under  his  own  immediate 
superintendance. 

I  then  travelled  for  nearly  a  twelvemonth,  soon  after  peace  was 
restored,  through  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  many  places 
I  happened  to  be  the  first  Briton  who  had  visited  them  since  tlie  out- 
break of  the  Revolutionary  war.  This  excursion  gave  me  considerable 
insight  into  the  methods  of  Continental  farming. 

Shortly  after  my  return  home,  I  took  possession  of  a  small  farm  on 


IT  PREFACE. 

Balmadies  in  Forfarshire,  consisting  of  300  acres.  It  was  in  such  a 
state  of  dilapidation  as  to  present  an  excellent  subject  for  improvement. 
It  had  no  farm-house — only  the  remains  of  a  steading ;  the  fields 
were  nine-and-twenty  in  number,  very  irregular  in  shape,  and  fenced 
with  broken  down  stone  djkes  and  clumsy  layers  of  boulders  and  turf;  a 
rivulet  every  year  inundated  parts  of  the  best  land;  the  farm-roads  were 
in  a  wretched  condition ;  and  above  forty  acres  of  waste  land  were  covered 
with  whins  and  broom.  The  heaviest  description  of  soil  was  hazel  loam, 
some  of  it  deep,  some  shallow,  and  all  resting  on  retentive  clay  ;  and  the 
lightest  kind  was  gravelly,  resting  on  gravel.  The  farm  contained  a 
remarkable  feature,  not  uncommon,  however,  in  that  part  of  the  country 
— an  isolated  peat-bog,  very  deep,  containing  thick  beds  of  shell  marl,  and 
enclosing  a  small  lake,  around  whose  margin  grew  aquatic  plants  in  the 
utmost  luxuriance.  In  a  few  years  the  farm  possessed  a  mansion-house, 
oflBces,  and  steading,  (an  isometrical  view  and  ground-plan  of  the  last 
were  figured  in  Plates  I.  and  II.  of  the  first  edition,  though  enlarged 
to  suit  a  larger  farm  ;)  the  surface  was  laid  off"  in  twelve  fields  of  equal 
size  and  rectangular  shape,  to  suit  the  six-course  shift  with  three  years' 
grass ;  some  of  those  fields  were  fenced  with  thorn  hedges,  and  some 
with  stone  dykes  ;  the  impetuous  rivulet,  the  Vinny,  was  embanked 
out ;  the  land  upon  the  retentive  bottom  was  drained  in  the  old  mode 
with  stones,  but  a  few  acres  were  tried  with  furrow-drains  filled  with 
small  stones,  several  years  before  the  Deanston  plan  was  made  public  by 
the  late  lamented  James  Smith  ;  after  the  draining,  the  soil  was  trench- 
ploughed  with  four  horses  ;  the  farm-roads  were  extended  and  made 
serviceable,  and  all  the  waste  land  was  brought  into  cultivation.  I 
made  the  plans  of  the  buildings  myself,  and  also  set  off"  the  form  of 
the  fields,  and  the  Hues  of  the  fences  and  roads — not  because  I  imaiiined 
that  a  professional  man  could  not  have  done  them  better,  but  that  my 
mind  and  hands  might  be  familiarised  with  every  variety  of  labour 
appertaining  to  rural  affairs.  The  results  each  year  were  twenty-five 
acres  of  good  turnips,  instead  of  ten  or  twelve  of  bad,  and  fifty  stacks 
of  corn  in  the  stackyard,  instead  of  seventeen.  The  rent  offei-ed  for 
the  farm  before  I  took  possession  of  it  was  £l50,  and  after  I  relin- 
quished farming  it  was  let  for  nearly  £400.  The  fee-simple  arising 
from  this  increase  of  rent  represents  a  sum  larger  than  what  was 
expended  in  producing  those  results.  I  believe  I  was  the  first  person 
to  introduce  into  Forfarshire  the  feeding  of  cattle  in  small  numbers  in 
hammels,  instead  of  large  numbers  in  large  courts ;  to  show  the  advan- 


PREFACE.^  xi 

tage  of  building  troughs  around  the  walls  of  the  courts  to  hold  topped 
turnips,  instead  of  spreading  uutopped  ones  upon  the  dung ;  to  confine 
sheep  upon  turnips  in  winter  with  nets  instead  of  hurdles — a  plan  which 
the  late  Mr  Andrew  Dalgairns  of  Ingliston  readily  adopted,  at  my  sug- 
gestion, even  with  Black-faced  sheep  ;  and  to  grow  the  Swedish  turnip 
in  a  larger  proportion  than  the  other  sorts. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  the  farmer  who  had  the  opportuni- 
ties of  learning  the  varieties  of  rural  labour  thus  particularised,  and 
who  has  bestowed  all  the  powers  of  his  faculties  for  years  in  acquiring 
them  thoroughly,  may,  without  presumption,  consider  himself  sufficiently 
qualified  to  impart  the  results  of  his  experience  and  observation  to  agri- 
cultural students.  It  is  in  the  belief  that  a  work  of  this  comprehensive 
nature,  compiled  after  the  author  exchanged  the  actual  practice  of 
farming  for  the  onerous  duties  of  conducting  a  portion  of  the  agricul- 
tural press,  may  not  only  be  of  service  to  the  rising  generation,  but  also 
no  small  assistance  to  the  numerous  farmers  who  now  receive  young 
men  into  their  houses  for  tuition  in  agriculture,  that  these  volumes  are 
oflfered  to  the  public.  So  long  as  I  was  a  pupil,  no  such  book  was  in 
existence  for  me  to  consult,  and  having  therefore  personally  experienced 
the  inconvenience  of  being  left  to  acquire  what  knowledge  I  could, 
chiefly  by  my  own  industry  and  perseverance,  sympathy  for  the  young 
pupil,  placed  in  similar  circumstances,  has  prompted  me  to  endeavour  to 
make  his  path  smoother  than  I  found  my  own. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  work  is  printed  alternately  in  small  and 
in  large  type.  The  information  imparted  by  the  large  type  has  been 
chiefly  derived  from  my  own  experience  and  observation  ;  and  where- 
ever  that  has  coincided  with  the  dicta  of  previous  writers,  I  have  quoted 
them,  for  the  double  purpose  of  corroborating  what  I  had  to  say  by  the 
experience  of  others,  and  of  giving  competent  authorities,  to  direct  the 
agricultural  pupil  to  works  descriptive  of  diSerent  branches  of  husbandry. 
The  small  type  contains  descriptions  by  myself,  and  quotations  from 
writers  of  professional  eminence,  of  the  other  kinds  of  farming  beside 
the  one  adopted  as  the  leading  example  ;  and  also  illustrations  of 
each  particular  operation  under  discussion,  derived  from  various  works 
and  documents,  agricultural  and  scientific.  As  I  had  not  space  to 
raise  discussions  on  the  particular  views  broached  on  each  subject, 
I  have  deemed  it  sufficient  to  direct  the  agricultural  student  to  the 
sources  where  he  would  find  the  subjects  more  fully  stated  and  discussed. 
Most  of  the  illustrative    passages  alluded  to  have  been  derived  from 


xU  PREFACE. 

the  pages  of  the  Journal  of  Afiriculture,  and  the  Transactions  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricidtural  Society  of  Scotland. 

I  have  alM'ays  believed  tliat  a  work  on  practical  husbandry  loses  half 
its  value,  unless  it  be  copiously  illustrated  with  figures  of  the  various 
subjects  treated  of ;  because  it  seems  to  me  as  impossible  to  convey  in 
words  every  particular  connected  with  any  important  farm-operation, 
without  the  assistance  of  figures,  as  to  explain  by  words  alone  the 
component  parts  of  a  complicated  machine.  After  much  reflection,  and 
different  preliminary  experiments,  I  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  a 
group  of  figures  would  best  show  the  method  of  executing  each  principal 
operation. 

Holding  the  opinion  I  have  just  expressed  as  to  the  manner  in  wliich 
an  agi'icultural  work  ought  to  be  illustrated,  in  order  to  make  it  really 
useful,  the  first  edition  of  the  Booh  of  the  Farm  was  necessarily  an 
expensive  undertaking.  It  was  unquestionably  desirable,  and  consonant 
with  the  wishes  both  of  the  author  and  publishers,  that  any  subsequent 
edition  which  might  appear  should  be  offered  at  a  lower  price.  But 
notwithstanding  the  rapid  sale,  the  practicability  of  such  a  reduction  was 
attended  with  unforeseen  difficulty,  because,  since  the  first  appearance 
of  the  work,  agriculture  had  attracted  so  much  public  attention,  and  so 
many  changes  in  its  practice  had  been  suggested  by  scientific  men,  who 
proffered  their  aid  to  the  farmer  by  means  of  chemistry,  and,  besides 
this,  so  many  experiments  had  been  conducted  by  farmers,  in  conse- 
quence of  those  suggestions,  that  the  large  additions  required  to  record  the 
results  obtained  would  tend  rather  to  increase  than  to  diminish  the  cost. 
To  have  left  those  results  unnoticed,  and  issued  a  mere  reprint,  without 
commentary  on  what  had  taken  place,  would  not  only  have  detracted 
from  the  usefulness  of  tlie  work  by  rendering  it  behind  its  time,  but 
would  have  justly  withdrawn  from  myself  that  confidence  which  many 
young  agriculturists,  at  home  and  abroad,  had  been  pleased  to  place  in 
me,  in  consequence  of  their  perusal  of  the  first  edition.  No  alternative, 
then,  was  left  me  but  to  render  the  work  more  complete  by  engrossing 
as  many  of  the  results  of  those  experiments,  and  explaining  so  much  of 
the  views  of  the  men  of  science,  as  seemed  to  affect  particular  portions 
of  ordinary  practice.  The  execution  of  this  task,  so  as  to  bring  it  within 
moderate  bounds,  was  attended  with  no  small  diflSculty  and  labour  on 
account  of  the  large  mass  of  materials  with  which  it  was  necessary  to 
deal. 

I  soon  found  that  in  the  chemical  branch  I  should  have  to  confine 


FBEFACE.  idK 

mjself  to  giving,  from  the  ascertained  results,  the  largest  returns  from  the 
use  of  the  special  manures  recommended  bj  chemists,  and  the  analyses 
of  the  mineral  ingredients  contained  in  the  plants  that  had  been  examined 
for  that  purpose.  From  theory  and  science,  I  have  selected  the  views 
of  the  most  eminent  physical  writers  as  to  the  action  of  plants  upon 
ordinary  manures  in  general,  and  upon  special  manures  in  particular; 
because  this  subject  of  manures  and  their  effects  is  of  all  others  the 
most  important  for  explaining  the  phenomena  of  the  rotation  of  crops, 
the  development  of  plants,  and  the  fertility  of  soils  ;  and  a  subject  more 
interesting  or  more  valuable  cannot  occupy  the  attention  of  the  farmer 
in  reference  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Besides  these  contributions 
of  science,  the  recent  theory  of  the  assimilation  of  the  component  parts 
of  the  food,  by  the  different  functions  of  the  animal  economy,  has  thrown 
a  flood  of  light  on  the  feeding  of  stock,  and,  as  a  consequence,  on  the 
treatment  of  manure  heaps,  which  no  farmer  could  have  discovered  by 
practice  alone,  and  which  is  yet  in  all  probability  destined  to  effect  a 
great  change  in  the  distribution  of  food  to  the  domesticated  animals. 
Chemistry,  in  my  estimation,  has  done  much  more  for  the  farmer  in  this 
than  in  any  point  relating  to  the  cultivation  of  the  cereal  grains. 
These  tasks  T  have  endeavoured  to  perform,  with  a  view  to  abate  the 
over-sanguine  expectations  of  the  ardent  pupil,  and  remove  the  reason- 
able doubts  of  the  experienced  farmer ;  as  also  to  caution  both  parties 
against  the  adoption  of  many  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  and  pro- 
mulgated by  scientific  and  non-practical  writers,  until  these  shall  have 
been  sanctioned  by  experience.  The  labour  necessary  for  comprehending 
these  subjects  in  an  abridged  form,  which  is  as  much  as  should  be 
expected  in  an  essentially  practical  work,  has  occupied  more  time 
than  I  expected,  and  to  that  circumstance  must  be  referred  the  other- 
wise inexcusable  delay  in  the  issue  of  the  concluding  part  of  this  work. 
To  make  room  for  so  much  additional  matter,  the  work  has  been 
printed  in  a  rather  smaller  type,  and  the  lengthened  details  of  the 
descriptions  of  the  implements  and  machines  have  been  omitted.  Still 
it  was  necessary  to  retain  all  the  implements,  in  a  completed  form, 
used  in  mixed  husbandry,  which  has  been  done  by  giving  their  figures 
engraved  on  wood  instead  of  retaining  the  copper-plates,  and  as  much 
of  Mr  Slight's  description  of  their  general  construction  and  use  has 
been  adopted  as  might  enable  the  agricultural  pupil  to  recognise  and 
appreciate  them,  wherever  he  might  meet  with  them,  because  I  could 
not  so  well  describe  them  as  in  Mr  Slight's  own   appropriate  words. 


xlr  PREFACE. 

Some  delineations  of  machinery,  liowever,  will  be  found  not  described 
bj  him,  but  specially  referred  to  by  myself 

Were  I  to  close  these  general  observations,  and  omit  to  mention  my 
obligations  to  the  eminent  Publishers,  who  offered  without  hesitation 
to  incur  the  entire  responsibility  and  risk  connected  with  the  publica- 
tion of  this  work,  I  would  do  much  violence  to  my  own  feelings ; 
and  their  offer  seemed  the  more  generous  to  me,  as  it  was  the  more 
timely,  because  I  am  sure  that  the  work  would  never  have  been  pub- 
lished unless  it  had  been  undertaken  on  those  terms.  My  idea  was, 
that  the  necessarily  high  price  of  the  work  Mould  render  its  publication 
a  hazardous  undertaking  ;  and,  although  convinced  that  such  a  work 
was  a  desideratum  in  the  agricultural  literature  of  this  country,  I  M'ill 
own  that  my  knowledge  of  the  loss  which  must  be  sustained,  should  the 
work  not  receive  the  public  approval,  weighed  somewhat  heavily  upon 
my  mind.  Fortunately  these  fears  were  soon  dissipated.  The  Booh 
of  the  Farm  at  its  first  appearance  received,  and  has  since  uninter- 
ruptedly enjoyed,  the  public  favour  beyond  the  expectations  both  of 
Author  and  Publishers. 

The  groups  illustrative  of  the  principal  field-operations  have  been 
much  increased  in  number.  They  have  been  drawn,  in  the  most  graphic 
manner,  by  Gourlay  Steell  of  Edinburgh,  Associate  of  the  Royal  Scot- 
tish Academy,  with  a  beauty  in  composition,  accuracy  of  detail,  and 
power  of  expression,  which  it  would  be  diificult  to  excel.  The  figures  of 
the  implements,  both  those  in  the  former  edition  and  the  additional  ones 
in  this,  have  been  drawn  from  the  best-constructed  machines  in  the  pos- 
session of  farmers  and  implement-makers,  by  George  Henry  Slight  of 
Abernethy,  whose  mechanical  designs  conjoin  the  correctness  of  the 
skilful  mechanician  with  the  accuracy  in  perspective  of  the  experienced 
draughtsman.  His  drawings,  indeed,  are  not  easily  distinguishable 
from  plate  engravings. 

As,  in  this  country,  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  fanner  is  more 
engrossed  by  the  rearing  of  animals  than  by  the  cultivation  of  plants,  it 
was  necessary,  for  illustration,  to  procure  correct  portraits  of  those  animals 
which  had  attained  pre-eminence  in  the  various  classes  of  the  domesti- 
cated breeds.  To  have  given  portraits,  however,  of  the  males  and  females 
in  all  their  varieties,  of  every  breed  reared  in  this  country,  would  have 
very  much  increased  the  cost  of  the  work  ;  and  it  was  therefore  deemed 
sufficient  to  confine  the  selection  to  good  examples  from  the  most 
esteemed  and  favourite  breeds.     The  portraits  of  these  animals  were 


PREFACE.  XT 

painted  in  oil,  partly  bj  the  late  John  Sheriff  of  Edinburgh,  Associate 
to  the  Rojal  Scottish  Academy,  and  partly  by  Gourlay  Steell,  the 
most  eminent  artist  in  that  line  in  Scotland.  None  of  them  are  fancy 
pictures,  got  up  for  artistic  effect  only,  but  faithful  likenesses  of  the 
several  individuals,  exhibiting  the  points  -which  characterise  their  parti- 
cular breeds  ;  and  they  were  painted  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
under  my  own  superintendence.  I  felt  myself  much  indebted  to  their 
respective  owners,  not  only  for  leave  to  take  the  likenesses,  but  also  for 
the  accommodation  so  much  required  in  undertakings  of  that  nature. 

Skilful  engravers  have  done  justice  to  the  paintings.  The  name 
of  Thomas  Landseer  alone  would  give  eclat  to  any  work  professing  to 
contain  the  portraits  of  the  domesticated  animals.  The  numerous  and 
varied  subjects  engraved  on  wood  were  executed  by  R.  E.  Branston 
of  London,  whose  name  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  excellence  in 
that  graphic  and  delightful  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  I  am  persuaded 
that,  by  the  originality,  quality,  and  number  of  its  illustrations — it 
may  be  even  to  profusion — this  work  has  been  rendered  the  more  use- 
ful to  the  agricultural  pupil ;  and,  in  this  respect,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  say,  without  any  charge  of  egotism,  that  I  know  no  work  on  practical 
agriculture,  foreign  or  domestic,  that  possesses  the  same  advantage,  at 
least  in  the  same  degree. 


BSOBRAE    COTTAOE,    EdINBCBOB, 
February  1851. 


THE  FARMER'S  GUIDE 


TO 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 


PART    L— INITIATION. 


ON  THE  BEST  OF  THE  EXISTING  METHODS 
FOR  ACQUIRING  A  THOROUGH  KNOW- 
LEDGE OF  PRACTICAL  HUSBANDRY. 

1.  No  doubt  exists,  I  believe,  that  the 
best  way,  among  existing  ones,  for  a  young 
man  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
farming,  is  to  become  a  pupil  in  the  house 
of  a  good  practical  farmer.  On  a  fine  farm, 
and  with  a  competent  tutor,  the  pupil  will 
not  only  live  comfortably,  but  may  tho- 
roughly learn  any  system  of  husbandry  he 
chooses.  The  choice  of  locality  is  so  far 
limited,  that  he  must  take  up  his  residence 
in  a  district  in  which  the  particular  system 
he  has  chosen  is  practised  in  a  superior 
manner. 

2.  Many  farmers  are  to  be  found 
who  accept  pupils,  amongst  whom  a 
proper  selection  should  be  made,  as  it  would 
be  injudicious  to  engage  with  one  who  is 
notoriously  deficient  iu  the  requisite  quali- 
fications—  and  those  qualifications  are 
numerous.  A  tutor-farmer  should  possess 
a  general  reputation  of  being  a  good 
farmer — that  is,  a  skilful  cultivator  of  land, 
a  successful  breeder,  and  an  excellent  judge 
of  stock.  He  should  possess  agreeable 
manners,  and  have  the  power  of  commuui- 
cating  his  ideas  with  ease.  He  should 
occupy  a  good  farm,  consisting,  if  possible, 
of  a  variety  of  soils,  and  situate  in  a 
tolerably  good  climate, — neither  on  the  top 
of  a  high  hill  nor  on  the  confines  of  a  large 
moor  or  bog,  nor  in  a  warm  sheltered  nook, 

VOL.  I. 


but  in  the  midst  of  a  well  cultivated 
country.  Such  circumstances  of  soil  and 
locality  should  be  requisites  in  a  farm  in- 
tended for  the  residence  of  pupils.  The 
top  of  a  hill,  exposed  to  every  wind  that 
blows,  or  the  vicinage  of  a  bog  overspread 
with  damp  vapour,  would  place  the  farm 
in  a  climate  in  which  no  kind  of  crop  or 
stock  could  arrive  at  a  state  of  perfection; 
while  a  very  sheltered  spot  and  a  warm 
situation,  would  give  the  pupil  no  idea  of 
the  disappointments  experienced  in  a  pre- 
carious climate. 

3.  The  inexperienceof  the  pupil  renders 
him  unfit  to  select  these  requisites  for  him- 
self in  either  a  qualified  farmer  or  a  suit- 
able farm :  but  monitors  are  never  awanting 
to  render  assistance  to  their  young  friends 
in  every  emergency ;  and  as  their  opinion 
should  be  formed  on  a  knowledge  of  farm- 
ing, and  especially  on  an  acquaintance 
with  the  farm,  and  the  personal  qualifica- 
tions of  the  farmer  they  recommend,  some 
confidence  may  be  placed  in  their  recom- 
mendations. For  the  pupil's  personal  com- 
fort, I  would  advise  him  to  choose  a 
residence  where  dixe  no  young  children. 

4,  A  residence  of  one  year  must  pass 
ere  the  pupil  can  witness  the  course  of  the 
annual  operations  of  the  farm.  His  first 
engagement  should,  therefore,  be  made  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  one  year  ;  and  at 
the  expiry  of  that  period  he  will  not  be 
qualified  to  manage  a  farm.     The  t^mo  he 


Library 


INITIATION. 


would  require  to  spend  on  a  farm  must  be 
determined  by  the  conipcteucyof  the  know- 
ledge acquired  of  his  profession. 

5.  The  pupil  may  enter  on  his  pupilage 
at  any  time  of  the  year ;  but  since  farming 
operations  iiave  a  regular  period  forbegin- 
nin<r  and  ending  every  year,  it  is  evident 
tliat  the  most  proper  time  to  beginio  view 
them  is  at  the  openivp  of  the  agricultural 
year — that  is,  in  the  beginning  of  winter. 
It  may  be  incongenial  to  his  feelings  who 
has  been  accustomed  to  pass  the  winter  in 
town,  even  to  contemplate,  and  far  more 
to  participate,  for  the  first  time,  in  the 
labours  of  a  farm  on  the  eve  of  winter.  He 
would  naturally  prefer  the  sunny  days  of 
summer.  But  the  commencement  of  winter 
being  the  time  at  which  all  the  great 
operations  are  begun,  it  is  requisite  to  their 
being  understood  to  *•<?<?  t/ie)n  begun;  and  to 
endeavour  to  become  acquainted  with 
complicated  operaticms  after  the  pri7icipal 
arrangements  for  their  prosecution  have 
been  formed,  is  purposely  to  invite  wrong 
impressions  of  them. 

6.  There  is  really  nothing  disagreeable 
to  personal  comfort  in  the  business  of  a 
farm  in  winter.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
full  of  interest,  inasmuch  as  the  welfare  of 
living  animals  is  juesented  to  the  attention 
more  forcibly  than  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil.  Tiie  well-marked  individual  charac 
ters  of  different  animals  engage  the  sym- 
pathy ;  and  the  more  so,  that  animals  seem 
more  domesticated  under  confinement  than 
when  at  liberty  to  roam  in  quest  of  food  and 
shelter.  In  the  eveninsx,  in  winter,  the 
hospitality  of  the  social  board  awaits  the 
pupil  at  home,  after  the  labours  of  the  day 
are  over.  Neighbours  interchange  visits 
in  tliat  social  season,  when  topics  of  con- 
versation common  to  society  are  varied 
by  remarks  on  jirofessional  management, 
elicited  by  modified  practice,  and  from 
which  the  attentivepujiil  may  derive  much 
useful  information.  Should  society  jire- 
sent  no  charms,  the  quieter  companionship 
of  books,  or  the  severer  task  of  study,  is  at 
his  command.  In  a  short  time,  however, 
the  various  objects  peculiar  to  the  season 
of  winter  cannot  fail  to  interest  him. 

7.  The  first  thing  thepupil  should  become 
well  acquainted  v.ith  is  \.\\q  jihgsical geo- 
graphy of  the  farm, — that  is,  its  position, 


exposure,  extent ; — its  fences,  whether  of 
wall  or  hedge; — its  shelter,  in  relation  to 
rising  grounds  and  plantations  ; — its  roads, 
public  or  private,  whether  conveniently 
directed  to  the  difl'erent  fields,  or  other- 
wise;— its  fields,  their  number,  names, 
sizes,  relative  positions,  and  supi)ly  of 
water; — the  position  of  the  farm-house 
and  farm-offices.  Familiar  acquaintance 
with  all  these  particulars  will  enable  him 
to  understan<l  more  readily  the  orders 
given  by  the  farmer  for  the  work  to  be 
performed  in  any  field.  It  is  like  possess- 
ing a  map  of  the  ground  on  which  certain 
operations  are  about  to  be  undertaken.  A 
plan  of  the  farm  would  much  facilitate  its 
familiar  acquaintance.  The  <«//wr-farmer 
should  be  j)rovided  with  such  a  plan  to 
give  to  each  of  his  pupils  ;  but  if  lie  has 
none,  the  pupil  can  construct  one  for  him- 
self, which  will  answer  the  purpose. 

8.  The  usual  fee  for  pupils  is  about 
£l20  per  annum  for  bed,  board,  and  wash- 
ing, with  the  use  of  a  horse  to  occasional 
markets  and  shows.  If  the  pupil  desire  a 
horse  of  his  own,  about  i^.3U  a-year  more 
are  demanded.  On  these  moderate  terms 
pupils  are  yery  comfortably  situated. 

9.  I  think  it  bad  policy  to  allow  the 
pupil  a  horse  of  his  own  at  first.  Constant 
attention  to  field-labour  is  not  unattended 
with  irksomeness,  while  exercise  fm  horse- 
back is  a  tempting  recreation  to  young 
minds.  The  desire  to  possess  a  horse 
of  one's  own  is  so  very  natural  in  a 
young  person  living  in  the  country,  that, 
were  the  pupil's  inclinations  aloue  con- 
sulted, the  horse  would  soon  be  in  his  pos- 
session ;  and  when  the  choice  is  given  to 
an  indifferent  pupil,  he  will  certainly  j)re- 
fer  pleasure  to  duty.  The  risk  is,  that 
the  indulgence  will  confirm  r^  habit  that 
will  lead  him  astray  from  at.L  jding  to  his 
business  ;  such  as  following  the  hounds, 
forming  acquaintances  at  a  distance  from 
home,  and  loitering  about  towns  on  mar- 
ket-days,— aad  the  evil  of  this  roving  life 
is  its  being  an  easy  introduction  to  one  of 
dissipation  and  extravagance.  This  con- 
sideration should  have  its  weight  with 
]ic rents  and  guard'ans,  when  they  accede 
to  the  request  of  the  pupil  for  the  luxury  of 
a  horse,  on  j)lacing  him  under  the  roof  of 
a  farmer.  It  is  enough  for  a  young  man 
to  feel  a  release  from  parental  restraint, 


DIFFICULTIES  TO  BE  ENCOUNTERED  AND  OVERCOME. 


•without  having  the  dangerous  incentive  of 
an  idle  life  placed  at  his  disposal.  They 
should  consider  that  upon  young  men 
arrived  at  the  years  when  they  become 
farming  pujnls,  it  is  not  in  the  power,  and 
is  certainly  not  the  inclination,  of  the 
tutor-farmer  to  impose  ungracious  re- 
straints. It  is  the  duty  of  their  parents 
and  guardians  to  impose  these  ;  and  the 
most  eftectual  way  I  know  of,  in  the  cir- 
cumstances, to  avoid  temptations,  is  the 
denial  of  a  riding-horse.  Attention  to 
business  in  the  first  year  will,  most  pro- 
bably, excite  a  desire  to  pursue  it  with 
pleasure  in  the  second,  and  then  the  in- 
dulgence of  a  horse  may  be  granted  to  the 
pupil  with  impunity,  as  the  reward  of 
diligence.  Until  then,  the  conveyance 
occasionally  afforded  by  the  farmer  to 
attend  particular  markets,  or  pay  friendly 
visits  to  neighbours,  should  suffice;  and  then 
it  is  quite  in  the  farmer's  power  to  curb 
in  his  pupils  any  propensity  to  wander 
abroad  too  frequently,  aud  thereby  to 
support  his  own  character  as  an  exem- 
plary tutor.  Such  precautions  are,  of 
course,  only  necessary  against  pupils  who 
show  lukewarmness  in  acquiring  their  pro- 
fession. The  diligent  pupil,  who  desires  to 
learn  his  profession  in  as  short  a  time  as 
practicable,  will  daily  discover  new  sources 
of  enjoyment  at  home,  far  more  exhilarat- 
ing, both  to  body  and  mind,  than  in  jogging 
along  the  dirty  or  dusty  highways,  until 
the  jaded  brute  he  bestrides  is  ready  to 
sink  under  its  burden. 

10.  The  pupil  should  provide  himself 
with  an  ample  stock  of  stout  clothing  and 
shoes,  capable  of  repelling  cold  and  rain, 
and  so  made  as  to  answer  at  once  for 
walking  and  ridin<j. 

11.  Three  years,  in  my  opinion,  are 
requisite  to  give  a  pupil  an  adequate  know- 
ledge of  farming, — such  as  would  impress 
him  with  the  confidence  of  being  able  to 
manage  a  farm  ;  and  no  young  man  should 
undertakeits  management  until  hefeels  suf- 
ficient confidence  in  hnnself  Three  3'ears 
may  be  considered  as  too  long  time  to  spend 
in  learn'mg  farmin(/ ;  hnt  it  is  much  less 
time  than  is  given  to  many  other  profes- 
sions, whose  period  of  apprenticeship  ex- 
tends to  five  or  seven  years;  and  however 
highly  esteemed  those  professions  may  be, 
none  should  excite  a  deeper  interest,  in  a 


national  point  of  view,  than  that  of  agri- 
culture. There  is  one  condition  attendant 
on  the  art  of  farming,  which  is  common  to 
it  and  gardening,  but  inapplicable  to  most 
other  arts, — that  a  year  must  elapse  before 
the  same  work  is  again  performed.  This 
circumstance,  of  itself,  will  cause  the  pupil 
to  spend  a  year  in  merely  observing  cur- 
rent operations.  This  is  the  first  year. 
As  the  operations  of  farming  are  all  anti- 
cipatory, the  second  year  will  be  fully 
employed  in  studying  the  progress  of  work 
in  preparation  of  anticipated  results.  In 
the  third  year,  when  his  mind  has  been 
stored  with  every  mode  of  doing  work, 
and  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  performed, 
the  pupil  may  put  his  knowledge  into 
practice,  under  the  correcting  guiilance 
of  his  tutor.  Whatever  may  be  the  ability 
of  the  pupil  to  acquire  farming,  time  must 
thus  necessarily  elapse  before  he  can  have 
the  opportunity  of  again  witnessing  a  by- 
gone operation.  No  doubt,  by  natural 
capacity  he  might  acquire  in  two  years 
the  art  to  manage  a  farm;  but,  the  whole 
operations  necessarily  occupying  a  year 
in  their  performance,  he  is  prevented  ac- 
quiring the  art  in  less  time  than  three. 


ON  THE  DIFFICULTIES  THE  PUPIL  HAS 
TO  ENCOUNTER  IN  LEARNING  PRACTI- 
CAL HUSBANDRY,  AND  ON  TUE  MEANS 
OF  OVERCOMING  THEM. 

12.  The  pupil,  if  left  to  his  own  guid- 
ance, when  beginning  to  learn  his  profes- 
sion, would  encoimter  many  j^erplexing 
difficulties.  The  difficulty  which  at  first 
most  prominently  obtrudes  itself  on  his 
notice,  consists  in  the  distribution  of  the 
labour  of  the  farm  ;  anvl  it  presents  itself, 
in  this  way:  —  He  observes  the  teams 
employed  one  day  in  one  field,  at  one  kind 
of  work  ;  and  perhaps  the  next  day  in  an- 
other field  at  another  work.  He  observes 
the  persons  employed  as  field-workers 
asbistingtheteanis  one  day;  aud  in  the  next 
perhaps  working  by  themselves  in  another 
field,  or  elf-ewhere.  He  observes  those 
changes  with  attention,  considers  their 
utility,  but  cannot  discover  the  reasons 
for  making  so  varied  arrangements — nut 
because  he  entertains  the  least  doubt  of 
their  propriety,  but,  being  as  yet  unini- 
tiated in  the  art  of  farming,  he  cannot 
foresee  the  purpose  for  which  those  labours 


INITIATION. 


are  performed.  Tlie  reason  why  lie  can- 
not lit  once  foresee  tliis  is,  tliat  in  all  cases, 
excepting  the  Hnishing  operations,  the 
object  of  the  work  is  uuattuineJ  at  the 
time  of  his  observation. 

13.  The  next  difficulty  the  pupil  encoun- 
ters is  in  the  variety  of  the  labours  per- 
formed. He  not  only  sees  arrangements 
made  to  execute  tiie  same  sort,  but  various 
kinds  of  work.  He  discovers  this  diffe- 
rence on  examining  more  closely  into  the 
nature  of  the  work  he  sees  performing.  He 
observes  one  day  the  horses  at  work  in  the 
plough  in  one  field,  moving  in  a  direction 
quite  opposite,  in  regard  to  the  ridges,  to 
what  they  were  in  the  plough  in  another 
field.  On  another  day  he  observes  the 
horses  at  work  with  quite  a  different 
implement  from  the  plough.  The  field- 
workers,  he  perceives,  have  laid  aside  the 
implement  with  which  they  were  working, 
and  are  performing  the  labour  engaged  in 
with  the  hand.  He  cannot  comprehend 
why  one  sort  of  work  should  be  prosecuted 
one  day,  and  quite  a  different  sort  the  next. 
This  difficulty  is  inexplicable  for  the  same 
reason  as  the  former — because  he  cannot 
foresee  the  object  for  which  those  varieties 
of  work  are  performed.  No  doubt  he  is 
aware  that  every  kind  and  variety  of  work 
performed  on  a  farm  are  preparatives  to 
the  attainment  of  certain  crops;  but  what 
portion  of  any  work  is  intended  as  a  cer- 
tain part  of  the  preparation  of  a  particular 
crop,  is  a  knowledge  which  he  cannot 
acquire  by  intuition.  Every  preparatory 
M'ork  is  thus  perplexing  to  a  puj^il 

14.  Field-work  being  thus  chiefly  OM^i- 
dpaton/,  is  the  circumstance  which  renders 
its  object  so  perplexing  to  the  learner.  It 
is  in  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  antici- 
pation that  the  experienced  and  careful 
farmer  is  contradistinguished  from  the 
ignorant  and  careless.  Indeed,  let  the 
experience  of  farming  be  ever  so  extensive 
— or,  in  other  words,  let  the  knowledge  of 
niinutia)  be  ever  so  intimate — unless  the 
farmer  guide  his  experience  by  foresight, 
he  will  never  be  enabled  to  conduct  a  farm 
aright.  Both  foresight  and  experience  are 
acquired  by  observation,  and  though  ob- 
servation is  open  to  all  farmers,  all  do  not 
profit  by  it.  Every  farmer  may  acquire, 
in  time,  sufficient  experience  to  conduct  a 
farm  in  a  passable   manner;   but   many 


farmers  never  acquire  foresight^  because 
theyneverreflect,  and  therefore  never  derive 
the  greatest  advantage  from  their  expe- 
rience. Conducting  a  farm  by  foresight 
is  thus  a  higher  acquirement  than  the  most 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  minutia)  of 
labour.  Nevertheless,  as  the  elements  of 
every  art  must  first  be  acquired  by  obser- 
vation, a  knowledge  of  the  niinutiaj  of 
labour  should  be  first  acquired  by  the  pupil; 
and,  by  carefully  tracing  the  connexion 
between  combined  operations  and  their 
ultimate  ends,  he  will  acquire  foresight. 

15.  The  necessity  of  possessing  fore- 
sight in  arranging  the  minutiae  of  labour, 
before  the  pupil  can  with  confidence  under- 
take the  direction  of  a  farm,  renders /a^vn- 
ing  more  difficult  of  acquirement,  and  a 
longer  time  of  being  acquired,  than  most 
other  arts.  This  statement  may  seem 
incredible4;o  those  who  are  accustomed  to 
hear  of  farming  being  easily  and  soon 
learned  by  the  meanest  capacity.  No 
doubt  it  may  be  acquired  in  time,  to  a 
certain  degree,  by  all  who  are  capable  of 
imj>rovement  by  observation  and  experi- 
ence ;  but,  nevertheless,  the  ultimate  ends 
for  which  the  various  kinds  of  field-work 
are  prosecuted  are  involved  in  obscurity 
to  every  learner.  In  most  other  arts,  no 
great  time  usually  elapses  between  the 
commencement  and  completion  of  a  piece 
of  work,  and  every  piece  of  work  is  con- 
tinued in  hand  until  finished.  The  be- 
ginner can  thus  soon  perceive  the  connexion 
between  the  minutest  portion  of  the  work 
in  which  he  is  engaged,  and  the  <  bject  for 
wlrich  the  work  is  prosecuted.  He  is  thus 
led,  by  degrees,  from  the  simplest  to  the 
most  complicated  parts  of  his  art,  so  that 
his  mind  is  not  bewildered  at  the  outset 
by  observing  a  multii)licity  of  operations 
at  one  time.  He  thus  begins  to  acquire 
true  experience,  and  even  foresight,  if  ho 
reflects,  from  the  outset. 

16.  The  pupil-farmer  has  no  such  ad- 
vantages in  his  apprenticeship.  There  is 
no  simple  easy  work,  or  one  object  only  to 
engage  his  attention  at  first.  On  the  con- 
trary, many  niinutiie  connected  with  dif- 
ferent operations  in  progress  claim  his 
attention  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  if 
the  requisite  attention  to  any  one  of  them 
be  neglected  for  the  time,  no  0})p()rtunity 
for  observing  it  occurs  for  a  twelvemonth. 


DIFFICULTIES  TO  BE  ENCOUNTERED  AND  OVERCOME. 


It  is  a  misfortune  to  a  pupil,  in  such  circum- 
stances, to  be  retarded  in  Ins  progress  by 
a  trifling  neglect;  for  he  cannot  make  up 
his  leeway  until  after  the  revolution  of  a 
year ;  and  though  ever  so  attentive, 
he  cannot  possibly  learn  to  anticipate 
operations  in  a  shorter  time,  and  therefore 
cannot  possibly  understand  the  object  of  a 
single  operation  in  the  first  year  of  his 
pupilage.  The  first  year  is  spent  almost 
unprofitably,  and  certainly  unsatisfactorily 
to  an  inquisitive  mind.  But  attentive  ob- 
servation during  the  first  year  in  storing 
up  facts,  will  enable  him,  in  the  second, 
to  anticipate  the  successive  operations  ere 
they  arrive,  and  identify  every  minutia 
of  labour  as  it  is  performed. 

1 7.  Let  it  not  be  supposed  by  those  who 
have  never  passed  through  the  perplexing 
ordeals  incident  to  the  first  year  of  farm- 
ing, that  I  have  described  them  in  too 
strong  colours,  in  order  to  induce  to  the 
belief  that  farming  is  an  art  more  difficult 
of  attainment  than  it  really  is.  So  far  is 
this  from  being  the  case,  I  may  safely 
appeal  to  the  experience  of  every  person 
who  had  attained  manhood  before  begin- 
ning to  learn  farming,  whether  I  have  not 
truly  depicted  his  own  condition  at  the 
outset  of  his  professional  career;  so  that 
every  pupil  must  expect  to  meet  with 
those  difficulties. 

18.  But,  formidable  as  they  may  seem, 
I  encourage  him  with  the  assurance,  that 
it  is  in  his  power  to  overcome  them  all. 
The  most  satisfactory  way  of  overcoming 
them  is  to  resolve  to  learn  his  business  in 
a  truly  practical  manner — that  is,  by 
attending  to  every  operation  personally. 
Merely  being  domiciled  on  a  farm  is  not, 
of  itself,  a  sufficient  means  of  overcoming 
them  ;  for  the  advantages  of  residence  may 
be  squandered  away  in  idleness,  by  frequent 
absence,  by  spending  the  busy  hours  of 
work  in  the  house  on  light  reading,  or  by 
casual  and  capricious  attendance  on  field 
operations.  Such  habits  must  be  eschewed, 
before  there  can  arise  a  true  desire  to  become 
a  practical  farmer. 

19.  Much  assistance  in  promoting  at- 
tention should  not  be  expected  from  the 
farmer.  No  doubt  it  is  his  duty  to  com- 
municate all  he  knows  to  his  pupils,  and 
I  believe  most  are  willing  to  do  so ;  but 


as  efficient  tuition  implies  constant  atten- 
dance on  work,  the  farmer  himself  cannot 
constantly  attend  to  every  operation,  or 
even  explain  any,  unless  his  attention  is 
directed  to  it;  and  much  less  will  he  de- 
liver extempore  lectures  at  appointed 
times.  Eeservedness  in  him  does  not 
necessarily  imply  unicxllmgness  to  com- 
municate his  skill ;  because,  being  himself 
familiar  with  every  operation  that  can 
arrest  the  attention  of  his  pupils,  any  ex- 
planation by  him  of  minutia?  at  any  other 
time  than  when  the  work  is  in  the  act  of 
being  performed,  and  when  only  it  could  be 
understood  by  them,  would  only  serve 
to  render  the  subject  more  perplexing.  In 
these  circumstances,  the  best  plan  for  the 
pupil  to  follow  is  to  attend  constantly  and 
piersonally  observe  every  change  that  takes 
place  in  every  piece  of  work.  Should  the 
farmer  happen  to  be  present,  and  be  ap- 
pealed to,  he  will,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
immediately  remove  every  difficulty  in  the 
most  satisfactory  way ;  but  should  he  be 
absent,  being  otherwise  engaged,  then  the 
steward,  or  ploughmen,  or  shepherd,  as  the 
nature  of  the  work  may  be,  will  afford  as 
much  information  on  the  spot  as  will  serve 
to  enlighten  his  mind  until  he  associates 
with  the  farmer  at  the  fireside. 

20.  To  be  enabled  to  discover  that  par- 
ticular point  in  every  operation,  which, 
when  explained,  renders  the  whole  intelli- 
gible, the  pupil  should  put  his  hand  to 
every  kind  of  work,  be  it  easy  or  difficult, 
irksome  or  pleasant.  Experience  acquired 
by  himself,  however  slightly  affecting  the 
mind, — if  desirous  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  every  professional  incident,  —  will 
solve  difficulties  much  more  satisfactorily 
than  the  most  elaborate  explanations  given 
by  others  ;  and  the  larger  the  stock  of  per- 
sonal experience  he  can  accumulate,  the 
sooner  will  the  pupil  understand  the  pur- 
port of  everything  that  occurs  in  his  sight. 
Daily  opportunities  occur  on  a  farm  for 
joining  in  work,  and  acquiring  such  expe- 
rience. For  example,  when  the  phiughs 
are  employed,  the  pupil  should  walk  from 
the  one  to  the  other,  and  observe  which 
ploughman  or  pair  of  horses  perform  the 
work  with  the  greatest  apparent  difficulty 
or  ease.  He  should  also  mark  tlie  dif- 
ferent styles  of  work  executed  by  each 
plough.  A  considerate  con)parison  of  par- 
ticulars will  enable  him  to  ascertain  the 


6 


INITIATION. 


best  and  worst  specimens  of  work.  He 
should  tlicM  endeavour  to  discover  tlie  cause 
■why  (lifleront  styles  of  work  arc  produced 
by  apparently  similar  means,  in  order  to 
rectify  the  worst  and  practise  the  best. 
The  surest  way  of  detecting  error,  and  dis- 
covering the  best  metliod,  is  to  take  hold 
of  each  plough  successively,  an<l  he  will 
find  in  the  endeavour  to  maintain  each  in 
a  steady  position,  and  perform  the  work 
evenly,  that  all  require  considerable  labour 
— every  muscle  being  awakened  into  ener- 
getic action,  and  the  brow  most  probably 
moistened.  As  these  symptoms  of  fatigue 
subside  with  repetitions  of  the  exercise,  he 
will  eventually  find  one  of  the  ploughs 
more  easily  guideil  than  the  rest.  The 
reasons  for  this  difference  he  must  endea- 
vour to  discover  by  comparison,  for  its 
holder  cannot  inform  him,  as  he  professes 
to  have,  indeed  can  have,  no  knowledge  of 
any  other  plough  but  his  own.  In  prose- 
cuting this  system  of  comparative  trials 
with  the  ploughs,  he  will  find  himself  be- 
coming a  ploughman,  as  the  difliculties  of 
the  art  divulge  themselves  to  his  appre- 
hension ;  but  ihe  reason  why  the  plough 
of  one  of  the  men  moves  more  easily,  d«)es 
better  work,  and  oppresses  the  horses  less 
than  the  rest,  is  not  so  obvious ;  for  the 
laud  is  in  the  same  state  to  ihem  all — there 
cannot  be  much  difference  in  the  strength 
of  the  pairs  of  horses,  as  each  pair  are  gene- 
rally pretty  well  matched — and  in  all  pro- 
bability the  construction  of  the  ploughs  is 
the  same,  if  they  have  been  made  by  the 
same  plough-wright.  The  inevitable  con- 
clusion is,  that  one  ploughman  understands 
bis  business  better  than  the  others.  He 
shows  this  by  trimming  the  irons  of  his 
plough  to  the  state  of  the  land,  and  the 
nature  of  the  work  he  is  about  to  begin, 
and  by  guiding  his  horses  in  accordance 
with  their  natural  temperament.  Having 
the  shrewdness  to  acquire  tliese  accom- 
plishments in  a  superior  degree,  the  execu- 
tion of  superior  work  is  an  easier  task  to 
him  than  inferior  work  to  the  other  plough- 
men. The  case  I  have  thus  selected  for 
an  example,  is  not  altogether  a  supposi- 
tious one. 

21.  Having  advanced  thus  fiir  in  the 
knowledge,  practice,  and  capability  of 
judging  of  work,  the  pupil  begins  to'  feel 
the  importance  of  his  acquisition,  which 
fans   the  flame    of    his   enthusiasm,   and 


prompts  him  to  greater  acquirements. 
But  even  in  regard  to  the  plough,  the 
pupil  has  much  to  learn.  Though  he  has 
selected  the  best  j)louglimaii,  and  knows 
why  he  is  so,  he  is  himself  still  ignorant  of 
how  to  trim  a  plough  practically,  and 
to  drive  the  horses  with  judgment.  The 
ploughman  will  be  able  to  afford  him 
ocular  proof  /loic  be  tempers  all  the  irons 
of  the  plough  to  the  state  of  the  land,  and 
ichi/  he  yokes  and  drives  the  horses  as  he 
does  in  preference  to  any  other  plan.  Illi- 
terate and  unniechanical  as  he  is,  and  his 
language  full  of  technicalities,  his  explana- 
tions will  nevertheless  give  the  pupil  a 
clearer  insight  into  the  minuticeoi  plough- 
ing, than  he  could  acquire  by  himself  as  a 
spectator  in  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

22.  I  have  selected  the  plough,  as  being 
the  most  useful  implement  to  illustrate  the 
method  which  the  pupil  should  follow,  in 
all  cases,  to  learn  a  practical  knowledge 
of  every  operation  in  farming.  In  like 
manner,  he  may  become  acquainted  with 
the  particular  mode  of  managing  all  the 
larger  implements,  which  require  the  com- 
bined agency  of  man  and  horse  to  put  into 
action ;  as  well  as  become  accustomed  to 
use  the  simpler  implements  adapted  to  the 
hand,  easily  and  ambidextrously — a  large 
proportion  of  farm  work  being  executed 
with  simple  tools.  Frequent  personal  at- 
tendance at  the  farm-stead,  during  the 
winter  months,  to  feed  the  corn  in  the 
sheaf  into  the  thrashing-machine,  and 
afterwards  to  work  the  winnowing-ma- 
chine,  in  cleaning  the  thrashed  grain  for 
the  market,  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the 
acquisition  of  the  knowledge  of  the  quality 
and  value  of  the  cereal  and  leguminous 
grains.  There  is  no  better  method  of  ac- 
quiring knowledge  of  all  the  minor  opera- 
tions of  the  farm,  than  to  superintend  the 
labours  of  the  field-workers,  their  work 
being  methodical,  almost  always  in  requisi- 
tion, anil  mostly  consisting  of  minutiae; 
and  its  general  utility  is  shown,  not  only 
in  its  intrinsic  worth,  but  in  i-elation  to 
the  work  performed  by  the  teams. 

23.  The  general  introduction  of  sowing- 
machines,  particularly  those  which  sow 
broadcast,  has  nearly  superseded  the  beau- 
tiful art  of  sowing  corn  by  the  haml.  Still 
corn  is  sown  by  the  hand,  especially  on 
small  farms,  on  which  large  and  expensive 


DIFFICULTIES  TO  BE  ENC0UNT5:RED  AND  OVERCOME. 


machines  are  not  found.  In  the  art  of 
hand-sowing,  the  pupil  should  excel ;  for, 
being  difficult  to  pertorm  in  an  easy  and 
neat  manner,  its  superior  execution  is  re- 
garded as  an  accomplishment,  and  in  con- 
tributing to  a  manly  and  healthful  exercise, 
establishes  a  robust  frame  and  sound  con- 
stitution. 

24.  The  feeding  of  cattle  in  the  farm- 
stead, or  of  sheep  in  the  fields,  does  not 
admit  of  much  participation  of  labour  with 
the  cattleman  or  shepherd ;  but  either 
practice  forms  an  interesting  subject  of 
study  to  the  pupil,  and  without  strict  at- 
tention to  both  he  will  never  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  fattening  and  computing  the 
value  of  live  stock. 

25.  By  steadily  pursuing  toe  course  of 
observation  I  have  indicated,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  first  year,  the  pupil  will  soon 
acquire  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
minutiae  of  labour  ;  and  it  is  only  in  this 
way  that  the  groundwork  of  a  familiar  ac- 
quaintance with  them  can  be  laid,  and  which 
requires  years  of  experience.  Indeed,  ob- 
servant farmers  are  learning  new,  or  modi- 
fications of  old,  practices  every  day,  and 
such  new  occurrences  serve  to  sustain  a 
regard  for  the  most  trivial  incident  that 
happens  on  a  farm. 

26.  In  urging  upon  the  pupil  the  neces- 
sity of  putting  his  hand  to  every  kind  of 
labour,  I  do  not  intend  to  say  he  should 
become  a  first-rate  workman ;  for  to  be- 
come so  would  require  a  much  longer  time 
than  he  has  in  a  period  of  pupilage.  His 
acquaintance  with  every  implement  and 
operation  should  enable  him  to  decide 
quickly,  whether  work  is  well  or  ill  exe- 
cuted, and  in  a  reasonable  time.  No 
doubt  a  knowledge  of  this  kind  may  be 
acquired,  j'n  time,  without  the  actual  labour 
of  the  hands ;  but  as  it  is  the  interest  of 
the  pupil  to  learn  his  profession  in  the 
shortest  time,  and  in  the  best  manner,  and 
as  that  can  be  acquired  sooner  by  the  joint 
co-operation  of  the  head  and  hands  than 
by  either  member  singly,  it  would  seem 
an  imperative  duty  on  him  to  acquire  his 
profession  by  labour. 

27.  Other  considerations  as  regards  the 
acquisition  of  practical  knowledge  deserve 
attention  from  the  pupil.     It  is  most  con- 


ducive to  his  interest  to  learn  his  profes- 
sion in  youth,  before  the  meridian  of  life 
has  arrived,  when  labour  of  every  kind  be- 
comes irksome.  It  is  also  much  better  to 
have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  farming 
be/ore  engaging  in  it,  than  to  acquire  it  in 
the  course  of  a  lease,  when  losses  may  be 
incurred  by  the  commission  of  compara- 
tively trivial  errors  at  the  early  period  of 
its  tenure,  when  farms  in  all  cases  are 
most  difficult  to  conduct.  It  is  an  undeni- 
able fact,  that  the  work  of  a  farm  never 
proceeds  so  smoothly  and  satisfactorily  to 
all  parties  engaged  in  it,  as  when  the  farmer 
is  thoroughly  conversant  with  his  business. 
His  orders  are  then  implicitly  obeyed,  not 
because  pronounced  more  authoritatively, 
but  because  a  skilful  master's  plans  and 
directions  inspire  such  a  degree  of  confi- 
dence in  the  labourers  as  to  be  regarded  as 
the  best  in  the  circumstances.  Shame  is 
acutely  felt  by  servants  on  being  detected 
in  error,  whether  of  the  head  or  heart,  by 
the  discriminating  judgment  of  a  skilful 
master ;  and  a  rebuke  from  him  irre- 
sistibly imjilies  ignorance  or  negligence  in 
those  who  receive  it.  The  fear  of  igno- 
rance or  idleness  being  imputed  to  them, 
by  a  farmer  acquainted  with  the  capabili- 
ties of  work-people  by  his  own  experience, 
and  who  can  estimate  their  services  as  they 
deserve,  powerfully  urges  labourers  to  per- 
form a  fair  day's  work  in  a  workmanlike 
style. 

28.  Let  the  converse  of  this  state  of 
things  be  imagined  ;  let  the  losses  to  which 
the  ignorant  farmer  is  a  daily  prey,  by 
many  ways — by  the  hypocrisy,  negligence, 
idleness,  and  dishonesty  of  servants  —  be 
calculated,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it 
is  much  safer  for  a  farmer  to  trust  to  his 
own  skill  than  to  depend  on  that  of  his 
servants.  No  doubt  a  trustworthy  steward 
may  be  found  to  manage  for  him  ;  but,  in 
such  a  position,  the  steward  himself  is  in  a 
state  of  temptation,  in  which  he  should 
never  be  placed ;  and  as  the  inferior  ser- 
vants never  regard  him  as  a  master, 
Avhere  the  master  himself  is  resident,  his 
orders  are  never  so  punctually  obeyed.  I 
would,  therefore,  advise  every  young  farmer 
to  acquire  acompeieijtkxwwleilgeoi  his  pro- 
fession bef'ire  undertaking  to  cor.duct  a 
farm.  I  only  say  a  competent  knowledge; 
for  the  gift  to  excel  is  not  imparted  to  all 
who  select  farming  as  their  prolession. 


8 


INITIATION. 


29.  Experience  will  undoubtedly  dis- 
sipate doubt,  and  remove  perplexity  ;  but 
though  a  sure  and  a  safe,  it  is  a  slow  teacher. 
A  whole  year,  as  I  have  already  observed, 
must  revolve  ere  the  entire  labours  of  a 
farm  are  completed  in  the  field,  and  the 
pupil  understand  what  he  is  about ;  and 
a  whole  year  is  too  long  time  for  him  to 
be  kept  in  a  state  of  uncertainty.  Could 
the  pupil  find  a  monitor  to  explain  to  him, 
during  the  first  year  of  his  pupilage,  the 
purpose  for  which  every  operation  is  per- 
formed,— fortell  him  the  resultswhich  every 
operation  is  intended  to  produce,  —  and 
indicate  the  relative  progress  which  all  the 
operations  should  make,  from  time  to  time, 
towards  the  attainment  of  their  various 
ends,  he  would  acquire  far  more  professional 
information,  and  have  greater  confidence 
in  its  accuracy,  than  he  could  obtain  for 
himself  in  that  perplexing  period  of  his 
novitiate.  Such  a  monitor  would  certainly 
best  be  an  experienced  and  intelligent 
farmer,  were  his  whole  time  devoted  to  his 
pupil.  A  farmer,  however,  cannot  be- 
stow as  much  attention  at  all  times  as  would 
be  desired  by  a  pupil ;  and  lapses  of  time 
are  occasioned  by  necessary  engagements, 
which  oblige  the  farmer  to  leave  home  ; 
and  thus  inattention  and  absence  combined 
constitute  sad  interruptions  to  tuition. 

30.  But  a  hook  might  be  made  an  efficient 
assistant-monitor.  If  expressly  written 
for  the  purpose,  it  might  not  only  corrobo- 
rate what  the  farmer  inculcated,  but  serve 
as  a  substitute  in  his  temporary  absence. 
In  this  way  the  tuition  of  the  pupil  might 
proceed  uninterruptedly.  The  usual  depre- 
cations against  the  acquirement  of  practical 
farming  from  books,  would  not  apply  to 
such  a  one.  I  would  give  no  such  coun- 
sel to  any  pupil.  Books  on  farming,  to  be 
really  serviceable  to  the  learner,  ought  not 
to  constitute  his  sole  study  :  the  field  being 
the  best  place  for  perceiving  the  fitness  of 
labour  to  the  purposes  it  is  designed  to 
attain,  the  book  should  only  present  itself 
as  a  monitor  for  indicating  the  best  modes 
of  farming,  and  showing  the  way  of  learn- 
ing those  modes  most  easil}'.  B^  it  the 
practice  of  experienced  fanners  might  he 
commun  icated  to  the  pupil.  By  consulting 
that  ichich  had  been  purposrlj/  irritten  for 
his  guidance,  while  carefully  observing  the 
import  of  daily  operations,  —  ichich  are 
often   intricate,   alu:ays  protracted   over 


considerable  portions  of  time,  and  neces- 
sarily separated  from  each  other, — hewould 
acquire  that  import  in  a  much  shorter  lime 
than  if  left  to  be  discovcnd  by  his  own 
sagacity. 

3 1 .  Such  a  book  would  be  useful  to  every 
class  of  pupils — to  him  who,  having  finished 
his  scholastic  and  academical  education, 
directs  his  attention,  for  the  first  time,  to 
the  acquirement  of  practical  farming ;  or 
who,  though  born  on  a  farm,  having  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  school,  de- 
termines, at  length,  on  following  his  father's 
profession.  For  the  latter  class  of  pupils, 
tuition  in  farming,  and  infurmalion  from 
books,  are  as  requisite  as  for  the  former. 
Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  have  con- 
stantly resided  on  a  farm  from  infancy,  can 
never  be  said  to  have  been  pupils,  as,  by 
the  time  they  are  fit  to  act  for  themselves, 
they  are  proficients  in  farming.  Having 
myself,  for  a  time,  been  placed  precisely  in 
the  position  of  the  first  description  of  pupils, 
I  can  bear  sincere  testimony  to  the  truth  of 
the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  first 
year  of  pupilage.  I  felt  that  a  guide-book 
would  have  been  an  invaluable  monitor  to 
me,  but  none  such  existed  at  the  time.  Xo 
doubt  the  farmer  ought  to  possess  the  ability 
to  instruct  every  pupil  he  receives  under  his 
charge.  This  is  his  bounden  duty,  which, 
if  rightly  performed,  no  guide-bouk  would 
be  required ;  but  very  few  farmers  under- 
take tiie  onerous  task  of  instruction.  Prac- 
tical farming  they  leave  the  pupils  to 
acquire  for  themselves  in  the  fields,  — 
theoretical  knowledge,  very  few,  if  any, 
are  competent  to  impart.  The  pujiils,  being 
thus  very  much  left  to  their  own  industry, 
can  scarcely  avoid  being  beset  with  diffi- 
culties, and  losing  much  time.  It  must  be 
acknowledged,  however,  that  the  practice 
gained  by  slow  experience  is,  in  the  end, 
the  most  valuable  and  enduring.  Still  a 
book,  expressly  written  to  suit  the  circum- 
stances of  his  case,  might  be  a  valuable 
instructor  to  the  pupil,  in  imparting  sound 
professional  information. 

32.  Such  a  book,  to  be  a  useful  instructor 
and  correct  guide,  should,  in  my  estimation, 
possess  these  qualifications.  Its  principal 
matter  slmuld  consist  of  a  clear  narrative 
of  all  the  labours  of  the  farm  as  they  occur 
in  succession,  including  the  reasons  why 
each  piece  of  work  is  undertaken.     While 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FARLDNG. 


the  principal  operations  are  thus  being 
narrated,  the  precise  method  of  executing 
every  kind  of  work,  whether  manual  or 
implemental,  should  be  minutely  described. 
Such  a  narrative  will  show  the  pupil,  that 
farming  is  really  a  systematic  business, 
having  a  definite  object  in  view,  and  pos- 
sessing the  means  of  attaining  it ;  and  the 
reasons  for  performing  every  piece  of  work 
in  one  way,  rather  than  another,  will  con- 
vince him  that  it  is  an  art  founded  on 
rational  and  known  principles.  By  the 
perusal  of  such  a  narrative,  with  its  reasons 
having  a  common  object,  will  impart  a 
more  comprehensive  and  clear  view  of  the 
management  of  a  farm  in  a  given  time, 
than  he  could  acquire  by  himself  by  wit- 
nessing ever  so  many  isolated  operations. 
The  influence  of  the  seasons  on  all  the 
labours  of  the  field  is  another  consideration 
which  should  be  attended  to  in  such  a  book. 
In  preparing  the  ground,  and  during  the 
growth  of  the  crops,  the  labour  appropriated 
to  each  kind  of  crop  terminates  for  a  time, 
and  is  not  resumed  until  a  fit  season 
arrives.  These  periodical  cessations  from 
labour  form  natural  epochs  in  the  progress 
of  the  crops  towards  maturity,  and  afi'ord 
convenient  opportunities  for  performing  the 
work  peculiarly  adapted  to  each  epoch ; 
and,  since  every  operation  must  conform 
with  its  season,  these  epochs  correspond 
exactly  with  the  natural  seasons  of  the 
year.  I  say  with  the  natural  seasons,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  common  annual 
seasons,  which  are  entirely  conventional. 
Such  a  necessary  and  opportune  agreement 
between  labour  and  the  natural  seasons, 
induces  a  corresponding  division  of  labour 
into  four  great  seasons^  bearing  the  same 
names  as  the  annual  seasons.  Each  opera- 
tion should  therefore  be  described  with  par- 
ticular reference  to  its  appropriate  season. 

33.  If,  by  a  course  of  tuition  from  such 
a  book,  the  pupil  could  be  brought  to  anti- 
cipate results  whilst  watching  the  progress 
of  passing  operations,  his  pupilage  might 
be  shortened  by  one  year  ;  that  is,  could  a 
hook  enable  hiui  to  acquire  the  experience 
of  the  second  year  in  the  course  of  the  first, 
a  year  of  probationary  trial  would  be  saved 
him,  and  he  would  then  learn  in  two  years 
what  at  present  requires  three ;  and  it 
shall  be  my  endeavour  to  make  The  Far- 
mer's Guide  accomplish  this. 


ON    THE    DIFFERENT   KINDS    OF  FARMING, 
AND  ON  SELECTING  THE  BEST. 

34.  Perhaps  the  pupil  will  be  astonished 
to  learn  that  there  are  many  systems  of 
farming,  and  that  they  all  possess  distinc- 
tive characteristics.  There  are  no  fewer 
than  six  kinds  practised  in  Scotland,  which 
though  practised  with  some  particulars  com- 
mon to  all,  and  each  is  perhaps  best  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  situation  in  which  it  is 
practised ;  yet  it  is  probable  that  one  kind 
might  apply,  and  be  profitably  followed, 
in  all  places  of  nearly  similar  soil  and 
locality.  Locality  has  apparently  deter- 
mined the  kind  of  farming  fully  more 
than  the  soil,  though  the  soil  has  no  doubt 
determined  it  in  peculiar  situations.  The 
comparative  influence  of  locality  and  soil 
in  determining  the  kind  of  fai'uiing  will 
best  be  understood  after  shortly  consider- 
ing each  kind. 

3.5.  One  kind  is  wholly  confined  to  pas- 
toral districts,  which  are  chiefly  situated 
in  the  Highlands  and  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland, — in  the  Cheviot  and  Cumberland 
hills  of  England, — and  very  generally  in 
Wales.  In  all  these  districts,  farming  is 
almost  confined  to  the  breeding  of  cattle 
and  sheep ;  and,  as  natural  pasture  and 
hay  form  the  principal  food  of  live-stock  in 
a  pastoral  country,  A^ery  little  arable  culture 
is  there  practised  for  their  behoof.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  not  always  reared  on  the 
same  farm.  Cattle  are  reared  in  very  large 
numbers  in  the  Western  Isles,  and  in  the 
/>as?oraZ?5aZZ^^*  among  the  mountain-ranges 
of  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland.  Sheep 
are  reared  in  still  greater  numbers  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  mountain-ranges  of 
Wales  and  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  on  the  green  round-backed  mountains 
of  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north  of 
England.  The  cattle  reared  in  pastoral 
districts  are  small-sized,  chiefly  black  col- 
oured, and  horned.  Those  in  the  Western 
Isles,  called  "  West  Highlanders,"  or 
"  Kyloes,"  are  esteemed  a  beautifully  sym- 
metrical and  valuable  breed.  Those  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Highland  mountains,  called 
"  North  Highlanders,"  are  considerably 
inferior  in  quality,  and  smaller  in  size. 
The  Black-faced,  mountain,  or  heath,  horn- 
ed sheep,  are  also  bred  and  reared  on  these 
upper  mountain-ranges,  and  fattened  in  the 
low   country.      The   round -backed   green 


10 


INITIATION. 


hills  of  the  south  are  mostly  stocked  with 
the  white-faced,  hornless,  Ciieviot  breed  ; 
thou^'h  the  best  kind  of  the  r>lack-face<l  is 
also  reared  in  tlie  same  locality,  but  both 
breeds  are  seldom  reared  on  tlie  same 
farm.  Tims  cattle,  sheep,  and  wool,  are 
the  staple  products  of  pastoral  farming. 

36.  PaatoraJ  farms  are  chiefly  a7)propri- 
ated  to  the  rearinij  of  one  kind  of  slieep, 
or  one  kind  of  cattle  ;  though  both  classes 
of  stock  are  reared  where  valleys  and 
mountain-tops  meet  on  the  same  farm.  The 
arable  culture  practised  on  them  is  confined 
to  the  raising  of  provisions  for  the  support 
of  the  shepherds  and  cattle-herds,  and  of 
a  few  turnips,  for  the  support  of  the  stock 
during  the  severest  weather  in  winter;  but 
the  principal  winter  food  of  the  stock  is 
hay,  which  is  obtained  by  enclosing  and 
mowing  pieces  of  natural  grass  on  spots  of 
good  land,  which  are  generally  found  on 
the  banks  of  a  rivulet.  All  pastoral  farms 
are  large,  some  containing  many  thousands 
of  acres. — nay,  miles  in  extent ;  but  from 
150U  to  3000  acres  is  perhaps  an  ordinary 
size.  Locality  entirely  determines  this 
kind  of  farming. 

37.  The  stocking  of  a  pastoral  farm  con- 
sists of  a  breeding  or  flying  stock  of  sheep, 
or  a  breeding  stock  of  cattle,  and  a  propor- 
tion of  barren  stock  are  reared,  which, 
sold  at  a  proper  age,  are  fattened  in  the 
low  country.  A  large  capital  is  thus  re- 
quired to  stock  at  first,  and  afterwards 
maintain,  such  a  farm  ;  for,  although  the 
quality  of  the  land  may  support  few  heads 
of  st<^)ck  per  acre,  yet,  as  the  farms  are 
large,  the  number  required  to  stock  them 
is  very  considerable.  The  rent,  when  con- 
sisting of  a  fixed  sum  of  money,  would  be 
of  small  amount  per  acre,  but  its  amount 
must  of  course  be  fixed  by  the  number  of 
stock  the  land  will  maintain,  and  it  is  not 
unfrequently  calculated  at  so  much  per 
head  the  land  is  expected  to  maintain. 

38.  A  pastoral  farmer  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  rearing  and  manage- 
ment of  cattle  or  sheep,  whichever  his  farm 
is  best  suited  for.  A  knowledge  of  general 
field  culture  is  of  little  use  to  him,  though 
he  should  know  how  to  raise  turnips  and 
make  hay. 

39.  Another  kind  of  farming  is  practised 


on  car$e  land.  A  carse  is  a  district  of 
country  consisting  of  deep  horizontal  de- 
positions of  alluvial  or  diluvial  clay,  on  one 
or  both  sides  of  a  considerable  river,  and 
generally  comprehends  a  large  tract  of 
country.  In  almost  all  respects,  a  carse  is 
quite  the  opposite  to  a  pastoral  district. 
Carse  land  iniplies  a  flat,  rich,  clay  8<»il, 
capable  of  raising  all  sorts  of  grain  to  great 
perfection,  and  unsuited  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  pasture  grasses,  and,  of  course,  to  the 
rearing  of  live-stock.  A  pastoral  district, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  always  hilly,  the  soil 
generally  thin,  poor,  various,  and  commonly 
of  a  light  texture,  much  more  suited  to  the 
growth  of  natural  pasture  grasses  than  of 
grain,  and,  of  course,  to  the  rearing  of  live- 
stock.    Soil  entirely  decide  ^  ^  arse  farming. 

40.  Being  all  arable,  a  carse  farm  is 
mostly  stocked  with  animals  and  imple- 
ments of  labour  ;  and  these,  with  seed-corn 
for  the  large  proportion  of  the  land  under 
the  plough,  require  a  considerable  outlay 
of  capital.  Carse  land  always  maintains  a 
high  rent  per  acre,  whether  consisting  solely 
of  money  or  of  money  and  corn  valued  at 
the  fiars  prices.  A  carse  farm,  requiring 
a  large  capital  and  much  labour,  is  never 
of  great  extent,  seldom  exceeding  200 
acres. 

41.  A  carse  farmer  requires  to  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  cultivation  of  grain, 
and  almost  nothing  else,  as  he  can  rear  no 
live-stock  ;  and  all  he  requires  of  them  are 
a  few  cows,  to  supply  milk  to  his  own 
household  and  farm-servants,  and  a  number 
of  cattle  in  the  straw-yard  in  winter,  to 
trample  down  the  large  quantity  of  straw 
into  manure,  and  they  are  purchased  when 
wanted.    There  are  no  sheep. 

42.  A  third  sort  of  farming  is  what  is 
practised  in  the  nciphlourhood  of  large 
toicns.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don, farms  are  appropriated  to  the  growth 
of  garden  vegetables  for  Covent- Garden 
market,  and,  of  course,  such  culture  can 
have  nothing  in  common  with  either  pas- 
toral or  carse  farms.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  most  towns,  garden  vegt^tables, 
with  the  exception  of  potatoes,  are  not  so 
much  cultivated  as  green  crops,  such  as 
turnips  and  grass,  and  dry  fodder,  such  as 
straw  and  hay,  for  the  use  of  cowfeeders 
and  stable-keepers.     In  this  kind  of  farm- 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FARMING. 


11 


ing  all  the  produce  is  disposed  of,  and 
manure  received  in  return  ;  and  it  consti- 
tutes a  retail  trade,  in  wliich  articles  are 
bought  and  sold  in  small  quantities,  mostly 
for  ready  money.  When  tlie  town  is  not 
large  enough  to  consume  all  tlie  disposable 
produce,  tlie  farmer  purchases  cattle  and 
sheep  to  eat  the  turnips  and  trample  the 
straw  into  manure,  in  winter.  Any  pas- 
ture grass  is  mostly  in  paddocks  for  the 
accommodation  of  stock  sent  to  the  weekly 
market.  Locality  entirely  decides  this 
kind  of  farming. 

43.  The  chief  qualification  of  an  occu- 
pant of  this  kind  of  farm,  is  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  tlie  raising  of  green 
crops, — potatoes,  clover,  and  turnips ;  and 
Lis  particular  study  is  raising  the  most 
prolific  varieties,  to  have  large  quantities 
to  dispose  of,  and  most  suitable  to  the 
wants  of  his  customers. 

44.  The  capital  required  for  a  farm  of 
this  kind,  which  is  all  arable,  is  as  large 
as  that  for  a  carse  one.  The  rent  is 
always  high  per  acre,  and  the  extent  of 
land  not  large,  seldom  exceeding  300 
acres. 

45.  A  fourth  kind  of  farming  is  the 
dairy.  It  directs  its  attention  to  the 
making  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  the 
sale  of  milk,  and  the  farms  are  laid  out 
for  this  express  purpose  ;  but  the  sale  of 
milk  is  frequently  conjoined  with  the  rais- 
ing of  green  crops,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  large  towns,  as  in  the  preceding  class  of 
farms,  (42,)  and  the  cows  are  fed  on  cut 
grass  in  summer,  and  on  boiled  turnips  and 
hay  in  winter.  A  true  dairy-farm  requires 
old  pasture.  Its  chief  business  is  the 
management  of  cows,  and  their  produce  ; 
and  whatever  arable  culture  is  practised, 
is  made  subservient  to  the  maintenance 
and  comfort  of  the  dairy  stock.  The  milk, 
where  practicable,  is  sold ;  where  beyond 
the  reach  of  sale,  it  is  partly  churned  into 
butter,  which  is  sold  either  fresh  or  salted, 
and  partly  made  into  cheese,  either  sweet 
or  skimmed.  Stock  are  reared  (m  dairy- 
farms  only  to  a  small  extent,  such  as  a  few 
quey  (heifer)  calves^  yearly  to  replenish 
the  cow  stock  ;  no  aged  stock  are  fatten- 
ed in  winter,  as  on  farms  in  the  vicinity 
of  towns  ;  and  the  bull  calves  are  fre- 
quently fed  for  veal,  or  sold  to  be  reared. 


The  principal  stock  reared  are  pigs,  which 
are  fattened  on  dairy  refuse.  Young  horses 
are  also  successfully  reared.  Horse  labour 
being  comparatively  little  required — mares 
can  rear  their  young,  and  work  at  the  same 
time,  while  old  pasture,  spare  milk,  and 
whey,  afford  great  facilities  for  nourishing 
young  horses  in  a  superior  manner.  Lo- 
cality has  established  this  kind  of  farming 
on  the  large  scale,  and  large  districts,  both 
in  England  and  Scotland,  have  long  been 
appropriated  to  it. 

46.  The  purchase  of  cows  is  the  princi- 
pal expense  of  stocking  a  dairy-farm  ; 
and  as  the  purchase  of  live-stock  in  every 
state,  especially  breeding-stock,  is  always 
expensive,  and  cows  are  liable  to  many 
casualties,  a  dairy-farm  requires  a  consi- 
derable capital.  It  is,  however,  seldom  of 
large  extent,  seldom  exceeding  150  acres. 
The  arable  portion  of  the  farm,  supplying 
the  green  crop  for  winter  fcjod  and  litter, 
does  not  incur  much  outlay,  as  hay — 
obtained  chiefly  from  old  grass — forms  the 
principal  food  of  the  cows  in  winter.  The 
rent  of  dairy-farms  is  high. 

47.  A  dairy-farmer  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  properties  and  man- 
agement of  milk  cows,  the  making  of 
butter  and  cheese,  the  feeding  of  veal 
and  pork,  and  the  rearing  of  horses  ;  and 
he  should  also  possess  as  much  knowledge 
of  arable  culture  as  to  raise  green  crops 
and  make  good  hay. 

48.  A  fifth  method  of  farming  is  that 
which  is  practised  in  most  arable  districtSy 
consisting  of  every  kind  of  soil  not  strictly 
carse  land.  This  method  consists  of  a 
regular  system  of  cultivating  grains  and 
sown  grasses,  with  partial  rearing  and  pur- 
chasing, or  wholly  purchasing  of  cattle. 
No  sheep  are  reared  in  this  system,  being 
purchased  in  autumn,  to  be  fed  on  turnips 
in  winter,  and  sold  fat  in  spring.  This 
system  may  be  said  to  combine  the  profes- 
sions of  the  farmer,  the  cattle-dealer,  and 
the  sheep-dealer. 

49.  A  decided  improvement  on  this 
system  long  ago  originated,  and  has  since 
been  practised,  in  the  counties  of  Berwick 
and  Roxburgh,  in  Scotland;  and  of  Nor- 
thumberland in  England.  The  farmer  of 
this  improved  system  combines   all   the 


12 


INITIATION". 


qualifications  of  the  various  kinds  of  farm- 
ing eiiumeiateJ.  Ixearing  cattle  and 
slieep,  and  having  wool  to  disipose  of,  he  is 
a  stock-fanner.  Cultivating  grains  and  tlio 
sown  grasses,  he  possesses  the  knowledge 
of  the  carse  farmer.  Converting  milk  into 
butter  and  chee.se,  after  the  calves  are 
weanod,  he  passes  the  autumnal  months  as 
a  dairy  farmer.  Feedmg  cattle  and  sheep 
in  winter  on  turnips,  he  attends  the  mar- 
kets of  fat-stock  as  well  the  ordinary 
fanner  in  arable  districts ;  and  breeding 
and  rearing  all  his  stock,  he  avoids  the 
precarious  trade  of  the  dealer  in  stock. 
Thus  combining  all  the  kinds  of  farming 
within  the  limits  of  his  farm,  he  supplies 
the  j)articidar  demand  of  each  market, 
and  thereby  enlarges  the  sphere  of  his 
profits,  which  are  every  year  more  uniform 
and  certain  than  any  of  his  co-farmers. 

50.  This  is  called  the  mixed  husbandry, 
because  it  embraces  all  the  sorts  of  farming 
practised  in  the  country.  It  is  prosecuted 
in  a  dilierent  manner  from  that  in  locali- 
ties where  a  particular  branch  is  pursued 
as  the  only  system  of  farming;  because 
each  branch  must  be  conducted  so  as  to  con- 
tribute to  the  welfare  of  the  rest,  and  in 
upholding  a  mutual  dependence  of  parts, 
a  harmonious  whole  is  produced.  Such 
a  multi[)licity  of  objects  demand  more 
than  ordinary  attention  and  skill.  Doubt- 
less the  farmers  of  the  other  modes  of 
farming  are  skilful  in  the  practice  of 
the  locality  in  which  they  are  placed,  but 
the  more  varied  practice  of  the  mixed 
husbandry  incites  versatility  of  talent  and 
quickness  of  judgment ;  and,  accordingly, 
it  lias  made  its  farmers  the  most  skilful 
and.  intelligent  in  the  country. 

51.  The  Border  counties  are  not  only  the 
most  highly  cultivated  porti(m  of  the  king- 
dom, but  contain  the  most  valuable  breeds 
of  live-stock  ;  and  as  the  mixed,  husban- 
dry cannot  be  conducted  within  narrow 
limits,  {\\Q  farms  are  large,  not  less  than 
500  acres  in  extent.  The  capital  reijuired 
to  furnish  the  live-stock  and  the  means 
of  aralile  culture  is  considerable,  though 
perhai>s  less  than  for  the  last-named  system, 
(48,)  in  which  the  entire  stock  are  pur- 
chased and  sold  every  year ;  and  hence 
they  are  termed  njlj/inff-stock.  The  rents 
of  both  systems  are  about  the  same. 
Neither  is  determined  by  any  peculiarity 


of  soil  and  locality,  like  the  other  methods, 
but  the  mixed  has  a  haj>py  form  of  con- 
stitution in  adapting  itself  to  most  circum- 
stances. 

52.  Now,  one  of  these  systems  the 
pupil  must  adopt  for  his  profession  ;  and 
which  he  should  choose,  depends  on  cir- 
cumstances. If  he  succeed  to  a  family 
inheritance,  the  kind  of  farming  he  will 
follow  will  depend  on  that  pursued  by  his 
predecessor,  which  he  will  learn  accord- 
ingly ;  but  should  he  be  free  to  choose  for 
himself,  I  would  advise  him  to  adopt  the 
mixed  husbandry,  as  containing  within 
itself  all  the  varieties  of  farming  requisite 
for  a  farmer  to  know. 

53.  My  reason  for  recommending  the 
mixed  husbandry  is  that  it  practically  pos- 
sesses advantages  over  every  other.  Thus  : 
In  pastoral  farming,  the  stock  undergo  mi- 
nute examination, fi>r  certain  purposes,  only 
at  distantly  stated  j>eriods ;  and  owing  to 
the  wide  space  over  which  they  have  to 
roam  for  food,  comimratively  little  atten- 
tion is  bestowed  on  them  by  shepherds 
and  cattle-herds.  The  pastoral  larmer 
has  thus  no  particular  object  to  attract  his 
attention  at  home  between  those  long 
intervals ;  and  in  the  mean  while  time  is 
apt  to  become  irksome  in  cultivating  a 
limited  space  of  arable  land. — The  carse 
farmer,  after  the  spring  work  is  finished, 
before  the  cows  begin  to  calve,  has  nothing 
but  hay-malving  and  bare-fallowing  in 
summer,  to  occupy  his  mind  until  the  har- 
vest.— Dairy-farming  affords  little  occupa- 
tion to  the  farmer. — The  farmer  near  large 
towns  has  little  to  do  in  summer,  from 
turnip-seed  to  harvest. — The  farmer  of 
mixed  husbandry  has  abundant  and  regu- 
lar employment  at  all  seasons.  Cattle 
and  sheep  feeding,  and  marketing  grain, 
pleasantly  occupy  the  short  days  of  winter. 
(Seed-sowing  of  all  kinds  afl'ords  abundant 
employment  in  spring.  The  rearing  of 
young  stock,  sale  of  wool,  and  culture  of 
green  crops,  fill  up  the  time  in  summer 
until  harvest ;  and  autumn,  in  all  circum- 
stances, brings  its  own  busy  avocations  in 
gathering  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Strictly 
speaking,  mixed  husbandry  does  not  ati'ord 
one  week  of  real  leisure, — if  the  short 
I)eriod  from  assorting  the  lambs  in  the 
beginning  of  August,  to  putting  the  sickle 
to  the  corn  be  excepted, — and  that  period 


THE  PERSONS  WHO  LABOUR  THE  FARM. 


13 


is  contracted  or  prolonged,  according  as  the 
harvest  is  early  or  late. 

54.  There  is  another  view  to  he  taken 
of  the  mixed  hushandry ;  it  will  not  in  any 
year  entirely  disappoint  the  hopes  of  the 
farmer.  He  will  never  have  to  hewail  the 
almost  total  destruction  of  his  stock  hy  the 
rot,  or  the  severe  storms  of  winter,  as  the 
pastoral  farmer  sometimes  has.  He  can- 
not suffer  so  serious  a  loss  as  the  carse 
farmer,  when  his  graiu  is  blighted  or  burnt 
up  with  drought,  or  its  price  depressed 
for  a  succession  of  years.  [Should  his  stock 
be  greatly  injured,  or  much  deteriorated  in 
value  by  such  casualties,  be  has  the  grain 
to  rely  on ;  and  should  the  grain  fail  to  a 
serious  extent,  the  stock  may  still  insure 
him  a  profitable  return.  It  is  scarcely 
within  the  bounds  of  probability  that  a 
total  destruction  of  live-stock,  wool,  and 
grain,  would  occur  in  any  year.  One  may 
fail,  it  is  true,  and  the  prices  of  all  may 
continue  depressed  for  years  ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  reasonable  profits  have  been 
realised  from  them  all  in  the  same  year. 
Thus,  safeguards  exist  against  a  total  loss, 
and  there  is  a  greater  certainty  of  a  profit- 
able return  from  capital  invested  in  the 
mixed  than  in  any  other  kind  of  husban- 
dry known. 


ON  THE  PERSONS  REQUIRED  TO  CONDUCT 
AND  EXECUTE  THE  LABOUR  OF  THE 
FARM. 

55.  The  persons  who  labour  a  farm 
constitute  the  most  important  part  of  its 
staff".  Their  duties  should  therefore  be 
well  understood.  They  are  the  farmer 
himself,  the  steward  or  grieve,  the  plough- 
man, the  hedger  or  labourer,  the  shepherd, 
the  cattle-man,  the  field-worker,  and  the 
dairy-maid.  These  have  each  duties  to 
perform  which,  in  their  respective  spheres, 
should  harmonise  and  never  interfere  with 
one  another.  Should  any  occurrence  hap- 
pen to  disturb  the  harmony  of  their  joint 
labour,  it  must  arise  from  the  misapprehen- 
sion or  ignorance  of  the  interfering  party, 
whose  derelictions  should  be  corrected  by 
the  presiding  power.  I  shall  enumerate 
the  duties  incumbent  on  these  respective 
functionaries. 

5Q.  Farmer. — And  first,  those  of  the 


farmer.  It  is  his  province  to  originate 
the  entire  system  of  management,— to  de- 
termine the  period  fur  commencing  and 
pursuing  every  operation, — to  issue  general 
orders  of  management  to  the  steward, 
Avhen  there  is  one,  and  when  none,  to 
give  minute  instructions  to  the  ploughmen 
for  the  performance  of  every  separate  field 
operation,— to  exercise  a  general  superin- 
tendence 0  ver  the  field-workers, — to  observe 
the  general  behaviour  of  all, — to  see  if  the 
cattle  are  cared  for, — to  ascertain  the  con- 
dition of  all  the  crops, — to  guide  the  shep- 
herd,— to  direct  the  hedger  or  labourer, — 
to  effect  tlie  sales  of  the  surplus  produce, 
— to  conduct  the  purchases  required  for 
the  progressive  improvement  of  the  farm, 
— to  disburse  the  expenses  of  management, 
— to  pay  the  rent  to  the  landlord, — and  to 
fulfil  the  obligations  incumbent  on  him  as  a 
residenter  of  the  parish.  All  these  duties 
are  common  to  the  farmer  and  the  indepen- 
dent steward  who  manages  a  farm.  Such 
a  steward  and  a  farmer  are  thus  far  on  a 
similar  footing:  but  the  farmer  occupies 
a  loftier  station.  He  is  his  own  master, 
—makes  bargains  to  suit  his  own  interests, 
— stands  on  an  equal  footing  with  the 
landlord  on  the  lease,— has  entire  control 
over  the  servants,  hiring  and  discharging 
them  at  any  term  he  pleases,— and  can 
grant  favours  to  servants  and  friends.  The 
farmer  does  not  perform  all  those  duties  in 
any  one  day,  but  in  the  fulfilment  of  them 
in  due  order,  so  large  a  portion  of  his  time 
is  occupied,  that  he  finds  little  leisure  to  go 
from  home,  and  seldom  does  so  to  a  dis- 
tance, except  in  the  season  when  few 
operations  are  performed  on  a  farm, 
viz.,  the  end  of  svmimer.  Besides 
these  professional  duties,  the  farmer  has 
to  perform  those  of  a  domestic  and  social 
nature,  like  every  other  good  member  of 
society 

57.  Steward  or  Grieve.— "Ihe  duty  of 
the  steward,  or  grieve,  as  he  is  called  in 
some  parts  of  Scotland,  and  bailiff  in 
England,  consists  in  receiving  general  in- 
structions from  his  master  the  farmer, 
which  he  sees  executed  by  the  people 
under  his  charge.  He  exercises  a  direct 
control  over  the  ploughmen  and  field- 
workers;  and  unreasonable  disobedience 
to  his  commands,  on  their  part,  is  repre- 
hended as  strongly  by  the  farmer  as  if 
the  affront  had  been  oflfered  to  himself : 


u 


INITIATION. 


I  say  unreasonable  disobedience,  because 
the  "fanner  is  the  sole  jiuige  of  whether 
the  steward  has  been  reasonable  in 
his  orders.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  steward 
to  enforce  the  commands  of  his  master, 
and  to  check  every  deviation  from  rec- 
titude and  tendency  against  his  master's 
intere.^fs  he  may  observe  in  the  conduct 
of  the  servants.  Although  he  shuuld  thus 
protect  the  interests  of  iiis  master  from 
the  aggressicms  of  any  servant,  it  is  not 
generally  understood  that  he  has  control 
over  the  slie])herd  or  hedger.  The  farmer 
reveals  to  the  steward  alone  the  plans  of 
his  management ;  intrusts  him  with  the 
keys  of  the  corn-barn,  granaries,  and  pro- 
vision-stores; delegates  to  him.  the  pnwer 
to  act  in  his  absence  as  his  representative 
on  the  farm  ;  and  confides  in  his  integrity, 
truth,  and  good  behaviour.  When  a 
steward  conducts  himself  with  propriety 
in  his  master's  absence,  and  exhibits  at 
all  times  discretioji,  activity,  and  honesty, 
he  is  justly  regarded  as  a  valuable  ser- 
vant. 

58.  Personally,  the  farm-steward  does 
not  always  labour  with  liis  own  hands  ; 
verifying,  by  judicious  superintendence, 
the  truth  of  the  adage,  that  "one  head 
is  better  than  two  pair  of  hands."  He 
should,  however,  never  be  idle.  He  should 
deliver  the  daily  allowance  of  corn  to  the 
horses.  He  should  be  the  first  person  out 
of  bed  in  the  morning,  and  the  last  in  it 
at  night.  He  should  sow  the  seed-corn  in 
spring,  superintend  the  field-workers  in 
summer,  tend  the  harvest  field  and  build 
the  stacks  in  autumn,  and  thrash  the 
corn  with  the  mill,  and  clean  it  with  the 
Avinnowing  machine  in  winter.  On  very 
large  farms  he  cannot  perform  all  these 
duties,  and  selects  one  or  another  as  suits 
the  exigency  of  the  case.  On  some  farms 
he  even  works  a  jtair  of  horses  like  a 
common  ploughman;  in  which  case  ho 
cann(.t  personally  sow  the  corn,  superin- 
tend the  workers,  build  the  stacks,  or 
thrash  the  corn,  unless  another  person 
take  the  charge  of  his  horses  for  the  time. 
This  is  an  ol))ecti<)nable  mode  of  employ- 
ing a  steward ;  because  the  nicer  opera- 
tions,— such  as  sowing  corn,  &c.,  must  be 
intrusted  to  another,  an<l,  mostiikely,  in- 
ferior person.  But  in  by  far  the  greatest 
number  of  cases,  the  steward  does  not 
work  horses  :  on  the  contrary,    when  a 


ploughman  qualifies  himself  to  become  a 
steward,  it  is  chiefly  with  the  view  of 
enjoying  immunity  from  that  species  of 
drudgery.  In  any  event,  the  steward 
should  be  able  to  keep  an  account  of  the 
work-peo])le's  time,  and  of  the  quantity  of 
grain  thrashed,  consumed  on  the  farm,  and 
delivered  to  purchasers. 

59.  Stewards  are  not  required  on  every 
sort  of  farm  On  pastoral  farms,  his  ser- 
vice is  of  no  use,  so  that  it  is  on  arable 
farms  alone  that  they  are  required.  His 
services  are  the  most  valuable  where  the 
greatest  multi|)licity  of  subjects  demand 
attention.  Thus,  he  is  a  more  useful  ser- 
vant on  a  farm  of  mixed  husl)andry  than 
on  one  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  town,  or 
on  a  carse  farm.  But  even  on  some  farms 
of  mixed  culture,  the  services  of  a  steward 
are  dispensed  with  altogether ;  in  which 
case  thefarmer  himself  givesordcrsdirectly 
to  the  ploughmen,  or  indirectly  through 
the  hedger  or  cattle-man,  as  he  may  choose 
to  appoint  to  receive  his  instructions.  In 
such  a  case,  the  same  person  is  also  in- 
trusted to  corn  the  horses ;  for  the  plough- 
men are  never  intrusted  to  do  it,  except 
in  certain  circumstances,  as  they  are  apt 
to  abuse  such  a  trust  by  giving  too  much 
Corn,  to  the  probable  injury  of  the  horses. 
The  same  person  jjerforms  other  jiarts  of  a 
steward's  duty;  such  as  sowing  corn,  super- 
intending field-workers,  and  tiirashing 
corn  :  or  those  duties  may  be  divided  be- 
twixt the  cattle-man  and  hedger.  On  the 
large  farm  in  Berwickshire  on  which  I 
learned  farniing,  there  was  no  steward,  the 
cattle- man  delivering  the  master's  orders 
and  corning  the  horses,  and  the  hedger 
sowing  the  corn,  building  the  stacks,  and 
thrashing  the  corn.  The  object  of  this 
arrangement  was  to  save  the  wages  of  a 
steward,  since  the  farmer  himself  was 
able  to  undertake  the  general  superinten- 
dence. I  conilucted  my  own  farm  for 
several  years  without  a  steward,  the 
hedger  acting  as  such. 

QQ.  Ploughman. — Thedutiesof  a  plough- 
man are  clearlv  defined.  The  principal 
duty  is  to  take  charge  of  a  pair  of  horses, 
and  work  them  at  every  kind  of  labour  for 
which  horses  are  employed  on  a  farm. 
Horse-labour  on  a  farm  is  various.  It  is 
connected  with  the  plough,  the  cart,  the 
sowing-machines, the  roller,and  the  thrash- 


THE  PERSONS  WHO  LABOUR  THE  FARM. 


15 


ing-mill,  when  horse-power  is  employed. 
In  the  fulfilment  of  his  duties,  the  plough- 
man has  a  long  day's  work  to  perform ;  for, 
besides  expending  the  appointed  hours  in 
the  fields  with  the  horses,  he  must  groom 
them  before  he  goes  to  the  field  in  the 
morning,  and  after  he  returns  from  it  in 
the  evening,  as  well  as  attend  to  them  at 
4iiid-day.  Notwithstanding  this  constant 
toil,  he  must  do  his  work  with  alacrity 
and  good-will ;  and  when,  from  any  cause, 
his  horses  are  laid  idle,  he  must  not  only 
groom  them,  but  must  himself  work  at  any 
farm- work  he  is  desired.  There  is  seldom 
any  exaction  of  labour  from  the  ploughman 
beyond  the  usual  daily  hours  of  work,  these 
occupying  at  least  1 2  hours  a-day  for  7 
months  of  the  year,  which  is  sufficient 
work  for  any  man's  strength  to  endure. 
But  occasions  do  arise  which  justify  a 
greater  sacrifice  of  his  time,  such  as  seed- 
time, hay-time,  and  harvest.  For  such 
encroachments  upon  his  time  at  one  season, 
many  opportunities  occur  of  repaying  him 
with  indulgence  at  another,  sucli  as  a  ces- 
sation from  labour  in  bad  weather.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  ploughman  to  work  his 
horses  with  discernment  and  good  temper, 
not  only  fur  the  sake  of  the  horses,  but  of 
the  work  he  executes.  It  is  also  his  duty 
to  keep  his  horses  comfortably  clean. 
Ploughmen  are  never  placed  in  situations 
of  trust ;  and  having  no  responsibility  be- 
yond the  care  of  tlieir  horses,  there  is  no 
class  of  servants  more  independent.  There 
should  no  partiality  be  shown  by  the 
master  or  steward  to  one  ploughman  over 
another,  when  all  do  their  work  alike  well. 
An  invidious  and  reprehensible  practice 
exists,  however,  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, of  setting  ploughmen  to  work  in  an 
order  of  precedency,  and  which  is  main- 
tained so  strictly  as  to  cause  the  men  to 
go  and  return  from  work  in  the  same  order, 
one  being  appointed  foreman  or  leader, 
whose  movements  guide  those  of  the  rest. 
Should  the  foreman  prove  a  slow  man,  the 
rest  must  go  not  a  single  bout  more  than 
he  does ;  and  if  active,  they  may  follow  as 
best  they  can.  Thus,  whilst  his  activity 
confers  no  superiority  of  work  beyond  his 
own,  his  dulness  discourages  the  activity 
of  the  other  ploughmen.  This  is  sufficient 
ground  for  farmers  to  abolish  the  practice 
at  once,  and  place  the  whole  of  their 
ploughmen  on  the  same  footing.  I  soon 
felt  the  evils  attending  the  system,  and 


put  an  end  to  it  on  my  own  farm.  When 
one  ploughman  displays  more  skill  than 
the  rest,  he  is  sufficiently  honoured  by 
being  intrusted  to  execute  the  most  diffi- 
cult species  of  work,  such  as  diilling ;  and 
such  a  preference  gives  no  umbrage  to  the 
others,  because  they  are  as  conscious  of  his 
superiority  in  work  as  the  farmer  himself. 
The  services  of  ploughmen  are  required  on 
all  sorts  of  arable  farms,  from  thecarse- farm 
to  the  pastoral,  on  which  the  greatest  and  the 
least  extent  of  arable  land  is  cultivated. 

61.  Heclger^  Spade-hind,  ov  Spadesman. 
— The  hedger,  the  spade-hind,  the  spades- 
man, as  he  is  indifferently  called,  is  a 
useful  servant  on  a  farm.  He  is  strictly  a 
labourer,  but  of  a  high  grade.  His  principal 
duty  is  to  take  charge  of  the  hedge-fences 
and  ditches  of  the  farm,  and  cut  and  clean 
them  as  they  require  in  the  course  of  the 
season.  He  also  renews  old  fences,  and 
makes  new  ones.  He  cuts  channels  across 
ridges  with  the  spade,  for  the  surface-water 
to  find  its  way  to  the  ditclies.  He  is  the 
drainer  of  the  farm.  He  is  dexterous  in 
the  use  of  the  spade,  the  shovel,  and  the 
pick,  and  lie  handles  the  small  cutting-axe 
and  switching-knife  with  a  force  and 
neatness  which  a  dragoon  might  envy- 
As  the  principal  business  of  a  hedger  is 
performed  in  winter,  he  has  leisure  in  the 
other  seasons  to  assist  at  any  work.  He 
can  sow  corn  and  grass-seeds  in  spring; 
shear  sheep  and  mow  the  hay  in  summer  ; 
and  build  and  thatch  stacks  in  autumn. 
He  can  also  superintend  the  field-workers 
in  summer,  and  especially  in  the  weeding 
of  the  hedges.  The  hedger  is  a  very 
proper  person  to  superintend  the  making 
of  drains,  which,  when  done  on  a  large 
scale,  is  generally  executed  by  hired  la- 
bourers on  piece-work.  It  is  thus  obvious, 
that  tlie  hedger  is  an  accomplished  i'aini- 
servant. 

62.  Hedgers  are  not  required  on  all 
sorts  of  farms.  They  would  be  of  little 
use  on  pastoral  farms,  where  fences  are 
few^,  and  most  of  tliem  elevated  beyond 
the  growth  of  thorns;  nor  on  farms  whose 
fences  are  formed  of  stone-walls;  nor  on 
carse-farms,  which  are  seldom  fenced  at 
all.  On  the  last  class  of  farms,  tliey 
might  be  usefully  employed  as  ditchei'S 
and  makers  of  channels  fur  surface-water; 
but  on  these,  ploughmen  are  usually  em- 


16 


INITIATION. 


ployed  for  those  purposes  wlien  the  land  is  too 
wet.  Tlie  coimiiou  practice  on  carse-farms 
of  transforming  ploughmen  into  spades- 
men, and  laying  horses  idle,  I  would  say  is 
one  "more  honoured  in  tlie  breach  than 
the  observance,"  in;ismuch  as  the  labour  of 
horses  siiould  always  be  more  valuable 
than  that  of  man.  On  this  subject,  Sir 
Jol)n  Sinclair  has  a  few  just  remarks. 
"  In  a  considerable  farm,''  he  says,  "  it  is 
of  the  utmost  consequence  to  have  servants 
specially  aj)propriated  for  each  of  the 
most  important  departments  of  labour; 
for  there  is  often  a  great  loss  of  time, 
where  persons  are  frequently  changing 
their  employments.  Besides,  where  the 
division  of  labour  is  introduced,  work  is 
executed  not  only  more  expeditiously,  but 
also  much  better,  in  consequence  of  the 
same  hands  being  constantly  employed  in 
one  particular  department.  For  that 
purpose,  the  ploughmen  ought  never  to  be 
emj)loved  in  manual  labour,  but  regularly 
kept  at  work  with  their  horses,  when  the 
weather  will  admit  of  it."*  In  the  com- 
bination of  arable  with  stock  culture,  the 
services  of  the  hedger  are  indisj>ensable. 
Still,  the  farm  that  would  give  him  full 
employment  must  necessarily  be  of  large 
extent.  A  small  farm  cannot  maintain 
either  a  steward  or  a  hedger.  In  selecting 
from  the^e  two  classes  of  servants,  for  a 
small  farm,  I  would  recommend  the  hedger 
as  the  more  useful  servant  of  the  two, 
provi'led  the  farmer  himself  understands 
his  bu^^iuess  thoroughly.  I  make  this  ex- 
cept ictn,  because  the  hedger  may  not  un- 
derstand every  department  of  husbandry, 
although  he  generally  does,  having  most 
proI)ably  worked  a  pair  of  horses  in  his 
youth  ;  while  a  steward  must  of  necessity 
understand  farming,  otherwise  he  can 
have  no  pretension  to  the  appellation; 
but  he  can  in  no  case  act  as  a  substitute 
for  a  hedger. 

63.  Shepherd. — The  services  of  a  shep- 
herd, properly  so  called,  are  only  required 
where  a  flock  of  sheep  are  constantly  kept. 
On  carse-farms,  and  those  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  lar^^e  towns,  he  is  of  no  use  ; 
nor  is  he  required  on  those  farms  where 
the  only  slieep  kept  are  bought  in  to  be 
fed  oft'  turnijis  in  winter.  On  pastoral 
farms,  on  the  other  hand,  as  also  those  of 


the  mixed  husbandry,  bis  services  are  eo 
indispensable  tiiat  thev  could  not  be  con- 
ducted without  him.  His  duty  is  to  under- 
take the  entire  management  of  the  sheep, 
and  when  he  bestows  the  requisite  pains 
on  the  flock,  he  has  little  leisure  for  any 
other  work.  His  time  is  occupied  from 
early  dawn,  when  he  should  see  the  fl(»ck 
before  they  rise  from  their  lair,  during  the 
whole  day,  to  the  evening,  when  they 
again  lie  down  for  the  night.  To  inspect 
a  large  flock  three  times  a-day  over  ex- 
tensive bounds,  implies  the  exercise  of 
walking  to  fatigue.  Together  with  this 
daily  exercise,  he  has  to  attend  to  the 
feeding  of  the  young  sheep  on  turnips  in 
winter,  the  lambing  of  the  ewes  in  spring, 
the  washing  and  shearing  of  the  fleece  in 
summer,  and  the  bathing  or  smearing  of 
the  flock  in  autumn.  And  besides  these 
major  operations,  he  has  the  minor  ones 
of  weaning  the  lambs,  milking  the  ewes, 
drafting  the  aged  sheep,  and  marking 
the  whole,  at  appointed  times  ;  not  to  omit 
the  attention  to  be  bestowed  on  the  whole 
flock  in  summer,  to  keep  them  clean  from 
the  scour,  and  to  repel  the  attacks  of 
insects  in  autumn.  It  may  thus  be  seen 
that  the  shepherd  has  little  time  to  bestow 
beyond  the  care  of  his  flock. 

64.  As  no  one  but  a  shepherd,  thoroughly 
bred,  can  at  tend  to  sheep  in  aproper  manner, 
there  must  be  one  where  a  standing  sheep- 
flock  is  kept,  whatever  may  be  the  extent 
of  the  farm.  On  a  small  fitrm,  his  whole 
time  may  not  beoccupietl  in  his  profession, 
when  he  may  be  profitably  engaged  in 
mending  and  making  nets,  preparing 
stakes  for  them,  and  assisting  the  hedger 
(if  there  be  one)  to  keep  the  fences  in 
repair ;  or  in  acting  as  groimi,  and  taking 
charge  of  a  horse  and  gig,  and  going 
errands  to  the  post-town  ;  or  in  under- 
taking the  duties  of  a  steward.  On  larpe 
pastoral  or  mixed  husbandry  farms,  more 
than  one  shepherd  is  required.  The  estab- 
lishment then  consists  of  a  head  shepherd, 
and  one  or  more  young  men  training  to  be 
shepherds,  who  are  placed  entirely  under 
his  control.  The  oflBce  of  head  sliej)herd 
is  one  of  great  trust.  Sheep  being  indi- 
vidually Valuable,  and  in  most  instances 
reared  in  large  flocks,  a  misfortune  hap- 
pening to  a  number,  from  whatever  cause, 


•  Siuclair's  Cod4  of  Agriculture,^.  71. 


THE  PERSONS  WHO  LABOtlR  THE  FARM. 


17 


must  incur  a  great  loss  to  the  farmer.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  careful  and  skilful  shep- 
herd conducts  his  flock  in  good  health  and 
full  number  throughout  the  year,  and 
secures  an  extra  return  niucli  beyond  the 
value  of  his  wages.  Tlie  shepherd  acts  the 
part  of  butcher  in  slaughtering  the  animals 
used  on  the  farm  ;  and  he  also  performs  the 
part  of  the  drover  when  any  portion  of  the 
flock  is  taken  to  a  market  for  sale.  The 
only  assistance  he  depends  upon  in  person- 
ally managing  his  flock,  is  from  his  faithful 
dog,  whose  sagacity  in  many  respects  is 
little  inferior  to  his  own 

65.  Cattle-man. — The  services  of  the 
cattle-man  are  most  wanted  at  the  stead- 
ing in  winter,  when  the  cattle  are  all 
housed  in  it.  He  has  the  sole  charge  of 
them.  It  is  his  duty  to  clean  out  the  cattle- 
houses,  and  supply  the  cattle  with  food, 
fodder,  and  litter,  at  appointed  hours  every 
day,  and  to  make  the  food  ready,  when 
prepared  food  is  given  them.  The  business 
of  tending  cattle  being  chiefly  matter  of 
routine,  the  qualifications  of  a  cattle-man 
are  not  of  a  high  order.  In  summer  and 
autumn,  when  the  cows  are  at  grass,  it  is 
his  duty  to  bring  them  into  the  byre  or  to 
the  gate  of  the  field,  as  the  custom  maybe, 
to  be  milked  at  their  appointed  times ;  and 
it  is  also  his  duty  to  ascertain  that  the 
cattle  in  the  fields  are  plentifully  supplied 
with  water;  the  shepherd  taking  the  charge 
of  the  state  of  the  pastures.  The  cattle- 
man also  sees  the  cows  served  by  the  bull 
in  due  time,  and  keeps  an  account  of  the 
reckonings  of  the  time  of  the  cows' 
calving.  He  should  assist  the  shepherd 
at  the  important  event  of  calving.  As 
his  time  is  thus  only  occasionally  enijiloyed 
in  summer,  he  is  a  suitable. j^erson  to  under- 
take the  superintendence  of  the  field- 
workers.  In  harvest,  he  is  usefully  em- 
ployed in  assisting  to  make  and  carry  the 
food  to  the  reapers,  and  lends  a  hand  at 
the  taking  in  of  the  corn.  As  cattle  occupy 
the  steading  in  winter  on  all  kinds  of  farms, 
the  services  of  the  cattle-man  appear  gene- 
rally indispensable  ;  but  all  hits  duties 
may  be  performed  by  the  sbejiherd,  where 
only  a  small  flock  of  sheep  are  kept.  The 
oflice  of  the  cattle-man  is  not  one  of  trust, 
nor  of  much  labour.  An  elderly  person 
answers  the  purpose  well,  the  labour  being 
neither  constant  nor  heavy,  though  well- 
timed   and    methodical.     The  cattle-man 

VOL.  I. 


ought  to  exercise  much  patience  and  gool 
temper  towards  the  cattle  under  his  charge, 
and  a  person  in  the  decline  of  life  is  most 
likely  to  possess  those  virtues.  He  is  gene- 
rally under  the  control  of  the  shepherd, 
wdiere  the  latter  has  leisure  to  attend  at 
all  to  the  cattle,  or  under  that  of  the  dairy- 
maid in  a  large  dairy-farm,  and  in  other 
circumstances  he  is  directly  under  the 
command  of  the  farmer  or  steward. 

66.  Field-worker. — Field-workers  are 
indispensable  servants  on  every  farm  de- 
voted to  arable  culture,  and  it  is  only  on 
them  they  are  employed.  They  mostly 
consist  of  young  women  in  Scotland,  but 
more  frequently  of  men  and  boys  in  Eng- 
land ;  but  most  of  the  manual  operations 
are  better  performed  by  women  than  men. 
In  hand-picking  stones  and  weeds,  in  hoe- 
ing turnips,  and  in  barn-work,  they  are 
more  expert  and  neat  than  men.  The 
duties  of  field-workers,  as  their  name 
implies,  are  to  perform  all  the  manual 
operations  of  the  fields,  as  well  as  those 
with  the  smaller  implements,  which  are 
not  worked  by  horses.  The  mamial 
operations  consist  chiefly  of  cutting  and 
planting  the  sets  of  potatoes,  gathering 
weeds,  picking  stones,  collecting  the  potato 
crop,  and  filling  drains  with  stones.  The 
operations  with  the  smaller  implements 
are,  pulling  turnips  and  preparing  them  for 
storing,  and  for  feeding  stock  in  winter, 
performing  barn-work,  carrying  seed-corn, 
spreading  manure  upon  the  land,  hoeing 
potatoes  and  turnips,  and  weeding  and 
reaping  corn-crops.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  field-workers  are  required  on  a 
farm,  and  they  are  generally  set  to  work 
in  a  band.  They  work  most  steadily  under 
superintendence.  The  steward,  the  liedger, 
or  cattle-man,  superintends  them  when  the 
band  is  large  ;  but  wdien  small,  one  of 
themselves,  a  steady  person,  capable  of 
taking  the  lead  in  work,  may  superintend 
them,  provided  she  has  a  watch  to  mark 
the  time  of  work  and  rest.  But  field- 
workers  do  not  always  work  by  themselves; 
being  at  times  associated  with  the  fieW- 
work  of  the  horses,  when  they  require  no 
particular  superintendence.  Some  farmers 
consider  it  economical  to  set  the  horses 
idle,  and  employ  the  ploughmen  rather 
than  engage  field-workers.  This  may  be 
a  mode  of  avoiding  a  small  outlay  of 
money,  but  it  is  not  true  economy;  and 


18 


INITIATION. 


ploughmen,  besides,  cannot  perform  light 
■work  so  well  as  field-workers.  In  manu- 
facturing districts  field- workers  are  scarce ; 
but  were  fanners  generally  to  adopt  the 
plan  of  employing  a  few  constantly,  and 
engage  them  for  the  purpose  by  the  half 
year,"instead  of  hiring  them  in  large  num- 
bers at  a  time,  young  women  would  be  in- 
duced to  adopt  field-labour  as  a  profession, 
and  of  course  would  become  very  expert 
in  it.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  large 
towns,  where  labourers  of  every  descrip- 
tion are  plentiful,  there  exists,  it  must  be 
confessed,  a  great  temptation  to  the  farmer 
to  engage  a  large  number  of  workers  at 
any  time,  to  execute  a  given  piece  of  work 
in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  though  their 
work  will  certainly  not  be  so  well  executed 
as  if  it  had  been  done  by  field-workers  con- 
stantly accustomed  to  the  task.  It  is  such 
steadiness  of  service,  however,  that  has 
made  the  field-workers  of  the  south  of 
Scotland  so  superior  to  the  same  class  in 
every  other  part  of  the  country. 

67.  Doiry-maid. — The  duties  of  the 
dairy-maid  are  well  defined.  She  is  a 
domestic  servant,  domiciliated  in  the  farm- 
house. Her  principal  duty  is,  as  her  name 
implies,  to  milk  the  c^ws,  to  manage  the 
milk  in  all  its  stages,  bring  up  the  calves, 
and  make  into  butter  and  cheese  the  milk 
obtained  from  the  cows  after  the  weaning 
of  the  calves.  The  other  domestics  gene- 
rally assist  her  in  milking  the  cows  and 
feeding  the  calves,  when  there  is  a  large 
number  of  both.  Should  any  lambs  lose 
their  mothers,  the  dairy-maid  brings  them 
up  with  cow's  milk  until  the  time  of  wean- 
ing, when  they  are  returned  to  the  flock. 
At  the  lumbing  season,  should  an}'  of  the 
ewes  be  scant  of  milk,  the  shepherd  has  his 
bottles  replenished  by  the  dairy-maid  with 
warm  new  milk  to  give  to  tlie  hungered 
lambs.  The  dairy-maid  also  milks  the 
ewes  after  the  weaning  of  the  lambs,  and 
makes  cheese  of  the  ewe-milk.  She  at- 
tends to  the  poultry,  feeds  them,  sets  the 
brooders,  gathers  the  eggs  daily,  takes 
charge  of  the  broods  until  able  to  provide 
for  themselves,  and  sees  them  safely  lodged 
in  their  respective  apartments  every  even- 
ing, and  sets  them  abroad  every  morning. 
It  is  generally  the  dairy-maid,  where  there 
is  no  housekce[K?r,  who  gives  out  the  food 
for  the  reapers,  and  takes  charge  of  their 
articles    of    bedding.       The    dairy-maid 


should  therefore  be  an  active,  attentive, 
intelligent,  and  skilful  person. 

68.  These  are  the  duties  of  the  respec- 
tive classes  of  servants  found  on  farms. 
They  are  not  all  required  on  the  same 
farm.  A  pastoral- farm  has  no  need  of  a 
steward,  but  a  shepherd  ;  a  carse-farm  no 
need  of  a  shepherd,  but  a  steward  ;  a  farm 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  town  no  need  of 
a  liedger,  but  a  cattle-man ;  and  a  dairy- 
farm  no  need  of  a  shepherd,  but  a  dairy- 
maid ;  but  on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry 
there  is  need  for  all  these. 

69.  Now  that  the  duties  of  all  these 
servants  are  seen  to  be  so  multifarious, 
mixed  husbandry  will  be  perceived  to  be  a 
very  intricate  system ;  and,  being  so,  a 
farmer  who  undertakes  it  should  be  a  well- 
informed  man.  This  will  appear  the  more 
evident,  if  we  first  conceive  the  quality 
and  variety  of  the  labour  that  passes 
through  the  hands  of  these  different  classes 
of  work-people  in  the  course  of  a  vear,  and 
then  imagine  the  clear-headedness  of 
arrangement  recpiired  by  tlie  farmer  to 
make  all  these  various  labours  coincide  in 
every  season,  and  under  ever}'  circumstance, 
so  as  to  produce  the  greatest  results.  It 
is  in  its  greatest  variety  that  labour  is  best 
acquired;  and  it  is  in  the  apportionment  of 
varied  labour  that  the  greatest  talent  is  dis- 
played by  the  master,  and  the  greatest  skill 
acquired  by  the  labourers.  Vain  would 
be  the  skill  of  any  fanner  to  produce  the 
results  he  does  on  an}'  class  of  farni,  were 
he  not  ably  seconded  by  the  general  intel- 
ligence and  admirable  efiicicncy  of  his 
labourers;  and  in  both  these  acquirements 
Scotland  has  cause  to  be  proud  of  her 
farm-servants. 

ON  THE  BRANCHES  OF  SCIENCE  MOST  APPLI- 
CABLE TO  AGRICULTURE. 

70.  I  believe  I  have  said  enough  on  the 
best  means,  in  existing  circumstances,  of  ac- 
quiring a  thorough  knowledge  of  practical 
agriculture  :  it  is  now  incumbent  on  me  to 
indicate  those  branches  of  science  which 
will  most  enlighten  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
for  the  most  ready  appreciation  of  agricul- 
tural practice  ;  and  I  may,  perhaps,  excite 
general  surprise,  when  I  state  that  no  art 
bears  so  close  a  relation  to  so  many 
branches  of  science  as  agriculture. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTtJRE. 


19 


71.  Indeed  agriculture  may  perhaps  be 
considered  one  of  the  experimental  sciences, 
as  its  principles  are  no  doubt  demonstrable 
by  the  test  of  experiment,  although  far- 
mers have  not  yet  attempted  to  deduce 
principles  from  practice.  The  necessity  for 
such  a  deduction  is,  no  doubt,  the  less  ur- 
gent, that  husbandry  is  usually  pursued  as 
a  purely  practical  art ;  and  the  facility  of 
thus  pursuing  it  successfully,  of  course 
renders  practical  men  indifferent  to  science, 
as  they  consider  it  unnecessary  to  burden 
their  minds  with  scientific  results,  whilst 
practice  is  sufficient  for  their  purpose. 
Could  the  man  of  practice,  however,  sup- 
ply the  man  of  science  with  a  series  of 
accurate  observations  on  the  leading  opera- 
tions of  the  farm,  the  principles  of  these 
might  be  truly  evolved ;  but  I  conceive  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  the  advancement  of 
scientific  agriculture  is  to  be  sought  for 
in  the  unacquaintance  of  men  of  science 
with  practical  agriculture.  Would  the 
man  of  science  become  acquainted  w4th 
practice,  much  greater  advancement  in 
scientific  agriculture  might  be  expected 
than  if  the  practical  man  were  to  become 
a  man  of  science  ;  because  men  of  science 
are  best  capable  of  conducting  scientific 
research,  and,  being  so  qualified,  could 
best  understand  the  relation  which  their 
investigations  bear  to  practice ;  and,  until 
the  relation  betwixt  principles  and  practice 
is  well  understood,  scientific  investigation, 
though  important  in  itself,  and  interesting 
in  its  results,  would  tend  to  no  practical 
utility  in  agriculture.  In  short,  until  the 
facts  of  husbandry  are  acquired  by  men 
of  science,  these  will  in  vain  endeavour  to 
construct  a  satisfactory  theory  of  agricul- 
ture on  the  principles  of  the  inductive 
philosophy. 

72.  If  the  science  of  agriculture  in  its 
present  position  be  thus  correctly  repre- 
sented, it  may  be  expected  to  remain  in  an 
incipient  state  until  men  of  science  become 
practical  agriculturalists,  or,  what  would 
still  prolong  such  a  state  of  lethargy,  until 
farmers  acquire  scientific  knowledge.  It 
is  certainly  remarkable  that  so  few  scien- 
tific men  were  for  a  very  long  period  in- 
duced to  subject  agricultural  practice  to 
scientific  investigation  ;  though  of  late 
many,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  have 
devoted  a  portion  of  their  time  to  such  a 
study,   and  which   has   already    aflorded 


abundant  proof,  that  extensive  as  the  field 
of  research  is,  it  has  only  to  be  occupied  by 
numerous  observers  to  produce  results  inte- 
resting alike  to  the  man  of  science  and  the 
man  of  practice.  The  long  neglect  of  agri- 
culture by  scientific  men  may  perhaps  have 
arisen  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having 
so  intimate  a  relation  to  almost  every  phy- 
sical science,  so  that  until  all  its  relations 
were  first  investigated,  no  sufficient  data 
could  be  obtained  for  a  satisfactory  expla- 
nation of  its  practice.  A  short  review  of 
the  actual  relation  which  the  physical 
sciences  bear  to  agriculture  will  render  this 
suggestion  the  more  probable. 

73.  The  sciences  which  agriculture  most 
immediately  aflects  are  mathematics,  na- 
tural philosophy,  chemistry,  natural  his- 
tory, comparative  anatomy,  and  veterinary 
science.  Of  mathematics,  the  most  useful 
parts  are  geometry  and  trigonometry,  and 
tlie  application  of  these  to  the  measure- 
ment of  surfaces  and  solids.  Without  a 
knowledge  of  mathematics  no  one  can  un- 
derstand natural  j)hil()Sophy  ;  because  it  is 
they  alone  which  can  demonsti-ate  the 
powers  of  those  laws  which  determine  the 
motion  of  matter.  Of  natural  philosophy, 
the  most  useful  branches  to  the  agricultu- 
ralist are  mechanics — "  the  science  of  the 
laws  of  matter  and  motion,  so  far  as  it  is 
accessary  to  the  construction  of  niacliines 
which,  acting  under  those  laws,  answer 
some  purposes  in  the  business  of  life,"  such 
as  thfe'  culture  and  manufacture  of  crops; 
jrneumatu's,  "  that  branch  of  physics  which 
treats  of  air,  and  the  laws  according  to 
whicli  it  is  condensed,  rarefied,  or  gravi- 
tates ;"  hydraidics,  tliat  branch  of  hydro- 
dynamics which  treats  of  fluids  in  motion, 
and  in  particular  of  the  conveyance  of 
water  thi'ough  pipes  and  channels ;  elec- 
tricity, which  endeavours  to  determine 
"  the  o[)erations  of  a  principle  of  very 
wide  influence  through  nature ;  a  cause 
which  is,  and  perhajis  can  be  no  otherwise 
conceived,  than  as  a  highly  attenuated  form 
of  matter  existing  in  difi'erent  substances, 
and  passing  from  one  to  another  with' 
various  effects,  among  such  bodies  as  can 
be  excited  to  give  or  to  receive  it ;"  optics, 
by  which  the  laws  of  light,  as  affecting 
vegetation  by  the  influence  of  colour,  are 
investigated;  ^.wilheat^  which, by  diffusing 
itself  throtigh  neighbouring  substances, 
gives  to  every  object  its  existing  form.    By 


20 


INITIATION. 


the  aid  of  chemistry,  "  Ihe  manufacture  of 
Manures  may  be  exj)ec(ed  to  continue  to 
improve,  tlie  suj»ply  of  manure  further 
augmented  and  cheapened,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  the  resources  of  the  soil 
therel>y  hastened  and  increased.''  Of  the 
branches  of  natural  history,  the  most  use- 
ful to  agriculturalists  are  meteorology, 
"the  science  of  the  atmosphere  and  its 
phenomena;"  hotany,  "which  treats  of 
the  structure,  functions,  proi)erties,  habits, 
and  arrangement  of  plants  ;"  and  zoolugy^ 
as  restricted  to  the  natural  history  of 
quadrupeds  and  insects.  The  branches  of 
the  medical  science  useful  to  agricultu- 
ralists are  comparat'tve  anatomy,  which 
treats  of  the  structure  of  the  bodies  of 
animals  as  compared  with  that  of  the  body 
of  man  ;  and  zootomy,  which  treats  of  the 
structure,  and  explains  the  principles  of  the 
art  of  healing  the  diseases  of  the  domesti- 
cated animals. 

74.  Viewing  the  general  aspect  of  these 
sciences  as  presented  to  the  agricultural 
pupil,  in  the  definitions  just  given  of  them, 
he  must  at  once  observe  the  advantages  he 
would  derive  by  studying  them.  It  is  well 
observed  by  Sir  John  Herschell  that, 
"  between  the  physical  sciences  and  the 
arts  of  life  there  subsists  a  constant  mutual 
interchange  of  good  offices,  and  no  consi- 
derable progress  can  be  made  in  the  one, 
without  of  necessity  giving  rise  to  corre- 
sponding steps  in  the  other.  On  the  one 
hand,  every  art  is  in  some  measure,  and 
many  entirely,  dependent  on  those  very 
powers  and  qualities  of  the  material  world 
■which  it  is  the  object  of  physical  inquiry 
to  investigate  and  explain."  It  is  evident 
that  most  farming  ojicrations  are  much 
affected  by  external  inlluences.  The  state 
of  the  weather,for  example,  regidates  every 
field  operation,  local  iutluences  modify  tlie 
climate  very  materially,  and  the  nature 
of  the  soil  generally  determines  the  kind 
of  crop  that  should  be  cultivated.  Now 
the  ])ui)il  should  desire  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  causes  which  give  rise  to 
those  influences,  by  understanding  the  laws 
of  nature  which  govern  every  natural 
phenomenon.  The  science  which  investi- 
gates those  laws,  is  called  Natural  Philo- 
sophy, which  is  divided  into  as  many 
branches  as  there  are  classes  of  phenomena 
occurring  in  the  earth,  air,  water,  and 
heavens.     Those  laws,  being  unerring  in 


their  operation,  admit  of  absolute  demon- 
stration ;  and  the  science  which  affords 
the  demonstration  is  called  Mathematics, 
Again,  every  object,  animate  or  inanimate, 
possesses  an  individual  character,  so  that 
it  can  be  identified,  and  the  science  which 
makes  us  acquainted  with  its  characteris- 
tics, is  termed  Natural  History.  Farther, 
every  object,  animate  or  inanimate,  is  a 
compound  body  made  up  of  certain  ele- 
ments, of  which  Chemistry  makes  us  ac- 
quainted with  their  nature  and  condjina- 
tions.  The  pupil  thus  sees  how  suitable 
those  sciences  are  to  the  ex[)lication  of  the 
phenomena  around  him,  and  their  utility 
will  be  the  more  apparent  to  him,  the  more 
minutely  each  science  is  investigated. 

75.  Mathematics. — These  are  both  ab- 
stract and  demonstrative.     Abstract  ma- 
thematics "  treat  of  propositions  which  are        < 
immutable,  absolute  truth,''  not  liable  to 

be  afl'ected  by  subsequent  discoveries, 
"  but  remain  the  unchangeable  property 
of  the  mind  in  all  its  acquirements."  De- 
monstrative mathematics  arc  also  strict, 
but  are  "  interwoven  with  physical  consi- 
derations ;"  that  is,  with  subjects  that  exist 
independently  of  the  mind's  concej^tions  of 
them  or  of  the  human  will;  or,  in  otiier 
words  still,  with  considerations  in  accor- 
dance with  nature.  Mathematics  thus  con- 
stitute the  essential  means  of  demonstrating 
the  strictness  of  those  laws  which  govern 
natural  phenomena.  They  must,  there- 
fore, befirst  studied  before  those  laws  can 
be  understood.  Their  study  tends  to  ex- 
pand the  mind, — to  enlarge  its  cai)acity 
for  general  principles, — and  to  improve  its 
reasoning  powers. 

76.  Natural   Philosophy    may   be 

divided  into  five  great  parts.  l^\\e  Jirst 
contains  the  fundamental  truths  which 
explain  the  constitution  of  the  material 
masses  which  compose  the  universe,  and 
the  motions  going  on  among  them.  This 
last  is  a  department  commonly  called 
Dynamics,  which  relate  to  force  or  power. 
The  two  great  forces  of  nature,  attraction 
and  repulsion,  acting  upon  inert  matter, 
produce  the  equable,  accelerated,  retarded, 
and  curved  motions  which  constitute  the 
great  phenomena  of  the  universe.  The 
second  ])art  explains  the  iieculiarities  of 
state  and  motion  among  solid  bodies, — a 
department  called  Mechanics.    The  third 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


21 


explains  the  pe^juliarities  of  state  anJ 
motion  among Jiuid  bodies, — a  department 
called  Hydrodynamics,  which  embraces 
Hydrostatics  or  water  at  rest — Hydraulics, 
water  in  motion — Pneumatics,  air  pheno- 
mena— and  Acoustics,  phenomena  of  sound 
or  hearing.  The /owri^A  part  explains  the 
more  recondite  phenomena  of  imponderable 
substances — such  as  Heat,  Light,  Electri- 
city, Magnetism,  and  Galvanism.  And 
t\\Q  fifth  part  explains  the  phencmiena  of 
the  heavens, — a  department  named  Astro- 
nomy. 

77.  Mecijanics — Of  all  the  branches 
into  which  Natural  Philosophy  is  divided, 
mechanics  have  proved  the  most  useful  to 
agriculture.  No  doubt  any  labourer  may 
work  any  machine  that  answers  the  purpose 
/it  is  constructed  for ;  but  without  a  know- 
ledge of  this  science  he  cannot  understand 
the  principles  upon  which  any  machine  is 
constructed,  nor  can  any  machine  be  pro- 
perly constructed  but  in  accordance  with 
those  principles.  As  implements  may  be 
characterised  as  the  right  hand  of  agricul- 
ture, mechanical  science,  in  improving  their 
form  and  construction,  may  be  said  to  have 
given  cunning  to  that  right  hand  ;  for, 
testing  the  strength  of  materials,  both  re- 
latively and  absolutely,  it  employs  no  more 
material  in  implements  than  is  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  force  of  resistance,  and  it 
induces  to  the  discovery  of  that  form  ^'hich 
overcomes  resistance  with  the  least  power. 
Simplicity  of  construction,  beauty  of  form 
of  the  constituent  parts,  mathematical  ad- 
justment, and  symmetrical  proportion  of  the 
whole  machine,  are  now  the  characteristics 
of  our  implements;  and  it  is  the  fault  of 
the  hand  that  guides  them,  if  field-work  is 
not  now  dexterously,  neatly,  and  quickly 
performed.  In  saying  thus  much  for  the 
science  that  has  improved  our  implements  to 
the  state  they  now  are,  when  compare<l  with 
their  state  some  years  ago,  I  do  not  aver 
that  they  are  yet  perfect ;  but  they  are  so 
perfect  as  to  be  correct  in  mechanical  prin- 
ciple, and  light  in  operation,  though  some 
are  not  yet  simple  enough  in  construction. 
Many  indeed  may  yet  be  much  simplified 
in  construction  ;  and  I  consider  the  machi- 
nist who  simplifies  the  action  of  any  useful 
implement,  thereby  rendering  it  less  liable 
to  de.rangement,  does  as  good  service  to 
agriculture  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  one. 
Such  a  result  may  at  all  times  be  expected; 


for  mathematical  demonstration  is  strictly 
applicable  to  mechanics,  whether  to  the 
principles  on  which  every  machine  operates, 
or  the  form  of  which  it  is  constructed. 

78.  Were  mechanists  to  pay  more  at- 
tention to  principles,  and  less  to  empirical 
art  than  they  commonly  do  in  several 
districts,  implements  would  soon  assume 
the  form  most  consonant  with  the  demon- 
strations of  science.  As  it  is,  modifications 
of  construction  and  unusual  combinations 
of  parts  are  frequently  attempted  by  me- 
chanists ;  and  though  many  such  attempts 
issue  in  failure,  they  nevertheless  tend  to 
divulge  new  combinations  of  mechanical 
action.  It  is  desirable  that  every  mecha- 
nist of  implements  should  understand 
j)ractical  agriculture,  and  every  farmer 
study  the  principles  of  mechanics  and  the 
construction  of  machines,  so  that  tlieir  con- 
joined judgment  and  skill  might  be  exer- 
cised in  testing  the  practical  utility  of 
implements.  When  unacquainted  with 
farming,  mechanists  are  apt  to  construct 
implements  obviously  unsuited  to  the  work 
they  are  intended  to  execute  ;  so  that  hav- 
ing been  put  together  after  repeated  altera- 
tions, and  probably  at  considerable  ex- 
pense, the  makers  endeavour  to  induce 
those  farmers  who  are  no  adepts  at  me- 
chanics to  purchase  them,  and  after  some 
unsatisfactory  attempts  they  are  put  aside. 
Were  farmers  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  mechanics,  their  discrimination 
would  form  a  barrier  against  the  spread  of 
implements  of  questionable  utility,  and 
only  those  find  circulation  which  were 
obviously  simple,  strong,  and  efficient. 
It  is  not  easy  to  invent  implements  pos- 
sessing all  those  desirable  qualities  ;  but, 
as  they  are  always  exposed  to  the  weather, 
and  the  soil  is  ponderous  and  uncouth,  it 
is  necessary  they  should  be  of  simj)le  con- 
struction. Simplicity  of  construction, 
however,  has  its  useful  limits.  Most  farm 
operations  being  of  themselves  simple,  they 
should  be  performed  with  simple  imple- 
ments ;  and  all  the  primary  operations, 
which  are  simple,  requiring  considerable 
power,  the  simple  implements  should  also 
be  strong ;  but  complicated  operations, 
though  stationary,  require  to  be  performed 
with  comparatively  complicated  machinery. 
Operations  that  are  both  complicated  and 
locomotive  should  be  performed  with  im- 
plements producing  complicated  action  by 


^2 


INITIATION. 


simple  means,  in  order  to  avoid  derange- 
ment of  their  constituent  parts.  The 
solution  of  this  last  is  a  difficult,  if  not 
impossible  problem,  in  practical  mechanics. 
The  common  pl('Ui:h  approaches  more 
nearly  to  its  practical  solution  than  any 
other  implement ;  yet  tliat  wonderful  im- 
plement, executing  difficult  work  by  simple 
means,  should  yet  be  so  modified  in  con- 
struction, as  to  give  the  ploughman  a 
greater  command  over  its  motions.  These 
considerations  tend  to  show,  that  the  form 
and  construction  of  implements,  and  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  may  be  used, 
are  still  subjects  affording  scope  for  me- 
chanical contrivance. 

79.  In  viewing  the  construction  of  all 
machines,  an  important  circumstance  to  be 
considered  by  the  pupil  is,  the  resistance 
among   moving  parts   which   arises  from 

friction  ;  and  in  8<ilid  structures,  generally, 
the  forms  and  positions  of  parts  have  to  be 
adjusted  to  the  strength  of  matin-ials.  and 
the  strain  which  the  parts  have  to  bear. 
This  consideration  should  lead  the  pupil  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  stp-ength  of 
materials ;  and,  as  a  farmer,  he  will  have 
much  need  to  put  such  knowledge  in 
practice  when  he  comes  to  receive  the  work 
executed,  by  the  carpenter  and  'smith. 

80.  On  considering  machines,  he  should 
also  avoid  the  common  error  of  supposing 
that  any  combination  of  machinery  ever  can 
increase  the  quantity  of  power  applied. 
"  What  an  infinity  of  vain  schemes — yet 
some  of  them  displaying  great  ingenuity — 
for  perpetual  motion,  and  new  mechanical 
engines  of  power,  &c.,"  exclaims  Dr  Arnott 
with  reason,  in  his  Elements  of  Physics, 
"  would  have  been  checked  at  once,  had 
the  great  truth  been  generally  understood, 
that  no  form  or  combination  of  machinery 
ever  did,  or  ever  can  increase,  in  the 
slightest  degree,  the  quaniit^'  of  power 
applied.  Ignorance  of  this  is  the  hinge 
on  which  most  of  the  dreams  of  mechanical 
projectors  have  turned.  No  year  passes, 
even  now,  in  which  many  patents  are  not 
taken  out  for  such  sup[iosed  discoveries, 
and  the  deluded  individuals,  after  selling 
^►erhaps  their  household  necessaries  to  ob- 
tain the  means  of  securing  the  expected 
advantages,  often  sink  into  despair,  when 
their  attempts,  instead  of  briniring  riches 
and   happiness   to   their  families,  end  in 


disappointment  and  ruin.  The  frequency, 
eagerness,  and  obstinacy,  with  which  even 
talented  individuals,  owing  to  their  imper- 
fect knowledge  of  the  fundamental  truths 
of  mechanics,  have  engaged  in  such  under- 
takings, is  a  remarkable  phenomenon  in 
human  nature." 

81.  Pneumatics. — Next  to  mechanics, 
pneumatics  is  the  branch  of  natural  phi- 
losophy most  useful  to  the  farmer.  It 
"  treats  of  air,  and  the  laws  according  to 
which  it  is  condensed,  rarifieJ,  and  gravi- 
tates." 

82.  The  atmospheric  air  surrounds  the 
entire  surface  of  our  globe  to  a  height  not 
exceeding  50  miles.  Dr  Wollaston  has 
shown  that,  at  this  elevation,  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  earth  upon  any  air  particle  is 
equal  to  the  resistance  of  the  repulsive 
power  of  the  medium.  This  height,  great 
as  it  may  seem,  only  bears  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  globe  as  dust  of  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  upon  a  ball  one  foot  in 
diameter. 

83.  The  atmosphere  presses  with  con- 
siderable force  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  as  well  as  on  every  object  immersed 
in  it.  The  weight  of  100  cubic  inches  of 
air,  at  GO"*  Fahrenheit,  and  the  barometer 
at  30  inches,  has  been  computed,  by  vari- 
ous authorities,  at  fr mi  30-199  to  31-10 
grains,  the  average  being  30-679.  With 
this  weight,  and  a  heigiit  of  50  miles,  the 
air  exerts  a  pressure  on  ever}'  square  inch 
of  1 5  lbs.  At  this  rate  its  entire  weight  has 
been  computed  at  .5,307,214,285,714,285 
tons,  or  equal  to  that  of  a  globe  of  lead  60 
miles  in  diameter.  The  surface  of  an  ordi- 
nary-sized man  contains  2000  square  inches, 
so  that  siich  a  person  sustains  a  pressure 
of  30,0U0  lbs.,  which,  of  course,  would  be 
sufficient  to  crush  him  to  atoms  in  an  in- 
stant, were  it  not  that,  in  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  equal  and  contrary  pressure,  this 
effect  is  i>revented. 

84.  The  air  consists  in  100  parts  of 

By  Weight.  By  Measure. 

Nitrogen 77"50       or       7755 

Oxygen '21-  „        23-.V2 

Aqueous  vapour...     \'A1        ^  103 

Carbonic  acid '08        ^  -10 

These  constituents  are  not  chemically 
combined,  but  only  mechanically  mixed, 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


23 


and  yet  their  proportions  never  vary. 
The  powerful  agency  of  the  sun's  heat 
and  light  evolve  an  abundant  supply 
of  oxygen  from  the  luxuriant  vegetation  in 
the  tropics,  whilst  the  predominant  exis- 
tence of  animals  in  the  colder  regions 
affords  a  large  quantity  of  carbonic  acid. 

85.  Barometer, — The  gravity  of  the 
atmosphere  is  measured  by  the  well-known 
instrument,  the  barometer.  Its  short 
column  of  mercury  of  30  inches  is  as  heavy 
as  a  column  of  air  of  the  same  diameter  of 
about  50  miles,  and  of  water  of  about  33 
feet.  This  instrument  is  placed  either  in  a 
fixed  position  or  is  portable.  As  the  por- 
table barometer  is  only  used  to  measure 
altitudes,  it  need  not  be  here  described. 
The  fixed  one  is  made  either  upright  or 
with  a  wheel.  Whether  it  is  that  the 
long  index  of  the  wheel-barometer,  being 
more  easily  observed  than  the  variations 
of  the  column  of  mercury,  makes  it  more 
popular  among  farmers,  I  know  not ;  but 
were  they  to  consider  of  the  hindrance 
occasioned  by  the  machinery  required  to 
put  the  long  index  in  motion,  the  upright 
form  would  always  be  preferred  for  accu- 
racy of  indication.  It  is  true  that  the  tube 
of  the  upright  is  generally  too  small,  per- 
haps to  save  mercury  and  make  the  instru- 


ment cheaper,  to  the  disadvantage  of  in- 
creasing the  friction  of  the  mercury  in  its 
oscillations  in  the  tube,  which  supports  it 
above  its  proper  level  when  falling,  and 
depresses  it  below  it  when  rising.  To 
obviate  this  inconvenience,  a  tap  of  the 
hand  against  the  instrument  is  required 
to  bring  the  mercury  to  its  proper  posi- 
tion. But  the  objection  also  applies  to  the 
wheel-barometer. 

86.  The  barometer  has  proved  itself  a 
useful  instrument.  It  has  proved  that  the 
density  of  the  atmosphere  decreases  rapidly 
as  we  ascend.  At  3  miles  the  density  is  only 
one-half  of  the  air  on  the  earth's  surface, 
at  6  miles  one-fourth,  at  9  miles  one- 
eighth,  and  at  15  miles  one-thirtieth.  So 
that  the  half  of  the  atmosphere  is  confined 
to  a  height  of  3  miles,  and  much  the  great- 
est part  is  always  within  20  miles.  The 
depression  of  the  barometer  has  been 
found,  by  experiment,  to  be  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  for  about  every  88  feet  of  eleva- 
tion ;  or,  more  correctly,  as  given  in  the 
table  below,  by  which  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  density  decreases  in  a  geometrical  while 
we  ascend  tlie  air  in  an  arithmetical  pro- 
gression. Thus,  with  the  barometer,  at 
the  level  of  the  sea,  standing  at  30 
inches, 


A  depression  of   "1  of  an  inch  gives  an  altitude  of     87  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


•2 

^^ 

^ 

,^ 

175 

•3 

-^ 

^ 

^ 

2G2 

•4 

^ 

_^ 

^ 

350 

•5 

**. 

^ 

^ 

439 

•6 

^ 

^ 

^ 

527 

•7 

^ 

^ 

^ 

616 

•8 

^ 

^ 

^ 

705 

•9 

V* 

^ 

** 

795 

1  inch  = 

=  29  inch 

^ 

^ 

885 

2  inches = 

=  28 

^ 

_ 

^ 

1802 

3   „   = 

:-27 

^ 

^ 

*» 

2752 

4   ^   = 

=26 

^ 

« 

3738 

This  instrument  is  thus  a  correct  mea- 
surer of  the  altitudes  of  places  ;  and  on 
whatever  farm  observations  of  the  mean 
height  of  the  mercury  are  taken,  its  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  maybe  correctly 
ascertained  by  reference  to  the  above 
table. 

87.  No  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
■words  fair,  change,  rain,  commonly  en- 
graved on  barometers,  since  the  mean 
elevation  of  the  mercury,  in  any  place, 
indicates  the  usual   state  of  the  weather 


at  that  place,  w^hafever  be  its  relative 
elevation  or  depression  to  other  places, 
so  that  the  indications  of  the  weather,  as 
given  by  the  barometer,  are  to  be  looked 
for  in  its  changes  and  not  in  its  actual 
height. 

88.  The  cost  of  an  upright  barometer,  of 
good  workmaushii?,  is  from  £1,  1  Is.  6d.  to 
^2,  1 2s.  6d. ;  and  that  of  a  wheel-barome- 
ter from  £2,  2s.  to  £'5,  5s.  The  barome- 
ter was  invented  in  Italy  by  Torricelli,  a 
pupil  of  Galileo,  in  1643. 


S4 


INITIATION. 


89.  Sympiesometer. — The  sympiesome- 
ter  was  invented  by  Mr  Adie,  oi)tician  in 
Edinburgh, andanswers  asiniilarpiiriiose  to 
the  barometer.  Its  cfl'ects  are  more  deli- 
cate, being  indicated  on  a  longer  scale. 
For  the  measurement  of  lieiglits  tliis  instru- 
ment is  convenient,  its  small  size  admitting. 
its  being  carried  in  tiie  coat-pocket,  and 
not  being  subject  to  tiie  same  chances  of 
accident  as  the  portable  barometer.  The 
height  is  given  in  fathoms  on  the  instru- 
ment, requiring  only  one  correction,  wiiich 
is  performed  by  a  small  table  engraA'ed  on 
the  case.  It  is  stated  to  be  delicately  sen- 
sible of  changes  at  sea,  particularly  of  gales. 
Not  being  brought  into  general  use,  though 
Professor  Forbes  is  of  opinion  it  might  be,  I 
need  not  allude  to  it  farther  here.* 

90.  Siiching-Pump. — The  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  explains  the  action  of  the 
common  sucking-pump.  The  plunger,  by 
its  upward  movement,  withdraws  the  air 
from  the  chamber  of  the  pump,  and  the  air, 
pressing  on  the  water  in  the  well,  causes  it 
to  rise  and  fill  the  chamber  vacated  by  the 
air.  The  air  cannot  force  the  water  higher 
than  33*87  feet.  The  force-pump  acts 
both  by  the  elasticity  and  pressure  of  the 
air.  The  pressure  causes  the  water  to  be 
lifted  to  a  height  not  exceeding  33  feet,  but 
the  elastic  force  of  the  air  in  the  condenser 
of  the  force  pump  causes  tlie  water  to  rise 
from  it  to  a  very  considerable  height.  It  is 
on  this  jirinciple  that  the  fire-engine  causes 
the  water  to  rise  to  the  roofs  of  houses. 

91.  Stomach- Pump.  —  The  stomach- 
pump  acts  as  a  common  pump  in  with- 
drawing any  liquid  from  the  stomach,  and 
as  a  condensing  syringe  in  injecting  any 
liquid  into  it.  This  is  a  useful  instnuncnt 
in  relieving  some  of  the  complaints  of  live 
stock. 

92.  Siphon. — The  siphon  o])erates  by 
the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  is  useful  in 
withdrawing  liquids  in  a  quiescent  state 
from  one  vessel  into  another.  Water  from 
a  quarry  may  sometimes  be  removed 
better  by  the  siphon  than  any  other  means. 
The  efficiency  of  this  instrument  depends 
on  the  greater  dilierence  of  length  of  its 
two  limbs. 


93.  Whul. — Wind  is  occasioned  by  a 
change  in  the  density  of  the  atmosphere; 
tlie  denser  portion  moving  to  occupy  the 
space  left  by  the  rarefied.  The  density 
of  the  atmosphere  is  chiefly  afiected  by 
the  sun's  heat  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  earth  in  the  tropics  to  a  great  degree, 
and  the  heated  earth,  in  its  turn,  rarefies 
the  air  above  it  by  radiation.  Tiie  air,  on 
being  rarefied,  rises,  and  is  replaced  by 
cold  currents  from  either  pole,  and  these 
currents  being  constant  constitute  the  well- 
known  and  useful  trade-tcinds.  The  great 
continent  of  Asia  is  heated  in  summer,  and 
the  cool  air  of  the  Indian  seas  moves  north 
to  occupy  the  disj^laced  air  abo^•e  the  conti- 
nent. In  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  the  water 
of  this  ocean,  together  with  the  land  in  the 
same  latitude,  are  heated  in  like  manner, 
and  the  cool  currents  from  the  great  conti- 
nent move  south  to  replace  the  air  rarefied 
by  them,  and  these  two  currents  constitute 
the  half-yearly  monsoons. 

94.  The  air  over  the  entire  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  ocean  is  rarefied  during  the 
day,  and  condensed  in  the  night,  and  these 
two  dillerent  states  of  the  air  give  rise  to 
the  daily  land  and  sea  breezes. 

95.  Weather-cock. — The  direction  of  the 
wind  is  best  indicated  by  the  wind-vane  or 
weather-cock,  a  very  useful  instrument  to 
the  farmer.  It  should  be  erected  on  a 
conspicuous  part  of  the  steading,  that 
it  may  be  readily  observed  from  one  of 
the  windows  of  the  farm-house.  Its  posi- 
tion on  the  steading  may  be  seen  in  the 
isometrical  elevation  of  that  structure. 
The  cardinal  points  of  the  compass  should 
be  marked  with  the  letters  N.  E.  S.  W. 
The  vane  should  be  provided  with  a  ball 
or  box  containing  oil,  which  may  be  re- 
newed when  reipiired.  There  is  no  neater 
or  more  approj)riate  form  for  a  vane  than 
an  arrow,  whose  dart  is  alwavs  ready  to 
]>iercc  the  wind,  and  whose  butt  serves  as 
a  governor  to  direct  it  into  the  wind's  eye. 
The  whole  apiniratus  should  be  gilt,  to  pre- 
vent rusting. 

96.  Mr  Forster  had  such  a  vane  erected 
at  his  place  of  residence,  whicli  had  a 
small  bell  suspended  from  the  dart  which 


•  See  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  x.  p.  334,  for  a  description  of  this  ingenious  instrument ; 
and  New  Series,  vol.  iv.  pp.  91  and  329. 

Lilsrary 

N.  C.  State  Collep^n 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


25 


struck  upon  the  arms  bearing  the  letters 
of  the  compass,  announcing  every  change 
of  wind.*  Such  a.  contrivance  may  be 
considered  a  conceit,  but  it  has  the  advan- 
tage of  letting  you  know  when  the  wind 
shifts  much  about;  and  when  it  does, 
there  is  as  little  chance  of  settled  weather 
as  in  frequent  changes  of  the  barometer. 
A  better  contrivance  would  be  to  have  a 
hammer  suspended  from  the  dart  by  a 
supple  spring,  and  a  bell  of  a  different 
tone  attached  to  each  of  the  arms,  indi- 
cating the  cardinal  points ;  and  when  diffe- 
rent bells  were  struck,  their  tone  would 
announce  the  direction  in  which  the  wind 
most  prevailed.  There  is  an  ingenious 
contrivance  for  indicating  the  directions  of 
the  wind  by  an  index  on  a  vertical  disc, 
like  the  dial-plate  of  a  clock;  a  public 
example  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  west- 
ern tower  of  the  Register-House  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  a  private  one  in  the  entrance 
ball  of  Cassiobary  House  in  Hertfordshire, 
belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Essex.  This 
latter  method  is  a  very  convenient  one  of 
fitting  up  a  weather-cock. 

97.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the 
name  of  weather-cock,  Beckmann  says, 
that  vanes  were  originally  cut  out  in  the 
form  of  a  cock,  and  placed  on  the  tops  of 
church  spires,  during  the  holy  ages,  as  an 
emblem  of  clerical  vigilance.t  The  Ger- 
mans use  the  same  term  as  we  do,  wetter- 
halm  ;  and  the  French  have  a  somewhat 
analogous  term  in  coq  de  docker.  As  the 
vane  turns  round  with  every  wind,  so,  in 
amoral  sense,  every  man  who  is  "  unstable 
in  his  ways"  is  termed  a  weather-cock. 

98.  A  nemometer.—The  force  of  the  wind 
is  measured  by  an  instrument  called  the 
anemometer,  or  measurer  of  the  wind's  in- 
tensity. Such  an  instrument  is  of  little 
value  to  the  farmer,  who  is  more  interested 
in  knowing  the  direction  than  the  intensity 
of  the  wind,  as  it  has  great  eftect  on  the 
weather.  The  intensity  of  the  wind  has, 
however,  a  material  effect  in  modifying  the 
climate  of  any  locality,  such  as  that  of  a  farm 
elevated  upon  the  gorge  of  a  mountain  pass. 
Still,  even  there  ils  direction  has  more  to 
do  in  fixing  the  character  of  the  climate 


than  the  intensity ;  besides,  the  anemome- 
ter indicates  no  aj^proach  of  wind,  but 
only  measures  its  force  when  it  blows,  and 
its  strength  can  be  sufficiently  well  appre- 
ciated by  the  senses.  The  mean  force  of 
the  wind  for  the  whole  year  at  9  a.m.  is 
0-855,  at  3  p.m.  1-107,  and  9  p.m.  0-605; 
so  that  the  wind  is  most  active  in  tlie  day, 
when  the  temperature  is  highest,  an  effect 
which  might  be  anticipated  on  knowing  the 
cause  of  the  air  being  moved  in  currents. 

99.  The  best  instrument  of  this  class  is 
Lind's  anemometer,  which,  although  con- 
sidered an  imperfect  one,  is  not  so  imper- 
fect, according  to  the  opinion  of  Sir  William 
Snow  Harris^of  Plymouth,  who  has  paid 
more  attention  to  the  movements  of  the 
wind  than  any  one  else  in  this  country,  aa 
is  generally  supposed ;  but  as  it  is  an  in- 
strument of  no  use  to  the  farmer,  I  need 
not  describe  it. J 

100.  Ventilation.— -The  principle  of 
A-entilation,  whether  natural  or  artificial, 
lies  in  a  change  of  the  density  of  the  air. 
"  We  may  be  filled  with  admiration," 
says  Dr  Arnott,  "  on  discovering  how  per- 
fectly the  simple  fact  of  a  lighter  fluid 
rising  in  a  heavier,  provides  a  constantly 
renewed  supply  of  fresh  air  to  our  fires, 
which  su])ply  we  should  else  have  to  fur- 
nish by  tiie  unremitted  action  of  some 
expensive  blowing  apparatus  ;  but  the 
operation  of  the  law  is  still  more  admirable 
as  respects  the  supply  of  the  same  vital 
fluid  to  breathing  creatures.  The  air 
which  a  man  has  once  respired  becomes 
poison  to  him  ;  but  because  the  temperature 
of  his  body  is  generally  higher  than  that  of 
the  atmosphere  around  him,  as  soon  as  he 
has  discharged  any  air  from  the  lungs,  it 
ascends  away  from  him  into  the  great 
purifying  laboratory  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  new  takes  its  place.  No  act  or  labour 
of  his,  as  by  using  fans  and  punkas,  could 
have  done  half  so  well  what  this  simple 
law  unceasingly  and  invisiblyaccomplishes, 
without  eflortor  attention  on  his  part,  and 
in  his  sleeping  as  well  as  in  his  waking 
hours."§  This  process  of  natural  ventila- 
tion necessarily  goes  on  in  every  stable 
and  byre;  and  were  the  simple  law  allowed 


*  Forster's  Researches  into  Atmospherical  Phenomena,  p.  203. 

+  Beckmann's  i?is«o)-i/ o/ /«mif  Jons,  vol.  i.  ,   t.         ,        j-         .     ^ 

^  A  .'ood  account  of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopsedia,  art.  Anemometer. 

§  Aruott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.  i.  p.  412— Pneumatics. 


INITIATION. 


to  take  its  course,  by  ginng  the  heated  and 
vitiated  air  an  opportunity  to  escape  by 
the  roof,  and  the  fresh  air  to  enter  by  a 
lower  jioint,  the  animals  inhabiting  those 
dwellings  would  be  much  more  comfort- 
ably situated  than  they  usually  are. 

101.  ''In  proportion  as  air  is  higher 
removed  above  the  surface  of  the  earth," 
observes  Mr  Hugo  Reid,  "  its  temperature 
sinks.  This  is  owing  to  the  following 
peculiar  relation  which  aeroids,  in  their  de- 
grees of  density,  bear  to  heat — namely,  that 
more  heat  is  required  to  warm  an  aeroid  in 
proportion  as  it  is  rare.  Hence,  equal  por- 
tions of  heat  produce  more  heating  effect 
on  air  the  denser  it  is,  and  the  lower  strata 
are  therefore  warm  ;  while  the  temperature 
sinks  as  the  elevation  is  greater,  and  at  a 
certain  height, — higher  in  [troportion  as 
we  approach  the  equator, — perpetual  frost 
reigns.  It  is  said  that  the  temperature 
sinks  1  degree  Fahrenheit  for  every  eleva- 
tion of  352  feet.  But  this  varies  a  little 
with  the  season,  and  very  considerably 
with  the  latitude ;  it  is  near  the  proportion 
in  the  temperate  zones."  Hence  elevation 
affects  the  local  climate  of  every  farm. 
In  connexion  with  this  subject,  it  is  found 
that  all  liquids  boil  at  a  lower  temperature 
according  as  the  pressure  upon  them  is  less. 
*'  Water  boils  about  1  degree  Fahrenheit 
lower  for  every  530  feet  of  ascent,  or  lower 
by  r76  degree  for  every  inch  of  the  baro- 
meter."* Since  it  gives  more  trouble  to 
carry  fuel  to  a  high  farm,  it  thus  appears 
it  may  bo  more  economically  used  in  cook- 
ing our  food  than  at  a  lower  one. 

102.  Hydrostatics. — These  treat  of  the 
laws  which  govern  the  we\(fht  of  fluids. 
The  application  of  the  physical  [)ressure  of 
fluids  to  the  purposes  of  domestic  economy 
and  the  wants  of  civilised  life  are  extremely 
important,  and  afford  some  valuable  objects 
of  study  to  the  mechanic  and  engineer,  and 
wi^h  many  of  these  it  would  be  the  inte- 
rest of  farmers  to  become  acquainted. 

103.  Fluids  arc  subject  to  the  operation 
of  gravity.  A  cubic  foot  of  pure  water 
weighs  1000  ounces,  or  62|  lbs.,  and  an 
English  pint  about  1  lb. 

104.  Water  in  a  vessel  exerts  a  twofold 


pressure,  on  the  base  and  on  the  sides  of 
the  vessel.  The  pressure  on  the  base  is  in 
the  direction  of  gravity.  Suppose  that 
the  height  of  water  is  measured  by  100 
drops  arranged  one  above  the  other,  the 
lowest  drop  will  exert  on  the  base  a  pres- 
sure equal  to  the  weight  of  the  100  drops. 
Of  two  vessels  having  the  same  base  and 
height,  the  pressure  of  water  on  tlie  base 
will  be  the  same  whatever  ouantitv  of 
water  either  may  contain. 

105.  Every  drop  touching  the  iuU  of  a 
vessel  presses  laterally  on  the  point  of 
contact  with  a  force  equal  to  the  weight 
of  all  the  drops  above  it  to  the  surface  of 
the  fluid.  The  lateral  pressure  of  water 
thus  varies  as  its  depth. 

106.  Bodies  immersed  in  water  are 
pressed  by  it  in  all  directions  with  a  force 
increasing  as  the  depth. 

107.  Water  being  almost  incompressible, 
any  pressure  exerted  against  its  upper  sur- 
face isimmediatelycommunicated  through- 
out the  entire  mass.  Bramah's  hydraulic 
press,  for  comi)ressing  hay  and  other  elastic 
substances,  and  for  uprooting  trees,  is  a 
practical  application  of  this  [irinciple.  If 
the  cylinder  of  the  force-pump  is  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  that  of  the  press  20 
inches,  the  water  will  exert  a  pressure  on 
the  piston  of  the  ram  40  times  that  on  the 
force-pump.  If  the  arms  of  the  lever  ai'e 
as  1  to  50,  and  that  of  the  force-pump  is 
worked  by  a  man  with  a  force  of  50  lbs., 
the  piston  of  the  punij)  will  descend  with  a 
force  of  2500  lbs.,  and  the  ram  will  rise 
wuth  one  of  100,000  lbs. 

108.  Hydraulics.  —  Hydraulics  treat 
of  the  laws  which  govern  the  motion  of 
fluids.  If  two  vessels  communicate  with 
each  other,  and  the  height  at  which  the 
water  stands  in  the  one  exceeds  the  height 
of  the  other,  then  the  water  will  overflow 
the  second  vessel  until  there  remains  as 
much  water  in  the  first  as  its  height  shall 
be  equal  to  the  height  of  the  second.  It  is 
on  this  principle  that  water  is  supplied 
from  reservoirs  and  cisterns  to  towns  and 
villages,  and  farm-steads,  and  that  it  rises 
from  springs  ;it  a  higher  level  into  wells, 
whether  of  the  common  or  Artesian  form. 


Reid's  Pneumatics,  p.  1 1 !)  and  p.  82. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


27 


109.  The  velocity  of  water  issuing  from 
an  orifice  is  as  the  square  root  of  its  alti- 
tude. Thus,  calling  the  velocity  issuing 
1  foot  below  the  surface  1  ;  that  escaping 
from  a  similar  orifice  4  feet  below  the 
level,  will  be  2  ;  at  9  feet,  3  ;  at  16  feet, 
4  ;  and  so  on.  From  this  we  learn,  that  of 
water  issuing  from  two  similar  vessels,  it 
will  issue,  from  similar  orifices,  from  the 
one  kept  constantly  full,  twice  as  fast  as 
from  the  other.  A  short  tube  will  assist 
the  issue  of  water  from  an  orifice  to  the 
extent  of  half  as  much  more. 

110.  "The  friction  or  resistance  which 
fluids  suffer  in  passing  along />i/'es,"  says 
Dr  Arnott,  "  is  much  greater  than  might 
be  expected.  It  depends  chiefly  upon  the 
particles  near  the  outside  being  constantly 
driven  from  their  true  course  by  the  ir- 
regularities in  the  surface  of  the  pipe.  An 
inch  tube  of  200  feet  in  length,  placed 
horizontally,  is  found  to  discharge  only  a 
fourth  part  of  the  water  which  escapes  by 
a  simple  aperture  of  an  inch  ;  and  air  pass- 
ing along  tubes  is  so  much  retarded,  that  a 
person  who  erected  a  great  bellovvs  at  a 
waterfall,  to  blow  a  furnace  two  miles  oflf, 
found  that  his  apparatus  was  totally  use- 
less. Higher  temperature  in  a  liquid 
increases  remarkably  the  quantity  dis- 
charged by  an  orifice  or  pipe,  apparently 
by  diminishing  that  cohesion  of  the  par- 
ticles which  exists  in  certain  degrees  in  all 
liquids,  and  aflects  so  much  their  internal 
movements."  *  The  simplest  way  of  ascer- 
taining the  discharge  of  water  from  an 
orifice,  such  as  a  pipe  or  duct  of  a  drain,  is 
to  measure  the  quantity  discharged  in  a 
given  time. 

111.  Water-ram.— li  has  been  long 
observed  that,  when  a  cock  at  the  end  of  a 
pipe  is  suddenly  stopped  when  water  is  issu- 
ing out  of  it,  that  a  shock  and  noise  are 
produced.  A  leaden  pipe,  even  of  great 
length,  is  often  widened  or  burst  in  this 
way.  Lately,  the  forward  pressure  of  an 
arrested  stream  has  been  used  as  a  force 
for  raising  water,  and  the  a]>paratus  has 
been  called  a  water-ram.  The  ram  may 
be  described  as  a  sloping-pipe  in  which 
the  stream  runs,  having  a  valve  at  its  lower 
end,  to  be  shut  at  intervals,  and  a  small 
tube  risin;;  from  near  that  end  towards  a 


reservoir  above,  to  receive  a  portion  of  the 
water  at  each  interruption  of  the  stream. 
Water  allowed  to  run  for  one  second  in  a 
pipe  10  yards  long,  2  inches  wide,   and 
sloping  6  feet,  acquires  momentum  enough 
to  drive  about  half-a-pint,  on  the  shutting 
of  the  cock,  into  a  tube  leading  to  a  reser- 
voir 40   feet  high.     Such  an    apparatus, 
therefore,  with  the  valve  shutting  every 
second,  raises  about    60   half-pints  or  4 
gallons  in  a  minute.     The  valve  is  ingeni- 
ously contrived  so  that  the  stream  works 
it  as  desired.     The  action  of  the  ram  may 
be  compared  to  the  beating  of  an  animal's 
pulse.     The  upright  tube  is  usually  made 
wider  at  the  bottom,  where  it  first  receives 
the  water,  so  as  to  constitute  there  an  air- 
vessel,  which,bytheair's  elasticity,  converts 
the  interrupted  jetsfirst received  into  nearly 
a  uniform  current  towards  the  reservoir. 
The  supply  of  air  to  this  vessel  ismaintained 
by  the  contrivance  called  a  snijing  valve. 

112.  The  efiect  produced  by  moving 
water  depends  on  the  quantity  of  water 
that  strikes  in  one  minute  of  time  against 
the  surface  of  the  opposing  body,  and  on 
the  velocity  with  which  the  collision  takes 
place.  If  the  collision  happens  in  a  direc- 
tion vertical  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  its 
efiect  is  equal  to  the  pressure  of  a  column 
of  water,  having  for  its  base  the  surface 
impinged  on,  and  an  altitude  equal  to  that 
of  the  column  which  generates  the  velocity 
of  the  stream.  If  the  water  impinges 
obliquely  on  the  surface,  the  force  may  be 
resolved  into  two  others— one  parallel  to 
the  side  of  the  body,  and  the  other  per- 
pendicular to  it.  The  latter  alone  is  eflec- 
tive,  and  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  incidence.  From  this 
law  we  learn  to  calculate  the  amount  ol 
resistance  required  in  an  embankment 
atrainst  the  force  of  a  stream. 

113.  Water-wheels. — The  motive  power 
of  water  is  usefully  applied  to  drive  ma- 
chinery by  means  of  water-wheels.  When 
water-power  can  be  obtained  to  drive  the 
thrashing  machine,  or  other  fixedmachinery 
of  a  farm,  an  immense  advantage  is  gained 
over  the  employment  of  horses.  It  is 
found  that  water-power,  in  the  thrashing 
of  grain  alone,  saves  the  work  of  one  pair 
of  horses  out  of  every  five  pairs.    Any  form 


*  Arnott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.  i.  p.  i33— Hydraulics. 


28 


INITIATION. 


of  water-wheel,  therefore,  is  more  econo- 
mical than  horses.  When  a  wheel  with 
float-hoards  merely  di|>s  its  lower  part  into 
the  stream  of  water,  and  is  driven  by  its 
momentum — that  is,  both  by  the  bulk  and 
velocity  of  the  water — it  is  called  an  uuder- 
s/iot  wheel.  Tiiis  wheel  is  emjiloyed  in 
low  falls  with  large  quantities  of  water. 
AVhen  the  water  reaches  the  wheel  near 
the  middle  of  its  height,  and  turns  it  by 
falling  on  the  float-boards  of  one  side 
as  they  sweep  downwards  in  a  curved 
trough  fitting  them,  the  modification  is 
called  a  i/r«A'^ -wheel.  This  form  is  em- 
ployed in  moderate  falls  commanding  a 
large  supply  of  water.  When  the  float- 
boards  are  shut  in  by  flat  sides,  so  as  to 
become  the  bottoms  of  a  circle  of  cavities  or 
buckets  surrounding  the  wheel,  into  which 
the  water  is  allowed  to  fall  at  the  top  of 
the  wheel,  and  to  act  by  its  weight  instead 
of  its  momentum  ;  the  modification  is  called 
the  orershot  wheel.  This  form  requires 
a  high  fall,  but  comparatively  a  small  sup- 
ply of  water,  and  is  most  desired  when 
circumstances  will  permit  its  adoption. 
To  have  a  maximum  of  eflect  from  under- 
shot wheels,they  are  generally  made  to  turn 
with  a  velocity  about  one-third  as  great  as 
that  of  the  water ;  and  overshot-wheels 
usually  have  their  circumference  turning 
with  a  velocity  of  about  3  feet  per  second. 

114.  The  resistance  between  a  meeting 
solid  and  fluid  is  nearly  proportioned  to  the 
extent  of  surface  opposed  by  it  to  the  fluid  ; 
hence  large  bodies,  because  containing 
more  matter  in  proportion  to  their  surface, 
are  less  resisted,  in  jiroportion  to  their 
weight,  than  small  bodies  of  similar  form. 
This  law  explains  how,  by  means  of  air 
or  water,  bodies  of  different  specific  gra- 
vities, although  mixed  ever  so  intimately, 
may  be  easily  separated.  Thus,  when  a 
mixture  of  corn  and  chaff",  as  it  comes 
from  the  thrashing-machine,  is  showered 
down  from  the  sieves  in  a  current  of  air, 
the  chaft',  in  being  longer  of  falling,  is 
carried  further  by  the  wind,  while  the 
heavier  corn  falls  almost  j>erpendicularly. 
The  farmer,  therefore,  by  icinuoiciiiij  in 
either  a  natural  or  artificial  current  of  air, 
readily  separates  the  chaff"  from  the  grain, 
and  even  divides  the  grain  itself  into 
portions  of  different  quality, 

115.  Friction  oficatcr. — Friction  afi(ects 


the  motion  of  streams  of  water  very  sen- 
sibly. The  velocity  of  a  stream  is  greater 
at  the  surface  than  at  the  bottom,  in  the 
middle  than  at  the  sides  ;  and  the  water  is 
higher  along  the  middle  than  at  the  sides. 
But  for  the  retarding  power  of  friction,  the 
water  in  open  channels  and  ditches  would 
acquire  so  great  a  momentum  as  to  destroy 
their  sides,  and  to  overflow  them  at  every 
bending,  llivers  issuing  from  a  high  source, 
but  for  friction,  and  the  eflect  of  bending, 
"Would  pour  down  their  waters  with  irresis- 
tible velocity  at  the  rate  of  ma»y  miles  per 
hour.  As  it  is,  the  ordinary  flow  of  rivers 
is  about  3  miles  per  hour,  and  their  chan- 
nels slope  3  or  4  feet  per  mile. 

116.  Velocity  of  streams. — To  measure 
the  velocity  of  a  stream  at  the  surface, 
hollow  floating  bodies  are  used,  and  the 
space  they  pass  over  in  a  given  time — one 
minute — is  observed  by  the  watch.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  true  velocity 
of  an  irregular  stream.  To  learn  what 
quantity  of  water  flows  in  a  stream,  its 
breadth  and  depth  are  first  measured  at 
various  places  to  obtain  a  mean  of  "both ; 
and  the  sum  of  these  constituting  the 
section  of  the  stream  is  then  multiplied  by 
the  velocity,  and  the  product  gives  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

117.  Horse-povrer  of  wafer. — It  may 
be  useful  to  know  the  rule  for  calculating 
the  number  of  horse-power  any  stream 
may  exert  if  employed  as  a  motive  power. 
It  is  this: — multiply  the  specific  gravity 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  62,';  lbs.,  by  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  flowing  in  the  stream 
per  minute,  as  ascertained  by  the  preced- 
ing process,  and  this  product  by  the 
number  of  feet  in  the  fall,  and,  cutting  oEf 
the  three  figures  on  the  right  hand,  divide 
by  44,  and  the  product  is  the  answer. 

Tim?, — Multiply  the  number  of  cubic 
feet    flowing:  per    luiiiute    in    the 
stre.im,  suppose —       ....        350 
Bv    the    weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of- 
water,  62i  lbs.      -        -        -        -  62^ 

175 

700 

210Q_ 

21,b75 

And  then  multiply  the  product  by  the 

number  of  feet  of  fall,  available, 

suppose,       .....        - 12 

262,500 
Strike  off  the  three  figures  on  the 
right  band,  .... 


500 


Divide  the  remainder  by        -        -    44)2';2(6     ■} 
And  the  quotient  6,  gives  the  number  of  horse-power. 


hone- 
power. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  aGKICULTURE. 


29 


118.  Spccijic  Gravity. — The  specific 
gravity  of  bodies  is  the  proportion  sub- 
sisting between  their  absolute  weights 
in  air  having  equal  bulks,  and  their 
weights  in  water.  It  is  consequently 
fouud  by  dividing  the  body's  absolute 
weight  by  the  weight  it  loses  in  water. 

lU*.  It  may  be  useful  to  mention  the 
specific  gravities  of  a  few  common  and 
useful  things ;  distilled  water  being  con- 
sidered as  1-000 : — 

1.0013 
1.0-27 
1.656 
1.48 
1.92 
2.0-2 
2.05 
2.07 
2.15 
2.48 
2.542 
2.741 
1.842 
to       3.1 

2.66 
<,  2.72 
2.6 
2.75 
2.5 
2.62 
1.86 
7.788 


Of  Rain-water 

Sea-water 

Beef  bones 

Common  earth 

Rough  sand 

Earth  and  gravel 

Moist  sand 

Gravelly  sand 

Clay 

Clay  and  gravel 

Flint,  dark 

Do.  white 

Lime,  unslaked       . 

BasaJt,  whinstone 

Granite 

Limestone 

Porphyry 

Quartz 

Sandstones,  (mean) 

Stones  for  building 

Brick 

Iron,  wrought 

Lead,  flattened 

Zinc,  rolled 

Rock  salt 


Alder    . 

Ash 

Aspen    . 

Birch     . 

Elm 

Horse-chestnut 

Larch 

Lime 

Oak       . 

Spruce 
Scots  fir 
Poplar,  Italian 
Willow 


2.8 
2.5 

2.64 
2.4 
2.56 
2.2 
1.66 
1.41 
7.-207 
11.388 
7.191 
2.257 


Fresh-felled. 
0.8571 
0.9036 
0.7654 
0.9012 
0.9476 
0.8614 
0.9-206 
0.8170 
1.0754 
1.0494 
0.8699 
0.9121 
0.7634 
0.7155 


Drv. 

0.5001 
0.6440 
0.4302 
0.6274 
0.5474 
0.5749 
0.4736 
0.4390 
0.7075 
0.6777 
0.4716 
0.5502 
0.3931 
0.5289 ' 


120.  Electricity, 
agency,  or  power,  or, 


-The  electric  fluid, 
in  one  word,  elec- 
tricity, having  so  obvious  an  influence  on 
external  nature,  necessarily  arrests  the 
attention  of  those  whose  occupation  engages 
them  chiefly  in  the  open  air.  This  mys- 
terious because  subtle  agent  is  commonly 


spoTcen  of  as  a  fluid  ;  but,  as  Dr  Bird  re- 
marks, though  frequently  called  so,  it  has 
little  claim  to  the  designation.  In  using  it, 
therefore,  let  it  be  always  understood  in 
a  conventional  sense,  not  as  expressing 
any  theoretical  view  of  the  physical  state 
of  electric  matter. 

121.  Electric  matter  is  universally 
present  in  nature.  This  is  proved  not 
only  by  its  being  set  free  by  friction,  but 
by  almost  every  form  of  mechanical  change 
to  which  any  substance  can  be  submitted, 
mere  pressure  being  quite  sufticientfor  the 
purpose.  It  is  in  a  latent  state,  in  a  state 
of  quiescence  and  equilibrium ;  but  this 
equilibrium  is  very  easily  disturbed,  and 
then  a  series  of  actions  supervenes,  which 
continues  until  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

122.  It  has  been  found  that  certain 
bodies  possess  the  property  of  conducting 
electricity,  whilst  others  are  incapable  of 
conducting  this  form  of  matter  however 
subtle.  'On  this  account,  bodies  have  been 
divided  into  two  great  groups — conductors 
and  non-conductors  of  electricity ;  the 
former,  such  as  metals,  being  termed 
analectrics.,  because  they  cannot  produce 
sensible  electricity  ;  and  the  latter,  such  as 
wax  or  glass,  are  termed  idio-electric,  be- 
cause they  can. 

123.  Electricity,  in  its  natural  and  com- 
pound state  of  positive  and  negative  com- 
bined, appears  to  be  difiused  equally 
throughout  any  given  mass  of  matter;  but 
when  decomposed  and  separated  into  its 
component  elements,  each  of  the  fluids  is 
confined  to  the  surface  of  the  substance  in 
which  it  has  been  set  free,  in  the  form  of  an 
exceedingly  thin  layer,  not  penetrating 
sensibly  into  the  substance  of  the  mass.f 

124.  The  atmospliere  is  the  part  in 
which  the  electricity,  liberated  by  various 
processes,  accumulates ;  it  constitutes,  in 
fact,  the  great  reservoir  of  sensible  elec- 
tricity, our  solid  earth  being  rather  the 
field  in  which  this  mighty  power  is  again 
collected  and  neutralised.  Sensibly,  elec- 
tricity is  found  in  the  atmosphere  at  all 
times  and  in  every  state,  but  varies  both 
in  kind  and  intensity.     It  owes  its  origin 


*  Peschel's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.i.  p.  151-187. 
"I"  Bird's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,  p.  16-2-177. 


so 


INITIATION. 


to  many  different  causes,  no  perfect  satis- 
factory exj)lanati(>n  of  which  has  yet  been 
offered.  The  principal  causes  of  electrical 
excitement  with  which  we  are  acquainted 
are  the  friction  and  contact  of  hetero- 
geneous substances,  change  of  temperature, 
the  vital  process,  tlie  functions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  pressure  and  rupture  of  bodies, 
niai^netism  —  and  philosopiiers  are  not 
unanimous  as  to  whether  chemical  action, 
♦  and  a  change  in  the  aggregate  form  of 
matter,  are  capable  of  exciting  electricity. 
The  ordinary  means  of  excitation  employed 
SLTG/riction,  contact,  heat,  and  magnetism. 

125.  Two  of  the  most  natural  sources 
of  electricity  seem  to  be  vegetation  and 
evaporation.  Let  us  inquire  how  vei/etation 
produces  such  a  result.  M.  Pouillct  has 
proved,  by  direct  ex[>eriment,  that  the  com- 
bination of  oxygen  with  the  materials  of 
living  plants  is  a  constant  source  of  elec- 
tricity ;  and  the  amount  thus  disengaged 
may  be  learned  from  the  fact  that  a  surface 
of  lUO  square  metres,  (or  rather  more  than 
100  square  yards,)  in  full  vegetation,  dis- 
engages, in  the  course  of  one  day,  as  much 
vitreous  electricity  as  would  charge  a 
powerful  battery. 

1 26.  That  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  Sort  of  action  which  takes  place  be- 
tween the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  the 
materials  of  living  plants,  it  is  necessary 
to  attend,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  change 
produced  on  the  air  by  the  respiration  of 
plants.  Many  conflicting  opinions  still 
prevail  on  this  subject ;  but  "  there  is  no 
doubt,  however,  from  the  experiments  of 
various  philosophers,"  as  Mr  Hugo  lleid 
observes,  "  that  at  times  the  leaves  of 
plants  prcxluce  the  same  effect  on  the  at- 
mospliere  as  the  lungs  of  animals — namely, 
cause  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid,  by  giving  out  carbon  in  union 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which  is  thus 
converted  into  this  gas ;  and  it  has  been 
also  ostaI)lislie<l  that  at  certain  times  the 
leaves  of  plants  produce  a  very  opposite 
effect — namely,  that  they  decompose  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  retain  the  carbon, 
and  give  out  the  oxygen,  thus  adding  to 
the  quantity  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  It 
has  not  yet  been  precisely  ascertained 
which  of  these  goes  on  to  the  greater  ex- 


tent ;  but  the  general  opinion  at  present 
is,  that  the  gross  result  of  the  action  of 
plants  on  the  atmosphere  is  the  depriving 
it  of  carbonic  acid,  retaining  the  carbon, 
and  giving  out  the  oxygen,  thus  increasing 
the  quantity  of  free  oxygen  in  the  air."* 

127.  It  being  thus  admitted  that  both 
carbonic  gas  and  oxygen  are  exhaled  by 
plants  during  certain  times  of  the  day,  it 
is  important  to  ascertain,  in  the  next 
place,  whether  electricity  of  the  one  kind  or 
the  other  acconij>anies  the  disengagement 
of  either  gas.  Towards  this  inquiry  M. 
Pouillet  instituted  experiments  with  the 
gold-leaf  electroscope,  whilst  the  seeds  of 
various  plants  were  germinating  in  the 
soil ;  and  he  found  it  sensibly  affected  by 
the  7iegat'ice  state  of  the  ground.  This 
result  might  have  been  anticipated  during 
the  evolution  of  carbonic  gas ;  for  it  is 
known  by  experiment  that  carbonic  gas, 
obtained  from  the  combustion  of  charcoal, 
is,  in  its  nascent  state,  electrified /)os(^/Pt'/y, 
and,  of  course,  when  carbonic  gas  is 
evolved  from  the  plant,  the  ground  should 
be  in  a  state  of  negative  electricity.  M. 
Pouillet  presumed,  therefore,  that  when 
plants  evolve  oxygen,  the  ground  should 
be  in  a  ])ositive  state  of  electricity.  He 
was  thus  led  to  the  imj)ortant  conclusion, 
that  vegetation  is  an  abundant  source  of 
electricity ;  t  but  Peschel  observes,  that 
"  the  correctness  of  this  assumption,  on 
which  the  counter  experiments  of  Pfaff 
have  thrown  a  degree  of  doubt,  requires  a 
fuller  investigation  before  it  can  be  ad- 
mitted to  have  been  proved;"  but  else- 
where he  considers  that  "  Pouillet  has 
rendered  essential  service  to  this  branch  of 
science,  by  discovering  that  positive  elec- 
tricity is  given  out  from  plants  when  ger- 
minating." 

128.  Another  source  of  electricity  is 
evaporation.  The  fact  of  a  chemical  change 
in  water  by  heat  inducing  the  disengage- 
ment of  electricity,  may  be  proved  by 
simple  experiment.  It  is  well  known  that 
ini'c/ianical  action  will  produce  electricity 
sensibly  from  almost  any  substance.  If 
any  one  of  the  most  extensive  series  of 
resinous  and  siliceous  substances,  and  of 
dry  vegetable,  animal,  and  mineral  mat- 
ters, is  rubbed,  electricity  will  be  excited, 


Reid's  Chemistry  of  Nature,  p.  100. 


+  'Leithea.i  on  Electricity,  p.  150. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE, 


31 


and  the  extent  of  excitation  "will  be  shown 
by  the  effect  on  the  gold-leaf  electroscope. 
Chemical  action,  in  like  manner,  produces 
similar  effects.  If  sulphur  is  fused  and 
poured  into  a  conical  wine-glass,  it  will 
become  electrical  on  cooling,  and  affect  the 
electroscope  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
other  bodies  mechanically  excited.  Cho- 
colate on  congealing  after  cooling,  glacial 
phosphoric  acid  on  congealing,  and  calomel 
when  it  fixes  by  sublimation  to  the  upper 
part  of  a  glass  vessel,  all  give  out  elec- 
tricity; so,  in  like  manner,  the  condensa- 
tion as  well  as  the  evaporation  of  water, 
though  opposite  processes,  give  out  elec- 
tricity. Some  writers  attribute  these  elec- 
trical effects  to  what  they  term  a  change 
of  form  or  state ;  but  it  is  obvious  that 
they  may,  with  propriety,  be  included 
under  chemical  action.  This  view  is  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  of  the  presence  of 
oxygen  being  necessary  to  the  develop- 
ment of  electricity.  De  la  Eive,  in  bring- 
ing zinc  and  copper  in  contact  through 
moisture,  found  that  the  zinc  became 
oxidised,  and  electricity  was  evolved. 
When  he  prevented  the  oxidation,  by 
operating  in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen,  no 
electric  excitement  followed.  When, 
again,  he  increased  the  chemical  action  by 
exposing  zinc  to  acid,  or  by  substituting  a 
more  oxidable  metal,  such  as  potassium, 
the  electric  effects  were  greatly  increased. 
In  fact,  electrical  excitation  and  chemical 
action  were  observed  to  be  strictly  propor- 
tional to  each  other.  And  this  result  is 
quite  consistent  with,  and  is  corroborated 
by,  the  necessary  agency  of  oxygen  in 
evolving  electricity  from  vegetation.*  But 
more  than  all  this,  "electricity,"  as  Dr' 
Bird  intimates,  "is  not  only  evolved  dur- 
ing chemical  decomposition,  but  during 
chemical  combination ;  a  fact  first  an- 
nounced by  Becquerel.  The  truth  of  this 
statement  has  been  by  many  either  alto- 
gether denied,  or  limited  to  the  case  of  the 
combination  of  nitric  acid  with  alkalies. 
But  after  repeating  the  experiments  of 
Becquerel,  as  well  as  those  of  Pfaff,  Mohr, 
Dalk,  and  Jacobi,  I  am  convinced  that  an 
electric  current,  certainly  of  low  tension, 
is  really  evolved  during  the  combination 
of  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  nitric,  phos- 
phoric, and  acetic  acids,  with    the    fixed 


alkalies,  and  even  with  ammonia."  t  On 
this  subject  Peschel  observes,  that  "the 
indubitable  evidences  of  sensible  electricity 
which  attend  the  different  atmospheric 
deposits,  are  in  favour  of  the  aggregate 
conversion  of  aqueous  vapours  exerting 
a  considerable  influence  on  the  generation 
of  atmospheric  electricity.  Clarke  has 
even  tried  to  show  tliat  a  connexion  sub- 
sists between  the  variations  in  the  quantity 
of  vapours  and  electricity  in  the  air."  J 
Evaporation  being  a  process  continually 
going  on  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 
land,  lakes,  and  rivers,  at  all  degrees  of 
temperature,  the  result  of  its  action  must 
be  very  extensive.  But  /loic  the  disen- 
gagement of  electricity  is  produced — either 
by  the  action  of  oxygen  on  the  structure 
of  living  plants,  or  by  the  action  of  heat 
on  water — is  unknown,  and  will  perhaps 
ever  remain  a  secret  of  nature.  It  is  ^asy, 
however,  to  conceive  how  the  electricity 
produced  by  these  and  other  sources  must 
vary  in  different  climates,  reasons,  and 
localities,  and  at  different  heights  of  the 
atmosphere.  § 

129.  The  force  of  the  electrical  agency 
seems  to  be  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the 
energy  with  which  it  is  roused  into  action. 
Dr  Faraday  states,  that  one  grain  of 
water  "  will  require  an  electric  current  to 
be  continued  for  3f  minutes  of  time  to 
eflect  its  decomposition ;  which  current 
must  be  strong  enough  to  retain  a  platiua 
wire  T54  of  an  inch  in  thickness  red-hot 
in  the  air  during  the  whole  time.  .  .  . 
It  will  not  be  too  much  to  say,  that  this 
necessary  quantity  of  electricity  is  equal 
to  a  very  powerful  flash  of  lightning." 
When  it  is  remembered  that  the  fermenta- 
tion and  putrefaction  of  bodies  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  is  attended  with  the  de- 
composition of  water,  and  to  eflect  tliis,  so 
large  an  amount  of  electric  action  must  be 
excited,  we  can  easily  imagine  that  a 
very  large  amount  of  electric  rtiatter  is 
required  to  support  the  constant  wants  of 
nature. 

130.  The  brilliant  discoveries  of  Fara- 
day and  Forbes  have  identified  tlie  gal- 
vanic and  magnetic  forces  with  that  of 
electricity,  by  the  extraction  of  the  spark. 


Leithead  on  Electricity,  p.  9  and  10. 
Peschel's  Elements  of  Physics,  ill.  173-5. 


+  Bird's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,  p.  241. 
§  Forbes'  Report  on  Meteorology,  vi.  252. 


82 


INITIATION. 


It  is  extremely  probable  that  one  or  all  of 
these  agencies  are  at  work  at  once,  or  by 
turns,  to  produce  the  changes  continually 
taking  place  in  the  atniosijhere.  It  is 
hardly  possible  that  the  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding the  globe  like  a  thin  envelope, 
and  carried  ruund  with  it  in  its  diurnal 
and  annual  revolutions,  should  exhibit  so 
varied  a  series  of  pheuouieua  every  year, 
without  a  constantly  operating  disturbing 
cause;  and  none  are  so  likely  to  produce  a 
variety  of  ])henomeua  as  the  subtle  influ- 
ences of  all  tliose  agencies,  whose  nature 
and  origin  liave  hitherto  baffled  the  closest 
scrutiny.  It  is  quite  possible  that  they  all 
operate  together,  and  contribute  to  main- 
tain the  atmosphere  in  a  state  of  positive 
electricity,  and  the  earth's  surface  in  a 
state  of  negative  electricity.  As  the  air  is 
a  very  bad  conductor,  Kamtz  compares 
the  atmosphere  to  a  large  electrical  battery, 
whose  negative  coating  is  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  whose  positive  coating  is  formed 
by  the  upper  stratum  of  the  atmosphere. 

131.  "Wlieatstone  announced  his  impor- 
tant discovery  of  measuring  the  velocity 
of  the  electric  force,  to  the  Koyal  Institu- 
tion of  Londcjn  in  1835,  and  that  it  is 
288,000  miles  per  second. 

132.  Electrometer. — The  electrometer  is 
an  instrument  of  considerable  utility  to 
farmers ;  since  it  indicates,  with  a  great 
degree  of  delicacy,  the  existence  of  free 
electricity  in  the  air;  and  as  electricity 
cannot  exist  in  that  state  without  produc- 
ing some  sort  of  action,  it  is  satisfactory  to 
have  notice  of  its  presence,  that  its  effects, 
if  possible,  may  be  anticipated.  The  best 
eort  of  electrometer  is  the  ^'■condensing 
electroscope  :  "  it  consists  of  a  hollow  glass 
sphere  on  a  stand,  inclosing  through  its 
top  a  wide  glass  tube,  on  the  top  of  which 
is  affixed  a  flat  brass  caj),  and  from  the 
under  side  of  which  are  suspended  two 
slips  of  gold-leaf.  At  the  edge  of  the  flat 
braids  cap  is  screwed  a  circular  brass  plate  ; 
and  another  circular  brass  plate,  so  as  to 
be  parallel  to  the  first,  is  inserted  in  a  sup- 
port fixed  in  a  piece  of  wood  moving  in  a 
groove  of  the  stand  which  contains  the 
whole  apparatus.  This  is  a  very  delicate 
instrument,  and,  to  koep  it  in  order,  should 
be  kept  free  of  nioisturo  and  dust. 

133.  The  very  general   distribution   of 


the  electric  matter  through  eery  substance, 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  excited  into 
activity,  and  the  state  of  activity  it  dis- 
plays around  plants  in  a  state  of  healthy 
vegetation,  have  led  to  the  belief  that  were 
means  devised  to  direct  a  more  than  usual 
quantity  of  electric  matter  through  plants 
when  growing,  their  growth  might  be 
much  promoted.  It  was  conceived  that 
metallic  wires  might  be  so  placed  as  to 
convey  this  increased  quantity ;  and  ac- 
cordingly experiments  were  made  so  as  ^o 
direct  it  through  given  spaces  of  ground 
into  the  plants  growing  upon  them ;  and 
this  process  has  been  named  electro-culture. 
The  results  hitherto  have  been  contradic- 
tory, and  on  the  whole  discouraging  to 
future  experiment. 

134.  "  Electricity  seems  to  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  various  stages  of  the 
development  of  plants,"  says  Peschel. 
"  Thus  flashes  of  light  have  been  seen  to 
be  omitted  from  many  plants  in  full  flower 
soon  after  sunset  in  sultry  days.  It  has 
further  been  ascertained,  by  means  of  gal- 
vanometric  experiments,  that  electric  cur- 
rents are  generated  in  the  interior  of  their 
substance,  although  their  activity  is  but 
small ;  and  that  an  uninterrupted  develop- 
ment of  electricity  is  maintained  by  the 
exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, especially  during  the  germination  of 
the  bud ;  and,  indeed,  through  the  entire 
process  of  vegetation.  The  luminous  phe- 
nomena in  plants  have  been  most  diligently 
noticed  by  Zawadski,  who  observe<l  them 
to  happen  principally  in  orange-coloured 
fiovrers,{Culenilulaoj/7ci nails,  Tropa'alum, 
Liliiun  huUii/crum,  Toffetes  patiila  and 
erectile)  that  they  occurred  most  fre- 
quently in  the  months  of  July  and  August, 
and  tiiat  the  same  flower  discharged  a 
number  of  flashes  in  succession.  Dr 
Donne  has  performed  a  number  of  experi- 
ments in  the  course  of  his  investigations 
into  this  subject.  He  has  found  that  in 
many  fruits  the  current  runs  from  the  stem 
to  the  eye,  while  in  others  it  flows  in  an 
opposite  direction.  Blake,  who  has  esta- 
blished the  existence  of  these  currents  by 
similar  experiments,  thinks  ho  has  dis- 
covered that  they  run  from  the  stem  to  the 
surface  of  the  leaves ;  that  he  has  verified 
their  course  to  be  as  has  been  just  said,  by 
the  chemical  decomposition  they  eflfect; 
that  lastly,  the  leaf  itself  is  rendered  posi- 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


83 


tive,  and  the  ambient  air  negative."  *  It 
thus  appears  undoubted  that  a  connexion 
exists  between  a  certain  state  of  electricity 
and  vegetation,  but  how  best  to  promote 
the  results  of  the  connexion  seems  doubt- 
ful. 

135.  Electric  theory  of  vegetation. — 
An  anonymous  author  has  recently  pro- 
mulgated a  theory  of  vegetable  physio- 
logy, based  on  electricity  ;  and  as  that 
mysterious  agent,  without  doubt,  exercises 
a  great  influence  in  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  it  may  be  proper  to  state  this 
theory  shortly,  to  let  the  pupil  reflect  upon 
it,  whether  or  not  it  is  capable  of  explain- 
ing most  of  the  phenomena  connected  with 
agriculture,  and  which  the  author  is  san- 
guine enough  to  believe  that  it  does. 

136.  "  Electricity,"  says  this  author, 
"  has  always  been  considered  either  as  one 
or  two  fluids;  but  whether  the  former  or  the 
latter,  great  difference  of  opinion  has  always 
existed.  Dr  Franklin  was  the  author  of 
the  former  theory,  and  Dufay  and  Symmer, 
conjointly,  the  founders  of  the  latter.  I 
have  adopted  the  two-fluid  theory  —  not 
on  account  of  its  being,  in  any  case,  more 
simple;  but,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  not  only 
more  in  accordance  with  the  laws  and 
principles  of  the  science,  but  also  more 
consonant  with  established  agricultural 
facts.  Taking,  therefore,  the  theory  of 
two  fluids  called  the  positive  and  ne- 
gative, they  are  found  to  pervade  all 
matter ;  but,  being  generally  in  equal 
quantities,  they  are  inactive,  and  therefore 
not  recognised.  They  are,  however,  sepa- 
rated by  various  means,  and  then  become 
sensible."  The  means  of  disturbing  their 
equilibrium  is  by  the  presentation  of  points, 
vegetation,  fermentation,  putrefaction, 
combustion,  &c.,  and,  in  short,  by  any  case 
of  simple  decomposition. 

137.  "  One  undeviating  law  of  free  elec- 
tric fluid,"  he  goes  on  to  say,  "  is  its  pro- 
perty of  residing  only  on  the  surface  of 
all  matter.  Each  fluid  is  also  self-repul- 
sive, but  attracts  the  other ;  therefore 
when  a  sphere,  or  other  nearly  round  body, 
possesses  either,  of  the  fluids,  it  is  equally 
difi"used  over  its  surface,  and  if  it  con- 
tain an  equal  quantity  of  both,  it  is  the 


same ;  but  then  they  combine,  and  are 
latent  or  insensible.  Some  kinds  of  matter 
are  also  conductors  of  the  fluid,  and  other 
kinds  non-conductors — that  is,  it  will  move 
on  the  surface  of  some,  and  remain  sta- 
tionary on  others ;  but  with  respect  to  this 
quality,  much  depends  on  the  intensity  of 
the  fluid  as  well  as  peculiarity  of  matter. 
The  earth  is  called  a  conductor,  and  also 
the  great  reservoir  of  the  fluid ;  and,  con- 
sequently, it  is  supposed  to  be  the  source 
whence  it  is  all  drawn.  The  atmosphere, 
or  air  which  surrounds  the  earth,  is  of  an 
opposite  nature — it  is  a  non-conductor  of 
the  fluids ;  but  as  it  always  holds  moisture, 
which  is  a  conductor,  it  changes  its  pro- 
perties with  its  variation.  Now  it  is 
evident,  that  when  the  air  is  positively 
electrified,  and  always  contains  more  or 
less  moisture,  the  fluid  will  be  equally 
diff'used  among  the  particles  of  each ; 
and  therefore,  when  moisture  descends 
to  the  earth,  either  in  rain,  dew,  &c., 
it  will  carry  the  fluid  along  with  it. 
The  atmosphere  and  earth  being  in  contact 
at  all  times,  there  will  be  a  frequent  inter- 
change of  moisture  and  fluid ;  it  will  be 
communicated  from  the  former  to  the  latter 
by  induction,  and  the  contrary,  by  vegeta- 
tion and  evaporation If  the 

earth  be  positive,  the  water  it  contains 
will  be  so  likewise ;  and,  when  this  is  the 
case,  I  presume  it  will  pass  into  the  air  by 
evaporation,  and  will  thereby  exhaust 
the  soil  at  all  times  when  the  process  of 
induction  is  not  in  operation  ;  and  it  must 
be  understood  that  this  can  only  exist 
under  certain  favourable  conditions, — 
viz.,  if  the  soil  be  so  porous  as  to  permit 
the  air  sufficiently  to  penetrate  it,  and 
when  the  weather  is  calm,  and  the  air  in 
a  positive  state :  yet  it  is  obvious  that 
these  requisites  only  sometimes  exist,  and 
then  at  others  it  is  indisputable  that  posi- 
tive ffuid  will  escape,  as  evaporation  goes 
on,  perhaps,  at  all  temperatures.  But  the 
most  probable  cause  of  the  air  being  posi- 
tive is  vegetation  —  as  it  must  receive, 
if  correct,  an  amazing  quantity  by  this 
means ;  and  what  makes  the  assumption 
still  stronger,  is  its  production  of  vegeta- 
tion in  its  transit ;  as  it  is,  therefore,  not 
lost  by  the  earth  without  being  beneficial 
in  its  passage.  There  is  a  fact  also  which 
strengthens  this  view — viz.,  it  is  found  that 


VOL.   I. 


Peschel's  Elements  of  Physic,  vol,  iii.  p.  185 — Electricity. 


84 


INITIATION. 


the  air  is  more  positive  in  winter  than  in 
summer;  and  this  is  the  result  we  might 
expect,  because  it  will  have  received  all 
the  fluid  that  has  esca])ed  through  all  the 
vegetables  on  tlie  surface  of  the  globe, 
and  will  only  have  returned  the  quantity 
that  descended  with  dew  and  rain,  and 
the  latter  in  summer  is  sometimes  not 
large.  But  during  winter,  again,  the 
earth  will  receive  abundant  quantities,  so 
that  it  will,  to  a  great  degree,  be  prepared 
to  commence  vegetation  in  the  ensuing' 
spring.  There  will  be  no  obstacle,  from 
crops,  to  the  almost  perpetual  operation 
of  induction ;  and  therefore,  as  rapidly  as 
the  negative  on  the  surface  is  saturated 
with  the  positive  in  the  air,  it  will  in- 
stantly be  repelled,  and  again  as  quickly 
replaced;  and  thus  it  will  goon  without 
intermission,  except  when  there  is  both  a 
dry  and  a  settled  state  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
so  that  the  neutral  air  on  the  surface 
(which  is  known  to  be  three  or  four  feet) 
is  neither  circulated  by  the  winds,  to  be 
replaced  by  the  positive,  nor  will  be  a 
conductor  from  the  air  above  it,  if  it  be  in  a 
dry  state.  However,  it  is  evident  that  in 
our  climate  this  condition  of  the  air  seldom 
occurs ;  for  in  the  night  a  fall  of  moisture, 
in  one  form  or  another,  is  almost  invari- 
able, and  it  is  also  very  generally  the  case 
in  the  day." 

138.  After  describing  the  structnre  of 
vegetables  in  a  few  words,  the  author 
proceeds  to  consider  the  electric  condition 
of  the  organic  and  inorganic  elements 
which  compose  plants. 

139.  Oxygen  is  in  a  negative  state  of 
electricity;  and  when  it  combines  with 
alkalies  and  earths,  it  converts  them  into 
non-conductors,  and  is  thereby  of  great 
service  in  retaining  the  fluid  for  vegeta- 
tion ;  and  the  excitation  of  electricity  is 
found  to  result  from  its  union  with  ail 
substances. 

140.  Hydrogen  is  in  a  positive  state, 
^n«e  it  unites  with  oxygen. 

141.  Nitrogen  being  an  indiflferent  sub- 
stance, ite  electric  state  is  neutral,  holding 
equal  qu9,tttities  of  the  two  fluids. 

142.  Carbon  readily  unites  with  oxygen, 
and  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  in  a 


positive  state  of  electricity,  and  it  is  a 
non-conductor. 

143.  Ammonia,  according  to  the  expe- 
riments of  Faraday,  returns  to  either  pole 
of  the  galvanic  battery,  and  is  therefore 
neutral  like  nitrogen. 

144.  IJumus  is  valuable  by  its  union 
with  oxygen  in  supplying  carbonic  acid 
and  the  electric  fluid  to  vegetables  in  all 
their  stages.  During  the  time  it  is  in  the 
soil,  it  is  a  great  attractor  and  retainer 
of  moisture,  and  therewith  the  electric 
fluid,  being  also  a  non-conductor. 

•145.  All  the  inorganic  substances  of 
plants  are  non-conductors,  and  therefore 
valuable  as  retaining  the  electric  fluid  for 
the  use  of  vegetation. 

146.  The  author's  views,  in  considering 
the  utility  of  the  inorganic  materials,  in  so 
far  as  they  may  be  regarded  as  ingredients 
for  constructing  the  plant,  are  these: — "  I 
assume  that  vegetables  are  a  crystalline 
structure,  and  that  their  elements  combine 
in  a  similarmanner  to  other  crystals.  The 
grain,  fruit,  &c.  are  composed  of  different 
compounds  of  different  proportions  of  the 
organic  elements,  with  a  small  portion  of 
the  inorganic.  The  organic  are  gum, 
starch,  sugar,  Sec.  These  are  some  of  the 
proximate  principles  of  vegetables ;  but  they 
have  again  to  be  united  in  various  manners 
and  proportions  before  we  can  obtain 
grain,  roots,  Sec;  and  these  may  be  called 
the  Hnal  production. 

147.  "  Now  the  organic  elements  cannot 
be  united  by  art  to  form  any  of  these 
compouuils;  but  it  is  effected  in  the  plant, 
and  we  conceive  as  follows  : — Water  is  a 
compound  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen ;  car- 
bonic acid  is  composed  of  oxygen  and 
carbon ;  and  ammonia  is  composed  of 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  Now  these  con- 
tain all- the  organic  elements  of  vegetables, 
and  they  are  all  to  be  found  in  the  air  and 
t\\e  soil,  and  therefore  within  their  reach. 
It  is  also  known  that  water  and  ammonia 
can  be  decomposed  by  electricity;  and  we 
have  no  doubt  but  that  these  and  carbonic 
acid  can  also  be  decomposed  by  the  elec- 
tricity of  tl)e  plant :  I  therefore  conclude, 
that  the  electric  fluid  issues  from  the  earth 
through  tlie  vegetables  during  the  day,  and 


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35 


decomposes  those  substances  into  their  ele- 
ments when  in  the  extremity  of  the  leaf,  it 
being  most  intense  when  it  escapes  from  the 
points.  The  elements  then  descend  throngh 
the  bark  into  the  cells,  where  much  of  the 
water  will  be  evaporated  in  the  day ;  they 
will  there  remain  until  the  cool  of  the 
night,  and  then,  owing  to  the  escape  of 
the  heat,  and  consequent  contraction  of 
the  cells,  together  with  the  return  of  the 
electric  fluid  with  the  dew,  their  union  is 
accomplished.  It  is  here,  I  imagine,  that 
a  great  benefit  is  derived  from  the  inor- 
ganic ingredients;  they  unite  with  the 
acids  formed  in  the  plant,  producing  salts, 
and  it  is  known  that  these  are  among  the 
substances  most  prone  to  crystallisation. 

148.  "We  have  shown  that  the  veget- 
able possesses  all  the  requisites  that  con- 
tribute to  effect  crystallisation  when 
attempted  artificially:  these  are,  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  of  solution,  the 
absence  of  motion,  the  absence  of  light, 
and  frequently,  in  addition  to  these,  a  grain 
of  sand  is  required  before  the  process  will 
commence.  Thus,  we  see  that  the  veget- 
able, at  least  in  fine  weather,  has  all  that 
is  necessary  to  enable  its  inorganic  ele- 
ments to  crystallise,  and  thereby  assist  the 
organic  to  unite,  besides  the  advantage  of 
the  fluid  returning  to  the  earth  in  a  sort 
of  current  with  the  dew,  and  which  is 
known  to  be  able  of  itself  to  efiect  the 
process  of  crystallisation  —  being  called 
slow  electric  action." 

149.  The  author  adduces  a  number  of 
comparative  results  produced  by  vegetation 
and  electricity,  some  of  which  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  one  another,  and  others 
analogically  so.  I  shall  content  myself 
with  one  instance  of  comparison  between 
the  eflfects  of  electricity  and  vegetation  : — 
"  Most  compounds,"  he  says,  "•  have  been 
discovered  to  be  decomposable  by  the 
electric  fluid.  Sir  H.  Davy  immortalised 
his  name  by  the  decomjiosition  of  the 
alkalies  and  many  of  the  earths ;  but  the 
manner  in  which  this  is  effected  is  diff"er- 
ently  explained  by  many  eminent  philo- 
sophers. Mr  Faraday's  I  think  the  most 
plausible.  He  says  that  there  is  an  in- 
ternal corpuscular  action  in  the  decom- 
posing   mass,    exerted   according   to   the 


direction  of  the  electric  current ;  and  that 
the  elements,  when  liberated,  pass  to  either 
pole,  according  to  the  aflanity  existing 
between  them. 

150.  "The  fact  is  now  decidedly  estab- 
lished that  vegetables  decompose  com- 
pounds ; — that  water,  carbonic  acid,  and 
ammonia,  are  all  separated  into  their 
elements  before  being  assimilated  by  the 
plant.  What,  then,  can  decompose  them,  if 
we  reject  electricity,  except  the  vital  prin- 
ciple ?  and  this  we  have  surely  no  right  to 
call  to  our  aid,  when  we  are  acquainted 
with  an  agent  that  can  do  its  work."* 

151.  Galvanism. — The  state  of  electri- 
cal quiescence  in  two  diff"erent  kinds  of 
bodies  which  are  good  conductors  of  elec- 
tricity, is  destroyed  by  bringing  them  into 
contact  with  each  other.  It  was  V^olta 
who  first  discovered  this  peculiar  excitation 
of  electricity  in  the  metals.  Before  this, 
"  Professor  Galvani  of  Bologna  observed, 
in  1797,  that  when  he  touched  a  nerve  and 
muscle  in  the  leg  of  a  dead  frog  with  two 
different  metals,  on  bringing  them  into 
contact  the  leg  moved  convulsively.  The 
author  of  this  discovery  considered  this  as 
the  effect  of  a  peculiar  power  exerted  on 
the  animal  organisation  ;  he  therefore  gave 
it  the  name  of  animal  electricity  ;  and 
even  to  the  present  day,  out  of  respect  to 
the  discoverer,  it  is  frequently  called  gal- 
vanic electricity  or  galvanism.  Volta 
soon  after  proved,  by  means  of  the  con- 
denser he  had  lately  invented,  that  this 
electricity  by  no  means  resided  as  an  ex- 
traordinary agent  in  the  animal  organisa- 
tion, but  that  it  was  the  consequence  of  two 
metals  being  brought  into  contact;  and  that 
the  nerves  and  muscles  merely  exliibiled 
the  sensible  electricity,  as  any  other  deli- 
cate electroscope  would.  This  theory  led 
him  to  the  most  important  discoveries  and, 
in  the  year  1800,  to  the  construction  of  that 
valuable  piece  of  apparatus  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Voltaic  jnle." 

152.  With  this  apparatus  Faraday  ad- 
duced a  variety  of  proofs,  to  establish  the 
identity  between  electricity  exciteii  by 
contact  and  by  friction.  The  important 
distinction  between  them  is,  that  in  a  vol- 
taic battery  the  exciting  cause  is  perma- 


A  New  Theory  of  Vegetable  Physiology,  based  on  Electricity,  p.  16,22,27,  35,  42. 


36 


IXITIATION. 


uently  at  work — hence,  after  connexion  is 
established  with  the  ground,  its  electrical 
tension  is  excited  and  maintained  ;  and, 
when  the  circuit  is  completed,  the  stream 
is  emitted  uninterruptedly  so  long  as  the 
circuit  is  not  broken,  and  no  change  takes 
place — whereas  in  an  electrical  machine, 
when  its  conductor  or  a  battery  is  charged, 
it  loses  its  electrical  tension  immediately 
on  a  connexion  being  established  by  a  good 
conductor  between  it  and  the  ground. 

153.  Magnetism. — Magnetism  is  a 
force  which  exerts  no  immediate  influence 
on  any  part  of  the  nervous  system.  Sub- 
stances endowed  with  it  attract  certain 
metals  ;  display  towards  one  another  a 
force  partly  attractive  and  partly  repul- 
sive; and  they  exhibit  a  tendency  toarrange 
their  mass  in  a  certain  direction.  "  How- 
ever simple  these  isolated  fundamental 
effects  may  appear,"  observes  Peschel,  "yet 
the  ultimate  causes  which  jtroduce  them 
must  remain  shrouded  in  obscurity,  unless 
we  can  discover  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  mutual  operations  of  this  and  the 
other  physical  agents  on  each  other.  Our 
knowledge  of  this  subject  has  been  greatly 
increased  of  late  by  the  discovery  of  elec- 
tro-magnetism and  magneto-electricity  ; 
and  the  fact  has  been  established  beyond 
dispute thatmagneticinfluences  are  aftected 
by,  and  that  they  in  their  turn  affect,  light, 
heat,  and  electricity.  We  may,  therefore, 
well  hazard  a  conjecture,  that  magnetism 
has  a  far  wider  sphere  of  operation  than 
the  exertion  of  its  attractive  and  repulsive 
forces  would  indicate  ;  and  that,  probably, 
many  a  phenomenon  is  ultimately  owing  to 
magnetic  influence, although  the  mode  of  its 
connexion  with  that  force  is  unknown  tons." 

154.  The  spark  obtained  from  the  vol- 
taic pile  and  from  the  magnet,  evince  a 
simultaneous  exhibition  of  the  electrical 
action  with  the  voltaic  and  with  the  mag- 
netic ;  and  the  insulated  pile  presents  a 
striking  analogy  to  the  polarity  of  a  bar 
magnet,  in  one  half  of  which  positive  electri- 
city resides,  and  negative  electricity  in  the 
other ;  and  its  assuming,  when  suspended, 
the  magnetic  direction,  also  evinces  a  corre- 
sponding identity  between  voltaism  and 
magnetism.  Of  the  three  forces,  electricity 
seems  to  be  most  easily  excited ;  for  neither 


voltaic  nor  magneticaction  are  ever  excited 
without  an  exhibition  of  the  electrical.     ' 

155.  The  ground  has  been  compared  to 
a  voltaic  pile; — the  particlesof  the  different 
kinds  of  earths,  which  are  just  oxides 
of  metals,  being  separated,  and  at  the 
same  time  united  together,  by  the  moisture 
derived  from  the  rain,  and  which  httlds  in 
solution  the  alkalies  amJ  acids  which  may 
be  present  in  the  ground.  The  voltaic 
action  amoiigst  these  materials  is  excited 
by  the  same  circumstances  as  excite  the 
action  of  the  voltaic  i)ilc  ;  and  that  action 
will  be  the  greater  the  nearer  the  mate- 
rials happen  to  be  proportioned,  and  in  a 
similar  condition  to  those  in  the  voltaic  pile. 

150.  Terrestrial  magnetism  is  supposed 
to  arise  from  two  fluids  which  are  never 
singly  combined  with  the  particles  of  mat- 
ter, but  alwaj'S  both  together ;  and  if  the 
relative  proportions  of  which  existing  in 
any  body  be  such  that  they  mutually  neu- 
tralise each  other  in  the  individual  mole- 
cules composing  it,  that  body  would  be 
said  to  be  not  magnetised.  But  if  this 
condition  of  equilibrium  be  disturbed,  then 
the  magnetic  state  is  induced ;  and  the 
magnetism  is  invariably  exhibited  from 
both  poles,  and  never  from  one  only  Every 
body  that  has  acquired  this  state  of  polarity 
is  in  its  turn  capable  of  disturbing  the 
magnetic  equilibrium  of  other  similar  bodies 
within  certain  limits.  The  derangement 
thus  efiected  in  the  magnetic  fluids  is  not 
sutficient  to  cause  their  passage  from  one 
particle  of  the  body  to  another,  still  less 
from  one  body  to  another.  "  Hansbein  is 
of  opinion,  that  all  bodies  whatever  on  the 
earth's  surface  have  a  certain  degree  of 
magnetic  polarity  ;  he  thought  he  had  ob- 
served, that  a  needle  held  near  to  the 
ground  on  the  north  side  of  a  tree,  post, 
column,  &c.,  made  a  greater  number  of 
vibrations  in  a  given  time  than  when  held 
on  the  south  side  ;  but  that  the  same  needle, 
when  presented  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
object,  vibrated  more  rapidly  on  the  south 
side  than  on  the  north  side ;  whence  he 
inferred,  that  all  bodies  had  a  less  degree 
of  polarity  imparted  to  them  by  the  earth's 
magnetism ;  that  their  lower  end  in  the 
ground  was  a  north  pole,  and  their  upper 
end  a  south  pole."* 


*  Peschel's  Elements  of  Pht/sic$,  vol.  ii.  p.  265  and  316,  and  vol.  iii.  p.  70. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


37 


157.  The  subjects  of  voltaism  and  mag- 
netism may  not  seem  to  be  at  all  connected 
with  the  culture  of  the  ground ;  but  it  is 
chiefly  in  the  principles  of  these  sciences 
that  electro-culture  has  been  recommended 
of  late  years  to  the  notice  of  the  farmer. 
The  method  of  erecting  the  electrical 
apparatus  for  attaining  the  object  of  tlie 
recommendation,  I  shall  have  particularly 
to  describe  at  the  proper  season.  In  the 
mean  time,  I  would  remark  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  particular  construction,  that 
no  doubt  an  electrical  current  may  be 
established  by  the  system  of  wires  set  up 
in  the  air,  and  continued  under  ground, 
around  the  space  of  ground  included 
within  the  wires — and  that  such  a  current 
is  put  in  motion  is  clearly  shown  by  the 
active  state  of  the  magnetic  needle.  These 
electrical  currents,  to  s])eak  more  pro- 
perly, as  a  current  will  diverge  in  a  con- 
trary direction  from  each  upright  arm, 
will  be  accompanied  by  spiral  magnetic 
currents  revolving  along  with  them,  and 
the  intensity  of  which  will  probably  be  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  electrical.  The 
electrical  currents  will  also  give  rise  to  a 
certain  degree  of  voltaic  excitation  in  the 
ground,  but  the  action  of  these  will  be  feeble 
and  almost  momentary.  It  seems  to  me 
improbable  that  any  benefit  can  be  derived 
from  such  an  arrangement  by  any  object 
placed  within  the  space  circumscribed  by 
the  wires  ;  as  the  ele'ctricity,  brought  down 
the  upright  wires,  has  just  as  great  a 
chance  to  be  diffused  into  the  ground  from 
the  horizontal  wires  in  a  downward  or  a 
lateral  direction,  away  from  the  enclosure, 
as  towards  the  interior  of  the  enclosure. 
ISTay,  I  should  suppose  (hat  the  wires 
under  ground  would  be  apt  to  convey  away 
aquantity  of  the  electricity  that  is  naturally 
in  the  ground.  If  any  sensible  result  is 
to  be  expected  from  such  an  experiment, 
every  stem  of  a  plant  should  be  surrounded 
by  a  wire  ;  and  if  the  diffusion  of  the  elec- 
tricity is  to  do  any  good,  it  would  then 
have  a  chance  of  being  placed  within  the 
immediate  reach  of  each  plant.  A  better 
plan,  in  my  opinion,  would  be  to  excite  the 
ground  itself  to  a  A^oltaic  action,  which, 
although  feeble  at  any  given  moment  of 
time,  might  nevertheless  produce  sensible 
effects  by  its  constancy  during  a  lengthened 
period. 

158.  Heat. — Heat  was  ranked  amongst 


chemical  re-agents,  until  philosophers 
divided  all  the  substances  of  nature  into 
ponderable  and  imponderable,  when  it  was 
classed  among  the  latter,  in  common  with 
electricity,  magnetism,  galvanism,  andlight. 

159.  Heat,  as  a  general  principle,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  antagonistic  force  to 
gravity.  Were  gravity  to  act  alone,  every 
object  would  become  a  confirmed  solid,  and 
there  would  be  no  such  existence  as  life. 

160.  It  is  the  property  of  heat  to  part 
asunder  the  atoms  of  all  bodies,  and  these 
remain  or  change  into  solids,  liquids,  and 
gases,  as  their  atoms  are  more  nearly  or 
remotely  placed  from  each  other;  the 
further  they  are  separated,  the  weaker  the 
attraction  being  between  them.  Thus 
bodies  in  these  different  states  represent 
conditions  which  differ  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  heat  in  them. 

Ib'l.  Heat  cannot  be  seen,  and  it  has 
neither  weight  nor  inertia,  though  it  per- 
vades all  nature.  It  is  only  sensible  when 
it  displays  a  tendency  to  establish  equi- 
librium, by  diffusing  itself  equally  in  all 
surrounding  bodies;  and  it  is  then  in  in- 
cessant motion, passing  from  one  to  another. 
The  quantity  of  it  at  any  moment  in  a 
particular  body  is  said  to  be  the  tempera- 
ture of  that  body.  When  its  movement 
ceases,  and  it  is  in  a  temporary  state  of 
repose,  intimately  uniting  itself  with  the 
atoms  of  matter,  and  not  causing  any 
change  of  aggregation,  it  is  then  said  to 
be  latent.  With  the  same  temperature, 
the  latent  heat  of  bodies  increases  as  they 
change  from  solid  to  liquid,  and  from 
liquid  to  aeriform. 

162.  Whenever  heat  becomes  sensible 
or  free,  it  alters  their  form  by  dilation; 
and  the  measure  of  this  increase  has  given 
rise  to  a  class  of  useful  instruments  called 
thermometers. 

163.  Thermometer. — The  common 
mercurial  thermometer  is  nearly  a  perfect 
instrument,  and  has  been  the  means  of 
establishing  important  facts  to  science; 
but  being  a  mere  measurer  of  temperature, 
it  is  incapable  of  indicating  changes  of  the 
atmosphere  so  clearly  as  the  barometer, 
and  is  therefore  a  less  useful  instrument  to 
the  farmer.     Indeed,  it  does  not  predict 


38 


INITIATION. 


boiling  water  unfler  tbe  mean  pressure  of 
tbe  atmospbcre,  wbicb  is  given  on  his 
scale  at  212';  the  melting  point  of  ice  at 
32'.  This  scale  of  ilivision  has  almost 
universally  been  adopted  in  Britain,  but 
not  at  all  generally  on  the  Continent.  The 
zero  of  this  scale,  though  an  arbitrary 
point  adopted  by  P'ahrenheit,  from  the 
erroneous  idea  that  the  greatest  possible 
cold  was  produced  by  a  mixture  of  com- 
mon salt  and  snow,  has  particular  advan- 
tages for  a  climate  like  ours  :  besides  being 
generally  known,  the  zero  is  so  placed  that 
any  cold  which  occurs  very  rarely  causes 
the  mercury  to  fall  below  that  point,  so 
that  no  mistake  can  take  place  with  regard 
to  noting  minus  quantities.  The  only 
other  divisions  of  the  thermometer  between 
the  two  fixed  points  in  general  use,  are 
those  of  Reaumur  and  the  centesimal ;  J 
the  former  divides  the  spacfe  into  80  equal 
parts ;  the  division  of  the  latter,  as  indi- 
cated by  its  name,  is  into  100  part«.  la 
both  these  scales  the  zero  is  placed  at  the 
melting  point  of  ice,  or  32°  Fahrenheit." 

1 65.  The  self-registering  thermometers 
were  the  invention  of  the  late  Dr  John 
Rutherfurd,  and  his  are  yet  the  best.  The 
tube  of  the  one  for  ascertaining  the  greatest 
deirree  of  heat  is  inclined  nearly  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  and  filled  with  mercury, 
upon  the  top  of  the  column  of  which  stands 
an  index,  which,  on  being  pushed  upwards, 
does  not  return  until  made  to  descend  to 
the  top  of  the  mercury  by  elevating  the 
upper  end  of  the  thermometer.  This  index 
was  first  matle  of  metal,  which  became 
oxydised  in  the  tube,  and  uncertain  in  its 
motions.  Mr  Adie,  optician  in  Edinburgh, 
im])roved  the  instrument,  by  introducing 
a  fluid  above  the  mercury,  in  which  is 
floated  a  glass  index,  M-hich  is  free  from 
any  action,  and  is  retained  in  its  place  by 
the  fluid.  "  The  other  thermometer,  for 
registering  the  lowest  degree,"  says  Mr 
John  A<lie,  "  is  filled  with  alcohol,  having 
an  index  of  black  glass  immersed  in  the 

*  Peschel  says  that  "  Reaumur  retained  the  use  of  the  spirit  of  wine,  and  finding  that  its  expan- 
sion between  the  points  of  boiling  and  freezing  water  equalled  008  of  its  volume,  he  divided  the 
scale  into  eighty  equal  parts,  on  the  supposition  that  the  expansion  of  the  spirit  would  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  increase  of  the  temperature.  De  Luc  discovered  and  corrected  this  error,  and  substi- 
tuted mercury  for  the  spirit  of  wine,  though  he  still  retained  his  predecessor's  system  of  graduation. 
Notwithstanding  this  important  alteration,  the  thermometer  still  retained  the  name  of  Recnmur." — 
Elfments  of  Pkys'icf,  vol.  ii.  p.  151. 

+  A  Danish  philosopher  who  experimented  in  Iceland. 

X  Instituted  by  Celsius,  a  Swedish  philosopher,  whose  system  of  graduation  is  rapidly  supplanting 
Reaumur's  on  the  Continent. 


changes  at  all,  like  the  barometer.  Re- 
garding the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  feelings  can  judge  suf- 
ficiently well ;  and  as  the  state  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  farm  indicates  pretty  well 
whether  the  climate  of  the  particular 
locality  can  bring  them  to  perfection,  the 
farmer  seems  independent  of  the  use  of  the 
thermometer.  Still,  it  is  useful  to  know 
the  lowest  degree  of  temperature  in  winter 
to  put  him  on  his  guard,  as  certain  kinds 
of  farm  produce  are  injured  by  the  etFects 
of  extreme  cold,  which  the  feelings  are 
incapable,  from  want  of  habit,  of  esti- 
mating. For  this  purpose,  a  thermometer 
self-registering  the  lowest  degree  of  cold 
will  be  found  a  useful  instrument  on  a 
farm ;  and  as  great  heat  does  no  hann,  a 
self-registering  thermometer  of  the  greatest 
degree  of  heat  seems  not  so  useful  an  in- 
strument as  the  other. 

164.  "The  thermometer,  by  which  the 
temperature  of  our  atmosphere  is  deter- 
mined," says  Mr  John  Adie  of  Edinburgh, 
"was  invented  by  Sanctario  in  1590. 
The  instrument,  in  its  first  construction, 
was  very  imperfect,  having  no  fixed  scale, 
and  air  being  the  medium  of  expansion. 
It  was  soon  shown,  fmm  the  discovery  of 
the  barometer,  that  this  instrument  was 
acted  upon  by  pressure  as  well  as  tempera- 
ture. To  separate  these  effects,  alcohol  was 
em[)loyed  as  the  best  fluid,  from  its  great 
expansion  by  heat,  but  was  afterwards 
found  to  expand  unequally.  Reaumur  first 
proposed  the  use  of  mercury  as  the  expan- 
sive medium  for  the  thermometer.*  This 
liquid  metal  has  great  advantages  over 
every  other  medium ;  it  has  the  jiower  of 
indicating  a  great  range  of  temperature, 
and  expands  very  equally.  After  its  in- 
troduction, the  melting  point  of  ice  was 
taken  as  a  fixed  point,  and  the  divisions 
of  the  scale  were  made  to  correspoml  to 
1555th  parts  of  the  capacity  of  the  bulb. 
It  was  left  for  the  ingenious  Fahrenheit  t 
to    fix    another    standard    point — that    of 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


39 


liquid.    This  index  is  always  carried  down 

to  the  lowest  point  to  which  the  tempera- 
ture falls ;  the  spirit  passes  freely  upwards 
without  changing  the  place  of  the  index, 
so  that  it  remains  at  the  lowest  point. 
This  instrument,  like  the  other,  turns  upon 
a  centre,  to  depress  the  upper  end,  and 
allow  the  index,  by  its  own  weight,  to 
come  into  contact  with  the  surface  of  the 
spirit,  after  the  greatest  cold  has  been  ob- 
served, which  is  indicated  by  the  upper 
end  of  the  index,  or  that  farthest  from  the 
bulb.  In  both  cases,  the  instruments  are 
to  be  left  nearly  horizontal,  the  bulb  end 
being  lowest.  This  angle  is  most  easily 
fixed  by  placing  the  bulb  about  |ths  of  an 
inch  under  the  horizontal  line."*' 

166.  Thermometers  of  all  kinds,  when 
fixed  up  for  observation,  should  be  placed 
out  of  the  reaph  of  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun,  or  of  any  reflected  heat.  If  at  a  win- 
dow or  against  a  wall,  the  thermometer 
should  have  a  northern  aspect,  and  be 
kept  at  a  little  distance  from  either ;  for 
it  is  surprising  through  what  a  space  a 
sensible  portion  of  heat  is  conveyed  from 
soil  and  walls,  or  even  from  grass  illumi- 
nated by  the  sun.  The  maxima  of  tem- 
perature, as  indicated  by  thermometers, 
are  thus  generally  too  great;  and  from  the 
near  contact  in  which  they  are  usually 
placed  with  large  ill-conducting  masses, 
such  as  walls,  the  temperature  of  the  night 
is  kept  up,  and  the  minima  of  temperature 
are  also  too  high. 

167.  The  price  of  a  common  thermometer 
is  from  5s.  6d.  to  ]  4s. ;  and  of  Dr  Rulher- 
furd's  minimum  self- registering,  10s.  6d. 

168.  Thermometers  afford  but  limited 
information  in  regard  to  the  state  of  heat 
in  bodies.  "  It  is  evident,"  says  Dr 
Arnott,  "  that  the  thermometer  gives  very 

.  limited  information  with  respect  to  heat : 
it  merely  indicates,  in  fact,  what  may  be 
called  the  tension  of  heat  in  bodies,  or  the 
strength  of  its  tendency  to  spread  from 
them.  Thus,  it  does  not  discover  that  a 
pound  of  water  takes  thirty  times  as  much 
heat  to  raise  its  temperature  one  degree 
as  a  pound  of  mercury ;  nor  does  it  dis- 
cover the  caloric  of  fluidity  absorbed 
when  bodies  change  their  form,  and  which 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  5-7- 

t  Arnott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.  ii.  part  1st,  p.  114 — Heat. 


indeed  is  called  latent  heat  only  because  it  is 
hidden  from  the  thermometer ;  nor  does  it 
tell  that  there  is  more  heat  in  a  gallon  of 
water  than  in  a  pint ;  and  if  an  observer  did 
not  make  allowance  for  the  increasing  rate 
of  expansion  in  the  substance  used  as  a 
thermometer,  as  the  temperature  increases, 
he  would  believe  the  increase  of  heat  to  be 
greater  than  it  is;  and,  lastly,  when  a 
fluid  is  used  as  a  thermometer,  the  expan- 
sion observed  is  only  the  excess  of  the  ex- 
pansion in  the  fluid  over  that  in  the  con- 
taining solid,  and  subject  to  all  the  irre- 
gularities of  expansion  in  both  instances  : 
—  all  proving  that  the  indications  of  the 
thermometer,  unless  interpreted  by  our 
knowledge  of  the  general  laws  of  heat,  no 
more  discloses  the  true  relation  of  heat  to 
bodies  than  the  money  accidentally  in  a 
man's  pocket  tells  his  rank  and  riches."  t 

169.  Bodies,  on  receiving  heat,  expand 
generally  more  rapidly  than  the  tempera- 
ture increases;  and  the  expansion  is  greater 
as  the  cohesion  in  the  particles  becomes 
weaker  from  increased  distance — being 
considerably  greater  in  liquids  than  in 
solids,  and  in  airs  than  in  liquids.  Thus 
solids  gain  in  bulk  1  part  in  from  100  to 
400;  liquids,  in  from  9  to  55;  and  all 
gases  and  vapours  gain  1  part  in  3, 
It  is  this  dilating  property  of  air  which 
lias  prompted  some  persons  to  employ  the 
force  of  expanding  air  as  a  motive  power; 
the  same  quantity  of  heat  that  would  pro- 
duce one  cubic  foot  of  common  steam 
would  double  the  volume  of  five  cubic  feet 
of  atmospheric  air.  Though  the  air-engine 
has  hitherto  not  succeeded,  by  reason  of  the 
destructive  effects  of  the  heated  air  in  the 
valves,  yet  the  time  may  come  when  this 
inconvenience  will  be  remedied;  and  it  has 
already  been  proved  that  this  power  may 
be  much  more  economically  employed  than 
steam. 

170.  Steam-engine.— In  expanding  on 
the  reception  of  heat,  bodies  receive  it 
in  difterent  quantities  ere  they  exhibit 
a  given  increase  of  temperature;  and  this 
difference  marks  their  different  capacities 
for  heat.  It  is  this  property  which  ren- 
ders steam  so  powerful  and  economical  a 
force  to  be  employed  in  moving  machinery ; 
and,  as  a  motive  power,  the  steam-engine, 


40 


INITIATION. 


at  present,  stands  unrivalled.  As  it  came 
from  the  bands  of  Watt,  the  steam-en<rine 
may  almost  be  said  to  be  endowed  with 
human  intelligence.  I  cannot  resist  quot- 
ing' at  length  Dr  Arnott's  well-exjjressed 
encomium  on  this  wonderfully  simple 
machine.  "It  regulates  with  perfect  accu- 
racy and  uniformity,"  he  observes,  "the 
number  of  its  .^trol-es  in  a  given  time — 
counting/  or  recording  them,  moreover,  to 
tell  how  much  work  it  has  done,  as  a 
clock  records  the  beats  of  its  pendulum  ; 

—  it  regulates  the  quantity  of'  strain  ad- 
mitted to  work — the  briskness  of  the  Jire — 
the  supply  of  icat^r  to  the  boiler  —  the 
supply  of  coals  to  the  fire; — it  opens  and 
shuts  its  valces  with  absolute  precision  as 
to  time  and  manner; — it  oils  its  joints; — 
it  takes  out  any  air  which  may  acciden- 
tally enter  into  parts  which  should  be 
vacuous ;  —  and  when  any  thing  goes 
wrong  which  it  cannot  of  itself  rectify,  it 
warns  its  attendants  by  ringing  a  bell : 

—  yet  with  all  these  talents  and  qualities, 
and  even  when  exerting  the  powers  of 
six  hundred  horses,  it  is  obedient  to  the 
band  of  a  child  ; — its  aliment  is  coal,  wood, 
charcoal,  or  other  combustible;  —  it  con- 
sumes none  while  idle;  —  it  nevftr  tires, 
and  wants  no  sleep  ;  —  it  is  not  subject  to 
malady,  when  originally  well  made ;  and 
only  refuses  to  \vork  when  worn  out 
with  age;  —  it  is  equally  active  in  all  cli- 
mates, and  will  do  work  of  any  kind  ; — it 
is  a  water-pumper,  a  miner,  a  saihjr,  a 
eotton-spinner,  a  weaver,  a  blacksmith,  a 
miller,  &c.:  and  a  steam-engine  in  the 
character  of  a  steam-pony  may  be  seen 
dragging  after  it,  on  a  railroad,  a  hundred 
tons  of  merchandise,  or  a  regiment  of 
soldiers,  with  greater  speed  than  that  of  our 
fleetest  coaches.  It  is  the  king  of  machines, 
and  a  permanent  realisation  of  t\\G  genii  i)i 
eastern  fable,  wliose  supernatural  powers 
were  occasionallyattliecommand  of  man."* 

171.  The  steam-engine  is  becoming 
daily  more  useful  to  the  farmer  in  work- 
ing his  stationary  machines.  Winduiills, 
and  even  water-wheels,  but  scantily  sup- 
plied with  surface-water  only,  are  being 
laid  aside  when  worn  out,  and  the  steam- 
engine  substituted  in  their  stead.  This 
power,  at  command  at  all  times  and  in  all 
seasons,  to  any  extent,  is  also  employed 


to  cut  straw  and  hay,  and  bruise  corta,  now 
that  it  is  found  better  to  support  the  horses 
on  prepared  food.  The  steam-engine  has 
been  suggested  as  a  befitting  motive  power 
for  the  plough  in  the  ordinary  cultivation 
of  the  soil ;  and  its  powers  were  tested 
some  years  ago  by  ^Ir  Heathcote,  before 
the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  at 
Lochar  Moss,  near  Dumfries  ;  but  the 
locomotive  is  yet  too  expensive  a  machine 
to  be  employed  in  all  the  varieties  of 
ploughing  in  the  various  states  of  the 
ground  incidental  to  a  farm. 

172.  Vapour. — Though  water  remain  ever 
so  tranquil,  a  jwrtion  of  it  is  constantly  re- 
ceiving heat  from  the  air,  and  passing  into 
it  in  the  form  of  invisible  vapour  or  steam. 
The  weight  of  1  cubic  inch  of  distilled 
water  (with  the  barometer  at  30  inches, 
and  the  thermometer  at  62°  Fahrenheit)  is 
252"4 08  grains ;  that  of  1  cubic  inch  of  air 
is  0-304!f  of  a  grain  ;  and  of  steam  at  212" 
0'G325,  taking  atmospheric  air  as  1"000. 
Heatthusrendering  water,  in  thoform  of  va- 
pour, lighter  than  the  air,  we  sec  howreadily 
vapour  ascends  in  the  atmosphere ;  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  it  is  electricity 
that  maintains  its  elasticity  after  it  has 
been  carried  beyond  the  influence  of  its 
generating  heat,  and  keeps  it  in  mixture 
with  the  air.  The  presence  of  vapour  in 
the  air  is  of  essential  service  to  the  func- 
tions of  ])lants  and  animals,  as  without  it 
both  would  languish  and  die.  Its  quan- 
tity in  the  atmosphere  is  variable. 

173.  This  table  gives  the  weight  in  grains 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  vapour,  at  diflerent 
"temperatures  of  10°,  from  0°  to  00°  Fahren- 
heit; and  clearly  shows  that  the  higher  the 
temperature  of  the  air,  the  greater  is  the 
quantity  of  vapour  held  in  solution  in  it. 


Tempera- 
ture in 

Weiglit  in 

Tempera- 
ture in 

Weight  in 

degrees. 

grains. 

degrees. 

grains. 

0 

0-856 

50 

4-535 

1(1 

1-208 

60 

6"3-2-2 

20 

1-688 

70 

8-;U)2 

30 

2-361 

80 

11-333 

40 

3-239 

1       90 

15005 

174.  Clouds. — "When  by  any  cause  the 
temperature  of  the  air  is  reduced,  its  par- 


Amott's  Elements  of  Fhynks,  vol.  i.  p.  383— P/if«ma(ic*. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


41 


tides  approach  nearer  each  other,  and  so 
do  those  of  the  vapour  hekl  suspended  in 
the  air;  and  as  steam  becomes  visible 
when  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  so  tlie 
vapour  becomes  visible  when  it  occupies  a 
lower  position  in  condensation  by  a  reduc- 
tion of  temperature.  When  vapour  thus 
becomes  visible  in  the  atmospliere,  it  be- 
comes cloiids.  These  differ  much  in  alti- 
tude, density,  and  extent.  Their  altitude 
is  best  observed  in  ascending  mountains, 
when  the  traveller  frequently  passes  one 
zone  of  clouds  after  another.  Mountains 
thus  form  a  scale  by  which  to  estimate  the 
altitude  of  clouds.  Mr  Crossthwaite  made 
these  observations  on  the  altitude  and 
number  of  clouds  in  the  course  of  five 
years : — 


AtTrruDE  OF  Clouds. 

KOMBER  OF  OLOUDS. 

From  0  to 

100  yards, 

10 

100  to 

200  ... 

42 

200  to 

300  ... 

62 

300  to 

400  ... 

.   179 

400  to 

500  ... 

.   374 

500  to 

600  ... 

.   486 

600  to 

700  ... 

.   416 

700  to 

800  ... 

.   367 

800  to 

POO  ... 

,   410 

900  to  1000  ... 

.   518 

1000  to 

1050  ... 
),   .    . 

.   419 

3283 

Above  105( 

.  2098 

Hence  the  number  of  clouds  above  1050 
yards  was  to  that  below  as  2098  :  3283,  or 
10:  16  nearly. 

175.  Dew. — Invisible  evaporation  sends 
a  large  quantity  of  vapour  into  the  lower 
stratum  of  the  atmosphere,  which  never 
ascends  so  high  as  to  form  clouds,  but  is 
deposited  in  dew,  in  drops,  upon  the  points 
of  objects  having  a  rough  surface,  such  as 
the  blades  of  grass,  and  other  suchlike 
plants. 

1 76.  Theories  of  the  formation  of  dew  have 
been  proffered  by  many  philosophers,  from 
the  days  of  Aristotle  to  the  time  of  Dr 
Wells.  "  Dew,  according  to  Aristotle," 
remarks  Dr  Wells,  "  is  a  species  of  rain 
formed  in  the  lower  atmosphere,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  moisture  being  condensed  by 
the  cold  of  the  night  into  minute  drops. 
Opinions  of  this  kind,  respecting  the  cause 
of  dew,  are  still  entertained  by  many  per- 
sons, among  whom  is  the  very  ingenious 


Mr  Leslie  of  Edinburgh."  This  view  is 
erroneous, because  "  bodies  a  little  elevated 
in  the  air  become  moist  with  dew,  while 
similar  bodies  lying  on  the  ground  remain 
dry,  though  necessarily,  from  their  position, 
they  are  as  liable  to  be  wetted  by  whatever 
falls  from  the  heavens  as  the  former."  Dufay 
concluded  that  dew  is  an  electric  pheno- 
menon; but  it  leaves  untouched  bodies 
which  conduct  electricity,  while  it  appears 
upon  those  which  cannot  transmit  that  in- 
fluence. All  the  theories  on  dew,  to  the 
time  of  Dr  Wells,  omitted  the  important 
part,  that  the  production  of  dew  is  attended 
with  cold  ;  and  this  is  a  very  important 
omission,  since  no  exjdanation  of  a  natural 
phenomenon  can  be  well  founded  .which 
has  been  built  without  a  knowledge  of  one 
of  its  principal  circumstances.  "  It  may 
seem  strange  to  many,"  continues  Dr  Wells, 
"  that  neither  Mr  Wilson  nor  Mr  Six  ap- 
plied the  fact  of  the  existence  of  cold  to  its 
production,  to  the  improvement  of  the 
theory  of  dew.  .  But,  according  to  their 
view  of  the  subject,  no  such  use  could  have 
been  made  of  it  by  them,  as  they  held  the 
formation  of  that  Jiaid  to  be  the  cause  of 
the  cold  observed  with  it.  I  had  many 
years  held  the  same  opinion ;  but  I  began 
to  see  reason,  not  long  after  the  regular 
course  of  my  experiments  commenced,  to 
doubt  its  truth,  as  I  found  that  bodies 
would  sometimes  become  colder  than  the 
air  without  being  dewed  ;  and  that,  when 
dew  was  found,  if  diti'erent  times  were  com- 
pared, its  quantity,  and  the  degree  of  cold 
which  appeared  with  it,  were  very  far 
from  bearing  always  in  the  same  proportion 
to  each  other.  The  frequent  recurrence  of 
such  observations  at  length  corrected  the 
doubt  of  the  justness  of  my  ancient  opinion 
into  a  conviction  of  its  error;  and  at  the 
same  time  occasioned  me  to  conclude,  that 
dew  is  the  production  oi  a  precedivg  cold 
in  the  substance  upon  which  it  appears." 
Dr  Wells'  theory,  therefore,  is,  "  that  the 
cold  observed  with  dew  is  the  previous 
occurrence,  and,  consequently,  that  the 
formation  of  this  fluid  has  precisely  the 
same  immediate  cause  as  the  presence  of 
moisture  upon  the  outside  of  a  glass  or 
metallic  vessel,  where  a  liquid  considerably 
colder  than  the  air  has  been  poured  into  it 
shortly  before."  As  an  obvious  applica- 
tion of  this  theory,  the  experiments  of  Dr 
Wells,  which  led  to  its  establishment, 
evince,  that  of  all  natural  substances,  grass 


42 


INITIATION. 


is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  exhibition  of 
dew,  inasmuch  as  it  becomes,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  colder  than  the  air 
above  it,  by  the  radiation  of  more  heat  to- 
wards tlie  heavens  tliau  it  receives  in  any 
way,  and,  accordingly,  whenever  the  air  is 
calm  and  serene,  dew  may  be  seen  on 
grass  when  it  may  not  be  observed  on 
other  substances. 

177.  But  it  has  been  alleged  by  Dufay 
that  dew  is  the  condensation  of  vapour 
ris'mg out  of  the  earth  upon  the  gniss  on  it, 
because  objects  removed  higher  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  as  trees,  are  exempt 
from  dew ;  and  this  is  a  very  popular 
opinion,  but  it  is  an  erroneous  one,  and 
the  phenomenon  can  be  explained  on  other 
principles — because  the  lower  air  in  a  clear 
and  calm  evening  is  colder  than  the  uj)per, 
it  is  less  liable  to  agitation  than  the  upper, 
and  it  contains  more  moisture  than  the 
upper ;  and  hence,  on  all  these  considera- 
tions, it  will  sooner  deposit  a  part  of  its 
moisture.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  true 
that  vapour  does  rise  from  the  earth,  and 
it  may  be  condensed  as  dew  ;  for  we  find 
the  grass  first  becoming  moist  with  dew, 
then  the  substances  raised  above  it,  while 
both  indicate  an  equal  degree  of  cold;  but 
all  the  quantity  of  dew  from  this  cause 
can  never  be  great,  because,  until  the  air 
be  cooled  by  the  substances,  attractive  of 
dew,  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  below 
its  poiutof  repletion  with  moisture,  it  will 
alfl\ays  be  in  a  condition  to  take  up  that 
which  has  been  deposited  upon  grass*  or 
other  low  bodies  by  warm  vapour  emitted 
by  the  earth,  just  as  the  moisture  formed 
on  a  mirror  by  our  breath  is,  in  temperate 
weather,  almost  immediately  carried  away 
by  the  surrounding  air.  Agreeably  to 
another  opinion,  the  dew  found  on  grow- 
ing vegetables  is  the  condensed  vapour  of 
the  very  plants  on  whicii  it  api)ears  ;  but 
this  also  is  erroneous,  because  dew  forms 
as  copiously  upon  dead  as  upon  living 
vegetable  substances  ;  and  "  if  a  plant,"  as 
Dr  Wells  observes,  "  has  become,  by 
radiating  its  heat  to  the  heavens,  so  cold 
as  to  be  enabled  to  bring  the  air  in  contact 
with  it  below  the  point  of  repletion  with 
moisture,  that  which  forms  upon  it  from 
its  own  transpiration  will  not  then  indeed 
evaporate.     But  although  moisture  will  at 


the  same  time  be  communicated  to  it  bj 
the  atmosphere,  and  when  the  difference 
in  the  copiousness  of  these  two  sources  is 
considered,  it  may,  I  think,  be  safely  con- 
cluded, that  almost  the  whole  of  the  dew 
which  will  afterwards  form  upon  the  plant 
must  be  derived  from  the  air ;  more 
especially  when  the  coldness  of  a  clear 
night,  and  the  general  inactivity  of  plants 
in  the  absence  of  light,  both  lessening  their 
transpiration,  are  taken  into  account." 
"  Hoar-frost  is  just  frozen  dew  ;  but  as  it 
only  appears  when  the  surface  of  the  earth 
is  sealed  with  frost,  the  vapour  of  whicli  it 
is  formed  cannot,  of  course,  at  the  time 
perspire  from  the  earth."* 

1 78.  Hygrometers.  —  Instruments  in- 
tended to  show  the  quantity  and  condition 
of  the  vapours  contained  in  the  atmo- 
sphere are  called  A_j/yrom«<er»  ;  when  they 
merely  indicate  the  presence  of  aqueous 
vapour,  without  measuring  its  amount, 
they  are  called  hygroscopes. 

179.  The  measurement  of  the  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere  is  a  subject  of  greater 
importance  to  science  than  to  practice  ;  for 
however  excellent  the  instrument  may  be 
for  determining  the  degree  of  humidity, 
the  atmosphere  has  assumed  the  humid 
state  before  an  indication  of  its  change  is 
intimated  by  the  instrument :  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  no  better  than  the  thermo- 
meter, which  only  tells  the  existing  heat; 
and  both  are  less  useful  on  a  farm  than 
the  barometer,  which  certainly  indicates 
approaching  changes. 

180.  Professor  Leslie  was  the  first  to 
construct  a  useful  instrument  of  this  kind. 
It  is  of  the  form  of  the  differential  ther- 
mometer, having  a  little  sulphuric  acid  in 
it ;  and  the  cold  is  produced  by  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  one  of  the  bulbs  covered 
with  black  silk,  which  is  kept  wetted,  and 
the  degree  of  evaporation  of  the  moisture 
from  that  bulbiudicatesthedi^nessof  the  air. 

181.  Another  instrument  is  the  dew- 
point  hygrometer  of  Professor  Daniells, 
which  is  considered  rather  difficult  of 
management,  except  in  expert  hands. 

182.  The  hygrometer  of  Dr  Mason  is 


Wells  On  DeK,  p.  1-116,  second  edition,  1815. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICAM.E  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


43 


an  excellent  one.  It  consists  of  two  ther- 
mometers fastened  upright  to  a  stand,  hav- 
ing a  fountain  of  water  in  a  glass  tube 
placed  betwixt  them,  and  out  of  which  the 
water  is  taken  up  to  one  of  the  bulbs  by 
means  of  black  floss  silk.  When  the  air 
is  very  dry,  the  difference  between  the  two 
thermometers  will  be  great ;  if  moist,  less 
in  proportion  ;  and  when  fully  saturated, 
both  will  be  alike.  The  silk  that  covers 
the  wet  bulb,  and  thread  which  conveys 
the  water  to  it,  require  renewal  about 
every  month  ;  and  the  fountain  is  filled 
when  requisite  with  distilled  water,  or 
water  that  has  been  boiled  and  allowed  to 
cool,  by  immersing  it  in  a  basin  of  the 
water  till  the  aperture  only  is  just  upon  the 
surface,  and  tiie  water  will  flow  into  it. 
For  ordinary  purposes  of  observation,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  place  the  instrument  in 
a  retired  part  of  the  room,  away  from  the 
fire,  and  not  exposed  to  weather,  open 
doors,  or  passages;  but  for  nice  experi- 
ments, the  observations  should  always  be 
made  in  the  open  air  and  in  the  shade, 
taking  especial  care  that  the  instrument 
be  not  influenced  by  the  radiation  of  any 
heated  bodies,  or  any  currents  of  air. 
When  the  hygrometer  is  placed  out  of 
doors  in  frosty  weather,  the  fountain  had 
better  be  removed,  as  the  freezing  of  the 
water  within  may  cause  it  to  break ;  in 
this  case,  a  thin  coating  of  ice  may  soon 
be  formed  on  the  wet  bulb,  which  will 
last  a  considerable  time  wet,  and  be  re- 
wetted  when  required. 

1 83.  This  instrument  seems  very  similar 
to  August's />s^c^rome/er,  as  described  by 
Peschel.  He  says  that  "  it  consists  of  two 
very  delicate  mercurial  thermometers, 
which  exactly  correspond,  divided  into 
fifths  and  even  tenths  of  degrees,  the  scales 
ranging  from — 13°  to  104°  Fahrenheit; 
they  are  both  fixed  in  a  frame  in  a  similar 
position,  about  three  inches  apart.  One 
ball  is  surrounded  with  muslin,  which  is 
continually  moistened  by  means  of  a  thread 
of  cotton  attached  to  it,  the  other  end  hang- 
ing in  a  cup  filled  with  distilled  water; 
the  other  bulb  is  kept  dry."  The  indica- 
tions of  this  instrument  are  exactly  similar 
to  those  of  Mason's  hygrometer.* 

184.  Simple  hygrometers  may  be  made 


of  various  substances  —  mostly  of  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  origin  —  such  as  hair, 
fish-bone,  ivory,  animal  membranes  and 
intestines,  the  beard  of  wild  oats,  wood,  &c. 
—  to  show  whether  the  air  is  more  or 
less  humid  at  any  given  time.  The  awn 
of  the  Tartarian  or  wild  oat,  when  fixed  in  a 
perpendicular  position  to  a  card,  indicates, 
by  its  spiked  inclined  beard,  the  degree  of 
humidity.  A  light  hog's  bristle  split  in 
the  middle,  and  riding  by  the  split  upon 
the  stem  of  the  awn,  forms  a  better  index 
than  the  spike  of  the  awn  itself.  To  ad- 
just this  instrument,  you  have  only  to  wet 
the  awn  and  observe  how  far  it  carries 
round  the  index,  and  mark  that  as  the 
lowest  point  of  humidity;  and  then  subject 
the  awn  to  the  heat  of  the  fire  for  the 
highest  point  of  dryness,  which,  when 
marked,  will  give  betwixt  the  two  points 
an  arc  of  a  circle,  which  may  be  divided 
into  its  degrees.  I  have  used  such  an  in- 
strument for  some  time.  When  two  or 
more  are  compared  together,  the  mean 
humidity  may  be  obtained.  The  awns  can 
be  renewed  at  pleasure.  With  regard  to 
confiding  in  the  truth  of  this  simple  hygro- 
meter, the  precaution  of  Dr  Wells  is  worth 
attention.  "  Hygrometers  formed  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  substances,"  he  remarks, 
"  when  exposed  to  a  clear  sky  at  night, 
will  become  colder  than  the  atmosphere; 
and  hence,  by  attracting  dew,  or,  accord- 
ing to  an  observation  of  Saussure,  by  merely 
cooling  the  air  contiguous  to  them,  mark  a 
degree  of  moisture  beyond  what  the  atmo- 
sphere actually  contains.  This  serves  to 
explain  an  observation  made  by  M.  de  Luc, 
that  in  serene  and  calm  weather,  the  humi- 
dity of  the  air,  as  determined  by  a  hygro- 
meter, increases  about  and  after  sunset 
with  a  greater  rapidity  than  can  be  attri- 
buted to  a  diminution  of  the  general  heat 
of  the  atmosphere."  t 

185.  Boiling. — It  is  the  influence  of 
external  pressure  that  keeps  the  particles 
of  water  from  being  evaporated  rapidly 
into  the  atmospliere.  Even  at  32°,  the 
freezing  point,  if  placed  in  a  vacuum,  water 
will  assume  the  form  of  vapour,  unless  con- 
strained by  a  pressure  of  H  ounce  on  each 
square  inch  of  surface,  and  at  higher  tem- 
peratures the  restraining  force  must  be 
greater:  at  100°  it  must  be  13  ounces;  at 


Peschel's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.  ii.  p.  232 — Heat. 


t  Wells  On  Dew,  p.  64. 


44 


INITIATION. 


150°  4  lbs.;  at  212'  15  lbs.;  at  250°  30 
lbs.  ■\Vlicnevcr  the  restraining  force  is 
much  weaker  than  the  expansive  tendency, 
the  formation  of  steam  takes  place  so 
rapidly  as  to  jiroduce  the  bubbling  and 
agitation  called  boilhiij.  An  atmosphere 
less  heavy  than  our  present  one  would 
have  allowed  water  to  burst  into  vapour 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  212%  and  one 
more  heavy  would  have  had  a  contrary 
effect.  Thus,  the  ebullition  of  water  takes 
place  at  a  lower  temperature  the  higher 
we  ascend  mountains,  and  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature the  deeper  we  descend  into  mines. 
The  boiling  ])oint  may  thus  be  made  the 
measure  of  altitude  of  any  place  above  the 
sea,  or  of  one  place  above  another.  Dr 
Lardner  has  given  a  table  of  the  medium 
temperature  at  which  water  boils  at  dif- 
ferent places  at  various  heights  above  the 
sea.*  It  appears  that,  at  such  an  eleva- 
tion as  to  cause  the  barometer  to  indicate 
15  inches  of  atmospheric  pressure,  or  at 
half  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, water  will  boil  at  180°.  As  a  gene- 
ral rule,  every  tenth  of  an  inch  which 
the  barometric  colunm  varies  between  the 
limits  of  2G  and  31  inches,  the  boiling  tem- 
perature changes  by  oue-sixth,  of  a  de- 
gree. 

186.  Fuel.  —  A  few  remarks  on  feul 
from  Dr  Arnott's  valuable  writings  may 
not  be  out  of  j)lace  here,  when  we  arc  con- 
sidering the  physical  properties  of  various 
substances.  The  comparative  value  as 
fuel  of  different  kinds  of  carbonaceous 
substances  has  been  found  by  experiment 
to  be  thus : — 

1  lb.  of  charcoal  of  wood  melts  95  lb.  of  ice. 

—  good  coal  90   — 

—  coke  84   — 

—  wood  32   — 

—  peat  19   — 

We  thus  see  how  valuable  good  coal,  and 
how  very  inferior  peat  is,  as  a  generator  of 
heat — the  latter  not  being  much  above  half 
the  value  of  wood.  Good  coal  is  thus  the 
cheapest  kind  of  fuel  where  it  is  abundant. 

187.  "A  pound  of  coke,"  says  Dr 
Arnott,  "  produces  nearly  as  much  heat 
as  a  pound  of  coal ;  but  we  must  remem- 
ber that  a  pound  of  coal  gives  only  three 


quarters  of  a  pound  of  coke,  although  the 
latter  is  more  bulky  than  the  former.  It 
is  wa-steful  to  wet  fuel,  because  the  mois- 
ture, in  being  evaporated,  carries  off  with 
it  as  latent,  and  therefore  useless  heat,  a 
considerable  ])roportion  of  what  the  com- 
bustion produces.  It  is  a  very  common 
prejudice,  that  the  wetting  of  coal,  by 
making  it  last  longer,  is  effecting  a  great 
saving ;  but  while,  in  truth,  it  restrains 
the  combustion,  and,  for  a  time,  makes  a 
bad  fire,  it  also  wastes  the  heat.  Coal 
containing  much  hydrogen,  as  all  flaming 
coal  does,  is  used  wastefuUy  when  any  of 
the  hydrogen  escapes  without  burning ; 
for,  first,  the  great  heat  wdiich  the  com- 
bustion of  such  hydrogen  would  produce 
is  not  obtained  ;  and,  secondly,  the  hydro- 
gen, while  becoming  gas,  absorbs  still 
more  heat  into  the  latent  state  than  au 
equal  weight  of  water  would.  Now,  the 
smoke  of  a  fire  is  the  hydrogen  of  the  coal 
rising  in  combination  with  a  portion  of 
carbon.  We  see,  therefore,  that  by  de- 
stroying or  burning  smoke,  we  not  only 
prevent  a  nuisance,  but  effect  a  great 
saving.  The  reason  that  common  fires 
give  out  so  much  smoke  is,  either  that  the 
smoke,  or  what  we  shall  call  the  vajiorised 
pitch,  is  not  sufficiently  heated  to  burn,  or 
that  the  air  mixed  with  it,  as  it  ascends 
in  the  chinmey,  has  already,  while  passing 
through  the  fire,  been  deitrived  of  its  free 
oxygen.  If  the  pitch  be  very  much 
heated,  its  ingredients  assume  a  new  ar- 
rangement, becoming  transparent,  and 
constituting  the  common  coal-gas  of  our 
lamps;  but  at  lower  temperature,  the 
l)itcli  is  seen  jetting  as  a  dense  smoke  from 
cracks  or  openings  in  the  coal — a  smoke, 
however,  which  immediately  becomes  a 
brilliant  flame  if  lighted  by  a  piece  of 
burning  ]iaper,  or  the  ajtproximation  of 
the  combustion.  The  alternate  bursting 
out  and  extinction  of  these  burning  jets  of 
pitchy  vapour,  contribute  to  render  a  com- 
mon fire  an  object  so  lively  and  of  such 
agreeable  contemplation  in  the  winter 
evenings.  When  coal  is  first  thrown  upon 
a  fire,  a  great  quantity  of  vaporised  ])itch 
escapes  as  a  dense  cold  smoke,  too  cold  to 
burn,  «iul  for  a  time  the  flame  is  smothered, 
or  there  is  none ;  but  as  the  fresh  coal  is 
heated,  its  vapour  reproduces  the  flame  as 
before.     In  close  fire-places — viz.  those  of 


Lardner  On  Ileat,  p.  413. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


45 


great  boilers,  as  of  steam-engines,  &c.,  all 
the  air  vvhicli  enters  after  the  furnace-door 
is  shut,  must  pass  through  the  grate  and 
the  burning  fuel  lying  on  it,  and  there  its 
oxygen  is  consumed  by  the  red-hot  coal 
before  it  ascends  to  where  the  smoke  is. 
The  smoke,  therefore,  however  hot,  passes 
away  unburnt,  unless  sometimes,  as  in  iron 
fouudery  furnaces,  where  the  heat  is  very 
great  indeed;  and  it  burns  as  a  flame  of  a 
great  lamp  at  the  chimney-top,  on  reach- 
ing the  oxygen  of  the  open  atmosphere. 

A  smoke-consuming  fire 

would  be  constructed  on  a  perfect  prin- 
ciple, in  which  the  fuel  was  made  to  burn 
only  at  the  upper  surface  of  its  mass,  and 
so  that  the  pitch  and  gas  disengaged  from 
it,  as  the  heat  spread  downward,  might 
Lave  to  pass  through  the  burning  coals 
where  fresh  air  was  mixing  with  them ; 
thus  the  gas  and  smoke,  being  the  most 
inflammable  parts,  would  burn  first  and 

be  all  consumed Coal  in  a 

deep  narrow  trough,  if  lighted  at  its  sur- 
face, burns  with  a  lofty  flame  as  if  it  were 
the  wick  of  a  large  lamj:) ;  for  all  the  gas 
given  out  from  the  coal  below,  as  that  is 
gradually  heated,  passes  through  the  burn- 
ing fuel  and  becomes  a  flame.  Now,  if 
we  suppose  many  such  troughs  placed 
together,  with  intervals  between  them,  in 
place  of  the  fire-bars  of  a  comnum  grate 
or  furnace,  there  would  be  a  perfect  no- 
smoking  fire-place The 

reason  of  the  vast  saving  of  fuel  by  such 
a  grate  is,  that  the  smoke,  instead  of  steal- 
ing away  latent  heat — being  yet  itself  the 
most  combustible  and  precious  part  of  the 
fuel,  gives  all  its  powers  and  worth  to  the 
purpose  of  the  combustion."  * 

188.  Light. — The  science  which  treats 
of  the  properties  and  phenomena  of  light 
and  vision  is  termed  Optics. 

189.  The  properties  of  light  are,  that "  it 
is  an  emanation  from  the  sun  and  other 
luminous  bodies,  becoming  less  intense  as 
it  spreads,  and  which,  by  falling  on  other 
bodies,  and  being  reflected  from  them  to 
the  eye,  renders  them  visible.  It  moves 
with  great  velocity,  and  in  straight  lines, 
where  there  is  no  obstacle,'  leaving  shadows 
where  it  cannot  fall.  It  passes  readily 
through  some  bodies,  which  are  therefore 


called  transparent,  but  when  it  enters  or 
leaves  the  surface  obliquely,  it  suffers  at 
times  a  degree  of  bending  or  refraction 
proportioned  to  the  obliquity.  And  a 
beam  of  white  light  thus  refracted  or 
bent,  under  certain  circumstances,  is  re- 
solved into  beams  of  all  the  elementary 
colours,  which,  however,  in  being  again 
blended,  become  the  white  light  as  be- 
fore." 

190.  "There  have  been  two  opinions 
respecting  the  nature  of  light :  one,  that 
it  consists  of  extremely  minute  jiarticles, 
darting  all  around  from  the  luminous 
body ;  the  other,  that  the  phenomenon  is 
altogether  dependent  on  an  undulation 
among  the  particles  of  a  very  subtile 
elastic  fluid  diffused  through  sjjace — as 
sound  is  dependent  on  an  undulation 
among  air-particles.  Now,  if  light  be 
particles  darting  around,  their  minuteness 
must  be  wonderful,  as  a  taper  can  fill  with 
them  for  hours  a  space  of  four  miles  in 
diameter;  and  with  the  extreme  velocity 
of  light,  if  its  particles  possessed  at  all  the 
property  of  matter  called  inertia,  their 
momentum  should  be  very  remarkable;  it 
being  found,  however,  that  even  a  large 
sunbeam  collected  by  a  burning-glass,  and 
thrown  upon  the  scale  of  a  most  delicate 
balance,  has  not  the  slightest  effect  upon 
the  equilibrium.  Such  and  many  other 
facts  lead  to  the  opinion,  that  there  is  an 
undulation  of  an  elastic  fluid  concerned 
in  producing  the  phenomena  of  light." 

191.  There  is  no  immediate  relation 
between  agriculture  and  the  general 
propositions  of  optics;  still  the  influ- 
ence of  light  has  so  very  powerful  an 
effect  upon  vegetation,  that  to  a  mind  de- 
sirous of  tracing  the  causes  and  connexion 
of  natural  phenomena,  the  origin  of  colours 
must  prove  interesting.  For  an  explana- 
tion of  this  remarkable  phenomenon,  I 
may  quote  the  words  of  Dr  Arnott :— "  The 
most  extraordinary  fact  connected  with 
the  bending  of  light  is,  that  a  pure  ray  of 
white  light  from  the  sun  admitted  into  a 
darkened  room  by  a  hole  in  a  window- 
shutter,  and  made  to  bend  by  passing 
through  transparent  surfaces  which  it 
meets  obliquely,  instead  of  bending  alto- 
gether, and  appearing  still  as  the  same 


*  Arnott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.ii.  part  1,'p.  149-153 — Heat. 


46 


IXITIATIOX. 


white  ray,  is  divided  into  several  raye, 
which,  falling  on  the  white  wall,  are  seen 
to  be  of  different  most  vivid  colours.  The 
ori<:inal  white  ray  is  said  thus  to  be  ana- 
IvsetL,  or  divided  into  elements.  The 
solar  s|)ectrum,  as  it  is  called,  formed  upon 
the  wall,  consists,  when  the  light  is  ad- 
mitted bv  a  narrow  horizontal  slit,  of  four 
coloured  jtatches  corresponding  to  the  slit, 
and  ap|K?aring  in  the  order,  from  the  bot- 
tom, of  red,  green,  blue,  and  violet.  If 
the  slit  be  then  made  a  little  wider,  the 
patches  at  their  edges  overlap  each  other, 
and,  its  a  painter  would  say,  produce  by 
the  mixture  of  their  elementary  colours 
various  new  tints.  Then  the  6|tectrum 
consists  of  the  seven  colours  commonly 
enumerated  and  seen  in  the  rainbow,  viz. 
red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo, 
and  violet.  Had  red,  yellow,  blue,  and 
violet  been  the  four  colours  obtained  in 
the  first  experiinent,  the  occurrence  of  the 
others,  viz. — of  the  orange,  from  the  mix- 
ing of  the  edges  of  the  red  and  yellow  ;  of 
the  green,  from  the  mixture  of  the  yellow 
and  blue ;  and  of  the  indigo,  from  the 
mixture  of  the  blue  and  violet — would  have 
been  anticipated.  But  the  true  facts  of 
the  ca^e  not  being  such,  proves  that  they 
are  not  yet  well  understood. 

192.  "When  Xewton  first  made  known 
the  phenomenon  of  the  many-coloured 
spectrum,  and  the  extraordinary  conclu- 
sion to  which  it  led,  he  excited  universal 
astonishment ;  for  the  common  idea  of 
purity- the  most  unmixed  was  that  of 
white  light.  In  farther  corroboration  of 
the  notion  of  the  compound  nature  of  light, 
he  maintained  that  if  the  colours  which 
appear  on  the  spectrum  be  painted  sepa- 
rately round  the  rim  of  a  wheel,  and  the 
wheel  be  then  turned  rapidly,  the  indivi- 
dual Colours  cease  to  be  distinguished,  and 
a  white  beam  only  appears  where  they  are 
whirling;  also,  that  if  the  rays  of  the 
spectrum  produced  by  a  prism  bo  again 
gathered  together  by  a  lens,  they  repro- 
duce white  light.  The  red  is  the  kind  of 
light  which  is  least  bent  in  refraction,  and 
the  violet  that  which  is  most  bent.  It 
was  at  one  time  said,  as  an  explanation, 
that  the  dilTerently  coloured  particles  in 
light  had  difTereut  degrees  of  gravity  or 
inertia,  and  were  therefore  not  all  equally 


bent.  It  is  farther  remarkable,  with  re- 
spect to  the  solar  spectrum,  that  much  of 
the  heat  in  the  ray  is  still  less  refracted 
than  even  the  red  light ;  for  a  thermometer 
held  below  the  red  light  rises  higher  than 
in  any  part  of  the  visible  spectrum  ;  and 
that  there  is  an  influence  more  refrangible 
than  even  the  violet  nys,  producing 
powerful  chemical  and  magnetical  efTecta. 
The  (lifTerent  spf)ts  of  colour  are  not  all  of 
the  same  size,  and  there  is  a  difference 
in  this  respect  according  to  the  refracting 
substance."* 

103.  The  recent  experiments  on  the  in- 
fluence of  light  in  its  various  colours  on 
vegetation,  by  Mr  Hunt  of  the  Museum  of 
Economic  Geology  in  London,  have  much 
increased  the  sphere  of  our  knowledge ; 
and  as  the  results  obtained  by  Mr  Hunt 
are  highly  probable,  I  shall  jiresent  thera 
in  the  popular  form  they  apj^eared  in  the 
Gardeners'  Chronicle.  "Yellow  light 
(lum'inositi/)  impedes  germination,  and 
accelerates  that  decomposition  of  carbonic 
acid  which  produces  wood  and  woody 
tissues.  Under  its  influence  leaves  are 
small  and  wood  short-jointe<l.  Red  light 
(heat)  carries  heat  and  is  favourable  to 
germinati<.n,  if  abundance  of  water  is  pre- 
sent, increases  evaporation,  (or  persj)ira- 
tion.)  su])ports  the  flowering  quality  and 
improves  fruit.  Under  its  influence  colour 
is  diminished  and  leaves  are  scorched. 
Blue  light  (chemical  action  or  actinism) 
accelerates  germination  and  causes  rapid 
growth.  Under  its  influence  plants  be- 
come weak  and  long-jointed." 

194.  In  a  lecture  delivered  by  Mr  Hunt 
to  the  Society  of  Arts,  on  the  16th  Feb- 
ruary 1848,  he  stated  that  "experiments 
had  proved  that  although  light  was  inju- 
rious to  the  germinating  seed,  and  actin- 
ism a  most  powerful  accelerating  agent  in 
that  process,  when  the  first  leaves  were 
developed,  the  actinic  principle  as  sepa- 
rated from  light  became  too  stimulating, 
and  that  the  luminous  principle  was  then 
demanded  to  effect  in  the  plant  the  de- 
composition of  the  carbonic  acid  inhaled 
by  the  leaves  and  absorbed  by  the  bark, 
and  the  secretion  of  carbon  to  form  woody 
structure.  The  influence  of  heat  and  ita 
necessity    to    vegetable    life    were    well 


•  Amott's  EUnenU  o/Pktfsiei,  p.  162  and  190. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTLTIE. 


47 


known  ;  but  it  had  also  been  proved  that 
as  the  calorific  rays  increased  towards  the 
autumnal  season,  the  luminous  and  actinic 
relatively  diminished.  The  scorching 
effects  to  be  prevented  were  of  course  the 
result  of  some  of  the  heat  rays ;  and  he 
had  discovered  to  which  class  they  be- 
longed by  spreading  the  expressed  juice  of 
Pahn  leaves  over  paper,  and  exposing  it 
to  the  action  of  the  spectrum.  This  class 
of  ray  had  the  power  of  acting  partly  by 
calorific  force  and  partly  by  chemical 
agency — a  phenomenon  which  had  been 
previously  detected  by  Sir  John  Herschell, 
and  classed  by  him  with  others,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  Paratherniic  rays. 
It  was  important  in  adopting  any  tinted 
medium  that  no  light  should  be  intersected, 
no  actinism  extracted,  and  that  the  ordi- 
nary heat  rays  should  not  be  interfered 
with.  The  experiments  of  Melloni  had 
shown  that  a  peculiar  green  glass,  made 
in  Italy,  when  washed  with  a  solution  of 
alum,  would  admit  the  free  passage  of 
light,  but  abstract  a  very  large  quantity 
of  heat.  The  desideratum,  therefore,  to 
be  obtained  was  a  green  glass  which  should 
of  itself  intercept  the  scorching  rays  with- 
out obstructing  the  others.  Mr  Hunt, 
with  the  assistance  of  Mr  Turner,  the  con- 
tractor, procured  from  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom  green  glasses  of  every  variety  of 
shade;  but  which,  on  examination,  were 
all  found  to  be  objectionable.  Mr  Hunt 
then  experimented  with  fluid  media, 
diluting  the  colours  to  any  degree,  and 
examining  the  absorbing  power  of  a  great 
variety  of  chemical  bodies.  By  this  means 
he  arrived  at  last  at  the  discovery  of  a 
colour  produced  by  oxide  of  copper  in  a 
very  diluted  state,  which  would  effectually 
obstruct  the  scorching  rays ;  and  Messrs 
Chance,  after  many  trials,  succeeded  in 
producing  a  glass  which  neither  obstructed 
any  light  nor  interfered  with  the  colour  of 
the  most  delicate  white  flowers,  nor  ex- 
cluded the  passage  of  the  chemical  rays, 
■while  it  would  completely  prevent  the 
permeation  of  the  heat  rays,  which  were 
found  to  have  so  remarkable  a  scorching 
property.  In  the  manufacture  of  this 
glass  the  entire  absence  of  manganese, 
though  used  in  the  ordinary  construction 
of  glass,  had  been  insisted  on  ;  because  that 
mineral,  when  used  in  the  slightest  excess, 
had  the  curious  property,  when  under  the 
influence  of  light,  of  imparting   a  pink 


tinge  ;  and  the  slightest  approach  to  red- 
ness would  allow  the  free  passage  of 
those  rays  it  was  so  important  to  obstruct. 

195.  "  From  the  facility  with  which  we 
were  enabled,"  continued  ^Ir  Hunt,  "  to  re- 
gulate by  the  use  of  coloured  media  the 
quantity  of  either  light,  heat,  or  actinism, 
which  may  be  admitted  to  growing  plants, 
we  had  at  command  the  means  of  supplying 
the  increased  action  of  any  of  these  forces. 
Germination  might  be  quickened  by  the 
action  of  the  actinic  power,  independently 
of  light,  and  the  full  action  of  chemical 
rays  was  secured  by  the  use  of  glasses 
stained  blue  by  cobalt.  In  all  cases  the 
germination  of  seeds  may  be  quickened 
by  covering  them  with  such  blue  glass  as 
was  used  in  making  many  fin<;er-glasses; 
and  since  the  striking  of  cuttings  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  exercising  of  an  ana- 
logous force  to  that  which  quickened  ger- 
mination, similar  glass  shades  would  be 
found  advantageous  to  eflect  this  object. 
It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  the 
excitement  of  that  chemical  agent  must 
be  withdrawn  after  germination  had  been 
eftected,  and  the  roots  were  formed,  and 
an  independent  existence  was  given  to  the 
plant.  When  there  was  any  tendency  in 
23lants  to  form  too  much  stalk  or  leaves, 
and  it  was  desired  to  produce  more  wood, 
it  was  done  by  admitting  as  much  light  as 
possible  with  the  smallest  possible  quan- 
tity of  actinic  power.  That  might  be 
efiected  by  interposing  glasses  of  a  yellow 
tint,  which  obstructed  the  passage  of  the 
chemical  rays,  but  would  intercept  very 
little  light.  It  frequently  occurred  that-, 
owing  to  some  peculiar  atmospheric  con- 
dition, the  flowers  of  plants  did  not  de- 
velop themselves  in  a  natural  or  healthy 
manner;  the  vegetative  functions  being 
too  active,  and  interfering  with  the  repro- 
ductive powers  of  the  plant,  often  giving 
rise  to  leaves  in  the  centre  of  the  flower. 
All  his  experiments  proved  that  the  calo- 
rific radiations  were  the  most  active  dur- 
ing the  period  in  which  the  plant  produced 
flowers,  fruits,  or  seeds.  The  absence  of 
the  luminous  rays  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, and  a  diminished  quantity  of  the 
chemical  or  actinic  radiation,  might  be 
secured  at  will,  without  interfering  with 
the  heat-giving  principle,  by  the  use  of 
glasses  coloured  red  by  the  oxide  of  gold. 
Mr  Hunt  suggested,  therefore,  to  horti- 


48 


INITIATION. 


culturists  the  occasional  use  of  glasses 
coloured  so  as  to  secure  the  perfect  for- 
mation of  the  flower." 

1  f»G.  "  Experiments,  however,  are  much 
wanted  on  this  subject,"  as  Dr  Liudley 
properly  observes  ;  "for  it  is  obvious,  un<l 
.bv  uo  means  inipnibable,  that  unexpected 
difficulties  may  occur  in  applying  the  facts 
above  mentioned  to  practice  ;  and  that 
although  the  luminous,  heating,  and  che- 
mical rays  may  be  si'jiaruted,  there  may  be 
no  means  of  blendini/  them  in  such  pro- 
jiortious  as  will  render  the  artificial  light 
thus  created  adapted  to  the  purposes  of 
vegetation.  It  is  indeed  improbable,  to 
say  the  least  of  it,  that  any  artificial  light 
should  be  so  well  suited  to  plants  as  that 
which  has  been  jirovided  fur  them  by  the 
great  Author  of  the  universe."  * 

1 97.  Chemistry. — Chemistry isabranch 
of  natural  science  useful  to  agriculture. 
Chemical  action  effects  great  and  impor- 
tant changes  in  the  structure  of  natural 
objects  without  the  aid  of  motion,  so  that 
its  operations  are  not  cognisable  by  the 
senses ;  whereas  the  laws  of  natural  ])hilo- 
sophy  operate  in  all  cases  by  moans  of 
motion,  and  therefore  present  themselves 
directly  to  the  notice  of  our  senses.  So 
universal  is  the  extent  of  chemical  ac- 
tion that,  whenever  dilierent  substances 
having  affinity  for  eacli  other  are  placed 
in  contact,  a  sensible  change  takes  place 
in  the  touching  .surfaces;  and  the  eflegt 
of  the  change  will  continue  unaltered  as 
long  as  the  separated  surfaces  remain 
in  a  siniilar  condition  ;  but  the  interfe- 
rence of  certain  agencies — such  as  heat, 
cold,  moisture,  drought,clectricity,vitality, 
motion — will  cause  additional  chemical 
changes  to  be  eH'ected  in  those  surfaces  as 
long  as  they  arc  in  contact.  Thus  the 
motion  occasionetl  by  the  action  of  the 
agricultural  implements  amongst  the  par- 
ticles of  so  complicateil  a  material  a.s  the 
arable  soil,  causes  a  chemical  change  to  take 
place  in  the  varied  substances  composing 
the  soil.  A  fall  of  rain  causes  another  sort 
of  change  auiongst  the  components  of  the 
same  soil.  Tiie  abstraction  of  substances 
in  a  state  ai  solution  by  living  plants 
from  the  soil  and  air,  produces  in  the  soil 
and  air,  as  well  as  in  the  vegetable  eco- 


nomy, great  chemical  changes.  The 
removal  of  vegetable  substances  from  the 
soil  by  animals,  and  the  return  of  the 
same  in  their  dung,  also  produce  great 
changes  in  the  soil  and  air,  as  well  as  in 
the  animal  economy.  That  electricity,  or 
magnetism,  or  the  voltaic  action,  has  an 
intimate  connexion  with  chemical  changes 
there  can  bo  no  doubt,  since  it  has  been 
well  ascertained  that  no  chemical  action 
takes  place  without  the  evolution  of  elec- 
tricity. Since  one  or  more  of  these  agen- 
cies are  constantly  in  action,  we  nmst 
believe  that  chemical  changes  are  as  con- 
tinually occurring  in  the  earth,  the  air,  or 
in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  ; 
and  the  importance  of  those  changes  is 
implied  in  the  certainty  of  their  results — 
changes  in  the  same  substances  producing 
similar  results  under  siiujlar  conditions. 

198.  Organic  matter. — It  is  impossible 
to  notice  every  minute  change  conti- 
nually occurring  in  the  chemical  state  of 
the  numerous  substances  presented  in  na- 
ture ;  yet,  in  investigating  the  constituents 
of  material  objects,  chemistry  has  dis- 
covered that  plants  consist  of  elements 
which  may  be  classified  under  two  heads : 
one  in  which  the  structure  may  be  almost 
entirely  dissipated  by  the  action  of  heat 
in  simple  combustion;  and  another  in 
which  the  parts  resist  combustion,  and 
lii'oduce  solid  matter  having  very  different 
properties.  Tlio  class  of  substances  en- 
tirely dissipated  by  combustion  are  called 
organic,  because  they  "generally  exhi- 
bit," observes  Professor  .Johnston,  "a  kind 
of  sti'ucturc  readily  visible  to  the  e^'e — as 
in  the  pores  of  wood  and  in  the  fibres  of 
hemp,  or  of  the  lean  of  beef — and  are 
thus  readily  distinguished  from  inorganic 
matters  in  which  no  such  structure  is  ob- 
servable ;  but,  in  many  substances  of 
organic  origin  also,  no  structure  can  be  ob- 
served. Thus  sugar,  starch,  and  gum,  are 
found  in  plants  in  great  abundance,  and 
yet  do  not  present  any  pores  or  fibres; 
they  have  never  been  endowed  with  organs, 
yet,  being  produced  by  the  agcnci/  of  living 
organs,  they  arc  included  under  the  general 
name  of  organic  matter.  So,  when  animals 
and  plants  die,  their  bodies  undergo  decay; 
but  the  substances  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, or  which  are  formed  during  their 


Gardeners'  Chronicle,  for  the  26th  February  and  4th  March,  1848. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTUEE. 


49 


decay,  are  considered  as  of  organic  origin, 
not  only  as  long  as  any  traces  of  structure 
are  observable,  but  even  after  all  such 
traces  have  disappeared.  Thus,  coal  is  a 
substance  of  organic  origin,  though  almost 
all  traces  of  the  vegetable  matter  from 
which  it  has  been  derived  have  been  long 
ago  obliterated.  Again,  heat  chars  and 
destroys  wood,  starch,  and  gum,  forming 
black  substances  totally  unlike  the  original 
matter  acted  upon.  By  distillation,  wood 
yields  tar  and  vinegar;  and  by  fermenta- 
tion, sugar  is  converted  first  into  alcohol, 
and  theu  into  vinegar.  All  substances  de- 
rived from  vegetable  or  animal  products, 
by  these  and  similar  processes,  are  included 
under  the  general  designation  of  organic 
bodies." 

199.  The  second  class  of  substances  are 
called  inorganic,  because  they  neither  are, 
nor  have  been,  the  seat  of  life.  "  The 
solid  rocks,  the  incombustible  part  of  soils, 
the  atmosphere,  the  waters  of  the  seas  and 
oceans,  every  thing  which  neither  is  nor 
has  been  the  seat  of  life,  may  generally 
be  included  under  the  head  of  inorganic 
matter."  * 

200.  Inorganic  matter. — The  existence 
of  inorganic  matter  iu  plants  has  long  been 
known  to  chemists,  even  prior  to  1698  ; 
for  in  that  year  a  list  of  the  mineral  in- 
gredients of  plants,  by  Redi,  was  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  ■  From 
that  period  until  the  publication  of  the 
researches  of  the  younger  Saussure,  in  1804, 
the  subject  does  not  seem  to  have  attracted 
the  particular  attention  of  chemists  as  one 
of  paramount  importance;  and  it  was 
reserved  for  Professor  Liebig  of  Giessen, 
so  lately  as  1840,  to  make  the  general 
impression  that  it  is  to  their  mineral  in- 
gredients alone  that  plants  owe  their 
peculiarities.  The  nutrition  of  plants  was, 
before  his  time,  a  subject  of  much  diffi- 
culty and  doubt;  but,  by  the  adoption 
of  his  idea, — that  plants  find  new  nutritive 
materials  only  in  inorganic  substances — a 
clear  view  has  been  obtained  of  the  great 
end  of  vegetable  life  being  to  generate 
matter  adapted  for  the  nutrition  of  animals, 
which  are  not  otherwise  fitted  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  and  the  purport  of  his  researches 
has   been  to  elucidate   the  chemical  pro- 


cesses engaged  in  the  nutrition  of  vege- 
tables. 

20 1 .  During  those  researches  Liebig  has 
solved  some  chemical  problems,  which  can- 
not fail  to  place  the  culture  of  plants  and 
the  fattening  of  animals  on  a  more  rational 
system  of  practice  than  has  hitherto  been 
pursued.  Some  of  the  most  important  of 
his  demonstrations  are  these: — If  cer- 
tain "  acids  constantly  exist  in  vege- 
tables, and  are  necessary  to  their  life, 
which  is  incontestable,  it  is  equally 
certain  that  some  alkaline  base  is  also 
indispensable,  in  order  to  enter  into  com- 
bination with  the  acids ;  for  these  are  al- 
ways found  in  the  state  of  neutral  or  acid 
salts.  All  plants  yield  by  incineration  ashes 
containing  carbonic  acid  ;  all,  therefore, 
must  contain  salts  of  an  organic  acid. 
Now,  as  we  knov?  the  capacity  of  satu- 
ration of  organic  acids  to  be  unchanging, 
it  follows  that  the  quantity  of  the  bases 
united  with  them  cannot  vary;  and,  for 
this  reason,  the  latter  substances  ought  to 
be  considered  with  the  strictest  attention, 
both  by  the  agriculturist  and  physiologist. 
We  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  a  plant 
in  a  condition  of  free  and  unimpeded 
growth  produces  more  of  its  peculiar 
acids  than  it  requires  for  its  own  existence; 
hence  a  plant,  in  whatever  soil  it  grows, 
must  contain  an  invariable  quantity  of 
alkaline  bases.  Culture  alone  will  be  able 
to  cause  a  deviation.  In  order  to  under- 
stand the  subject  clearly,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  bear  in  mind  that  any  one  of 
many  of  the  alkaline  bases  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  another,  the  action  of  all  being 
the  same.  Our  conclusion  is,  therefore, 
by  no  means  endangered  by  the  existence 
in  one  plant  of  a  particular  alkali,  which 
may  be  absent  in  others  of  the  same  spe- 
cies. If  this  inference  be  correct,  the 
absent  alkali  or  earth  must  be  supplied  by 
one  similar  in  its  mode  of  action,  or,  in 
other  words,  by  an  equivalent  of  another 
base.  The  number  of  equivalents  of  these 
various  bases,  which  may  be  combined  with 
a  certain  portion  of  acid,  must  consequently 
be  the  same,  and  therefore  the  amount  of 
oxygen  contained  in  them  must  remain 
unchanged  under  all  circumstances,  and 
in  whatever  soil  they  grow." — "  It  has 
been  distinctly  shown  by  the  analyses  of 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  second  edition,  p.  22. 


VOL.  I. 


60 


INITIATION. 


Do  Saussure  and  Berthier,  that  the  nature 
of  a  soil  exercises  a  decided  influence  on  the 
quality  of  the  different  metallic  oxides 
contained  in  the  plants  which  grow  on  it. 
Hence  it  has  been  concluded  (erroneously,! 
believe)  tiiat  the  [iresence  of  bases  exercises 
no  particular  influence  upon  the  growth  of 
plants :  but  even  were  this  view  correct,  it 
must  be  considered  as  a  most  remarkable 
accident  that  these  same  analyses  furnish 
.proof  for  the  very  opposite  opinion.  For 
although  the  composition  of  the  ashes  of 
the  pine-trees  at  Mont  Breven  and  from 
Mont  La  Salle  was  so  very  different,  they 
contained,  according  to  the  analyses  of  De 
Saussure,  an  equal  number  of  equivalents 
of  metallic  oxides,  or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in 
all  the  bases  was  in  both  cases  the  same." 

202.  "  It  is  not  known  in  what  form 
manganese  and  oxide  of  iron  are  contained 
in  plants;  but  we  are  certain  that  potash, 
soda,  and  magnesia  can  be  extracted  by 
means  of  w^ater  from  all  parts  of  their 
structure,  in  the  form  of  salts  of  organic 
acids.  The  same  is  the  case  with  lime, 
when  not  present  as  insoluble  oxalate  of 
linie.  The  potash  in  grapes  is  always 
found  as  an  acid  salt,  viz.,  cream  of  tartar, 
(bitartarate  of  potash,)  and  never  in  the 
form  of  a  neuti-al  compound.  As  these 
acids  and  bases  are  never  absent  from 
plants,  and  as  even  the  form  in  which  they 
present  themselves  is  not  subject  to  change, 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  they  exercise  an 
important  influence  on  the  development  of 
the  fruits  and  seeds,  and  also  in  many 
other  functions,  of  the  nature  of  which  we 
are  at  present  ignorant." — "The  existence 
of  vegetable  alkalies,  in  combination  with 
organic  acids,  gives  great  weight  to  the 
opinion  that  alkaline  bases  in  general  are 
connected  with  the  development  of  plants." 
— "  If  it  be  found,  as  apj)ears  to  be  the 
caKC  in  the  juice  of  j)oj)pies,  that  an 
organic  acid  may  be  replaced  by  an  inor- 
ganic, without  impelling  the  growth  of  a 
plant,  we  must  admit  the  j)robability  of 
this  substitution  taking  place  in  a  much 
higher  degree  in  the  case  of  the  inorganic 
bases.  When  roots  find  their  more  appro- 
priate base  in  sufficient  quantity,  they  will 
take  up  less  of  another.  These  pheno- 
mena do  not  show  themselves  so  fre- 
quently in  cultivated  plants,  because  they 
are   subjected   to   special   external    con- 


ditions, for  the  purpose  of  the  produc- 
tion of  particular  constituents  or  of  parti- 
cular organs." — "  Plants  have  the  power  of 
returning  to  the  soil  all  substances  unneces- 
sary to  their  existence  ;  and  the  conclu- 
sion to  which  all  the  foregoing  facts  lead 
us,  when  their  real  value  and  bearing  are 
apprehended,  is,  that  the  alkaline  baees, 
assisting  in  the  action  of  plants,  must  be 
necessary  to  their  growth,  since,  if  this 
were  not  the  case,  they  would  not  be  re- 
tained. The  perfect  devclopnient  of  a 
plant,  according  to  this  view,  is  dependent 
on  the  presence  of  alkalies  or  alkaline 
matter  ;  for  when  these  substances  are 
totally  wanting  its  growth  will  be  arrested, 
and  when  they  are  only  deficient  it  must 
be  impeded.  In  order  to  aj)ply  these 
remarks,  let  us  compare  two  kinds  of 
trees,  the  wood  of  which  contains  unequal 
quantities  of  alkaline  bases,  and  we  shall 
find  that  one  of  these  may  grow  luxuri- 
antly in  several  soils  upon  which  the  other 
is  scarcely  able  to  vegetate.  For  example, 
10,000  parts  of  oak-wood  yield  2.'J0  parts 
of  ashes,  the  same  quantity  of  fir-wood 
only  83,  of  linden-wood  500,  of  rye  440, 
and  of  the  herb  of  the  tobacco  plant  1 500 
parts.  Firs  and  pines  find  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  alkalies  in  granitic  and  barren 
sandy  soils,  in  which  oaks  will  not  grow, 
and  which  thrive  in  soils  favourable  for 
the  linden  tree,  because  the  bases  necessary 
to  bring  it  to  complete  maturity  exist  there 
in  sufficient  quantity.  The  accuracy  of 
these  conclusions,  so  highly  important 
to  agriculture  and  to  the  cultivation  of 
forests,  can  be  proved  by  the  most  evident 
facts." — ''The  ashes  of  the  tobacco  plant, 
of  the  vine,  of  pease,  and  of  clover,  contain 
a  large  (jiiantity  of  lime.  Such  plants  do 
not  flourish  in  soild  devoid  of  lime.  By 
the  addition  of  the  salts  of  lime  to  such 
soils,  they  become  fitted  for  the  growth  of 
these  plants;  for  we  have  e\cry  reason  to 
believe  that  their  development  essentially 
depends  upon  the  presence  of  lime.  Tho 
j)resence  of  magnesia  is  equally  essential, 
there  being  many  ]ihnits,  such  as  the  difi'e- 
rent  varieties  of  beet  and  potatoes,  from 
which  it  is  never  absent.  The  supposition 
that  alkalies,  metallic  oxides,  or  inttr* 
ganic  matter  in  general,  may  he  produced 
by  plants,  is  entirely  refuted  by  these 
well-authenticated  facts."  The  general 
conclusion  of  the  value  of  these  proposi- 
tions,  as   regards  the  culture    of  plants 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


51 


and  trees,  is  expressed  in  these  terms : — 
"From  these  considerations  we  must  per- 
ceive that  exact  and  trustworthy  exami- 
nations of  the  ashes  of  plants  of  the  same 
kind, growing  upon  different  soils,  would  be 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  vegetable 
physiology,  and  would  decide  whether  the 
facts  above  mentioned  are  the  results  of  an 
unchanging  law  for  each  family  of  plants, 
and  Avhether  an  invariable  number  can  be 
found  to  express  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
which  each  species  of  plants  contains  in 
the  bases  united  with  organic  acids.  In 
all  probability  such  inquiries  will  lead  to 
most  important  results  ;  for  it  is  clear  that 
if  the  production  of  a  certain  unchanging 
quantity  of  an  organic  acid  is  required  by 
the  2'cculiar  nature  of  the  organs  of  a 
j)lant,  and  is  necessary  to  its  existence, 
then  potash  or  lime  must  be  taken  up  by 
it  in  order  to  form  salts  with  this  acid  ;  and 
if  these  do  not  exist  in  sufficient  quantity 
in  the  soil,  other  alkaline  bases,  of  equal 
value,  must  supply  their  place ;  and  that 
the  progress  of  a  plant  must  be  wholly 
arrested  when  none  are  present."* 

203.  The  mineral  ingredients  of  a  plant 
bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  its  entire 
weight.  The  extreme  quantities,of  these  in- 
gredients in  cultivated  plants  may  perhaps 
be  stated  at  from  sho  to  i  of  the  weight, 
and  the  average  may  perhaps  be  stated  near 
the  truth  at  sV  or  5  per  cent  of  the  weight. 
Saussure,  who  devoted  so  much  of  his  at- 
tention to  the  analysis  of  the  mineral  ingre- 
dients of  plants,  would  seem  to  fear  that 
the  smallness  of  their  proportions  might 
render  them  unimportant  in  the  estima- 
tion of  agriculturists  and  others.  "  Many 
authors,"  he  says,  as  quoted  by  Liebig, 
"  consider  that  the  mineral  ingredients  of 
plants  are  merely  accidentally  present,  and 
are  not  at  all  necessary  to  their  existence, 
because  the  quantity  of  such  substances 
is  exceedingly  small.  This  opinion  may  be 
true  as  far  as  regards  those  matters  which 
are  not  always  found  in  plants  of  the  same 
kind  ;  but  there  is  certainly  no  evidence 
of  its  truth  with  those  invariably  present. 
Their  small  quantity  does  not  indicate 
their  inutility.  The  phosi)hate  of  lime 
existing  in  the  animal  body  does  not 
amount  to  a  fifth  part  of  its  weight,  yet  it 
cannot  be  affirmed  that  this  salt  is  unne- 


cessary to  the  formation  of  its  bones.  I 
have  detected  the  same  compound  in  the 
ashes  of  all  plants  submitted  to  examina- 
tion, and  we  have  no  right  to  suppose  that 
they  could  exist  without  it."  To  show  the 
important  effects  of  the  most  minute  pro- 
portion of  ingredients,  Liebig  has  given  a 
lev.'  interesting  illustrations.  "  In  a  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  phenomena  of 
nature,"  he  remarks,  "  we  have  no  scale 
for  that  which  we  are  accustomed  to  name, 
small  or  great— all  our  ideas  are  propor- 
tioned to  what  we  see  around  us  ;  but  liow 
insignificant  are  they  in  comparison  with 
the  whole  mass  of  the  globe  !  that  which 
is  scarcely  observable  in  a  confined  district, 
appears  inconceivably  large  when  regarded 
in  its  extension  through  unlimited  space. 
The  atmosphere  contains  only  a  thousandth 
part  of  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid  ;  and  yet, 
small  as  this  projiortion  appears,  it  is  quite 
sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  of  tiie  pre- 
sent generation  of  living  beings  with  car- 
bon for  a  thousand  years,  even  if  it  were 
not  renewed.  Sea- water  contains  i sioo  of 
its  weight  of  carbonate  of  lime ;  and  this 
quantity,  although  scarcely  appreciable  in 
a  pound,  is  the  source  from  which  nij'riads 
of  marine  mollusca  and  corals  are  supplied 
with  materials  for  their  habitations." — 
"  The  air  hanging  over  the  sea  always 
contains  enough  of  common  salt  to  render 
turbid  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and 
every  breeze  must  cany  this  away.  Now, 
as  thousands  of  tons  of  sea-water  annually 
evaporate  into  the  atUK  sphere,  a  corre- 
sponding quantity  of  the  salts  dissolved  iu 
it, — viz.,  of  common  salt,  chloride  of  po- 
tassium, magnesia,  and  the  remaining  con- 
stituents of  sea-water — will  be  conveyed  by 
wind  to  the  land." — "  The  roots  of  plants 
are  constantly  engaged  in  collecting  from 
the  rain  those  alkalies  which  formed  part 
of  the  sea- water,  and  also  those  of  the 
water  of  the  springs  penetrating  the  soil. 
Witliout  alkalies  and  alkaline  bases  most 
plants  could  not  exist,  and  without  plants 
the  alkalies  would  dibapj)ear  gradually 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  When  it  is 
considered  that  sea-water  contains  less 
than  one-millionth  of  its  own  weight  of 
iodine,  and  that  all  combinations  of  iodine 
with  the  metallic  bases  of  alkalies  are 
highly  soluble  in  water,  some  provision 
must  necessarily  be  supposed  to  exist  in 


Liebig's  Chemistry  of  Agriculture  and  Physiology,  3d  edition,  p.  67-78. 


52 


INITIATION. 


the  organisation  of  sea-weeJ  and  the  diffe- 
rent kinds  of  fuci,  by  which  they  are 
enabled,  during  tlieir  life,  to  extract  iodine 
in  the  form  of  a  soluble  salt  from  sea- 
water,  and  to  assimilate  it  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  it  is  not  again  restored  to  the 
surrounding  mediuni.  These  plants  are 
collet-tors  of  iodine  just  as  land  plants  are 
of  alkalies  ;  and  they  yield  us  this  ele- 
ment in  quantities  such  as  we  could  not 
otherwise  obtain  from  the  water,  without 
the  evajioration  of  whole  seas.  We  take 
it  for  granted  that  the  sea  plants  require 
metallic  iodines  for  their  growth,  and  that 
their  existence  is  deiJendent  on  the  pre- 
sence of  these  substances.  With  equal 
justice,  then,  we  conclude  that  the  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths,  always  found  in  the 
ashes  of  land  plants,  are  likewise  necessary 
for  their  development."* 

204.  Specijic  manures. —  On  the  de- 
monstration of  such  propositions  as  these, 
and  many  of  a  similar  character.  Professor 
Liebig  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that,  to 
promote  the  healthy  growth  of  plants,  it 
was  not  only  necessary  to  supply  them 
with  such  food  as  would  support  their 
general  structure,  as  indicated  by  the  com- 
position of  their  organic  parts,  but  also 
food  of  such  a  specific  nature  as  would 
support  tlieir  peculiar  properties,  as  indi- 
cated by  their  inorganic  ingredients  ;  and 
as  regards  the  rearing  and  fattening  of 
animals,  such  food  should  be  provided  them 
as  to  supply  the  materials  of  flesh  and 
bones  to  young  animals,  and  of  flesh  and 
fat  to  those  which  are  to  be  fattened. 
Hence  the  use  of  specific  manures  and  of 
specific  food,  for  the  rearing  of  plants  and 
animals  to  the  best  advantage  to  the  far- 
mer. Could  all  the  operations  of  agricul- 
ture be  thus  conducted  so  as  to  ensure 
certain  results,  experience  in  the  art  would 
be  abandoned,  and  science  alone  guide  the 
M'ay.  This  is  a  consummation  as  yet  to 
be  desiderated,  and  will  be  only  attainable, 
if  attainable  at  all,  after  the  pompositiun 
of  all  the  plants  in  cultivation,  of  all  the 
manures  in  use,  and  of  all  the  soils  bearing 
plants  and  animals,  shall  be  made  known  by 
the  researches  of  chemistry.  Until  that 
knowledge  shall  have  been  acquired,  che- 
mists will  have  a  wide  and  extensive  field  to 
explore  ;    and  then,  after  all  the  labour 


has  been  accomplished,  it  will  remain  to 
be  determined  by  practice  how  to  use  the 
vast  fund  of  knowledge  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

205.  While  Liebig,  a  foreigner,  has  ob- 
tained the  credit  of  being  the  first  to  pre- 
sent the  subjects  of  specific  manures,  and  the 
mineral  ingredients  of  plants,  before  the 
British  farmers  in  a  practicable  shape,  and 
which  he  did  so  lately  as  1840,  there 
were  persons  in  our  own  country  whose 
attentiim  had  been  devoted  to  those  ]>arti- 
cular  subjects.  Mr  Grisenthwaite  of  Not- 
tingham, in  1818,  published  the  doctrine 
of  specific  manures,  and  of  the  existence  of 
saline  ingredients  in  plants,  at  one  of  the 
annual  meetings  at  Holkham  under  the  late 
Mr  Coke  ;  and  in  1830,  in  the  second  edi- 
tion of  his  New  Theory/  of  Agriculture^ 
he  devotes  an  entire  chapter  to  the  expo- 
sition of  his  views  on  specific  manures. 
In  describing  the  particular  ingredients 
of  some  ])lants,  he  says,  "  Let  us  recur 
once  more  to  the  grain  of  wheat.  In 
that  grain  there  always  exists,  as  has  been 
stated,  a  portion  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
It  is  the  constancy  of  its  presence  that 
proves,  beyond  reasonable  doubt,  that  it 
answers  some  important  purpose  in  the 
economy  of  the  seed.  It  is  never  found  in 
the  straw  of  the  plant :  it  does  not  exist 
in  barley,  or  oats,  or  peas,  although  grown 
upon  the  same  land  and  under  the  same 
circumstances,  but,  as  has  just  been  ob- 
served, alicays  in  wheat.  Now,  to  regard 
this  unvarying  discrimination  as  acciden- 
tal, or  to  consider  it  as  useless,  is  to  set  at 
defiance  the  soundest  principles  of  re;ison- 
ing  that  philosophy  ever  bruited.  If 
phosphate  of  lime  had  sometimes  only  been 
found  in  wheat,  or  if  it  had  been  discovered 
in  barley  or  clover,  then  we  might  have 
concluded  that  the  whole  was  a<:cidental, 
that  it  in  no  way  whatever  assisted  the 
formation  of  the  perfect  grain,  nor  contri- 
buted to  promote  the  general  design  of  it. 
They  who  can  oppose  these  conclusions, 
will  depart  from  a  method  of  reasoning 
long  established  in  every  department  of 
human  knowledge, — a  method  to  which  the 
Baconian  philosophy  directs  us,  and  to 
M'hich  we  must  have  recourse  whenever 
we  are  desirous  to  explain  the  causes  of 
physical  effects.     As  little  attention,"  he 


Liebig's  Chemistry  of  Agriculture  and  Physiology,  3d  edition,  p.  82. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


53 


continues,  "  has  hitherto  been  paid  to 
these  saline  bodies,  at  least  as  they  regard 
the  subject  of  vegetation,  and  much  as  they 
respect  the  operations  of  husbandry,  I  have, 
for  the  sake  of  distinction,  called  them 
spedjic  manures.  Hereafter,  when  a  more 
complete  analysis  of  vegetables  shall  be 
made,  it  is  probable  that  a  nomenclature, 
founded  on  their  specific  substances,  may 
at  least  classify,  if  not  particularise,  every 
kind  of  plant.  Already  we  know  that 
there  are  several  vegetables  which  exercise 
the  power  of  selection ;  and  it  is  reasonable 
to  infer,  that  when  investigation  shall  have 
more  fully  laid  open  the  secrets  of  physio- 
logy, that  then  the  uses  and  design  of  this 
selection  will  be  rendered  apparent,  and 
the  propriety  of  regarding  it  in  practical 
husbandry  completely  established."  This 
reasoning  was  sound  then,  is  sound  at  the 
present  day,  and  could  not  be  better 
expressed  by  even  Liebig  himself. 

206.  On  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  era- 
ploymentof  specific  manures  toagriculture, 
Liebig  himself  does  not  in  any  of  his 
works  express  himself  more  clearly  and 
firmly  than  did  Mr  Grisenthwaite  in  1830  ; 
and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  was 
he  so  long  ago  that  applied  the  term 
spec\jic  to  this  class  of  manures.  "The 
subject  of  specific  manures,"  he  observes, 
"has  never  been  regarded  by  practical 
men,  nor  ever  been  considered  by  writers 
on  the  theory  of  agriculture,  though 
some  practices  have  been  recommended, 
and  some  opinions  formed,  even  from 
the  earliest  ages,  which  are  only  expli- 
cable upon  the  principle  here  laid  down. 
And  yet,  when  viewed  in  its  relation  to  the 
whole  economy  of  agriculture,  it  forms, 
perhaps,  one  of  the  most  important,  as  it 
is  certainly  one  of  the  most  interesting, 
objects  connected  with  it.  L^pon  the  clear 
understanding  of  it  depends  the  successful 
business  of  the  farmer.  It  is  calculated  to 
raise  the  operations  of  the  agriculturist  to 
a  level  with  those  of  the  manufacturer; 
and  instead  of  committing  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  to  accident,  as  if  nothing  were 
understood  respecting  it  more  than  the 
mechanical  preparations  of  it  for  the  seed, 
it  will  serve  to  explain  upon  wdiat  causes 
growth  and  production,  and,  consequently, 
theiropposites,  abortion  and  nonproduction, 
fundamentally  depend  ;  and  of  course  will 
enable    him    to    provide     against    both. 


Agriculture,  may  be  considered  a  system 
of  operations  designed  to  convert  manure 
into  certain  vegetable  matters ;  and  the 
land  or  soil  performs  the  office  of  an 
instrument  in  the  process;  that  all  the 
care  employed  in  its  preparation  is  only 
intended  to  render  the  conversion  more 
certain  and  complete  ;  that  it  accomplishes 
these  desirable  ends  by  facilitating  the 
action  of  air,  heat,  light,  &c.,  upon  the  sub- 
stances committed  to  it,  and  by  giving  to 
water  a  freedom  of  motion  through  it. 
This  view  of  the  business  of  agriculture 
will  open  to  us  many  objects  which  have 
hitherto  escaped  observation,  and  which 
have  never  excited  reflection  ;  perhaps  be- 
cause the  whole  operation  has  been  thought 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  human  mind. 
What  is  done  spontaneously,  and  without 
any  co-operation  of  man,  is  called  natural; 
what  is  done  by  his  exertions  is  called 
artificial — as  if  the  same  laws  did  not 
govern  the  result  in  both;  whereas  man, 
under  any  circumstances,  can  only  bring 
the  laws  of  nature  into  action ;  he  cannot 
create  new  laws,  nor  modify  those  which 
already  exist.  But  to  distinguish  between 
those  which  are  in  action  without  his  care, 
and  those  which  he  calls  into  play  by  his 
own  labour,  has  placed  a  great  impediment 
in  the  path  of  science,  and  stopped  for  a 
long  time  the  career  of  discovery.  It  has 
repressed  inquiry  by  pronouncing  it  to  be 
vain,  and  called  off"  exertion  by  declaring 
it  to  be  unavailing." 

207.  Upon  these  general  principles  our 
author  endeavours  to  test  the  correct- 
ness of  ordinary  practice.  "  It  is  only 
within  the  last  few  years,"  he  continues, 
"  that  the  elements  of  bodies  have  been 
discovered.  Before  that  time,  the  nature 
of  compounds  was  but  little  understood, 
and  the  transmutation  of  matter,  if  not 
openly  acknowledged,  was  only  tacitly 
denied.  The  sun  of  chemistry  has  at 
length  risen  above  our  horizon,  and  dis- 
persed much  of  the  darkness  of  ignorance 
which  covered  former  ages,  and  shed  an 
illummating  ray  over  the  various  pheno- 
mena of  nature.  Elements,  as  the  very 
term  implies,  are  now  known  to  be  incap- 
able of  being  changed  into  each  other. 
They  aduiit,  when  considered  per  se,  of  no 
alteration  but  as  regards  magnitude  and 
figure  ;  and  all  the  variety  of  matter  dis- 
coverable  in   the   world  is  produced  by 


w 


M 


INITIATION. 


combinations  of  these  elements  in  different 
proportions.  From  this  fact  we  are  led  to 
deduce  the  followitig  important  conclusion, 
— that  when  out  of  one  substance  another 
is  to  be  formed,  as  alcohol  or  acetic  acid 
by  fermentation  out  of  sugar — ot,  to  confine 
our  views  to  agriculture,  grain  out  of 
manure,  it  is  obvious  that  the  elements  of 
the  first  must  be  contained  in  the  second ; 
as,  if  they  be  not,  that  conversion  cannot 
possibly  take  place.  This  is  a  truth  which 
applies  with  peculiar  force  to  the  doctrine 
of  manures,  and  renders  it  imperatively 
incumbent  upon  the  agriculturist  to  inves- 
tigate the  constituents  both  of  the  crops 
he  grows,  and  of  the  manures  he  employs 
to  make  that  growth  successful.  It  is 
very  reasonably  to  be  feared,  that  many 
failures,  quite  inexplicable  to  the  farmer, 
may  be  explained  upon  these  principles. 
He  has  very  frequently,  perliap.s,  sown 
grain  upon  land  which  has  not  contained 
the  elements  necessary  to  the  production 
of  the  crop,  and  therefore  the  crop  has 
failed ;  and  he  continues  to  sutler  a  recur- 
rence of  the  same  loss,  year  after  year,  be- 
cause he  is  unacquainted  with  the  causes 
upon  which  it  depends.  If  all  crops  were 
composed  of  the  same  elements,  this  reixson- 
ing,  this  discrimination  among  manures, 
could  not  apply,  nor  be  necessary  to  be 
regarded  by  the  agriculturist ;  and  it  -is 
upon  such  a  supposition  that  the  practices 
of  husbandry  have  been  uniformly  con- 
ducted, and  are  at  tlie  present  day  con- 
ducted with  disadvantage." 

208.  To  descend  to  particulars,  our 
author  shows  that  of  the  various  kinds  of 
plants  cultivated  in  the  field,  each  con- 
tains its  peculiar  base.  Thus,  the  grain 
of  wheat,  besides  its  characteristic  gluten, 
contains  the  phos2)hate  of  lime.  "  In 
barley  there  is  no  pliosjihate  of  lime,  but 
a  small  portion  of  nitrate  of  soda  or 
potash.  "  —  "  The  straw  of  the  bean 
ahvays  yields,  after  maceration,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  sub-carbonate  of 
potash." — "  In  the  pea  crop  has  been  dis- 
covered a  considerable  (juuntity  of  super- 
oxalate  of  lime,  a  salt  also  known  to  ekist 
in  the  root  of  rhubarb."  —  "Sainfoin, 
clover,  and  lucerne  have  long  been  known 
to  contain  a  notable  quantity  of  gypsum 
(sulphate  of  lime.)" — "If  we  examine 
a  turnip  chemically,  we  shall  always  find 
iu  it  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  hydro- 


sulphuret  or  a  hydroguretted  sulpbnret^ 
compounds  nut  discernible  in  any  of  the 
crops  heretofore  considered,  and  therefore 
constituting  the  specific  saline  substance 
of  the  turnip.  The  existence  of  this  sub- 
stance is  manifested  also  by  the  tarnish 
which  boiled  turnips  impart  to  silver, 
and  by  the  fetid  effluvium  attendant  oa 
a  turnip  field,  where  they  are  undergoing 
decomposition."  Iu  enumerating  these 
particular  substances,  Mr  Grisenthwaite 
indicates  the  different  manures  which  will 
yield  them  to  their  respective  crops  ;  and 
as  some  stress  may  be  laid  on  the  minute- 
ness of  the  quantities  of  these  salts  to 
perform  so  important  purposes  in  the 
economy  of  plants,  he  points  to  the  ana- 
logy between  plants  and  animals,  as 
organised  bodies  governed  by  a  vital 
principle,  as  affording  a  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  the  results.  "  Thus,  in  the 
animal  system,  there  are  many  salts  and 
minute  quantities  of  matter  indispensably 
necessary  for  the  production  or  the  healthy 
action  of  various  solids  and  fluids,  the 
absence  of.which  occasions  disease,  and,  if 
long  continued,  death  also.  The  bile  tnust 
have  soda,  or  the  secretion  of  the  largest 
and  one  of  the  most  important  glands  in 
the  animal  system  could  not  produce  those 
effects  required  for  the  conservation  of 
health.  This  soda  does  not  amount  to  the 
one  -  hundred  -  thousandth  part  of  the 
whole  animal  mass.  The  blood,  according 
to  those  physiologists  who  explain  its 
redness  by  the  sub  -  oxy  -  phosphate  of 
iron,  must  somehow  acquire  that  salt,  or 
the  business  of  this  vital  fluid  will,  pro- 
bably, be  interrupted.  All  the  cartilages, 
fibrine,  nails,  hair,  &c.,  contain  sulphur, 
as  well  as  the  albumen  of  the  blood ;  and 
shall  we  venture  to  say  that  all  this  regu- 
lar discrimination,  these  undeviating  laws, 
contribute  nothing  to  the  vigorous  exis- 
teuce  and  healthy  action  of  the  several 
parts  over  which  they  exercise  so  constant 
a  control,  because  the  quantities  are 
minute  ?  Would  not  such  a  suppositicm 
ascribe  to  nature,  who  is  ever  frugal  of 
her  means,  never  in  excess,  a  work  of 
supererogation  ?  And  if  tliese  one-hun- 
dred-thousandth parts  be  absolutely  re- 
quired for  animal  existence,  would  it  not 
be  presumptuous  and  quite  unphilosophi- 
cal  to  suppose  that  their  presence  iu  vege- 
tables is  accidental  and  useless?  Would 
it  not  oppose  the  soundest  reasoning  ?  " 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


55 


Our  author  pursues  the  subject  of  specific 
manures  as  affording  a  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  the  rotation  of  crops  ;  the 
maintenance  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil; 
the  improved  growth  of  forest-trees  ;  the 
selection  of  fruit-trees  for  particular  soils; 
the  admixture  of  soils ;  and,  finally,  the 
extermination  of  weeds.  On  all  these 
subjects  the  observations  of  even  Liebig 
himself  seem  but  amplifications  of  our 
author's  sentiments;  and,  so  satisfied  is  he 
of  their  correctness,  that  he  expresses  his 
belief,  "  in  another  generation  all  this  will 
be  well  understood."  — "  It  is  true  that 
this  is  not  the  day  when  such  a  system 
can  be  acted  upon, "  as  he  regrettingly 
remarks  ;  "  but  to-morrow  may,  if  suf- 
cient  encouragement  shall  be  offered  to 
stimulate  inquiry,  and  practice  should 
adopt  its  results."  * 

209.  In  a  former  work  I  spoke  some- 
what disparagingly  of  the  power  of  che- 
mistry to  benefit  agriculture.  In  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  I  wrote,  the  opinions 
I  expressed  were  not  altogether  irrelevant ; 
for  no  movement  had  been  jmblicly  made, 
to  my  knowledge,  by  a  single  chemist,  from 
1809,  when  Sir  Humphry  Davy  pub- 
lished the  celebrated  lectures  he  had 
delivered  before  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
to  the  time  my  strictures  were  written 
and  even  printed;  and,  during  this  long 
blank  period  of  nearly  thirty  years,  no 
one  seemed  to  me  to  be  sanguine  enough 
to  expect  any  beneficial  aid  to  be  afforded 
to  agriculture  by  chemistry,  until  Dr 
Henry  Madden,  when  a  medical  student 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  intro- 
duced the  subject  of  agricultural  chemis- 
try to  the  notice  of  the  landed  interest  of 
the  kingdom,  in  the  pages  of  the  Journal 
of  Agriculture^  for  June  1838.  Until  that 
time  I  had  not  had  the  good  fortune  to 
see  Mr  Grisenthwaite's  Neic  Theory  of 
Agriculture^  and  not  until  its  author 
kindly  sent  me  a  copy,  after  the  appearance 
of  Dr  Madden's  early  papers.  Knowing 
■what  has  since  been  done  by  chemists  in 
analysing  plants  and  manures  employed 
in  agriculture,  as  also  the  suggestions  in 
improved  practice  which  they  since  have 
made,  and  observing  the  results  of  the 
numerous  experiments  which  have  in  con- 
sequence been  conducted   by   farmers   in 


all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  my  sentiments 
in  regard  to  the  assistance  chemistry 
may  afford  to  agriculture  have  beeu 
considerably  modified,  and  cannot  be 
better  expressed  than  in  the  following 
M'ords  of  a  report  issued  by  the  Chemistry 
Association  of  Scotland^  in  1846.  Under 
the  head  of  the  '•'•  Benefits  which  the  Asso- 
ciation is  capable  of  rendering,"  the 
report  observes — ""Chemical  analyses  of 
soils  and  plants  throw  much  light  upon  the 
arcana  of  nature  in  the  departments  of  her 
kingdom  to  which  they  respectively  be- 
long ;  they  illustrate  the  relation  which 
subsists  between  them,  as  regards  the  pro- 
cesses of  vegetation;  and  they  aflTord  essen- 
tial aid  in  ascertaining  the  kind  and  quality 
of  substances  that  are  required  by  given 
soils  for  the  production  of  specific  crops. 
The  known  principles,  too,  of  chemical 
action,  in  resolution  and  composition, 
serve  to  explain  facts  which  experience 
establishes  in  practical  husbandry ;  while 
they  elucidate  the  causes  of  the  diver- 
■  sitied,  and  more  rarely  opposite,  effects 
which  sometimes  follow  similar  applica- 
tions, and  which,  without  the  explanation 
that  chemistry  furnishes,  would  be  likely 
to  issue  in  discouragement  and  perplexity. 
The  advantages  of  chemical  analyses  have 
been  extensively  experienced  in  the  pre- 
vention of  imposition,  and  in  the  right 
appreciation  to  which  analytical  investi- 
gations have  led,  with  respect  to  diffe- 
rent articles  offered  for  ^ale  as  potent 
manures;  and  they  have  likewise  been 
co'nspicuous  in  showing  the  absolute  and 
comparative  value  of  divers  descriptions 
of  food  for  use  in  rearing  and  fattening 
cattle.  It  ought,  however,  never  to  be 
forgotten,  that  the  researches  of  the  labo- 
ratory alone  Avill  not  yield  sufficient  data 
for  the  formation  of  a  sound  theory,  either 
of  agricultural  management  or  of  feeding 
stock.  There  must,  in  addition,  be  an 
accumulation  of  carefully  observed  and 
accurately  recorded  facts,  derived  from 
experience,  of  the  actual  occurrences  which 
take  place  in  the  conduct  of  the  farm,  and 
of  the  feeding  house.  It  is  from  the  com- 
bined results  of  practical  observation  and 
scientific  research  that  just  systems  of 
practice  may  eventually  be  deduced;  and 
the  realisation  of  this  desirable  consum- 
mation will  largely  depend  upon  the  assis- 


*  Grisenthwaite's  New  Theory  of  Agriculture,  2d  edition,  1830,  p.  159-210. 


56 


INITIATION. 


tance  which  able  and  scientific  men  shall 
receive  from  intelligent  men  of  practice."* 

210.  Now,  the  spirit  of  these  observa- 
tions accords  verj  much  with  what  I  have 
always  held  of  the  ability  of  chemists  to 
instruct  farmers.  I  have  always  main- 
taine«l  that  farmers  ought  to  know  some- 
thing of  ciiemistry,  and  chemists  some- 
thing of  agriculture.  All  the  knowledge 
of  chemistry  required  by  farmers  is  of  the 
affinity  of  bodies  of  different  natures  for 
one  another,  and  a  more  particular  know- 
ledge of  the  properties  of  those  bodies 
which  are  most  frequently  met  with  in 
the  i)lants,  animals,  and  earths,  with  which 
farmers  have  most  to  do,  and  these  do  not 
amoimt  to  above  thirteen  in  number.  The 
chemist  ought  to  know  all  the  common 
rules  which  have  long  been  established  by 
experience,  in  the  culture  of  the  soil  and 
the  treatment  of  live  stock.  With  a 
proper  understanding  on  the  common 
ground  which  both  chemist  and  farmer 
should  occupy,  it  may  reasoual)ly  be  ex- 
pected that  a  higher  tone  would  be  given 
to  agriculture,  and  certainly  an  extended 
usefulness  to  chemistry  would  be  thereby 
promoted.  Let  chemistry  not  attempt  to 
take  the  lead  of  agriculture,  but  only  re- 
recommend  suggestions  for  experiment 
which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  end 
in  favourable  results.  Let  chemists  beware 
of  drawing  conclusions  until  practice  has 
first  established  their  soundness  ;  and  let 
farmers  at  all  times  be  ready  to  undertake 
every  experiment,  how  troublesome  soevCr 
they  may  be,  and  there  cannot  be  a  doubt 
that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  so  large 
a  stock  of  valuable  facts  will  have  been 
obtained,  as  to  enable  farmers  to  pursue  a 
much  more  eminently  enlightened  system 
of  husbandry  than  has  yet  been  seen. 

211.  Besides  the  information  afforded 
of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  sub- 
jects of  nature,  with  which  agriculture 
has  ])articularly  to  do,  the  study  of  che- 
mistry is  useful  to  the  farmer  in  affording 
him  interesting  information  on  the  pro- 
perties of  all  the  natural  objects  around 
him,  and  on  those  numerous  phemmiena 
occurring  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  by 
which  the  general  system  of  nature  is 
daily  sustained.     In  acquiring  this  know- 


ledge, chemistry  ascertains  the  chemical 
properties  of  the  air,  water,  minerals,  and 
of  vegetable  and  animal  bodies. 

212.  Air. —  As  regards  its  chemical 
properties  —  "The  air,"  Mr  Hugo  Reid 
observes,  "  is  of  a  blue  colour,  but  very 
faint,  so  that  the  colour  is  perceptible 
only  when  a  very  large  body  of  air  is 
presented  to  the  eye.  The  air  is  a  com- 
pound body,  consisting,  in  1000  parts  by 
weight,  of  756  parts  of  nitrogen,  a  gaa 
which  cannot  support  combustion  or  re- 
spiration, 233  parts  of  oxvgen,  a  gas 
which  causes  these  processes  to  go  on 
with  too  great  activity,  10  parts  of  watery 
vapour,  and  1  part  of  carbonic  acidgas.  The 
air  is  continually  undergoing  various 
changes,  which  more  or  less  alter  its 
chemical  composition.  By  the  breathing 
of  aninftils,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  watery 
vapour  are  added  to  the  atnK)Sphere,  and 
oxygen  removed.  Plants,  during  germi- 
nation, remove  oxygen  and  replace  it  with 
carbonic  acid ;  at  times  they  produce  the 
same  effect  by  their  leaves,  while  these 
same  organs  at  other  times  remove  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  air,  and  replace  it 
with  oxygen  ;  they  also  add  wateiy 
vapour  to  the  atmosphere.  Fermentation 
adds  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapour  to 
the  air,  frequently  diminishing  the  pro- 
portion of  oxygen.  Combustion,  or  burn- 
ing, in  general,  converts  the  oxygen  into 
carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapour.  The 
air  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  creation  in  a  great 
number  of  ways.  The  oxygen  serves  to 
remove  carbon  from  the  bidy,  by  con- 
verting it  into  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
lungs,  combines  with  combustible  bndies, 
thus  producing  heat  and  light,  and  plays 
an  important  part  in  many  other  opera- 
tions, as  fermentation,  germination,  &c. 
The  nitrogen  dilutes  and  weakens  the 
action  of  the  oxygen.  The  carbonic  acid 
and  watery  vapour,  though  not  so  directly 
essential  to  animal  life  as  the  oxygen  and 
nitrogen,  the  removal  of  either  of  which, 
for  a  very  short  time,  would  be  attended 
with  fatal  consequences,  have  still  impc-r- 
tant  offices  allotted  to  them  in  the  general 
economy  of  nature.  The  total  mass  of 
air  being  so  immense,  and  all  its  diffe- 
rent parts  being  so  thoroughly  raised  by 


•  Report  of  the  Chemistry  Association  of  Scotland,  for  1846,  p.  9. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


57 


the  winds,  as  well  as  by  the  diffusive 
process,  the  changes  effected  on  the  air  by 
the  various  processes  just  mentioned,  would 
not  make  a  percejytible  difference  in  many 
hundred  years,  and  it  would  even  be  thou- 
sands of  years  before  the  air  would  be  at 
all  unfitted  for  any  of  the  purposes  for 
which  it  has  been  formed,  this  being  still 
further  (if  not  altogether)  retarded  by  the 
action  of  vegetables,  which  seem  to  coun- 
teract the  effects  of  the  various  processes 
wliich  would  unfit  it  for  the  support  of 
combustion,  respiration,  &c.  The  various 
ingredients  of  the  air,  being  each  required 
for  so  many  different  operations  in  which 
the  others  are  not  concerned,  are  not 
bound  to  each  other  by  chemical  attrac- 
tion, which  would  prevent  each  being 
readily  supplied  separately  to  that  body 
which  requires  it:  they- are  in  a  state  of 
mere  meclianical  mixture,  so  that  they 
are  easily  separated  from  each  other  by 
substances  which  have  any  attraction  for 
them — being,  nevertheless,  diffused  through 
each  other  in  the  same  proportions  every 
where,  according  to  the  law  pointed  out 
by  Dr  Dalton." 

213.  Water. — The  chemical  properties 
of  water  are  thus  described  by  Mr  Reid. 
*' Water  exists  every  where,  and  is  capable 
of  assuming  a  great  variety  of  forms.  As 
commonly  met  with,  water  is  a  very  com- 
pound substance,  but  consists  chiefly  of 
two  ingredients,  the  others  existing  in  it 
in  a  very  small  proportion.  Water  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  two  substances,  which 
assume  the  gaseous  form  when  separated 
from  each  other — hi/droyen^im  inflammable 
body,  but  which  cannot  support  the  com- 
bustion of  other  bodies;  and  oxygen^  which 
has  the  latter  property,  but  cannot  itself 
be  made  to  burn,  as  discovered  by  Caven- 
dish. Estimated  by  weight,  these  ele- 
ments exist  in  water  in  the  proportion  of 
8  of  oxygen  to  1  of  hydrogen  ;  estimated 
by  measure  of  the  exact  quantities  of  the 
gases  required  to  produce  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  watery  vapour,  without  either  gas 
being  in  excess  and  remaining  in  the  un- 
embodied  state,  2  of  hydrogen  with  1  of 
oxygen ;  and,  in  becoming  watery  vapour, 
these  become  condensed  into,  two-thirds 
of  the  bulk  they  occupy  separately  —  the 
bulk  of  the  hydrogen.  Water  is  a  true 
chemical  compound,  not  a  mere  mixture 
of   its  elements.      Water  is  turned  into 


vapour  by  heat,  and  into  a  solid  (ice) 
when  nmcli  heat  is  removed  from  it. 
Water  can  combine  with  a  vast  number 
of  bodies,  solids  or  gases,  and  make  them 
pass  to  the  liquid  state.  By  its  dissolviijg 
power,  it  separates  the  particles  of  bodies 
from  each  other,  reduces  them  to  a  minute 
state  of  division  ;  and,  by  bringing  these 
jjarticles  in  close  contact  with  each  other, 
enables  them  to  exert  their  chemical 
affinities  for  other  bodies.  Water  also 
unites  with  solid  bodies,  itself  becoming 
solid;  and  it  enters  into  the  composition 
of  crystals,  and  of  animals  and  vegetables. 
All  the  water  on  the  earth  arises,  in  the 
first  instance,  from  the  ocean,  in  the  form 
of  vapour,  which  becomes  deposited  on 
the  land  as  snow,  rain,  or  dew ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  ground  on 
which  it  falls,  gives  rise  to  springs,  rivers, 
or  lakes.  In  different  situations,  water 
has  different  properties,  from  the  various 
matters  which  it  meets  and  dissolves  being 
different  in  different  places.  The  leading 
varieties  are — sea-water,  containing  com- 
mon salt,  &c.,  rain  and  snow  water,  spring 
and  well  water,  hard  water,  (this  property 
arising  from  the  presence  of  sulphate  or 
carbonate  of  lime,)  rain  water,  water  of 
pools  and  marshes.  Pure  water  is  ob- 
tained by  boiling  common  water  to  expel 
the  gases,  and  distilling  it,  to  separate 
the  pure  watery  part  from  the  earthy 
matters,  the  former  arising  in  vapour,  and 
being  collected  in  a  receiver.  From  the 
absence  of  the  gases  and  earthy  matters, 
pure  or  distilled  water  is  insipid  and 
mawkish,  mifit  to  be  used  as  drink. 
Waters  become  in  some  places  so  strongly 
impregnated  with  various  matters  which 
they  dissolve,  that  their  taste,  colour,  and 
chemical  properties  are  affected  in  a 
marked  degree,  and  they  acquire  at  the 
same  time  medicinal  properties.  Of  these 
there  are  four  kinds— the  carbonated, 
which  contains  carbonic  acid  as  their  most 
characteristic  ingredient,  as  the  waters  of 
Selter,  >S2)a,  Pyrmont,  and  Carlsbad  ;  the 
sulphureous,  which  contain  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  as  the  waters  of  Aix-la-Cba- 
pelle,  Harrogate,  and  Moffat ;  the  chaly- 
beate, which  are  distinguished  by  con- 
taining iron,  such  as  the  waters  at  Tun- 
bridge,  Brighton,  and  Cheltenham  ;  and 
the  saline,  which  are  characterised  chiefly 
by  the  presence  of  common  salt,  Epsom 
salt,  glauber  salt,  muriate  of  lime — the 


58 


INITIATI0N. 


most  noted  of  these  are  the  waters  of  Bath, 
Bristol,  Buxton,  Epsom,  Cheltenham, 
Pitcaithly,  Dunblane,  Seidlitz,  Wiesbaden, 
Honibourg." 

214.  Earths. — The  chemical  composi- 
tion of  minerals  is  thus  recapitulated  by 
Mr  Reid.  "The  mineral  kingdom  con- 
sists of  rocks  and  stones.,  which  are  hard, 
heavy,  and  brittle,  incombustible,  and  in- 
soluble in  water,  exemplified  by  sand- 
stone, wliinstone,  slate,  flint :  sand,  earth, 
which  are  loose  and  powdery  :  native 
metals,  mineral  bodies  which  are  rarely 
met  with,  and  are  characterised  by  being 
heavy,  tough,  or  tenacious,  malleable,  and 
ductile,  opaque,  and  perfectly  insoluble 
in  water :  native  salts,  of  a  regular  or 
crystalline  form,  not  nearly  so  hard  as 
rocks  and  stones,  soluble  in  water,  and 
consisting  of  some  acid  in  union  with  a 
compound  of  a  metal  with  oxygen  :  and 
comhustible  minerals.  These  six  divisions 
include  all  the  various  kinds  of  mineral 
bodies  ;  but  rocks  and  stones  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  essentially  difl'erent  from 
earth,  sand  and  earth  being  merely  pul- 
verised rocks ;  and  then,  rocks,  stones, 
sand,  earth,  (^earthy  matters)  form  the 
main  bulk  of  the  mineral  constituents  of 
the  earth,  the  quantity  of  metallic  ores, 
metal^;,  salts,  and  combustible  minerals, 
is  trifling  when  compared  with  these. 
Earthy  matter  consists,  in  general,  of 
some  substance  of  a  metallic  nature  in 
chemical  combination  with  oxygen,  form- 
ing an  oxide ;  this  oxide  being  in  some 
cases  in  chemical  union  with  some  body  of 
an  acid  nature,  first  discovered  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy,  with  potassa  and  after- 
wards wiih  lime,  clay,  &c.,  these  being 
analogous  to  the  common  metallic  oxides 
(as  red  lead)  in  their  general  comjjosition. 
The  leading  earths  are — silica,  the  mineral 
ingredient  of  sand  and  flint,  and  tiie  most 
abundant  of  the  earths,  distinguished  by 
its  hardness,  durability,  and^  insolubility 
in  water  and  all  acids,  except  the  fluoric: 
— alumina,  or  earth  of  clays,  distinguished 
by  the  softness  and  plasticity  which  it 
possesses  when  mixed  with  water;  this 
earth  is  next  to  silica  in  abundance  : — 
lime,  slightly  soluble  in  water,  caustic,  and 
always  found  in  nature  in  union  with  an 
acid   (chiefly   the   carbonic,)    with   some 


other  earthy  matter :  —  and  ma^nena, 
liart/ta,  struntian,  &c.  Earthy  matter 
also  contains  considerable  quantities  of 
the  oxide  of  iron  and  of  potass,  and  the 
oxide  of  manganese  and  soda  are  also 
occasionally  found  among  rocks  and  earth. 
The  rocky  masses  in  the  crust  of  the  earth 
are  arranged  in  two  great  divisions,  strati- 
fied and  unstratified,  and  are  composed  of 
certain  simple  minerals,  which  are  chiefly 
composed  of  silica  and  alumina,  with 
smaller  quantities  of  oxide  of  iron,  lime, 
and  magnesia,  and  minute  portions  of 
other  ingredients.  The  chemical  composi- 
tion of  earth  and  soils  is  similar  to  that  of 
rocks,  the  former  being  composed  of  the 
latter  broken  down  and  reduced  to  frag- 
ments or  to  powder,  by  the  chemical  and 
mechanical  action  of  air  and  water  in  the 
materials  of  the  rock.  The  principal  in- 
gredients in  the  rock  which  are  acted  on, 
are  the  potash,  lime,  and  okide  of  iron. 
These,  which  to  a  certain  extent  act  the 
part  of  cements  to  the  various  parts  of 
the  mineral  in  which  they  exist,  when 
they  enter  into  new  states  of  combination, 
or  are  renewed,  no  longer  perform  their 
oftice  for  the  renewal,  and  it  speedily 
crumbles  to  pieces ;  hence  the  decay  of 
monuments  and  buildings,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  loose  earthy  soils  from  firm  hard 
rocks.  These  soils  soon  give  support  to 
various  kinds  of  plants,  and  become  mixed 
with  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and  thus 
form  the  common  soil  of  the  agriculturist."* 

215.  Natural  History. — But  the  me- 
chanical and  chemical  properties  of  matter 
do  not  aflord  us  all  the  information  that 
may  be  obtained  of  the  objects  of  nature. 
These  have  external  forms  which  undergo 
changes  that  have  to  be  described,  and  the 
science  that  undertakes  their  description  is 
called  Natural  History.  If  every  object  in 
nature  admits  of  a  description  of  its  origin, 
growth,  maturity,  uses,  and  habits,  it  is 
evident  that  natural  history  must  be  more 
extensive  than  any  of  the  other  sciences, 
since  it  occupies  itself  with  all  the  objects 
scrutinised  by  both  mechanical  and  chemi- 
cal philosophy.  The  treatment  of  the 
same  subjects  by  these  various  sciences 
produces  no  tautology,  and  no  object  can 
be  said  to  be  perfectly  known  until  its  pro- 
perties have  been  ascertained  and  described 


Reid's  Chemistry  of  Nature,  p.  1 39,  21 3, 282. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


59 


in  every  particular.  The  kingdoms  of 
nature  which  form  the  subjects  of  natural 
history  are  the  air, — the  description  of  the 
apparent  visible  phenomena  of  which  con- 
stitutes the  science  of  Meteorology  ; — the 
water,  the  description  of  tiie  nature  and 
origin  of  which,  in  its  different  forms  of 
eea,  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs,  constitutes 
the  science  of  Hydrography  ; — the  earth, 
the  description  of  the  component  parts 
forming  the  crust  of  our  globe,  consti- 
tutes the  science  oi  Geology  ; — the  forms 
and  functions  of  plants  are  described  to 
us  by  Botany;  —  and  the  structure  and 
habits  of  animals  are  made  kno-f  n  to  us 
by  the  descriptive  science  of  Zoology. 

216.  Meteorology.  —  The  changes 
which  the  atmosphere  daily  undergoes 
being  occurrences  of  necessary  observation 
to  the  farmer, — and  these  changes  in  fact 
constitute  the  weather,  upon  w^ hose  charac- 
ter the  results  of  his  labour  so  much  de- 
pend,— renders  meteorology  one  of  the  most 
important  studies  that  can  occupy  his  atten- 
tion. "  Indeed,  the  germ  of  meteorology  is, 
as  it  were,  innate  in  the  mind  of  an  English- 
man ;  the  weather  is  proverbially  his  first 
thought  after  any  salutation ;  it  comes 
to  hitn  instinctively ;  and  is  so  a  part  of 
him  that  we  can  scarcely  imagine  him  to 
meet  his  friend  without  giving  utterance 
to  the  usual  truism  of  'fine  day,'  'rainy 
weather,'  '  very  cold  ! '  And  who  of  us 
does  not  pride  himself  on  the  possession  of 
a  few  weather  axioms,  by  which  we  think 
to  foresee  the  coming  changes?  Some  of 
these  axioms  are  sound  ;  others  are  essen- 
tially true,  but  are  often  misapplied  ; 
while  a  large  portion  are  false.  That  the 
latter  should  be  a  large  class  is  obvious; 
because  the  casual  observer  is  too  apt  to 
draw  general  rules  from  particular  cases, 
without  taking  into  account,  or,  perhaps, 
without  being  able  to  take  into  account, 
all  the  accidental  circumstances  that  may 
be  present.  The  only  means  we  possess 
of  eliminating  these  sources  of  error,  and 
arriving  at  the  general  laws  which  govern 
atmospheric  phenomena,  is  a  course  of 
faithful  and  unwearied  observation,  fol- 
lowed by  sound  and  accurate  deduction. 
The  scientific  world  have,  within  the 
last  few  years,  been  awakened  to  the 
importance  of  this  course  ;  and  very  effi- 
cient means  are  in  progress,  and  very  plain 
instructions  have  been  published,  toward 


the  attainment  of  the  object  in  view.  la 
the  meantime,  we  must  be  reminded  that 
many  stumbling  stones  have  been  already 
removed ;  and  that  the  path  of  meteorology 
has  been  trodden  A'ery  effectually  to  a  con- 
siderable extent."  Such  are  the  observa- 
tions on  this  subject  by  Mr  C.  V.  Walker,  in 
the  preface  to  his  translation  of  Kaemtz's 
Meteorology,  a  work  which  had  not  come 
under  my  notice  nniilmj  Book  of  the  Farm 
had  appeared,  but  which  contains  so  com- 
plete a  course  of  that  interesting  science, 
as  to  render  it  well  suited  for  the  study 
of  the  agricultural  student. 

217.  In  treating  the  subject  of  meteor- 
ology, on  the  present  occasion,  I  wish  to 
arrange  its  various  departments  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner  from  what  I  did  in  the 
Book  of  the  Farm.  There,  the  whc/le  subject 
of  meteorology  is  embraced  in  one  chapter, 
under  the  head  of  Weather;  and  although 
the  weather  is  that  part  of  the  natural 
history  of  the  atmosphere  which  most 
aflects  the  operations,  and  comes  nearest 
home  to  the  feelings  of  the  farmer,  yet  the 
subject,  I  now  conceive,  would  be  more 
clearly  treated,  because  more  naturally  so, 
were  the  observations  applicable  to  that 
part  of  the  subject  which  treats  of  general 
principles,  kept  separate  from  those 
which  are  more  immediately  connected 
with  the  seasons ;  and  when  the  operations 
of  each  season  come  to  be  explained  in 
their  natural  order,  the  atmospherical 
phenomena  prevalent  in  each  would  be 
most  appropriately  explained.  Follow- 
ing this  arrangement,  I  shall  here  describe 
only  those  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere 
having  no  peculiarity  in  any  particular  sea- 
son, confining  my  observations,  of  course, 
to  those  phenomena  most  cognisant  to  the 
farmer;  reserving  the  relation  of  peculiar 
phenomena  until  we  come  to  treat  of  those 
of  each  season  in  succession. 

218.  Weather. — As  the  weather,  at  all 
seasons,  has  undeniably  a  sensible  power 
to  expedite  or  retard  the  field  operations 
of  the  farm,  it  becomes  an  incumbent  duty 
on  pupils  of  agriculture,  to  ascertain  the 
principles  which  regulate  its  phenomena, 
in  order  to  be  enabled  to  anticipate  their 
changes  and  avoid  their  injurious  effects. 
It  is,  no  doubt,  difficult  to  acquire  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  laws  which  govern 
the  subtile  elements  of  nature ;  and  it  is 


GO 


INITIATION. 


especially  <liflficult  to  trace  those  which 
ail'.Lt  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere; 
but  experience  has  proved  that  accurate 
observation  vf  atmofphcrkal  phenomena 
is  the  chief  means  we  po&ess  of  becoming 
acquaintei  with  the  laws  which  govern 
them. 

211).  In  saying  that  the  weather  has 
power  to  alter  the  operations  of  the  farm, 
I  do  not  assert  that  it  can  entirely 
chanse  anv  great  plan  of  operations  that 
mavhave  been  determined  on,  for  that 
maV  be  jtrosecuted  even  in  spite  of  the 
weather ;  but  the  weather,  no  doubt,  can 
obliire  the  farmer  to  pursue  a  ditferent 
and  much  less  efficient  treatment  of  the 
land  than  he  desires,  and  the  amount  and 
quality  of  its  produce  may  very  seriously 
be  affected  by  a  change  in  its  treatment. 
For  example,  the  heavy  and  continued 
rain  in  autumn  1839  made  the  land  so 
Tcrv  wet,  that  not  only  that  under  the 
summer-fallow,  but  the  potato-land,  could 
not  be  seed-furrowed;  and  the  inevitable 
consequence  was,  the  postponement  of 
sowing  of  the  wheat  until  the  spring  of 
J  840;  and  in  many  cases  the  farmers  were 
obliged  to  sow  barley  instead  of  wheat. 
The  immediate  effect  of  this  remarkable 
interference  of  the  weather  was  the  re- 
striction of  the  breadth  of  the  land  appro- 
priate<l  to  autumnal  wheat,  and  the  con- 
sequent extension  of  that  for  barley  and 
spring  wheat,  —  a  change  that  caused  so 
much  additional  work  in  spring  1840  as  to 
have  the  effect  of  prolonging  the  harvest  of 
that  Year  beyond  the  wished- fur  period, 
and  of  otherwise  deranging  the  calculations 
of  farmers. 

220.  Xow,  when  such  a  change  is,  and 
mav  in  anv  season  be,  imposed  upon  the 
farmer,  it  is  a  matter  of  prudence  to  be 
as  much  acquainted  with  ordinary  atmo- 
spherical jihenomena  as  to  be  able  to  anti- 
cipate the  nature  of  the  ensuing  weather. 
If  he  could  anticipate  particular  changes  of 
"weatherby  observation  of  particular  pheno- 
mena, he  might  arrange  his  operations 
accordingly.  But  is  anticipation  in  regard 
to  weather  attainable  ?  Doubtless  it  is ; 
for,  although  it  is  not  asj'et  to  be  expected 
that  minute  changes  of  the  atmosphere 
can  be  anticipated,  yet  the  kindof  weather 
which  is  to  follow  —  whether  rainy  or 
frosty,  snowy  or  fresh — may  be  predicted. 


We  all  know  the  prescience  actually 
attained  by  people  whose  occupations 
oblige  them  to  be  much  in  the  open  air  and 
to  observe  the  weather.  Shepherds  and 
sailors,  in  their  respective  situations,  have 
long  been  famed  for  such  a  knowledge  of 
atmospherical  phenomena  as  to  be  able 
to  predict  the  advent  of  important 
changes  in  the  atmosphere;  but  although 
the  knowledge  acquired  by  these  two 
classes  of  observers  is  in  accordance  with 
the  phenomena  observed,  great  difference  of 
acuteness  exist^s  amongst  the  same  class  in 
foretelling  the  true  cause  from  the  observed 
effect.  For  example.  A  friend  of  mine, 
a  commander  of  one  of  the  ships  of  the 
East  India  Company,  became  so  noted,  by 
observation  alone — for  his  education  was 
not  of  a  high  order — for  anticipating  the 
probable  effects  of  atmosjiherical  pheno- 
mena in  the  Indian  seas,  that  his  vessel 
often  rode  out  the  storm,  under  bare 
poles,  unscathed,  while  most  of  the  ships  in 
the  same  convoy  were  more  or  less 
damaged.  As  an  instance  of  superior 
sagacity  in  a  shepherd,  I  remember  in  the 
wet  sea.s<m  of  1817,  when  rain  was  pre- 
dicted as  inevitable,  by  every  one  engiiged 
in  the  afternoon  of  a  very  busy  day  of 
leading  in  the  corn,  the  shepherd  inter- 
preted the  apprehended  phenomena — those 
of  the  sun — as  indicative  of  wind  and  not 
of  rain,  and  the  event  justified  his  pre- 
diction. 

221.  I  conceive  that  greater  accuracy 
of  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  changes  of 
the  weather  may  be  attainedon  land  than 
at  sea,  because  the  effects  of  weather  upon 
the  sea  itself  imposes  another  element  into 
the  question.  It  is  generally  believed, 
however,  that  seamen  are  more  proficient 
than  landsmen  in  foretelling  the  weather; 
and,  no  doubt,  when  the  imminent  danger 
to  which  the  lives  of  seamen  are  jeopar- 
dised is  considered,  that  circumstance  alone 
may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  render  them 
peculiarly  alive  to  certain  atmospherical 
changes.  To  men  under  constant  com- 
mand, as  seamen  are,  it  is,  I  conceive, 
questionable  whether  the  ordinary  changes 
of  the  atmosphere  are  matters  of  much 
interest.  In  every  thing  that  affects  the 
safety  of  the  ship, — the  weather  among 
the  rest — every  confidence  is  j>laced  by  the 
crew  in  the  commanding  officer,  and  it  is 
he  alone  that  has  the  power  to  exercise  his 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


61 


weather  wisdom.  On  the  other  hand, 
fevery  shepherd  has  to  exercise  his  own 
skill  in  regard  to  the  weather,  to  save 
himself,  perhaps,  much  unnecessary  per- 
sonal trouble,  especially  on  a  hill-farm. 
Even  the  young  apprentice-shepherd  soon 
learns  to  look  out  for  himself.  The  great 
difference  between  the  sea-cajjtain  and  the 
farmer,  in  regard  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
weather,  consists  in  the  captain  having  to 
look  out  for  himself,  whereas  the  farmer 
has  his  shepherd  to  look  out  for  him  :  the 
captain  himself,  knowing  the  weather,  di- 
rects his  men  accordingly ;  whilst  the 
farmer  does  not  know  it  nearly  so  well 
as  his  shepherd,  and  probably  even  as 
his  ploughmen.  And  the  effects  of  such 
difference  of  acquirement  is  easily  told. 
The  captain  causes  the  approaching  change 
to  be  met  by  prompt  and  proper  appliances; 
whereas  the  farmer  is  frequently  overtaken 
in  his  operations  from  a  want,  perhaps,  of 
a  knowledge  most  px'obably  possessed  by 
his  shepherd  or  ploughmen.  The  necessity 
of  farmers  acquiring  a  knotcledge  of  the 
v:eather  is  thus  evident. 

222,  It  being  admitted  that  prescience 
of  the  state  of  the  weather  is  essential  to 
the  farmer,  the  question  is,  how  the  pupil 
of  agriculture  is  to  acquire  it  ?  Doubtless 
it  can  best  be  attained  by  observation  in 
the  field ;  but  as  that  method  implies  the 
institution  of  a  series  of  observations  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  time,  the  greater 
part  of  the  engagement  of  the  pupil  may 
pass  away  ere  he  could  acquire  a  sufficiency 
of  knowledge  from  his  own  experience. 
This  being  the  case,  he  should  become 
acquainted  with  the  experience  of  others. 
This  I  shall  endeavour  to  communicate  to 
him,  premising  that  he  must  confirm  every 
thing,  by  observation,  for  himself,  when- 
ever opportunity  occurs. 

223.  Atmospherical  jyhenomena  being 
the  great  signs  hy  which  to  judge  of  the 
weather^  instruments  are  used  to  detect 
certain  changes  which  cannot  be  detected 
by  the  senses.  Some  of  these  instruments 
I  have  already  described,  and  they  all  pos- 
sess great  ingenuity  of  construction,  and 
indicate  pretty  accurately  the  effects  they 
are  intended  to  recognise ;  and  although 
they  tell  us  nothing  but  the  truth,  such  is 


the  minute  diversity  of  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena, they  do  not  tell  us  all  the  truth. 
Other  means  for  discovering  the  truth  must 
be  used;  and  the  most  available  within  our 
reach  is  the  converting  of  the  phenomena 
themselves  into  indicators  of  subsequent 
changes.  In  adopting  this  rule,  we  may 
use  the  transient  states  of  the  atmosphere, 
in  regard  to  clearness  and  obscurity,  damp- 
ness or  dryness,  as  they  affect  our  senses  of 
sight  and  feeling,  the  shapes  and  evolutions 
of  the  clouds,  and  the  peculiar  state  of  the 
wind,  to  predicate  the  changes  of  the 
weather.  But  such  knowledge  can  only 
be  acquired  by  long  observation  of  natural 
phenomena. 

224.  Barometer. — The  general  indica- 
tions of  the  barometer  are  few,  and  may 
easily  be  remembered.  A  high  and  sta- 
tionary mercury  indicates  steady  good 
weather.  A  slow  and  regular  fall  indi- 
cates rain  ;  and  if  during  an  E.  wind,  the 
rain  will  be  abundant.  A  sudden  fall  in- 
dicates a  gale  of  wind  in  the  course  of  24 
hours,  especially  if  the  wind  is  in  the  W. 
Good  steady  weather  must  not  be  expected 
in  sudden  depressions  and  elevations  of 
the  mercury  :  a  fine  day  may  intervene, 
but  the  general  state  of  the  weather  may 
be  expected  to  be  unsteady.  An  E.  or 
NE.  wind  keeps  up  the  mercury  against 
all  other  indications  of  a  change :  a 
W.  or  SW.  one  causes  a  fall  when  it 
changes  from  E.  or  NE. ;  but  should  no 
fall  take  place,  the  maintenance  of  the 
elevation  is  equivalent  to  a  rise,  and  the 
reverse  is  equivalent  to  a  fall.  The  quan- 
tity of  range  efiected  by  these  particular 
causes  may  be  estimated  at  i"o  of  an  inch.* 
The  barometer,  at  sea,  is  a  good  indicator 
of  wind  but  not  of  rain.  The  actual  height 
of  the  mercury  is  not  so  much  a  nuitter  of 
importance  as  its  oscillations.  A  convex 
form  of  the  top  of  the  column  of  mercury 
indicates  a  rise,  and  a  concave  one  a  fall. 

225.  Among  the  variable  causes  which 
affect  the  barometer  is  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  The  maximum  of  pressure  is  w  heu 
the  wind  is  NE.,  decreasing  in  both  direc- 
tions of  the  azimuth  till  it  reaches  the 
minimum  between  S.  and  SW.  This  dif- 
ference amounts  to  above  t5  of  an  inch  at 
London.    The  rise  occasioned  by  this  wind 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  2. 


INITIATION. 


may  be  owing  to  the  coM,  wliicli,  always 
accompanying  tiio  E.  winds  in  .spring— con- 
necteil  as  tiiese  jtroltably  are  with  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  in  Norway — causes  a  con- 
densation ;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  to  be 
owing,  as  Mr  Meikic  suggests,  to  its  oppo- 


rature  that  these  two  are  connected.  More 
lately,  M.  Kaemtz  has  pointed  out  the  con- 
nexion of  the  winds  with  such  changes, 
and  he  has  ilhistratcd  the  influence  of  the 
prevalent  aerial  currents  which  traverse 
Europe,  though  not  with  apparent  regula- 


eition  to  the  dirocliou  of  the  rotation  of  the     rity,  yet,  at  least,  in  subjection  to  some 
earth  causing  atmnsplieriial  accumulation     general  laws.t 
and  ))ressiire,    bv  diiniiiisiiing  the  centri- 


227.  Thermometfr. — !Many  interesting 
results  have  been  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  thermometer,  and  among  the  most  in- 
teresting are  those  regarding  the  mean 
temperature   of  different   localities.       In 


fugal  force  of  the  aerial  particles. 

22().  The  accidental  variations  of  baro- 
metric pressure  are  greatly  influenced  by 
latitude.      At  the  equator  it  may  be  said 

to  be  nothing,  hurricanes  alone  causing  any  ascertaining  these,  it  was  found  that  a 
exception.  Tlie  variability  increases  to-  diurnal  oscillation  took  place  in  the  tem- 
wards  the  poles,  owing  probably  to  the  perature  as  well  as  the  pressure  of  the 
irregularity  of  the  winds  beyond  the  tro-  atmosphere,  and  that  this  again  varies  with 
pics.  The  mean  variation  at  the  equator  the  seasons.  Nothing  but  frequent  obser- 
is  2  lines — a  line  being  the  twelfth  part  rations  during  the  day  could  ascertain  the 
of  an  inch — in  France  10  lines,  and  in  mean  temperature  of  different  places ;  and 
Scotland  15  lines  throughout  the  year,  in  so  prosecuting  the  subject,  it  was  dis- 
the  quantity  having  its  monthly  oscilla-  covered  that  there  were  hours  of  the  day, 
tions.  These  do  not  appear  to  follow  the  the  mean  temperature  of  which,  for  the 
parallels  of  latitude,  but,  like  the  isother-  whole  year,  was  equal  to  the  mean  of  the 
mal  lines,  undergo  inflections,  which  are  whole  24  hours,  which,  when  established, 
said  to  have  a  striking  similarity  to  the  renders  all  future  observations  less  difficult, 
isoclinal  magnetic  lines  of  Hansteen.  11  The  results  exhibit  an  extraordinary  coin- 
so,  it  is  probably  by  the  medium  of  tempe-  cidence  in  different  years. 

Thus  the  mean  temperature  of  1(V24  gave  13  minutes  past  9  a.m.  and  26  minutes  past  8  p.m. 
l«-25     ...    13  ...  9     28  ...  8    ... 


Giving  the  mean  of  the  2  years  13 

These  results  were  obtained  from  a  series 
of  observations  made  at  Leith  Fort  in  the 
years  1824  and  1825  by  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh. I  Some  of  the  other  conse- 
quences deducible  from  these  observations 
are,  "  that  the  mean  hour  of  the  day  of 
minimum  temperature  for  the  year  is  5 
A.M.,  and  that  of  the  maximum  temperature 
40'  past  2  P.M. :  that  the  deviation  of  any 
pair  of  hours  of  the  same  name  from  the 
mean  of  the  day  is  less  than  half  a  degree 
of  Fahrenheit,  and  of  all  pairs  of  hours, 
4  A.M.  and  p.m.,  are  the  most  accurate: 
that  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  any 
hour  never  differs  more  than  3°*2  from  the 
mean  of  the  day  for  the  whole  year :  that 
the  mean  daily  range  is  a  minimum  at  the 
■winter  solstice,  and  a  maximum  in  April : 
and  that  the  mean  daily  range  in  this  cli- 
mate is  G°"G65."§     The  mean  temperature 


at  Leith  Fort  for  the  mean  of  two  years, 
at  an  elevation  of  25  feet  above  the  mean 
level  of  the  sea,  was  found  to  be  48°"3G. 
The  mean,  taken  near  Edinburgh,  at  an 
altitude  of  o90  feet  above  the  mean  level 
of  the  :?ea,  at  10  a.m.  and  p.m.,  with  a 
common  thermonieter,  and  with  the  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  results  of  self- register- 
ing thermometers,  gave  these  results  when 
reduced  to  the  mean  level  of  the  sea : — 
with  the  self-registering  thermometers, 
48°-4iy,  and  with  two  observations  a-day 
Avitli  the  common  thermometer,  48°'352, 
which  correspond  remarkably  with  the 
observations  at  Leith  Fort.  These  obser- 
vations were  taken  at  10  a.m.  and  10  p.m., 
which  were  found  to  be  the  particular 
hours  which  gave  a  near  approximation  to 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  day  ;  but 
had  they  been  made  at  the  more  correct 


*  Edinburgh  New  Phil.  Jour.  vol.  iv.  p.  108. 
t  Edinburgh  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  x. 


+  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i.  p.  235-6. 
§  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i.  p.  212. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


63 


periods  of  13' past  9  a.m.  and  27'  past  8 
P.M.,  it  is  probable  that  the  results  with 
those  at  Leith  Fort  would  have  corre- 
sponded exactly.*  The  mean  temperature 
of  any  place  may  be  ascertained  pretty 
nearly  by  observing  the  mean  temperature 
of  deep-seated  springs, or  that  of  deep  w-ells. 
Thus  the  Crawley  Springs,  in  the  Pentland 
Hills,  which  supply  Edinburgh  with  abun- 
dance of  water,  situated  at  an  elevation 
of  564  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  give 
a  mean  temperature  of  46°'3,  according  to 
observations  made  in  1811  by  Mr  Jardine, 
civil-engineer,  Edinburgh  ;  and  the  Black 
Spring,  which  is  882  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  gave  a  mean  temperature  of 
44°'9,  by  observations  made  in  the  course 
of  1810-11-15-18-19.  A  well  in  the 
Cowgate  of  Edinburgh  gave  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  49°-3,  by  observations  made 
every  month  in  the  year  1794,  of  which 
the  temperature  of  the  month  of  June  ap- 
proached nearest  to  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  year,  being  49°'5.+ 

228.  Vapour. — At  all  temperatures,  at 
all  seasons,  water  is  converted  into  vapour 
and  carried  up  into  the  atmosphere ;  and 
when  the  air  has  acquired  as  much  vapour 
as  it  can  unite  with  at  the  temperature  it 
then  possesses,  it  is  then  said  to  be  satu- 
rated with  vapour.  The  quantity  of 
vapour  attains  its  minimum  throughout 
the  year,  in  the  morning  before  sunrise. 
At  the  same  time,  on  account  of  the  low 
degree  of  temperature,  the  humidity  is  at 
its  maximum.  In  proportion  as  the  sun 
rises  above  the  horizon,  the  evaporation 
increases,  and  the  air  receives  every  mo- 
ment a  greater  quantity  of  vapour.  But 
as  the  air  increases  in  its  capacity  for 
vapour  as  the  temperature  rises,  it  be- 
comes farther  and  farther  removed  from 
the  point  of  saturation,  and  the  relative 
humidity  becomes  more  and  more  feeble. 
The  rate  continues  without  interruption 
until  the  moment  when  the  temperature 
attains  its  maximum. 

229.  When  evaporation  commences  in 
the  morning  with  the  increase  of  tempera- 
ture, the  vapour,  by  virtue  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air,  accumulates  at  the  surface 
of  the  soil.     This  stratum  of  vapour  does 


not  attain  a  great  thickness ;  but  as  soon 
as  the  ascending  current  commences,  the 
vapour  is  drawn  away  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  atmosphere,  with  a  force  that  con- 
tinues increasing  until  mid-day.  The 
evaporation  from  the  soil  is  then  more 
active  on  account  of  the  increase  of  tem- 
perature ;  nevertheless  the  ascending  cur- 
rent carries  away  the  greater  portion,  and 
there  is  a  diminution  in  the  quantity  of 
vapour.  Towards  evening,  when  the 
temperature  begins  to  fall,  the  ascending 
current  diminishes  in  force,  or  even  ceases 
altogether;  then,  not  only  does  the  vapour 
accumulate  in  the  lower  parts,  but  it  even 
descends  from  the  higher  regions;  and  on 
this  account,  we  observe  towards  evening 
a  second  maximum^  which  is  not  sustained, 
because,  during  the  night,  the  vapour 
precipitating  in  the  form  of  dew  or 
white  frost,  the  air  necessarily  becomes 
drier. 

230.  Vapour,  being  thus  the  result  of 
the  action  of  heat  on  water,  it  is  evident 
that  its  quantity  must  vary  at  different 
hours  of  the  day,  in  different  seasons,  in 
different  parts  of  the  globe,  and  at  different 
heights  of  the  atmosphere. 

231.  Daily  experience  has  long  taught 
us,  that  the  air  is  not  equally  moist  with 
every  wind.  When  the  farmer  wishes  to 
dry  his  corn  or  his  hay,  or  the  housewife 
sjjreads  out  her  wet  linen,  tlieir  wishes 
are  soon  satisfied  if  the  wind  blows  con- 
tinuously, but  a  much  longer  time  is  re- 
quired with  a  W.  wind.  Certain  opera- 
tions in  dyeing  do  not  succeed  unless  during 
E.  winds.J 

232.  Dr  Dalton  found  that  the  force  of 
vapour  in  the  torrid  zone  varies  from  0"6 
of  an  inch  to  1  inch  of  mercury.  In 
Britain,  it  seldom  amounts  to  0*5  of  an 
inch,  but  is  sometimes  as  great  as  0*5  of 
an  inch  in  sunmier;  whereas,  in  winter, 
it  is  often  as  low  as  O'l  of  an  inch  of 
mercury.  These  facts  would  enable  us  to 
ascertain  the  absolute  quantity  of  vapour 
contained  in  the  atmosphere  at  any  given 
time,  provided  we  were  certain  that  the 
density  and  elasticity  of  vapours  follow 
precisely  the  same  law  as  that  of  gases,  as 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  9.  +  Ibid. 

X  Kaemtz's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  88-97. 


10-11. 


M 


INITIATION. 


ia  extremely  probable  to  be  the  case.  If 
80,  the  vajtour  will  vary  from  I's  to  lis 
part  of  the  atmosphere.  Dalton  supposes 
that  the  medium  quantity  of  vai»our  in 
the  atmosphere  may  amount  to  ^'a  of  its 
bulk.* 

233.  The  height  to  which  the  great 
body  of  vapour  daily  carried  into  the  at- 
mosphere attains,  must  depend  on  the 
degree  of  temperature.  When  it  attains 
but  a  moderate  height,  its  upper  stratum 
may  be  easily  discerned  by  the  lower 
portion  of  the  atmosphere  appearing  more 
dense  than  that  above  it.  This  upper 
stratum  of  vapour  is  called  the  vapour- 
plane,  and  a  cloud  often  descends  and  is 
attracted  by  it,  and  rests  upon  it,  the  lower 
stratum  of  the  cloud  seeming  straight  and 
horizontal. 

234.  Hygrometen. — Damp  air,  and 
indeed  any  thing  that  feels  damp,  is  un- 
pleasant to  our  feelings.  "  Hygrometers 
•were  made  of  quills  by  Chimiuello,  which 
renders  it  probable  that  birds  are  enabled  to 
judge  of  approaching  rain  or  fair  weather. 
For  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  an  animal 
having  a  thousand  hygrometers  intimately 
connected  with  its  body,  must  be  liable  to 
be  powerfully  aflfected,  with  regard  to  the 
tone  of  its  organs,  by  very  slight  changes 
in  the  drjness  or  humidity  of  the  air; 
particularly  when  it  is  considered  that 
many  of  the  feathers  contain  a  large 
quantity  of  blood,  which  must  be  alter- 
nately propelled  into  the  system,  or  with- 
drawn from  it,  according  to  their  contrac- 
tion or  dilation  by  dryness  or  moisture."  t 
It  is  from  some  such  hygrometric  feeling  as 
this  in  birds,  that  the  crane  is  represented 
by  Virgil  as  foreseeing  the  coming  storm: — 

Wet  weather  seldom  hurts  the  most  unwise. 
So  plain  the  signs,  such  prophets  are  the  skies  ; 
The  wary  crane  foresees  it  first,  and  sails 
Above  the  storm,  and  leaves  the  lowly  vales.  X 

235.  The  vapour  issuing  from  the  funnel 
of  a  locomotive  steam-engine  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  sort  of  hygrometer.  When 
the  air  is  saturated  with  vapour,  it  cannot 
dissolve  the  spare  steam  as  it  is  ejected  from 
the  locomotive,  and  hence  a  long  stream  of 
white  steam  is  seen  attached  to  the  train ; 


when  the  air  is  dry,  the  steam  is  dissolved 
and  taken  up  as  it  issues  from  the  funnel. 
In  like  manner  the  moist  air  cannot  at 
times  dissolve  the  vapour  issuing  from  the 
crater  of  Stromboli,  which  thus  remains  aa 
a  cloud  over  the  volcano ;  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Lipari  islands  regard  the 
phenomenon  as  a  sign  of  rain. 

236.  Clouds.  —  Among  the  objects  of 
nature,  there  are  few  more  certain  pre- 
monitors  of  change  in  the  weather  than  the 
clouds,  and  as  such  they  are  worthy  of  the 
attentive  study  of  the  farmer.  In  a  casual 
glance  at  the  clouds,  exhibiting,  as  they 
generally  do,  so  great  a  variety  of  forms, 
it  can  scarcely  be  believed  that  these  are 
all  produced  by  the  operation  of  any  posi- 
tive law.  But  such  unbelief  is  unreason- 
able, because  no  phenomenon  in  nature 
can  possibly  occur  but  as  the  effect  of 
some  physical  law,  although  its  mode  of 
action  may  have  hitherto  eluded  the  acutest 
search  of  philosophical  observation.  In- 
deed it  would  be  unphilosophical  to  believe 
otherwise.  AVe  may,  therefore,  depend 
upon  it,  that  every  variety  of  cloud  is  an 
eifect  of  a  de6nite  cause  ;  and  if  we  cannot 
predict  what  form  of  cloud  a  mass  of  va- 
pour will  assume,  it  is  because  we  are  un- 
acquainted with  the  precise  method  by 
which  their  law  of  formation  operates. 
But  observation  has  enabled  meteorologists 
to  classify  every  variety  of  cloud  under 
only  tliree  primary  forms,  and  all  others 
are  only  combinations  of  two  or  more  of 
these.  The  three  primary  forms  are  the 
Cirrus  or  curl-cloud,  the  Cumulus  or  heap- 
cloml,  and  the  Stratus,  or  lay-cloud. 
The  combinations  of  these  three  forms  are 
the  cirro-cumulus,  the  heaped  curl ;  the 
cirro-stratus,  the  lay  curl;  the  cumu- 
lus-stratus, the  heaped  layer ;  and  the 
cumulo-cirro-stratus,  the  heaped-curl-lay- 
cloud  or  nimbus,  a  rain  cloud. 

237.  The  suspension  of  clouds  in  the  air 
is  a  phenomenon  that  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  explained ;  and  when  we  see 
a  cloud  pour  out  thousands  of  tons  of  water 
upon  the  ground,  we  cannot  comprehend 
how  it  can  float  in  the  atmosphere.  If 
we  consider  the  constitution  of  a  cloud, 
we  may  arrive  at  a  probable  solution  of  the 


•  Ph'ilcaopkUal  Magazine,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  353.         +'  Edinburgh  Eneydopadia;  art.  "  Hygrometry.' 
+  Dry  den's  Virgil,  Georgia,  514. 


\ 


\ 


fT 


X 


i 


/ 


4 

I 


.'  '-■w. 5_ 


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65 


problem.  When  the  vapour  of  water  is 
precipitated  in  the  atmosphere,  the  trans- 
parency of  the  air  is  disturbed ;  and  this 
aqueous  precipitation  takes  the  name  of 
fog  when  it  is  on  the  surface  of  the  eai'th, 
and  of  cloud  when  it  remains  suspended 
at  a  certain  height  in  the  atmosphere.  So 
the  traveller,  who  journeys  to  the  summit 
of  a  high  mountain,  complains  that  the 
fog  intercepts  his  view,  whilst  the  inhabi- 
tant of  the  plain  says,  the  summit  of  the 
'  said  mountain  is  enveloped  in  clouds.   Now 

the  cloud  is  composed  of  small  vescicles  of 
water,  which,  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of 
universal  gravitation,  are  grouped  into  the 
form  of  spherules ;  and  it  is  highly  probable 
Ifc  that  these  spherules  as^  hollow  or  contain 
PP         air,  for,  according  to  S"ssure,  these  spher- 

fules,  which  readily  rise  in  the  air,  differ 
so  much  in  appearance  from  those  that 
fall,  that  no  doubt  remains  of  their  being 
hollow  ;  they  present,  besides,  no  scintilla- 
tions when  exposed  to  a  strong  light,  like 
drops  of  water,  nor  is  a  rainbow  ever  seen 
projected  in  the  face  of  a  cloud.  When 
left  to  themselves,  these  vescicles  would 
fall  to  the  ground,  like  any  other  body 
that  is  heavier  than  air ;  but  there  are  in- 
fluences constantly  in  action  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, which  prevent  their  fall  to  an  inde- 
finite period.  There  is  the  upper  current 
of  air,  daily  occasioned  by  the  action  of 
heat  ;  there  are  the  horizontal  currents, 
which  are  propelled  at  times  with  great 
force ;  and  there  is,  moreover,  the  mo- 
mentum impelled  in  the  vescicles  by  these 
causes,  together  with  the  elasticity  imparted 
to  them  directly  by  the  action  of  heat. 
Besides  these  physical  causes,  chemical 
ones  may  be  in  operation  between  them 
and  the  air,  or  the  gases  forming  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  air ;  and,  above  all,  the 
mysterious  agency  of  electricity  may  have 
an  influence  beyond  the  power  of  gravita- 
tion, to  keep  them  afloat  at  given  heights. 

238.  Cirrus. — The  first  form  of  clouds 
which  demands  attention  is  the  cin^us  or 
curl-cloud.  This  is  the  least  dense  of  all 
clouds.  It  is  composed  of  streaks  of  va- 
pour of  a  whitish  colour,  arranged  in  a 
fibrousform,and  occurring  at  a  great  height 
in  the  atmosphere.  These  fibi'ous  streaks 
assume  modified  shapes.  Sometimes  they 
are  like  long  narrow  rods,  lying  quiescent, 
or  floating  gently  along  the  upper  region 
of  the  atmosphere,  their  motion  being  from 

VOL.  I. 


S.  to  N.,  but  chiefly  from  S.W.  to  N.E. 
At  other  times  one  end  of  the  rod  is  curled 
up,  and  spread  out  like  a  feather  ;  and,  in 
this  shape,  the  cloud  moves  more  quickly 
along  than  in  the  other,  being  evidently 
afi"ected  by  the  wind.  The  rod  shape  is 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  cirrus  cloud 
being  the  means  of  the  trqiUsit  of  electricity 
from  one  cloud  to  another  or  from  one  part 
of  space  to  another.  Another  form  is  that 
familiarly  known  by  the  "gray  mare's 
tail"  or  "goat's  beard."  This  is  more 
afi"ected  by  the  wind  than  even  the  former. 
Another  form  is  in  thin  fibrous  sheets,  ex- 
panded at  times  to  a  considerable  breadth, 
like  the  gleams  of  the  aurora  borealis. 
There  are  many  other  forms — such  as  that 
of  network,  bunches  of  feathers,  hair,  or 
thread — which  may  respectively  be  desig- 
nated reticulated,  plumose,  coraoid,  and 
filiform  cirri.  The  cirrus  is  called  by  the 
Swiss  peasants  the  S.W.  cloud,  because  it 
is  invariably  preceded  by  the  south  wind. 
From  its  uniformly  bright  white  colour, 
Kaemtz  supposes  that  it  is  composed  of 
snow  and  not  of  vapour,  its  great  elevation 
placing  it  in  the  region  of  perpetual  snow. 
That  elevation,  he  says,  cannot  be  less  than 
13,700  feet,  according  to  observations  he 
made  relatively  with  the  summit  of  a 
mountain. 

239.  In  regard  to  the  relative  heights 
at  which  these  difierent  forms  of  cirri 
appear,  the  fibrous  rod  assumes  the  highest 
position  in  the  air,  the  rod  with  the  fea- 
thered end  the  next  highest,  the  bunch  of 
feathers  is  approaching  the  earth,  the 
mare's  tail  is  descending  still  farther,  and 
the  sheet-like  form  is  not  much  above  the 
denser  clouds. 

240.  As  to  their  relative  periods  of 
duration,  the  fibrous  rod  may  be  seen  high 
in  the  air  for  a  whole  day  in  fine  weather  : 
or  it  vanishes  in  a  short  time ;  or  it  de- 
scends into  a  denser  form  ;  when  its  end 
is  feathered,  its  existence  is  hastening  to 
a  close  ;  the  plumose  form  soon  melts 
away ;  the  gray  mare's  tail  bears  only  a 
few  hours  of  pretty  strong  wind ;  but  the 
broad  sheet  may  be  blown  about  for  some 
time. 

241 .  The  sky  is  generally  of  a  gray-blue 
when  the  fibrous  rod  and  feathered-end  rod 
appear;  and  it  is  of  the  deepest  blue,  with 

E 


66 


INITIATION. 


tbepluniose  watery  cirrus.  It  is  an  observa- 
tion of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  that  the  deepest 
blue  hai»j>ens  just  at  the  changea  from  a 
dry  to  a  moist  atmosphere. 

242.  When  cirri  appear  in  a  clear 
8ettle<i  dry  t-ky,  a  change  in  the  weather 
is  taking  place.  When  they  appear  like 
goat's  hair  or  gray  mare's  tails,  wind  will 
ensue,  and  it  will  blow  from  the  quarter  to 
which  the  tufts  point,  which  is  generally 
to  the  S.AV.  When  cirri  unite  and  form 
cirro-strati  at  a  comparatively  low  eleva- 
tion, rain  is  indicated.  When  seen  through 
a  broken  cloud,  in  deep  blue  sky,  during 
rain,  the  rain  will  continue.  Cirri  extend- 
ing on  both  sides  of  the  zenith  forebode  a 
storm  of  wind  of  some  days'  duration.  In 
whatever  direction  cirri  are  observed  to 
move,  and  whatever  may  be  the  direction 
of  the  wind  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  at 
the  same  time,  the  wind  will  in  a  few 
hours  be  felt  as  the  cirri  indicate. 

243.  Cumuhis. — The  cumulus  may  be 
likened  in  shape  to  a  heap  of  natural  mea- 
dow hay.  It  never  alters  much  from  that 
shape,  nor  is  it  ever  otherwise  than  massive 
in  its  structure  ;  but  it  varies  in  size  and 
colour  according  to  the  temperature  and 
light  of  the  day,  becoming  larger  and 
whiter  as  the  heat  and  light  increase ; 
hence  it  generally  appears  at  sunrise,  as- 
sumes a  larger  form  by  noon,  often  screen- 
ing tlie  sun  from  the  earth,  and  then  melts 
away  towards  night.  On  this  account  it 
has  received  the  designation  of  the  "  cloud 
of  day."  It5  density  will  not  allow  it  to 
mount  very  high  in  the  air  ;  but  it  is, 
nevertheless,  easily  buoyed  up  for  a  whole 
day  bv  the  vapour-plane  above  the  reach 
of  the  earth.  When  it  so  rests  it  is  ter- 
minated below  bv  a  straight  line.  It  is  a 
prevailing  cloud  in  the  daytime  at  all  sea- 
sons, and  is  exceedingly  beautiful  when 
it  presents  its  silvery  tops  tinted  with  sober 
colonrs,  against  the  bright  blue  sky.  Cu- 
muli sometimes  join  together  and  as  sud- 
denly separate  again,  though  in  every  case 
they  retain  their  peculiar  form.  They  may 
often  be  seen  floating  in  the  air  in  calm 
weather,  not  far  above  the  horizon  ;  and 
they  may  also  be  seen  driving  along  with 
the  gale  at  a  greater  height,  casting  their 
fleeting  shadows  upon  the  ground.    When 


in  motion,  their  bases  are  not  so  straight  as 
when  at  rest.  Cumuli  at  times  disperse, 
mount  into  the  air,  and  form  cirri,  or  they 
descend  into  strati  along  the  horizon  ;  at 
others,  a  single  cumulus  may  be  seen 
at  a  distance  in  the  horizcm,  and  then  in- 
creasing rai)idly  into  the  storm-cloud,  or 
(dse  overspreading  a  large  portion  of  the 
sky  with  a  dense  veil.  Does  not  the  poet 
in  these  beautiful  words  refer  to  the  cu- 
mulus, as  seen  in  a  summer  afternoon  ? 

And  now  the  mibts  from  earth  are  cloads  in 

heaven, 
Clonds  slowly  castellating  in  a  calm 
Sublimer  than  a  storm  ;  which  brighter  breathes 
O'er  the  whole  firmament  the  breadth  of  blue, 
Because  of  that  excfl^ive  purity 
Of  all  those  hanging^ow-white  palaces, 
A  gentle  contrast,  but  with  power  divine.* 

244.  "Cumuli  are  formed,"  observes 
Kaemtz,  "  when  ascending  currents  draw 
the  vapours  into  thehigherregions  of  the  at- 
mosphere, where  the  air,  being  very  cold,  is 
rapidly  saturated.  If  the  current  increases 
in  force,  the  vapours  and  clouds  become 
more  elevated  ;  but  there  they  increase  in 
greater  ratio,  on  account  of  the  reduction 
of  the  temperature.  Hence  it  happens 
that  the  sky,  though  fine  in  the  morning, 
is  entirely  clouded  at  mid-day.  When 
the  ascending  current  relaxes  towards 
evening,  the  clouds  descend  ;  and  on  ar- 
riving into  strata  of  air  which  are  less 
heated,  they  again  pass  into  the  state  of 
invisible  vapour.  According  to  Saussure, 
the  rounded  form  of  clouds  is  due  to  this 
mode  of  formation.  Indeed,  when  one 
liquid  traverses  another  in  virtue  of  the 
resistance  of  the  ambient  medium,  and  the 
mutual  resistance  of  its  parts,  the  former 
takes  a  cylindrical  form  with  a  circular 
section,  or  one  composed  of  the  arcs  of  a 
circle.  Thus  the  masses  of  ascending  air 
are  great  columns,  the  shape  of  which  is  de- 
fined by  the  clouds.  Add  to  this,  the  little 
whirlwinds  on  the  border  of  the  clouds, 
which  also  contribute  to  give  to  the  whole, 
rounded  forms  analogous  to  those  whirls 
of  smoke  escaping  from  a  chimney."  A 
figure  of  the  cumulus  floating  in  air,  as  well 
as  resting  on  the  vapour-plane,  is  repre- 
sented in  the  plate  along  with  the  Leices- 
ter tup. 

245.  Bound  well-formed  cumuli  indicate 


*  Profeaaor  Wilson. 


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67 


settled  weather ;  when  ragged  on  the 
edges,  rain  may  be  looked  for;  if  their 
edges  curl  inwards,  a  storm  is  brewing ; 
when  blown  outwards,  wind  will  follow. 
When  cumuli  remain  during  the  evening, 
and  increase  in  size,  they  indicate  rain  ; 
but  when  they  form  in  the  morning  and 
disappear  at  night,  they  indicate  steady 
weather.  Cumuli  are  most  characteristic 
of  the  fine  days  of  summer. 

24fi.  "  While  the  true  cumuli  are  formed 
by  day  and  disappear  during  the  night," 
observes  Kaemtz,  "another  variety  of  these 
clouds  is  seen  under  very  different  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  common  to  observe,  in 
the  afternoon,  dense  cloudy  masses,  round- 
'  ed  or  extended,  with  borders  badly  de- 
fined, the  number  of  which  increases  to- 
wards evening,  until,  during  the  night,  the 
sky  is  completely  overcast.  The  next 
day  is  still  overcast,  but  some  hours  after 
sunrise  all  disappear;  the  true  cumuli  then 
occupy  the  sky,  when  they  float  at  a  more 
considerable  height.  I  have  determined 
this  by  direct  measurements.  At  evening, 
clouds  of  the  former  class  again  replace 
the  true  cumuli.  These  clouds  are  com- 
posed of  very  dense  vescicular  vapour, 
like  the  cumulus  and  the  cumulo-stratus. 
They  differ  in  their  dependence  in  the 
hours  of  the  day ;  they  have  also  an  ana- 
logy with  the  stratus,  on  account  of  their 
extent,  and  are  distinguished  from  tliem 
by  their  greater  height.  However,  they 
approach  nearer  to  them  than  to  the 
cumulus,  and  I  propose  designating  them 
under  the  name  of  strato-cumulus. 

247.  "  The  influence  of  the  sun  on  the 
clouds  gives  rise  to  atmospheric  variations, 
which  are  well  known  to  husbandmen.  In 
the  morning  the  sky  is  clouded,  and  it  rains 
abundantly;  but  towards  nine  o'clock  the 
clouds  separate,  the  sun  shines  through, 
and  the  weather  is  fine  for  the  rest  of  the 
day.  At  other  times,  during  the  morning, 
the  sky  is  clear,  but  the  air  moist.  The 
clouds  soon  appear ;  toward  mid-day  the 
sky  is  covered,  the  rain  falls,  but  it  ceases 
toward  evening.  In  tlie  former  case  they 
^evQ  strato-ciiimdus ;  in  the  latter  c«mM/o- 
stratus.  The  former  are  dissipated  by  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  the  latter  are  formed  under 
their  influence.     If  the  temperature   and 


hygrometric  conditions  of  the  air  at  two 
or  three  thousand  yards  above  the  earth 
were  as  well  known  as  at  its  surface,  these 
apparent  anomalies,  which  astonish  us, 
might  be  more  easily  explained."* 

248.  Stratus. — The  stratus  is  that  bed 
of  vapour  which  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
valleys  in  a  summer  evening,  permitting 
the  tops  of  the  trees  and  church  spires  to 
protrude  through  it  in  bold  relief ;  and  it  is 
that  horizontal  bank  of  dark  cloud  seen 
to  rest  for  a  whole  night  along  the  horizon. 
It  also  forms  the  thin  dry  white  fogs  which 
come  over  the  land  from  the  sea  with  an 
E.  wind  in  spring  and  summer,  wetting 
nothing  that  it  touches.  When  this  dry 
fog  hangs  over  towns  in  winter,  which  it 
often  does  for  days,  it  appears  of  a  deep 
yellow  hue,  in  consequence,  most  probably, 
of  a  mixture  with  smoke  ;  and  such  con- 
stitutes the  November  fog  in  London. 
The  stratus  is  frequently  elevated  by 
means  of  the  vapour-plane,  and  then  it 
passes  into  the  cunmlus.  On  its  appear- 
ing frequently  in  the  evening,  and  its 
usual  disappearance  during  the  day,  it  has 
been  termed  the  *'•  cloud  of  night."  Having 
a  livid  gray  colour  when  the  moon  shiues 
upon  it,  the  stratus  is  probably  the  origin 
of  those  supposed  spectral  appearances 
seen  at  night  through  the  influence  of 
superstition  by  people  in  days  of  yore. 
The  light  or  dry  stratus  is  most  prevalent 
in  spring  and  summer,  and  the  dense  or 
wet  kind  in  autunm  and  winter.  A 
figure  of  stratus  fringed  on  the  upper  edge 
with  cirri,  is  given  in  the  plate  along  with 
the  three  short-horn  cows. 

249.  If  stratus  evaporates  before  the 
mounting  sun,  there  will  be  a  fine  day  ;  but 
if  it  makes  its  way  to  the  mountain-tops, 
and  lingers  about  them,  rain  will  come  in 
the  afternoon.  If  it  creeps  down  moun- 
tain sides  into  the  valley  during  the  day, 
rain  will  certainly  fall  ;  and  if  it  continues 
stationary  for  a  tiiue  at  a  slight  elevation, 
it  will  resolve  itself  into  a  steady  rain. 

250.  Cirro-cu7mdus.  —  The  cirrus,  in 
losing  the  fibrous,  assumes  the  more  even- 
grained  texture  of  the  cumulus,  which, 
when  subdivided  into  spherical  fragments, 
constitute  small  cumuli  of  little  density. 


Ka?mtz's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  120-2. 


68 


INITIATION. 


anJ  of  white  colour,  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  cirrus  or  in  clustcns.  They  are  high 
in  the  air,  and  heautiful  ohjects  in  tlie 
sky.  In  Cicriiiany  this  form  of  cloud  is 
caik'.l  "the  little  sheep  "—an  idea  which 
has  hcen  emhodied  hy  a  rustic  bard  of 
England : — 

Far  yet  above  these  wafted  clouds  are  seen 
(III  a  remoter  sky,  still  more  serene,) 
Others,  detach'd  in  ranges  through  tho  air, 
Spotless  as  snow,  and  countless  as  they're  fair ; 
Scatter'd  iminensely  wide  from  cast  to  west, 
The  beauteous  semblance  of  a  flock  at  rest.* 

Cirro-cumuli  are  most  fretjuently  to  be  seen 
in  summer. 

251.  "When  the  S.W.  wind  prevails, 
and  extends  to  the  lower  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,"  observes  Kaeintz,  "  the 
cirri  also  become  more  and  more  dense, 
because  the  air  is  nioister,  and  they  then 
pass  into  the  condition  of  light  cirro- 
cumuli,  which  are  entirely  composed  of 
vescicular  vapour.  Tiiey  do  not  weaken 
the  light  of  the  sun,  for  it  passes  through 
them ;  and  Humboldt  has  often  been  able 
to  see  through  these  clouds  stars  of  the 
fourth  magnitude,  and  even  to  recognise 
the  spots  on  the  moon.  When  they  pass 
before  the  sun  and  the  moon,  these  bodies 
are  surrounded  with  an  admirable  corona. 
The  cirro-cumuli  foretell  heat ;  it  seems 
that  the  hot  S.  winds,  which  prevail  in 
the  lower  regions,  do  not  convey  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  vapour  to  cover  the  sky 
entirely  with  clouds,  and  they  only  act  by 
their  elevated  temperature." 

252.  Dense  and  com])act  cirro-cumuli 
forebode  storm  ;  small  round  lumps 
foreshow  thunder;  the  ribbed,  windy  and 
rainy  weather.  Cirro-cumuli  frequently 
surmount  the  nimbus  without  rain.  If 
gray-coloured  ones  prevail  in  tho  morning, 
there  will  be  fair  weather;  but  if  red,  rain 
will  ensue.  They  evince  "thea])proach  of 
an  electrical  discharge.  Such  a  phenome- 
non, indeed,  will  occur  within  tweiity-fuur 
hours  of  tho  time  when  these  clouds  fnrm 
themselves  into  iheir  consjsicuous  groups."t 

253.  Cirro-stratus. —  While  cirri  de- 
scend and  assume  the  form  of  cirro-cumuli, 
they  may  still  farther  descend  and  take 
the  shape  of  cirro-stratus,  whose  fibres  be- 


come dense  and  decidedly  horizontal.  Ita 
characteristic  form  is  shallowness,  longi- 
tude, and  density.  It  consists  at  times  of 
dense  longitudinal  streaks,  and  the  density 
is  increased  when  a  great  breadth  of  cloud 
is  vieweil  horizontally  along  its  edge.  At 
other  times,  it  is  like  shoals  of  small  fish, 
when  it  is  called  a  "herring  sky;"  at 
others  mottled,  M'hen  it  is  named  a 
"  mackerel  -back  sky."  Sometimes  it 
is  like  veins  of  wood,  and  at  other  times 
like  the  ripples  of  sand  left  by  a  re- 
tiring tide  on  a  sandy  shore.  The  more 
mottled  the  cirro-stratus  the  higher  in 
the  air,  and  the  more  dense  and  stratified 
the  nearer  the  earth.  In  the  last  posi- 
tion it  maybe  seen  cutting  off  a  mountain 
top,  or  stretching  behind  it,  or  cutting 
acroos  the  tops  of  large  cumuli.  Sometimes 
its  striated  lines,  not  \ery  dense,  run 
parallel  over  the  zenith,  whose  ojiposite 
ends  ajjparcntly  converge  at  opj)osite 
points  of  the  horizon,  and  then  they  form 
that  peculiar  phenomenon  named  the 
"boat,"  or  "Noah's  ark."  At  times 
cirro-strati  cut  across  the  field  of  the  set- 
ting sun,  where  they  ajjpear  in  well-defined 
dense  stria?,  whose  u])per  or  lower  edges, 
in  reference  to  their  position  with  the  sun, 
are  burnished  with  the  most  brilliant  hues 
of  gold,  crimson,  or  vermilion.  Some- 
times the  cirro-stratus  extends  across  the 
heavens  in  a  broad  sheet,  obscuring  more 
or  less  the  light  of  the  sun  or  moon  for 
days  together ;  and  in  this  case  a  halo  or 
corona  is  frecjuently  seen  to  surround  these 
orbs,  or  a  parhelion  may  be  exjiected  to 
accompany  the  sun.  In  a  more  dense 
form,  it  assumes  the  shapes  of  some  small 
long-bodied  animals,  and  even  like  archi- 
tectural ornaments ;  and  in  all  its  muta- 
tions it  is  more  varied  than  any  otiicr 
form  of  cloud.  The  streaked  cirro-strati 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  winter  and 
autumn,  whereas  the  more  dolicatc  kinds 
are  mostly  seen  in  summer. 

254.  "  Wiien  the  S.W.  wind  jirovails," 
says  Kaemtz,  "and  extends  to  the  lower 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  the  cirri  also 
become  more  and  more  dense,  because  the 
air  is  moister.  They  then  pass  into  the 
condition  of  cirro-^stratus,  which  first  ap- 
pear under  the  form  of  a  mass  like  carded 
cotton,  the  filaments  of  which  are  closely 


*  Bloomfield'a  Farmer'i  Boy. 


t  Whistlecraft's  Clxmate  of  England,  p.  27. 


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69 


interlaced,  and  tbey  gradually  take  a 
grayish  tint ;  at  the  same  time,  the  cloud 
seems  to  get  lower,  and  vescicular  vapour 
is  formed,  which  fails  not  to  be  precipitated 
in  the  form  of  rain."  When  cirro-strati 
are  white,  and  have  a  positive  outline  on 
a  deep  blue  sky,  a  storm  is  sure  to  ensue. 

255.  Cumulo-stratus. — This  is  always 
a  dense  cloud.  It  spreads  out  its  base  to 
the  stratus  form,  and,  in  its  upper  part, 
frequently  inosculates  with  cirri,  cirro- 
cumuli,  or  cirro-strati.  In  this  particular 
form  it  is  represented  in  the  plate  of  the 
three  short-horn  cows.  With  all  or  either 
of  these  it  forms  a  large  massive  series  of 
cumulative  clouds  which  hang  on  the 
horizon,  displaying  great  mountain  shapes, 
raising  their  brilliantly  illuminated  silvery 
crests  towards  the  sun,  and  presenting 
numerous  dusky  valleys  between  them. 
Or  it  appears  in  formidable  white  masses 
of  variously  defined  shapes,  towering  up- 
wards from  the  horizon,  ready  to  meet  any 
other  form  of  cloud,  and  to  conjoin  with 
them  in  making  the  dense  dark-coloured 
storm-cloud.  In  either  case,  nothing  can 
exceed  the  picturesque  grandeur  of  its 
dazzling  towers,  or  the  sublimity  of  its 
masses  when  surcharged  with  lightnings, 
wind,  and  rain,  hastening  with  scowling 
front  to  meet  the  gentle  breeze,  hurling  it 
along  before  it  in  its  determined  course, 
as  if  impatient  of  restraint ;  and  all  the 
while  casting  a  portentous  gloom  over  the 
earth,  until,  bursting  with  terrific  rage,  it 
scorches  with  lightning  some  devoted  ob- 
ject more  prominent  than  the  rest,  and  del- 
uges tlie  plain  with  devastating  floods.  A 
tempest  soon  exhausts  its  force  in  the  tem- 
perate regions  ;  but  in  the  tropics  it  rages 
at  times  for  weeks,  and  then  woe  to  the 
poor  mariner  who  is  overtaken  by  it  at  sea 
unprepared.  Of  the  cumulo-stratus  the 
variety  called  "  Bishop's  wigs,"  as  repre- 
sented near  the  horizon  in  the  plate  of  the 
draught-mare,  may  be  seen  at  all  seasons 
along  the  horizon  ;  but  the  other  and  more 
imposing  form  of  mountain  scenery  is  only 
to  be  seen  in  perfection  in  summer,  when 
storms  are  rifo.  It  also  assumes  the  shapes 
of  the  largeranimals,andof  the  more  gigan- 
tic forms  of  nature  and  art.  Is  the  cumulo- 
stratus  in  all  its  varieties  the  form  of  cloud 
thus  described  by  Shakespere  ? . 


Sometime  we  see  a  cloud  that's  dragonish  ; 
A  vapour,  sometime,  like  a  bear  or  lion, 
A  tower'd  citadel,  a  pendent  rock, 
A  forked  mountain  or  blue  promontory 
^\'ith  trees  upon't,  that  nod  unto  the  world, 

And  mock  our  e5'eswith  air: 

Tliat,  which  is  now  a  horse,  even  with  a  thought, 
The  rack  dislimus,  and  makes  it  indistinct, 
As  water  is  in  water.* 

256.  "  The  cumuli  do  not  always  disap- 
pear toward  evening,"  remarks  Kaemtz ; 
"  on  the  contrary,  they  often  become  more 
numerous,  their  borders  are  less  brilliant, 
their  tint  deeper,  and  they  pass  into  the 
state  of  cumulo-stratus,  especially  if  a 
stratum  of  cirri  exists  below  them.  We 
then  expect  rains  or  storms,  for  in  the 
higher  and  mean  regions  the  air  is  near 
the  point  of  saturation.  The  S.  wind 
and  the  ascending  currents  give  rise  to 
changes  of  temperature,  which  determine 
the  precipitation  of  aqueous  vapour  in  the 
form  of  rain.  The  cumuli  that  are  heaped 
up  in  the  horizon  in  the  fine  days  of  sum- 
mer, are  those  which  are  the  most  fertile 
for  the  plays  of  the  imagination.  .  .  .  As 
they  are  often  of  the  same  height,  an  ap- 
pearance results  which  I  should  mention. 
When  I  was  living  at  the  Faalhorn,  the 
sky  was  frequently  perfectly  clear  over  my 
head;  but  a  little  above  the  horizon,  a  belt 
of  clouds,  the  width  of  which  did  not  exceed 
double  or  treble  that  of  the  moon,  extended 
like  a  pearl  necklace  along  the  West  Alps, 
from  France  to  the  Tyrol.  My  station  at 
8794  feet  above  the  sea  was  a  little  more 
elevated  than  the  clouds,  and  their  projec- 
tion on  the  sky  formed  a  narrow  belt,  al- 
though they  were  spread  over  a  A-ast  ex- 
tent of  the  sky.  From  this  projection  it 
follows,  that  it  is  often  very  difhcult  to 
distinguish  the  cumulus  from  the  cumulo- 
stratus." 

257.  When  cumuli  change  rock-like 
into  cumiflo-sfrati,  rain  will  follow,  and 
the  exception  is  when  it  continues  fair. 

258.  C'lrro-cianulo-stratus^  ov N'nr-hiis. 
— A  showery  form  of  this  cloud  may  be 
seen  in  the  plate  of  the  draught-horse. 
For  my  part,  I  cannot  see  that  the  mere 
resolution  of  a  cloud  into  rain  is  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  constitute  the  form 
into  a  separate  and  distinct  cloud ;  for  rain 
is  not  so  much  a  form  as  a  condition  of  a 
cloud,  in  the  final  state  in  which  it  reaches 


.  *  Anthony  and  Cleopatra,  Activ.  scene  xii. 


70 


INITIATION. 


the  earth.  Any  of  the  three  compound 
forms  of  clouds  just  described  may  form  a 
rain-cloud,  witliout  tlie  intervention  of  any 
other.  Cirro-strati  are  often  seen  to  drop 
down  in  rain,  without  giving  any  symp- 
toms of  forming  tlie  more  dense  structure 
of  the  nimbus;  and  even  liglit  showers  fall 
without  any  visible  appearance  of  a  cloud 
at  all.  The  nimbus  is  most  freipiently 
seen  in  summer  and  autumn.  The  nimbus 
is  uniformly  distinguished  by  its  gray  tint 
and  fringed  edges,  and  is  of  very  compli- 
cated form. 

259.  Scud. — There  is  a  kind  of  cloud, 
not  unlike  cumuli,  called  the  scud,  which 
is  described  usually  by  itself  as  broken 
nimbus.  It  is  of  dark  or  light  colour,  ac- 
cording as  the  sun  shines  upon  it,  of  varied 
form,  floating  or  scudding  before  the  wind, 
and  generally  in  front  of  a  sombre  cumulo- 
stratus  stretching  as  a  backgnmnd  across 
that  portion  of  the  sky,  often  accompanied 
with  a  bright  streak  of  sky  along  the  hori- 
zon. Tlie  ominous  scud  is  the  usual  har- 
binger of  the  rain-cloud,  and  is  therefore 
commonly  called  "messengers,"  "carriers," 
or  "  water-waggons,"  which  are  sure  pre- 
cursors of  rain. 

260.  On  concluding  the  very  important 
subject  of  the  forms  and  aspect  of  clouds 
to  farmers  as  prognostics  of  the  changes  of 
the  weather,  I  may  remark  as  a  general 
prognostic  that  when  clouds  attach  them- 
selves to  others  or  to  mountain-tops  they 
give  indications  of  rain.  When  they  form 
and  soon  disappear,  fair  weather  ensues. 
The  ragged  edges  of  clouds  indicate  a 
moist  state  of  air ;  when  much  ragged, 
wind  may  be  expected.  When  the  edges 
are  well  defined,  the  air  is  in  a  dry  state ; 
when  they  are  much  ndled  or  tucked 
in,  a  discharge  of  electrical  matter  may  be 
looked  for.  It  is  always  unwholesome 
weather  when  clouds  of  all  denominations 
have  undefined  edges.  When  cirrus, 
cumulus,  or  stratus  appears  alone,  an<l  in 
its  own  appropriate  region,  none  of  these 
clouds  can  be  regarded  as 'an  innnediate 
indication  of  rain,  or  other  foul  weather. 
The  cirrus  is  at  first  visible  in  a  dry  state 
of  the  air,  and  being  situated  in  the  highest 
portion  of  the  atmos[)liere,  it  can  only  be 
observed  fronj  the  earth  when  the  air  is 
clear.  But  its  non-observance  from  the 
earth  during  the  obscuration  of  low  clouds, 


is  no  proof  that  it  does  not  exist.  Cirrus 
is  an  indication  of  the  positive  state  of 
electricity  in  the  air;  and  it  is  conceived 
that  its  great  office  it?  the  diffusion  of  elec- 
tric matter  throughout  the  air,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  seen  when  the  air  is  surcharged 
with  thunder-clouds.  Its  pointed  form  is 
favourable  to  transmitting  electricity  from 
one  cloud  to  another,  and  it  sometimes 
appears  to  perform  this  office  betwixt 
cunmli.  "  When  two  or  more  of  these 
simple  species  of  cloud  meet  upon  the  con- 
fines of  their  respective  regions,  or  other- 
wise mingle  in  the  sky,  a  greater  extent  of 
atmospheric  derangement  is  indicated,  and 
foul  weather  may  usually  be  expected, 
unless  the  disturbed  atmosphere  shall  be 
carried  away  by  a  general  seasonal  cur- 
rent ;  and  this  is  the  case  in  great  part  of 
the  British  islands,  after  the  dry  coun- 
tries to  the  S.  and  E.  of  the  Baltic  have 
reached  the  maximum  of  their  summer 
heat.  This  removal  of  disturbed  air  by  the 
general  current,  is  the  cause  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  maxim,  'that  all 
signs  of  rain  fail  in  fine  weather,'  and 
certainly  it  much  depends  on  the  general 
character  of  the  season,  whether  a  mode- 
rate degree  of  atmospheric  disturbance, 
and  formation  and  blending  of  clouds  of 
ditlerent  species,  shall  or  shall  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  rain."  The  most  icholesome  icea- 
ther  is  when  W.  winds  and  day  cumuli 
prevail — when  a  stratus  evaporates  as  the 
sun  rises — during  the  formation  of  well- 
defined  cumuli  throughout  the  day,  most 
abundant  in  the  afternoon,  and  disapj)ear- 
ing  again  in  the  evening — to  be  succeeded 
by  strong  dew  and  the  stratus — and  accom- 
panied with  westerly  breezes,  which  die 
away  towards  evening.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  barometer  is  always  steady,  and 
tlie  thermometer  high.  When  other  points 
of  wind  accompany  this  weather,  they  are 
attended  either  with  frost  or  heat,  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year. 

261.  Heights  of  clouds. — There  exist  a 
groat  many  meai^urenicnts  of  the  heights  of 
clouds.  According  to  the  best  authorities 
it  would  appear  that  their  extreme  range 
of  height  extends  from  1300  to  21,300  feet 
above  the  sea.  That  clouds  exist  at  diffe- 
rent heights  is  easily  proveil  while  ascend- 
ing mountains;  and  another  proof  consists 
in  their  being  seen  to  move  in  opposite 
directions  at  the  same  time  :  one  set  may 


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be  seen  moving  in  one  direction  near  the 
earth,  whilst  another  may  be  seen  unmoved 
through  their  openings.  Clouds  may  be 
seen  moving  in  different  directions,  at 
apparently  great  heights  in  the  air,  whilst 
those  near  the  ground  may  be  quite  still. 
The  whole  clouds  seen  may  be  moving 
in  the  same  direction  with  different  velo- 
cities. It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the 
lighter  clouds — those  containing  vapour  in 
the  most  elastic  state — should  occupy  a 
higher  position  in  the  air  than  the  less 
elastic.  On  this  account,  it  is  only  fleecy 
clouds  that  are  seen  over  the  tops  of  the 
highest  Andes.  Clouds,  in  heavy  wea- 
ther, are  seldom  above  ^  mile  high,  but  in 
clear  weather  from  2  to  4  miles,  and  per- 
haps the  cirri  are  5  or  6  miles. 

262.  Size  of  clouds. — Clouds  are  often  of 
enormous  size,  lOmileseachwayand  2miles 
thick,  containing  200  cubic  miles  of  vapour ; 
but  sometimes  they  are  even  1 0  times 
that  size.  The  size  of  small  clouds  may  be 
easily  estimated  by  observing  their  shadows 
on  the  ground  in  clear  breezy  weather  in 
summer.  These  are  usually  cumuli  scud- 
ding before  a  W.  wind.  The  shadows 
of  larger  clouds  may  be  seen  resting  on 
the  sides  of  mountain  ranges,  or  spread 
out  upon  the  ocean.  Messrs  Peytier  and 
Hossard  had  favourable  opportunities  of 
ascertaining  the  heights  and  sizes  of  clouds 
while  prosecuting  the  triangulation  that 
was  executed  in  the  Pyrenees  in  1826. 
On  the  29th  September  the  two  observers 
were  so  placed  as  to  see  at  the  same  mo- 
ment the  two  opposite  surfaces  of  the  same 
cloud,  and  its  thickness  was  1458  feet: 
next  day  it  had  increased  to  2786  feet. 

263.  Fog  or  Mist.— The  phenomenon  of 
fog  or  mist  occurs  at  all  seasons,  and  it 
appears  always  under  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances explained  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 
His  theory  is,  that  radiation  of  heat  from 
land  and  water  sends  up  vapour  until  it 
meets  with  a  cold  stratum  of  air,  which 
condenses  it  in  the  form  of  mist, — that 
naturally  gravitates  towards  the  surface. 
When  the  radiation  is  Aveak,  the  mist 
seems  to  lie  upon  the  ground,  but  when 
more  powerful,  the  stratum  of  mist  may  be 
seen  elevated  a  few  feet  above  the  ground. 
Mist,  too,  may  be  seen  to  continue  longer 
over  the  water  than  the  land,  owing  to  the 
slower  radiation  of  vapour  from  water;  and 


it  is  generally  seen  in  the  hollowest  por- 
tions of  ground,  on  account  of  the  cold  air, 
as  it  descends  from  the  surrounding  rising 
ground,  mixing  with  the  air  in  the  hollow, 
and  diminishing  its  capacity  for  moisture. 

264.  Mist  also  varies  in  its  character 
according  to  its  electric  state  ;  if  negatively 
affected,  it  deposits  its  vapour  morequickly, 
forming  a  heavy  sort  of  dew,  and  wetting 
every  thing  like  rain  ;  but  if  positively,  it 
continues  to  exist  as  fog,  and  retains  the 
vapour  in  the  state  in  which  it  has  not  the 
property  of  wetting  like  the  other.  Thin 
hazy  fogs  frequently  occur  in  winter  even- 
ings after  clear  cold  weather,  and  they 
often  become  so  permanently  electric,  as  to 
resist  for  days  the  action  of  the  sun  to 
disperse  them.  Thick  heavy  fogs  occur 
also  in  the  early  part  of  summer  and 
autumn,  and  are  sometimes  very  wetting. 

265.  The  formation  of  fog  is  often  ac- 
companied with  circumstances  which  it  is 
at  first  difficult  to  explain.  For  example, 
when  the  sky  is  cloudy,  a  local  fog  is  often 
observed  on  the  declivity  of  mountains, 
occupying  only  a  small  surface  ;  and  is 
soon  dissipated,  but  again  appears  imme- 
diately. In  such  a  case  of  fog,  it  is  formed 
over  ground  covered  with  long  grass, 
compared  with  that  around  it ;  and  the 
explanation  is,  that  the  long  grass  pre- 
venting the  heating  of  the  ground  so 
quickly  as  the  barer  ground  near  it,  a 
less  active  evaporation  takes  place  over  it. 

266.  In  countries  where  the  soil  is  moist 
and  hot,  thick  and  frequent  fogs  may  be 
expected.  This  is  the  case  in  England, 
the  coasts  of  which  are  washed  by  the  sea 
at  an  elevated  temperature.  The  same  is 
more  constantly  the  case  with  the  polar 
seas  of  Newfoundland,  where  the  gulf- 
stream,  which  comes  from  the  S.,  has  a 
higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  air. 

267.  But  fogs  are  not  always  formed 
from  the  vapour  derived  from  the  ground 
over  which  they  are  observed  to  exist. 
Vapour  may  be  transported  by  winds  to 
cold  countries,  and  be  there  converted  into 
fog  at  a  notable  distance  from  the  place  of 
its  origin.  The  S.W.  winds  generally  bring 
abundance  of  vapour  into  Germany,  whilst 
the  N.E.  instantly  precipitates  the  vapour 
radiated  from  the  soil  below. 


72 


INITIATION. 


268.  The  prognostic  regarding  fog  is, 
that  if  it  creep  towards  the  hills  it  will  be 
rain,  but  if  it  goes  to  the  sea  it  will  be  fine 
weather. 

2G9.  Fog  has  the  effect  of  both  conceal- 
ing and  magnifying  distant  objects  ;  it  can 
clearly  exhibit  the  shadows  of  near  objects, 
and  is  an  excellent  conductor  of  sound : 
all  which  phenomena  can  easily  be  ex- 
plained on  optical  and  acoustical  principles. 

270.  Rain. — The  life  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals depending  as  much  on  moisture  as  on 
temperature,  and  their  development  being 
greatly  modified  by  the  dryness  or  humi- 
dity of  the  atmosphere,  the  cause  and 
effects  of  rain  become  important  objects  of 
study  to  the  agricultural  student. 

271.  Rain-gauge. — Although  the  actual 
quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  a  given  part 
of  a  country  is  not  an  exact  measure  of 
the  dryness  or  humidity  of  its  climate,  that 
being  chiefly  determined  by  the  frequency 
and  not  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls; 
still  it  is  interesting  to  know  the  quantity 
of  rain  that  falls  in  any  given  locality.  The 
rain  that  falls  is  measured  by  a  rain-gauge. 
This  instrument  is  of  no  use  to  the  farmer 
as  an  indicator  of  rain,  and,  like  some  of  the 
rest  which  have  been  described,  only  pro- 
fesses to  tell  tiie  result  after  it  has  occurred ; 
and  even  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the 
quantity  of  rain  that  has  actually  fallen  in 
a  given  space,  it  is  an  imperfect  instrument. 
"  The  simplest  form  of  this  instrument," 
says  Mr  John  Adie,  "  is  a  funnel,  with  a 
cylindrical  mouth,  3  or  4  inches  high,  and 
having  an  area  of  100  square  inches,  made 
of  tinned  iron  or  thin  copper.  It  may  be 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  a  large  bottle  for 
receiving  the  water,  and,  after  each  fall, 
the  quantity  is  measured  by  a  glass  jar, 
divided  into  inches  and  parts.  A  more 
elegant  arrangement  of  the  instrument  is 
formed  by  placing  the  funnel  at  the  top 
of  a  brass  cylindrical  tube,  having  at  one 
side  a  glass  tube,  communicating  with  it 
at  the  under  part,  with  a  divided  scale 
placed  alongside  of  it.  The  area  of  the 
mouth  is  to  that  of  the  under  tubes  as 
10:1;  consequently  1  inch  deep  of  rain 
falling  into  the  mouth  will  measure  10 
inches  in  the  tubes,  and  1  inch  upon  tne 


scale  will  be  equal  to  a  fall  of  15  of  an  inch, 
which  quantities  arc  marked  upon  the 
scale,  and  the  water  is  let  off  by  a  stop- 
cock below.  The  instrument  should  be 
placed  in  an  exposed  situation,  ata  dis- 
tance from  all  buildings  and  trees,  and  as 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible. 
•  .  .  In  cases  of  snow-storms,  the  rain- 
gauge  may  not  give  a  correct  quantity,  as 
a  part  may  be  blown  out,  or  a  greater 
quantity  have  fallen  than  the  mouth  will 
contain.  In  such  cases,  the  method  of  know- 
ing the  quantity  of  water  is,  to  take  any 
cylindrical  vessel — such  asa  case  for  contain- 
ing maps,  which  will  answer  the  purpose 
very  well,  and,  pressing  it  perpendicularly 
into  the  snow,  bring  out  a  cylinder  of  snow 
with  it  equal  to  the  depth ;  and  this,  when 
melted,  will  give  the  quantity  of  water  by 
measurement.  The  proportion  of  snow  to 
water  is  about  17:1,  aiid  hail  to  water 
8:1.  These  quantities,  however,  are  not 
constant,  but  depend  upon  tlie  circumstances 
under  which  the  snow  or  hail  has  fallen, 
and  the  time  they  have  been  upon  the 
ground."  * 

272.  The  cost  of  a  rain-gauge,  according 
as  it  is  fitted  up,  is  £\,  5s.,  £2,  12s.  6d., 
and  i^4,  4s. 

273.  Udometer. — "M.  Flaugergues,  pro- 
fessor at  the  school  of  naval  artillery  at 
T<iulon.  presented  to  the  Society  of  Science 
of  that  city,  in  the  course  of  1841,  a  new 
gyratory  udometer,  arranged  not  only  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls, 
but  also  to  make  known,  by  mere  inspec- 
tion, the  portions  of  this  quantity  wliich 
have  fallen  for  each  determinate  wind.  This 
instrument  is  com|X)sed,  1st,  Of  a  funnel 
movable  round  a  vertical  axis,  covered  at 
its  up])er  part,  and  carrying  at  its  lower  ex- 
tremity an  escape-tube,  the  axis  of  which  is 
in  the  same  vertical  plane  with  the  axis  of 
rotation,  and  with  a  vane  placed  in  the  very 
body  of  the  funnel,  so  that  the  escape  of 
water,  accumulated  there,  takes  place  in  a 
direction  constantly  parallel  with  tliat  of 
the  wind  ;  2d,  Of  a  cylindrical  receptacle 
divided  by  eight  vertical  j)artitions,  radi- 
ating into  eight  chambers,  and  corresj)ond- 
ing  to  the  eight  principal  points  of  the 
compass.  This  receptacle  is,  in  tlie  outset, 
duly  adjusted,  and  solidly  fixed  on  a  base 


Quarterly  Journal  0/  .Agriculture,  iii.  p.  13. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


73 


at  the  bottom  of  each  of  the  divisions,  by 
a  tube  which  ascends  vertically  outside  the 
receptacle,  and  in  which  the  height  of  the 
water  in  the  correspondent  cell  is  observed. 
An  udometer  of  this  kind  has  been  used 
since  the  commencement  of  1841,  at  the 
naval  battery  at  Toulon,  and  it  leaves  no- 
thing to  be  desired."  * 

274.  The  ^Al?ory  proposed  by  Dr  Hutton, 
that  rain  occurs  from  the  mingling  to- 
gether of  great  beds  of  air  of  unequal  tem- 
peratures differently  stored  with  moisture, 
is  that  which  was  adopted  by  Dalton, 
Leslie,  and  others,  and  is  the  current  one, 
having  been  illustrated  and  strengthened 
by  the  clearer  views  of  the  nature  of  depo- 
sition which  we  now  possess  ;  and  which 
teach  that  as  the  S.  to  S.W.  wiuds  bring 
the  vapour,  so  the  upward  current  of  the 
atmosphere  carries  it  to  a  lower  tempera- 
ture, when  an  immediate  precipitate  takes 
place  of  the  vapour  in  the  form  of  rain. 

275.  On  the  connexion  of  rain  with  the 
fall  of  the  harometer,  Mr  Meikle  has  shown 
that  the  change  of  pressure  may  be  a  cause 
as  well  as  an  effect ;  for  the  expansion  of 
air  accompanying  diminished  pressure, 
being  productive  of  cold,  diminishes  the 
elasticity  of  the  existing  vapour,  and 
causes  a  deposition. t 

276.  Taking  a  general  view  of  the  rain 
that  falls  over  the  face  of  the  globe,  it  is 
found  that  the  tropical  region  is  subject 
chiefly  to  periodical  rains,  that  is,  large 
quantities  falling  at  one  time  of  the  year, 
while  at  other  times  none  falls  for  months. 
In  portions  of  the  globe  no  rain  falls  at 
all,  and  they  are,  in  consequence,  called 
the  "  rainless  districts  ;"  these  comprehend 
part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara  and  Egypt 
in  Africa,  part  of  Arabia,  Persia,  the 
desert  of  Gobi,  Thibet  and  Mongolia  in 
Asia,  and  the  W.  coasts  of  Mexico  and 
Peru  in  America. 

277.  On  each  side  of  the  tropical  zone, 
towards  the  poles,  is  the  zone  of  "  constant 
precipitation,"  not  that  rain  constantly  falls, 
but  that  it  may  fall  in  any  day  of  the  year  ; 
while,  in  a  stripe  of  the  same  zone,  at  a 
short  distance  from,  and  parallel  with,  the 
equator,  rain  is  frequent,  almost  constant, 


and  always  accompanied  with  electrical 
explosions. 

278.  The  annual  amount  of  rain  that  falls 
in  the  Old  and  New  World,  distinguish- 
ing the  annual  amounts  in  the  tropics, 
within  the  zone  of  periodical  rains,  from 
those  in  the  zones  of  constant  precipitation, 
is  as  follows  : — 

The  annual  amount  of  rain 
Under  the  tropics  of  the  New  World,  115  inches. 

Old  World,     76  ... 

Within  the  tropics  generally,        .         95 1  ... 
In   the  temperate  zone  of  the  New 

World,  (United  States,)     .         .         37  ... 

Of  the  Old  World,  (Europe,)         .         31  f  ... 

Generally, 34|  ... 

279.  Confining  our  general  view  of  the 
fall  of  rain  to  Eui-ope,  that  quarter  may 
be  divided  into  three  portions;  1st,  The 
province  of  icinter  rains,  comprehending 
part  of  the  southern  portion  of  Europe; 
2d,  The  province  of  autumn  rains,  com- 
prising the  remainder  of  the  southern  and 
the  western  portions  ;  and,  3d,  The  pro- 
vince of  the  summer  rains,  embracing  the 
whole  of  the  interior  o£  the  continent. 

280.  There  are  general  laws  which  affect 
the  distribution  of  rain  over  the  globe  ;  and 
these  are  : — "  The  amount  of  rain  decreases 
as  we  recede  from  the  equator  to  the  poles; 
thus,  while  under  the  tropics  the  yearly 
average  amount  of  rain  is  95  inches,  in 
Italy  it  is  less  than  a  half,  or  4.5  inches;  in 
England  about  one-third,  or  30  inches; 
in  the  north  of  Germany,  about  one-fourth, 
or  22;!  inches ;  and  at  St  Petersburg,  only 
one-fifth,  or  17  inches." 

281 .  Though  this  be  the  case,  the  num- 
ber of  rainy  days  increases  from  the  equa- 
tor to  the  poles ;  so  that,  where  the  most 
rain  falls,  there  are  the  fewest  rainy  days. 
According  to  the  observation  of  M.  Cotte, 
the  numbers  stand  thus  : — 

From  N.  Lat.  12°  to  43°  there  are  78  rainy  days. 

43°  to  46°        ...      103 

46°  to  50°        ...      134 

50°  to  60°        ...      161 

282.  "  The  quantity  of  rain  decreases,  in 
general,  in  ascending  low  plains  to  ele- 
vated table-lands ;  but  this  law  is  reversed 


Kaemtz's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  125-6.    Note.         +  Royal  Institution  Journal. 


74 


INITIATION. 


in  ascending  steep  and  rugged  mountain- 
chains.  The  former  case  is  illustrated  by 
the  Iberian  peninsula;  for  while  on  the 
coast  of  Spain  and  Portugal  the  annual 
fall  of  rain  amounts  to  from  2.5  to  35  inches, 
on  the  plateau  or  table-land  of  Castile,  which 
is  surrounded  with  mountains,  it  is  only 
10  inches.  In  the  latter  case,  the  effect 
of  the  Alps  is  so  great,  that  while  the 
annual  amount  of  rain  in  the  valley  of 
the  middle  Rhine  and  on  the  plateau  of 
Bavaria  is  only  21  inches,  in  Berne  and 
Tegernsee,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  it  is 
nearly  double,  or  43  inches.  In  England 
the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  in  the 
mountainous  districts,  is  more  than  double 
that  of  the  less  elevated  portions  of  the 
country;  thus,  while  the  meteorological 
reports  for  Essex  give  only  an  annual 
average  of  19"5  inches,  those  for  Keswick 
in  Cumberland  show  no  less  than  67*5 
inches  ;  and  at  Kinfauns,  in  »Scotland,  the 
amount  shown,  on  an  average  of  five  years, 
is  2.5'66,  whilst  that  in  the  vicinity,  placed 
on  a  hill  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  amounts  to  41*49  inches. 

283.  "  The  amount  of  rain  decreases  in 
the  direction  from  the  coasts  to  the  interior 
of  continents ;  and  this  is  exemplified  by 
the  difference  between  the  coasts  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  countries  of  Eastern 
Russia.  The  western  coasts  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, France,  and  Portugal,  have  an  annual 
average  of  from  30  to  35  inches.  Bergen, 
in  Norway,  has  80,  and  Coimbra,  in 
Portugal,  111  inches  of  rain;  while  in 
central  and  eastern  Europe,  in  Bavaria, 
and  through  Poland  and  Russia,  it  falls  to 
15  inches.  At  lekatrinburg,  in  the  Ural 
mountains,  it  is  only  13  inches,  and  in  the 
interior  of  Siberia  it  is  still  less. 

284.  "  In  both  hemispheres,  within  the 
temperate  zone,  the  W.  coasts  are  projior- 
tionally  more  moist  than  the  E.  In  this 
quarter  of  the  globe,  it  is  explained  by  the 
prevalence  of  the  W.  winds,  which,  before 
arriving  in  Europe,  become  charged  with 
vapour  in  j)assing  over  the  Atlantic  (3cean  ; 
whilst  those  which  blow  from  the  E.  pa.s3 
over  the  interiorof  the  continent.^  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  where  the  dryness  of  the  air  in- 
creases so  rajndly  from  W.   to  E.  that  a 


mean  of  seven  years'  observation  gives 
to  Moscow  205,  to  Karau  90,  and  to  Ir- 
koutzk  only  57  days  of  rain  ;  and  the  rains 
which  accompany  the  W.  M'inds  have  been 
observed  at  Penzance  to  exceed  those 
caused  by  the  E.  winds  in  the  ratio  of  3  :  1. 
The  determining  causes  of  the  distribution 
of  rain  in  Europe  are  thus  seen  to  be  the 
predominance  of  W.  winds  with  the  ex- 
istence of  a  vast  ocean  on  one  side,  and  a 
great  continent  on  the  other.  The  former 
of  these  causes  is  thus  explained  by  A.  von 
Humboldt :  '  The  predominating  winds  of 
Europe  are  E.,  which  for  the  W.  and 
central  portions  of  it  are  sea-winds — cur- 
rents which  have  been  in  contact  with  a 
mass  of  waters,  the  teiuperature  of  which, 
at  the  surface,  even  in  the  month  of 
January,  does  not,  at  45''  and  50^  of  lati- 
tude, fall  below  5P  and  48^  Fahrenheit.'  "* 

285.  Mr  Howard  remarks,  that,  on  an 
average  of  years,  it  rains  every  other  day; 
and,  by  a  mean  of  40  years  at  ^Iviers,  M. 
Flaugergues  found  98  days  of  rain  through- 
out the  year. 

286.  He  also  states,  that  of  21*94  inches 
— a  mean  of  31  lunar  months — rain  fell  in 
the  day  to  the  amount  of  8'67  inches,  and 
in  the  night  to  13' 27  inches.  Dr  Dalton 
also  states,  that  more  rain  falls  when  the 
sun  is  under  the  horizon  than  when  it  is 
above  it.  , 

287.  Mr  Howard  further  remarks,  that  1 
year  in  every  5  in  this  country  may  be 
expected  to  be  extremely  dry,  and  1  in  10 
extremely  wet.t 

288.  Notwithstanding  the  enormous 
annual  fall  of  rain  at  the  equator,  parti- 
cular instances  of  a  great  depth  of  rain  in 
a  short  time  have  occasionally  occurred  in 
Europe,  which  probably  have  seldom  been 
equalled  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 
At  Geneva,  on  the  25th  October  1822, 
there  fell  30  inches  of  rain  in  one  day. 
At  Joyeuse,  according  to  M.  Arago,  on  the 
9th  October  1827,  there  fell  31  inches  of 
rain  in  22  hours.  With  regard  to  re- 
markable variations  in  the  quantity  of  rain 
in  different  places,  among  the  Andes  it  is 
said  to  rain  perpetually ;  whereas  in  Peru, 


*  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas — Mtteorology  ;  a  new  work  of  great  accuracy,  beauty,  and  interest. 
+  Encydopcedia  Metropolitana ;  art.  Mettorolojy. 


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75 


as  Ulloa  affirms,  it  never  rains,  but  that 
for  a  part  of  the  year  the  atmosphere  is 
obscured  by  thick  fogs  caWed  ffaritas.  In 
Egypt  it  hardly  ever  rains  at  all,  and  in 
some  parts  of  Arabia  it  seldom  rains  more 
than  two  or  three  times  in  as  many  years ; 
but  the  dews  are  heavy,  and  refresh  the 
soil,  and  supply  with  moisture  the  few 
plants  which  grow  in  those  sunny  regions.* 

289.  The  influence  of  i/ie  lunar  periods 
on  the  amount  of  rain  deserves  attention. 
Professor  Forbes  believes  that  there  is 
some  real  connexion  between  the  lunar 
phases  and  the  weather.  M.  Flaugergues, 
who  has  observed  the  weather  at  Viviers 
with  the  greatest  assiduity  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  marked  the  number  of  rainy 
days  corresponding  with  the  lunar  phases, 
and  found  them  at  a  maximum  at  tiie  first 
quarter,  and  a  minimum  at  the  last. 

290.  It  almost  always  happens  that  rain 
brings  down  foreign  matter  fro^n  the  air. 
It  is  known  that  the  farina  of  plants  has 
been  carried  as  far  as  30  or  40  miles,  and  the 
ashes  of  volcaaoes  have  been  carried  more 
than  200  miles.  We  can  conceive  that 
when  the  magnitude  of  the  particles  of 
dry  substances  is  so  reduced  as  to  render 
them  incapable  of  falling  in  any  given 
velocity,  that  their  descent  may  be  over- 
come by  a  very  slight  current  of  the  air ; 
but  even  in  still  air  a  sphere  of  water  of 
only  the  almost  inconceivable  size  of 
gooooo  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter  falls  1 
inch  in  a  second,  and  yet  particles  of  mist 
must  be  much  larger  than  this,  otherwise 
they  could  not  be  visible  as  separate  drops; 
the  least  drop  of  water  that  is  discover- 
able by  the  naked  eye  falls  with  a  velocity 
of  1  foot  in  the  second,  when  the  air  is 
still.  Although  it  is  probable  that  the 
resistance  opposed  to  the  descent  of  small 
bodies  in  air,  may  be  considerably  greater 
than  would  be  expected  from  calculation, 
still  the  wonder  is  how  they  are  supported 
for  any  length  of  time.  In  this  diffi- 
culty there  is  much  inclination  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  electricity  to  account  for  the 
phenomenon.  Mr  Leithead  accounts  for 
it  in  this  way:  "When  the  earth  is  posi- 
tive and  the  atmosphere  negative,  the 
electric  fluid,  in  endeavouring  to  restore 


its  equilibrium,  would  cause  a  motion 
amongst  the  particles  of  the  air  in  a 
direction  from  the  earth  towards  the 
higher  region  of  the  atmosphere ;  fur  the 
air  being  a  very  imperfect  conductor,  the 
particles  near  the  earth's  surface  can  only 
convey  electricity  to  the  more  remote 
particles  by  such  a  motion.  This  would, 
in  efiect,  partly  diminish  the  downward 
pressure  of  the  air,  which  is  due  to  its 
actual  density;"  and,  in  doing  this,  might 
it  not,  at  the  same  time,  counteract  in 
some  degree  the  gravity  of  any  substance 
in  the  air  by  surrounding  it  with  an  elec- 
trical atmosphere  ?  "When,  on  the  con- 
trary," continues  Mr  Leithead,  "the  earth 
is  negative  and  the  air  positive,  this 
motion  of  the  particles  will  be  rever^sed  ; 
thus  increasing  the  pressure  towards  the 
earth,  and  producing  the  same  effect  as  if 
the  air  had  actually  increased  in  den- 
sity;" t  and  would  it  not  thereby  be  more 
capable  of  supporting  any  foreign  body 
in  it  ? 

291.  Gaseous  as  well  as  vegetable  and 
mineral  matters  are  brought  by  rain  from 
the  atmosphere.  Nitrogen  and  hydrogen, 
in  the  form  of  ammonia  and  carbc)nic  acid 
— the  two  last  forming  the  most  essential 
elements  in  the  food  of  plants — are  brought 
down  by  rain. 

292.  "The  nitrogen  of  putrefied  ani- 
mals," says  Liebig,  "is  contained  in  the 
atmosphere  as  ammonia,  in  the  state  of  a 
gas,  which  is  capable  of  entering  into  com- 
bination with  carbonic  acid,  and  of  form- 
ing a  volatile  salt.  Ammonia,  in  its  gaseous 
form,  as  well  as  all  its  volatile  compounds, 
is  of  extreme  solubility  in  water.  Ammo- 
nia, therefore,  cannot  remain  long  in  the 
atmosphere,  as  every  shower  of  rain  must 
eftect  its  condensation,  and  convey  it  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Hence,  also, 
rain-water  must  at  all  times  contain  am- 
monia, though  not  always  in  equal  (juan- 
tity.  It  must  contain  more  in  summer 
than  in  spring  or  in  winter,  because  the 
intervals  of  time  between  the  showers  are 
in  summer  greater ;  and  when  several  wet 
days  occur,  the  rain  of  the  first  must  con- 
tain more  of  it  than  that  of  the  second. 
The  rain  of  a  thunder-storm,  after  a  long 


*  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i.  p.  251-252. 

+  Leithead  On  Electricity,  p.  373.     This  explanation  Mr  Leithead  also  gives  to  account  for  the 
changes  ia  the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by  the  oscillations  of  the  barometer. 


76 


INITIATION. 


protracted  drought,  ought  for  this  reason 
to  contain  the  greatest  quantity  conveyed 
to  tiic  earth  at  one  time." 

293.  As  regards  the  quantity  of  ammo- 
nia thus  hrouglit  down  by  the  rain,  —  as 
1132  cubic  feet  of  air,  saturated  with 
aqueous  vapour  at  59°  Fahrenheit,  should 
yiehl  1  lb.  of  rain-water,  if  the  pound  con- 
tain only  one-fourth  of  a  grain  of  ammo- 
nia,ai)ieceofgroundof  26,910  squarefeet — 
43,."<60  square  feet  being  in  an  acre — must 
receive  annually  upwards  of  80  lbs.  of  am- 
monia, or  65  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  which  is 
much  more  nitrogen  than  is  contained  in 
the  form  of  vegetable  albumen  and  gluten 
in  26.50  lbs.  of  wood,  2oOO  lbs.  of  hay,  or 
200  cwt.  of  beetroot,  which  are  the  yearly 
produce  of  Such  a  piece  of  ground  ;  but  it 
is  less  than  the  straw,  roots,  and  grain  of 
corn,  which  might  grow  on  thosame  surface, 
would  contain. 

294.  Snow-water  yields  ammonia  as 
well  as  rain-water,  and  the  snow  which  is 
next  the  ground,  and  which  fell  first,  yields 
more  than  what  lies  above  it.  The  ammo- 
nia contained  in  snow  and  rain-water  pos- 
sesses a  smell  of  perspiration  and  putrefying 
matter  —  a  fact  which  leaves  no  doubt  of 
its  origin;  for  "the  ammonia  received 
from  the  atmosphere  by  rain  and  other 
causes,  is  as  constantly  replaced  by  putre- 
faction of  animal  and  vegetable  matters. 
A  certain  portion  of  that  which  falls  with 
the  rain  evaporates  again  with  the  water; 
but  another  portion  is,  wc  suppose,  taken 
up  by  the  roots  of  plants,  and,  entering 
into  new  combinations  in  the  difl'erenfc 
organs  of  assimilation,  produces,  by  the 
action  of  these  and  of  certain  other  condi- 
tions, albumen,  gluten,  &c.  The  chemi- 
cal characters  of  ammonia  render  it  cap- 
able of  entering  into  such  combinations,  and 
of  undergoing  numerous  transformations."* 

295.  These  are  general  prognostics  of 
rain: — When  cattle  suutf  tbe  air  and 
gather  together  in  a  corner  of  the  field 
with  their  heads  to  leeward,  or  take 
shelter  in  the  sheds  —  when  sheep  leave 
their  pastures  with  reluctance — when 
goats  go  to  sheltered  spots  —  when  asses 
bray  frequently  and  shake  their  ears  — 
when  dogs  lie  much  about  the  fireside  and 


appear  drowsy; — when  cats  turn  their 
backs  to  the  fire  and  wa.'^h  their  faces  — 
when  pigs  cover  themselves  more  than 
usual  in  litter — when  cocks  crow  at  un- 
usual hours  and  flap  their  wings  much  — 
when  hens  chaunt  —  when  ducks  and 
geese  are  unusually  clamorous  — •  when 
pigeons  wash  themselves  —  when  pea- 
cocks s(|uall  loudly  from  trees  —  when  the 
guinea-fowl  «iakes  an  incessant  grating 
clamour  —  when  sparrows  chirp  loudly, 
and  clamorously  congregate  on  the  ground 
or  in  the  hedge  —  when  swallows  fly  low, 
and  skim  tlieir  wings  on  water,  on  ac- 
count of  the  flies  upon  which  they  feed 
having  descended  towards  the  ground 
— when  the  carrion-crow  croaks  solitarily 
—  when  water  wild-fowl  dip  and  wash 
unusually  —  when  moles  throw  up  hills 
more  industriously  than  usual  —  when 
toads  creep  out  in  numbers  —  when  frogs 
croak — when  bats  squeak,  and  enter 
houses  —  when  the  singing  birds  take 
shelter — when  the  robin  approaches  near- 
est the  dwellings  of  man  —  when  tame 
swans  fly  against  the  wind  —  wlien  bees 
leave  their  hives  with  caution,  and  fly  only 
short  distances  —  when  ants  carry  their 
eggs  busily  —  when  flies  bite  severely, 
and  become  troublesome  in  numbers  — 
"when  earthworms  appear  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  crawl  about — and  when 
the  larger  sorts  of  snails  appear. 

29<).  Wi7id.  The  variations  in  the  in- 
tensity and  direction  of  the  winds  are  the 
best  indices  to  the  change  of  w  eatber  that 
the  agricultural  student  can  study.  In 
the  temperate  zone,  and  particularly  ih 
this  island,  flanked  as  it  is  with  one  great 
ocean,  and  not  fur  removed  from  an  ex- 
tensive continent,  tlie  variations  of  the 
wind  are  so  great,  and  apparently  so 
capricious,  as  to  bafile  minute  and  correct 
inquiry;  whereas  in  the  trojiics,  the 
periodic  winds  correspond  exactly  with 
the  uniform  course  of  the  seasons,  and 
the  limited  range  of  the  barometer — phe" 
nomena  characteristic  of  that  portion  of 
the  globe. 

297.  The  disparity  of  phenomena  be- 
tween these  zones  may  be  accounted  for. 
In  the  tropics,  the  direct  influence  of  the 
•solar  rays  upon  so  considerable  a  portion 


Liebig's  Clicmistry  of  Agricultute  and  Physiology,  3d  edition,  p.  43-47. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


77 


of  the  surface  of  the  globe  as  is  conipre- 
hended  in  the  breadth  of  the  ecliptic, 
23°  18'  on  each  side  of  the  equatorial  line, 
at  once  circumscribes  and  guides  the 
aerial  current  within  certain  limits,  which 
is  effected  by  the  rarefaction  of  the  air,  as 
the  earth  presents  a  portion  of  its  surface  to 
that  influence  in  the  diurnal  rotation  round 
its  axis.  This  influence  being  in  constant 
^.jtion,  and  exercised  on  a  pretty  uniform 
surface,  the  current  generated  to  suj^ply 
so  regular  and  constant  a  rarefaction  must 
be  also  constant  and  regular.  In  the 
temperate  zones,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
solar  action  is  always  oblique,  and  in  con- 
sequence comparatively  weak;  and  the 
aerial  current  becomes  subject  besides  to 
secondary  influences,  which,  operating  on 
it  in  diflJerent  degrees  at  different  times, 
cause  irregularities  in  its  course.  It  is 
probable,  too,  that  the  electric  agency  may 
have  a  more  powerful  influence  on  the 
atmosphere  in  the  temperate  than  the 
torrid  zone,  by  reason,  perhaps,  of  the 
diminished  power  of  the  solar  influence  ; 
and  as  the  electric  action  is  more  varied 
and  unequal  than  that  of  the  sun,  the  cur- 
rents of  the  atmosphere  may  thereby  be 
rendered  as  varied  and  unequal. 

298.  This  not  yet  well  understood  sub- 
ject may  perhaps  be  made  clearer  by  re- 
flecting on  the  origin  of  the  regular  winds 
of  the  torrid  zone.  In  the  zone  of  greatest 
heat,  in  the  tropics,  the  air  is  more  rare- 
fied than  any  where  else.  "  In  conse- 
quence of  this,"  says  Mr  Mudie,  "  the 
rarefied  air  ascends  into  the  upper  part  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  its  place  is  supplied 
by  cooler  and  less  I'arefied  air  from  the 
N.  and  S.  at  the  same  time ;  and  it 
is  rarefied  in  its  turn,  and  ascends  in  the . 
air.  Hence  there  is  a  constant  ascent  of 
the  atmosphere  from  the  point  where  the 
sun's  heat  is  greatest,  and  this  travels 
W.  round  the  globe,  every  24  hours, 
at  a  rate  from  900  to  1000  miles  an  hour 
in  the  tropical  zone,  having,  of  course, 
no  definite  boundary,  but  extending  on 
each  side  of  the  zone.  In  this  way,  all 
along  this  zone,  the  general  motion  of  the 
atmosphere  is  upward  away  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth ;  and  little  or  no  wind 
or  current  blows  in  any  direction  icitkiti 
it,  unless  from  disturbance  produced  by 
terrestrial  causes,  such  as  the  land,  islands, 
and  mountains.     Without  the  indefinite 


boundaries  of  this  zone,  however,  there  is 
a  motion  of  the  surface  atmosphere,  both 
from  the  N.  and  from  the  S.,  which  ex- 
tends farther  into  either  hemisphere,  in 
proportion  as  the  sun  has  more  declination 
in  it.  But  as  the  atmospheric  air,  when 
undisturbed  by  currents  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  is  carried  E.  with  the  same 
velocity  as  the  surface  itself,  that  is,  less 
than  1000  miles  an  hour,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  the  cosines  of  the  latitude  as  we 
recede  from  the  equator,  this  real  motion 
of  the  air  E.  along  the  earth's  surface,  is 
the  counterpart  of  the  apparent  motion 
W.  as  indicated  by  the  progress  of  the 
sun  in  the  zone  of  highest  temperature ; 
and  though  these  motions  are  exactly 
equal  on  the  same  parallel,'  the  rate  of 
motion  in  the  hour,  the  day,  or  any 
fraction  of  it,  is  less  and  less  as  the 
latitude  increases.  Therefore,  when  the 
current  from  the  N.  and  from  the  S. 
from  the  high  latitudes,  besides  the  time 
it  takes  to  travel,  has  less  real  motion 
E.  or  apparent  motion  W.  than  the 
tropical  zone  into  which  it  arrives,  the 
consequence  is,  that  it  is  deflected  W. 
in  both  hemispheres,  and  becomes  a 
wind  from  the  SE.  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
parallel  of  greatest  heat,  and  from  the 
NE.  from  the  N.  of  the  same.  This 
is  what  is  usually  termed  the  trade- 
wind^  and  would  be  perfectly  palpable 
all  round  the  globe  were  its  surface  uni- 
form ;  but,  like  all  other  phenomena  of  the 
earth,  this  wind  is  so  nmch  modified  by 
surface-action,  that  the  actual  result  ac- 
cords but  little  with  what  might  be  inferred 
from  principles  alone.  Still  this  is  the 
grand  cause  which  puts  the  currents  of  the 
atmosphere  in  motion  ;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing all  its  modifications,  it  has  great 
influence  in  determining  the  climate  and 
productiveness  of  the  different  rei;ions  of 
the  earth."  This  cause  of  the  trade-winds 
was  first  assigned  by  Hadley  in  1734. 

299.  The  influence  of  the  tropical  zone 
on  the  currents  of  the  atiuosphere  else- 
where will  become  more  apparent,  when 
we  trace  the  courses  of  those  currents  in 
the  higher  latitudes.  "  This  surface-cwT- 
rent  from  the  N.  and  from  the  S.  towards 
the  equator,"  continues  Mr  Mudie,  "  neces- 
sarily requires,  and  therefore  produces,  a 
counter-current  in  the  higher  atmosjyhere. 
The  air,  which  is  continually  drawn  to- 


78 


INITIATION. 


wards  the  parallel  of  greatest  heat,  either 
in  a  p:il{>able  trade-wind,  or  a  silent  cur- 
rent, cannot  accumulate  over  the  equator, 
because  as  it  ascends  it  gets  into  a  cold 
region,  and  is  there  condensed.  After 
tins  it  descends  towards  the  poles  along 
the  upper  part  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
ultimately  replaces  that  which  finds  its 
way  to  the  troi)ical  zone,  producing  a 
general  motion  in  each  hemisphere  to- 
wards the  tropical  zone  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  a  counter-current  from 
the  equator  at  a  higher  elevation.  This 
cotinter-current  is  the  reverse  of  that  from 
the  poles,  and  therefore  the  different  rate 
of  motion  in  the  different  parallels  of 
latitude  has  a  contrary  effect  upon  it. 
As  it  gets  into  higher  latitudes,  it  has 
more  E.  motion  than  the  surface  there  ; 
and  thus  it  is  converted  into  a  current 
from  the  SW.  in  the  N.  hemisphere,  and 
a  current  from  the  NW.  in  the  S.  In 
latitudes  near  the  equator,  this  counter- 
current  in  the  atmospliere  is  not  observed 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  because  both 
the  S.  and  N.  currents  occupy  the  sur- 
face, and  indee<l  the  whole  atmosphere  to 
a  considerable  altitude.  When,  however, 
we  come  to  the  middle  latitudes,  the  SW. 
wind,  at  least  in  countries  to  the  E.  of 
the  Atlantic,  descends  so  low,  that  it  is  not 
•nly  felt  on  the  moimtain-tops  throughout 
great  part  of  the  year,  but  the  effects  of 
it,  and  the  rain  which  this  wind  often 
brings  along  with  it,  are  seen  in  the 
bleaching  or  wearing  away  of  the  W. 
sides  of  mountains  of  bold  escarpment; 
for  it  is  to  be  understood,  that  though,  in 
many  such  countries,  the  E.  wind  is  the 
surface-wind,  which  precedes  or  ushers  in 
the  rain,  the  SW.  wind  being  the  warmer 
one,  and  as  such  holding  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  moisture  in  a  state  of  vapour,  is 
really  the  one  out  of  which  the  rain  is 
elaborated  by  the  friction  of  the  E.  wind 
against  it."  * 

300.  The  course  of  the  wind,  caused  by 
the  diurnal  action  of  the  sun's  rays  in  the 
tropics,  is  still  farther  affected  by  another 
circumstance.  Since  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  and  moon  produces  the  remarkable 
effect  of  an  oceanic  wave,  we  cannot  but 
suppose  that  an  efl'ect  eijually  great  at 
least  is  produced  upon  the  atmosphere  by 


forming  an  atmospheric  wave.  Indeed, 
as  the  atmosphere  is  nearer  both  those 
attractive  objects  than  the  ocean,  the 
effect  upon  it  should  be  even  greater. 
When  we  add  to  this  the  elasticity  of  the 
air,  or  that  disposition  which  it  has  to 
dilate  itself  when  freed  from  any  of  the 
pressure  affecting  it,  we  must  conclude 
that  .the  atmospheric  tides  are  consider- 
able. Now,  since  the  apparent  diurnal 
motion  of  the  sun  and  moon  is  from  E.  to 
W,,  the  atmospheric  tides  must  follow  it, 
and  consequently  produce  a  constant 
motion  in  the  atmosphere  from  E.  to  W. 
This  cause  was  first  assigned  by  D' Alembert. 

301.  The  currents  of  air  toward  the 
tropical  zone  are  affected  in  their  direc- 
tion by  the  change  of  the  sun's  position 
in  the  ecliptic,  and  the  winds  thereby  gene- 
rated are  also  regular,  and  are  called  the 
monsoons^  —  a  word  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  Malay  word  moos'in^  signifying 
a  season.  Tlie  SW.  monsoon  blows  from 
April  to  October  ;  and  its  cause  is  the 
rarefaction  of  the  air  over  the  land  as  the 
sun  proceeds  N.  to  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
while  its  supply  of  cold  air  is  from  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  other  blows  from 
the  NE.  from  October  to  April,  and  is 
caused  by  the  cold  air  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  flowing  towards  the  land  of  New 
Holland,  when  the  sun  travels  S.  to 
the  tropic  of  .Capricorn.  Great  storms 
prevail  at  what  is  called  the  breaking  up 
of  the  monsoons,  that  is,  at  the  equinoxes, 
when  the  sun  is  in  the  parallel  of  the 
equator,  as  may  be  expected  to  be  the  "case 
when  any  system  of  atmosj)heric  pheno- 
mena, which  has  continued  for  six  months 
together,  is  undergoing  a  great  and  oppo- 
site change.  There  are  many  more  and 
greatly  modified  monsoons  besides  these 
regular  ones,  along  all  the  southern  coasts 
of  land  bounded  by  the  Indian  Ocean 
w-ithin  the  limits  of  the  tropics. 

302.  A  regular  form  of  wind  in  the 
tropics  is  the  land  and  sea-breeze.  In  all 
maritime  countries  of  any  extent  between 
the  tropics,  the  wind  blows  during  a  cer- 
tain number  of  hours  every  day  from  the 
sea,  and  a  certain  number  of  hours  from 
the  land.  The  sea-hreeze  generally  sets 
in  about  .10  a.m.,  and  blows  till  6  P.M. ; 


•  Mudie's  World,^.  101-104. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


79 


when  it  lulls  into  a  calm.  At  7  p.m.  tlie 
land-hreeze  begins,  and  continues  till  8 
A.M.,  when  it  subsides  into  a  calm.  These 
winds  are  thus  accounted  for: — During 
the  day,  the  cool  air  of  the  sea,  loaded 
with  vapour,  moves  over  the  land,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  rarefied  land-air ; 
but  as  the  sun  declines,  the  rarefaction  of 
the  land-air  diminishes,  the  equilibrium  is 
restored,  and  a  calm  ensues.  The  sea  is 
not  so  much  heated  during  the  day  as  the 
land,  neither  is  it  so  much  cooled  during 
the  night,  because  it  is  constantly  expos- 
ing a  new  surface  to  the  atmosphere.  As 
the  night  approaches,  therefore,  the  cooler 
and  denser  air  of  the  hills  (for  where  there 
are  no  hills  there  can  be  no  land  and  sea 
breezes)  falls  down  upon  the  plains,  and, 
pressing  upon  the  now  comparatively 
lighter  air  of  the  sea,  in  a  state  of  calm, 
causes  it  to  return  towards  the  sea  in  th^ 
character  of  a  laud-breeze. 

303.  Whenever  we  pass  from  the  tropi- 
cal to  the  temperate  zones,  we  always 
meet  with  variable  winds,  and  it  is  these 
which  stamp  the  nature  of  ever}'  climate ; 
for  although  most  apparent  in  their 
effects  in  the  temperate  regions,  they 
nevertheless  also  exist  in  the  tropics,  as 
may  be  experienced  along  every  coast  and 
large  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  Their 
course,  therefore,  depends  on  causes  which 
act  uniformly,  notwithstanding  their  ap- 
parent irregularities.  They  may  be  all 
intimately  connected  with  one  another, 
and  may  probably  succeed  each  otiier  in  a 
certain  order,  though  that  connexion  and 
that  order  have  not  hitherto  been  ascer- 
tained. When  both  have  been  discovered, 
then  the  course  and  intensity  of  the  vari- 
able winds  may  be  reduced  to  calculation 
as  certainly  as  the  regular  winds  are  al- 
ready. This  brings  us  at  once  to  the  con- 
sFderation  and  elucidation  of  the  variable 
winds  of  Europe.* 

304.  I  have  already  alluded  to  the 
division  of  Europe  by  meteorologists  into 
three  rainy  provinces;  and  as  certain 
winds  are  believed  to  produce  these 
seasonal  rains,  their  action,  which  has 
been  observed  for  a  number  of  years  to  be 
of  so  regular  an  order,  may  be  traced  with 
interest,  and  this  M.  Kaemtz  has  done  in 


a  satisfactory  manner.  "  On  collecting 
all  that  is  known  in  the  different  climates 
of  E-urope,"  observes  M.  Kaemtz,  in  re- 
counting tlie  rainy  winds  of  Europe,  "  we 
are  led  to  establish  three  hyetographic 
regions:  1st,  that  of  England  and  the 
west  of  France,  which  extends  in  a  modi- 
fied form  even  into  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent; 2d,  that  of  Sweden  and  Finland  ; 
and  3d,  that  of  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter.' 
ranean.  The  limits  of  these  regions  are 
not  always  rigorously  defined ;  they  are 
not  clearly  recognised,  except  in  points 
where  they  are  marked  by  great  chains  o£ 
mountains.  Every  where  else  the  transi- 
tions are  found  to  be  very  orderly.  The 
difi'erences  of  these  three  groups,  consist 
in  the  different  direction  of  the  rainy 
winds,  and  of  the  distribution  of  the  quan- 
tity of  water  which  falls  each  year.  Let 
us  consider  that  part  of  Europe  N.  of 
the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees ;  the  predomi- 
nance of  W.  winds,  a  vast  ocean  on  one 
side,  a  great  continent  on  the  other,  are 
the  determining  circumstances  of  the 
distribution  of  rains.  If  the  NE.  wind 
always  prevailed,  even  at  a  considerable 
height,  it  would  never  rain,  for  it  passes 
over  lands,  before  arriving  at  the  two  lati- 
tudes, where  the  elevation  of  temperature 
removes  the  vapours  from  their  point  of 
condensation.  If  the  SW.  wind,  on  the 
contrary,  blew  without  ceasing,  it  would 
always  rain,  for  as  soon  as  the  moist  air  gets 
cool,  the  vapour  of  water  is  precipitated. 
In  spite  of  their  alternations,  these  winds 
always  preserve  their  relative  characters. 
If  we  imagine,  with  M.  de  Buch,  how 
many  times  each  wind  brings  rain,  these 
results  become  evident.  In  100  showers 
which  fell  at  Berlin,  the  different  winds 
blew  in  the  following  proportions  : — 

N.     NE.      E.      SE.      S.      SW.     W.      NW. 

4-1  4-0  4-9  4-9  10-2  32-8  248  14-4. 
Thus  scarcely  any  rain  falls  with  the  NE. 
wind,  whilst  at  least  half  are  brought  by 
the  W.  and  SW.  winds.  But  the  winds 
do  not  all  blow  an  equal  number  of  times 
in  the,  course  of  the  year.  The  number  of 
times  that  each  wind  has  blown  must, 
therefore,  be  de(^ded  by  the  number  corre- 
spond ing  to  each  win  d  in  the  preceding  table. 
We  then  obtain  the  following  numbers  : — 

N.     NE.      E.      SE.      S.      SW.      W.      NW. 
5-8     8-1       8-8      6-fl      3-8      2-8        4-2       45 


*  See  Polehampton's  Gallery  of  Nature  and  Art,  vol.  iv.  p.  185-205  ;  in  which  an  interesting  col- 
lection of  accounts  of  varieties  in  the  phenomena  of  the  winds  is  given. 


80 


INITIATION. 


The  law  is  always  the  same ;  out  of  nine 
times  which  theE.  wind  blows,  it  only 
rains  once ;  whilst  it  rains  once  in  three 
times  during  the  SW.  wind.  The  influ- 
ence of  seasons  is  also  recognised.  Whilst 
it  frecjuently  rains  in  winter  during  E.  or 
N.  winds,  these  same  winds  are  almost  al- 
ways dry  in  summer.  This  fact  accords 
very  well  with  what  we  have  said  on  tlie 
relative  humidity  of  the  diflerent  winds, 
for  with  E.  winds  the  air  is  very  dry  in 
summer,  but  very  moist  in  winter.  Rains 
brought  by  NE.  winds  are  even  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  brought  by  the  SW. 
When  the  NE.  wind  suddenly  begins  to 
blow,  the  temperature  falls  ;  large  drops 
of  rain  fall  in  abundance  for  several  mo- 
ments ;  the  sky  then  again  becomes  serene. 
In  SW.  winds,  the  rain  is  fine,  and 
lasts  a  long  time.  So  the  rains  are  in 
general  due  to  a  cooling,  and  to  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  vapours  brought  by  the 
SW.  wind.  In  high  latitudes,  oii  the 
contrary,  the  NE.  wind  suddenly  cools 
masses  of  air,  which  can  then  no  longer 
contain  vapours  in  the  elastic  state.  As 
these  winds  succeed  each  other  with  a 
certain  regularity,  there  must  foUow  a 
very  regular  succession  of  changes  of 
weather;  on  this  we  will  now  make  a  few 
observations. 

305.  "  When  the  weather  has  been  fair 
for  a  long  time,  and  a  SW,  wind  begins 
to  blow  in  the  higher  regions  of  the' 
atmosphere,  cirri  make  their  appearance, 
and  soon  cover  the  sky.  Beneath  them  is 
formed  a  stratum  of  cumulus,  which 
allows  a  ligirt  rain  to  escape.  The  wind 
turns  to  the  W.,  the  clouds  become 
thicker,  the  rain  falls  more  abundantly, 
and  the  air  becomes  colder.  With  the  N, 
or  NW.  wind  the  rain  continues,  al- 
though the  thermometer  falls.  In  winter, 
the  rain  passes  into  tlie  state  of  snow.  If 
the  wind  does  not  entirely  cease  with  the 
N.  wind,  it  is  not,  however,  continuous; 
the  blue  of  the  sky  is  seen  in  the  intervate 
which  separate  the  clouds.  Showers  alter- 
nate with  sunshine,  especially  with  the  NE. 
wind ;  but  if  the  wind  pagfees  to  the  E.  or 
the  S.,  the  sky  is  then  covered  with  small 
rounded  CM  wim/?,  or  else  it  becomes  perfectly 
serene.  These  phenomena  succeed  each 
other  in  an  almost  uniform  manner,  over 


large  surfaces.  Mountain-chains  alone 
have  the  power  of  sligiitly  modifying  the 
succession  of  phenomena.  If  they  extend 
from  N.  to  S.,  they  arrest  the  SW.  wind, 
andSt  will  rain  more  on  their  AY*  than  on 
their  E.  side.  Thus  the.  SW.  is  not  the 
rainy  wind  in  the  S.  of  Germany,  but 
the  NW. ;  because  the  SW.  winds  lose 
the  water  with  which  they  are  charged 
when  they  arrive  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Alps.  The  same  thing  happens  in  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula.  On  the  W. 
side  of  Norway,  rain  falls  for  entire 
days  during  SW.  winds,  the  summits  of 
the  Scandinavian  Alps  are  covered  with, 
hoar-frost;  and  on  the  other  side  of  the 
chain  only  a  few  drops  disturb  the 
serenity  of  the  sky  of  Sweden.  The 
sea-winds  lose  the  moisture  with  which 
they  were  charged  in  traversing  the 
large  table -land  that  separates  the  two 
countries;  so  that  it  rains  more  frequently 
in  Sweden  with  E.  than  with  W.  winds. 
The  proof  that  this  is  not  connected  with 
the  vapours  which  rise  from  the  Baltic  is, 
that  a  similar  relation  is  found  in  Finland. 
AVherever  the  region  of  rainy  E.  winds 
comes  into  contact  with  that  of  the  rainy 
W.  winds,  it  rains  indifferently  with  all 
winds;  this  is  remarked  at  St  Petersburg. 
We  are  still  in  want  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  observations  in  order  to  follow  out  these 
laws  into  their  details. 

306."TheAtlantic  isthegreatreservoirof 
rains  for  the  European  regions  that  we  have 
hitherto  been  considering,butit  has  littlein- 
fluenceover  theclimate  of  countriessituated 
on  the  north  of  the  Mediterranean."* 

307.  The  comparative  prevalence  of  the 
E.  and  W.  winds  in  Great  Britain  is 
shown  in  this  table  : — 


W/ND. 

rt  5; 

Places. 

o 

Westerly. 

Easterly. 

10 

London, 

233- 

132- 

7 

Lancaster, 

216- 

149- 

51 

Liverpool, 

LOO- 

175- 

.9 

Dumfries, 

27-'-5 

137-5 

10 

Branxholm,  near  Hawick, 

23-J- 

133- 

7 

Camhuslang, 

214- 

151- 

8 

Hawkhill,  near  Edinburgh, 
Mean, 

229-5      135-5 

220-3    !  144-7 

*  Kaemtz's  CompUu  Course  of  Metwrology,-^.  137-139. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


81 


308.  In  London,  by  a  mean  of  10 
years  of  the  register  kept  by  the  Eoyal 
Society,  these  results  were  obtained : — 


Of  SW.  winds, 

112  (lays 

NE.      — 

58 

NW.    — 

50 

W.       — 

53 

SE.      — 

32 

E.        — 

26 

S.         — 

18 

N.        — 

16 

309.  By  registers  of  the  winds  kept  by 
the  late  Admiral  Sir  David  Milne,  at  In- 
veresk,  near  Edinburgh,  in  the  years  1840 
and  1841  ;  and  by  Mr  Atkinson,  at 
Harraby,  near  Carlisle,  in  1840,  these 
results  were  obtained  : — 


Inveresk. 

Harraby. 

1840. 

1841. 

1840. 

Of  N.      winds, 

86 

77 

12i  days 

NNE.  — 

20 

12 

144 

NE.     — 

41 

49 

144 

ENE.  — 

15 

14 

20i 

E.        — 

28 

38 

20J 

ESE.    — 

13 

7 

7 

SE.      — 

32 

29 

204 

SSE.    — 

19 

20 

224 

S.         — 

39 

79 

194 

SSW.  — 

38 

62 

24| 

SW.     — 

127 

113 

394 

WSW.— 

38 

45 

704 

W.       — 

138 

105 

42 

WNW.— 

33 

29 

16 

NW.    — 

45 

37 

114 

NNW.— 

13* 

13t 

lOf 

31 0.  The  direction  of  the  winds  in  any 
given  locality  is  greatly  affected  by  the 
configuration  of  the  country,  their  general 
direction  being  modified  so  as  to  coincide 
with  the  local  lines  of  elevation  and  de- 
pression of  the  surface.  It  is  probably  on 
this  account  that  the  winds  in  Egypt  are 
generally  either  jST.  or  S. ;  the  former  pre- 
vailing nine  months  of  the  year.  When 
the  climate  is  tolerably  regular,  as  in  the 
S.  of  Europe,  the  direction  of  the  wind 
makes  all  possible  difference  in  its  charac- 
ter. The  transition  from  a  sirocco  to  a 
tramontana  at  Rome  and  Naples  is  as 
great  in  temperature  as  10°  of  lati- 
tude. J  A  remarkable  effect  of  local  con- 
figuration is  thus  stated :  "When  the 
wind  is  NW.  at  Manchester,  it  is  N. 
at  Liverpool ;  when  N.  at  Manchester,  it 
is  NE.  at  Liverpool ;  when  NE.  at  Man- 


chester, it  is  E.  at  Liverpool ;  and  when 
E.  at  Manchester,  it  is  SE.  at  Liverpool. 
Of  course  the  SW.  wind  comes  the  same  to 
both  towns,  as  there  are  no  hills  to  the  S. 
such  as  are  to  the  N.  and  E.  of  them."  § 

311.  ^\\Q  force  and  velocity  of  winds  are 
instructive  subjects  of  observation.  They 
have  been  attempted  to  be  calculated  with 
great  care  and  ingenuity  by  Mr  Rouse, 
who  constructed  tables  of  the  results.  His 
tables  were  much  improved  and  consider- 
ably augmented  by  Dr  Young,  who,  in 
comparing  Mr  Rouse's  observations  with 
the  results  of  Dr  Lind's  scale,  constructed 
the  following  table  :: — 


Telocity  of  the 

Wind,  computed 

Force  of  the 

from  Ro 

iise'3  Ex- 

Wind  on  the 

periments. 

square  foot 
lb.    oz.    dr. 

Denominations  of  Winds. 

Feet  in  1 

Miles  in 

second. 

1  hour. 

Hardly        perceptible. 

0    0    1.2 

1.43 

1. 

Rouse. 

0    0    5.1 

2.93 

2. 

Just  perceptible.  Rouse. 

0    0  11.2 

4.40 

3. 

0    1     4.2 

5.87 

4. 

Gentle  winds.    Lind. 

0    1  15.4 

7.33 

5 

0    2    1.2 

10.67 

5.14 

A  gentle  -wind.    Lind. 

0    4    2.5 

14.67 

7.27 

Pleasant  wind.     Lind. 
Pleasant    brisk    gale. 

0    7  13.9 

15.19 

10. 

Rouse. 

0    8    5.3 

22.0 

10.35 

Fresli  breeze.     Lind. 

1     1  11.3 

29.34 

15. 

Brisk  gale.     Lind. 

1  15    7.8 

33.74 

20. 

Very  brisk.    Rouse. 

2    9  10.6 

36.67 

23. 

3    1    3.2 

44.01 

25. 

4    6  13.8 

47.73 

30. 

High  wind.    Rouse. 

5    3    5.2 

51.34 

32.54 

High  wind.    Lind. 

6    0    6.9 

58.68 

35. 

7  13  10.6 

66.01 

40. 

Very  high.    Rouse. 

9  15    6.5 

67.5 

45. 

Great  storm.  Derham. 

10    6  10.4 

73.35 

46.02 

Very  high.     Lind. 

12    4  12.8 

82.67 

50. 

Storm  or  tempest.  Rouse. 

15  10     0. 

88.02 

56.37 

Storm.     Lind. 

17  11    7. 

95.46 

60. 

Great  storm.    Rouse. 

29  13    5.2 

96.82 

65.08 

Great  storm.     Lind. 
Great  storm.     Condu- 

21    6  15.3 

106.72 

66. 

mine. 

26    0  10.4 

117.36 

72.76 

Very  great  storm.  Lind. 

31     7  13.4 

116.91 

80. 

Hurricane.     Rouse. 

31     4    0. 

126.43 

79.7 

Hurricane.     Lind. 

36    8  12.2 

135. 

86.21 

Great  hurricane.  Lind. 
Very  great   hurricane. 

41  10  10.7 

143.11 

92.04 

Lind. 

46  14    0. 

146.7 

97.57 

Most  violent  hurricane. 
A  hurricane  that  tears 

49    3     3.2 

1.50.93 

100. 

up  trees. 

52    1     5.2 

15S.29 

102.9 

57     4  11. 

160. 

107.92 

58    7,    3.2 

165.34 

109. 

62    8    0. 

112.73 

I  have  doubts  of  the  accuracy  of  some  of 
the  contents  of  this  table,  as  in  many 
particulars  they  do  not  correspond  with 

*  Jameson's  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal,  vol.  xxx.  p.  423. 
+  Edinburgh  Evening  Post,  January  1842.  J  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i.  p.  247. 

§  Morning  Herald,  19th  June  1839. 
VOL.  I.  F 


82 


INITIATION. 


my  own  obserrations  on  this  subject. 
Whatever  may  be  the  accuracy  of  the 
higher  ratfes  of  velocity  I  cannot  say,  for  no 
ordinary  means  of  judging  of  them  exists, 
except  by  seeing  the  shadows  of  clouds 
passing  along  the  ground;  but  the  accuracy 
of  the  smaller  velocities  may  very  easily 
be  judged  of.  It  is  said  that  wind  mov- 
inf^  2  miles. an  hour  is  "just  perceptible  ;" 
and  at  3  and  4  miles  it  constitutes  what 
are  called  "gentle  winds."  Let  us  test 
these.  Suppose  the  air  to  be  perfectly 
calm  when  one  is  walking  at  the  rate  of  3 
miles  an  hour,  is  there  felt  any  thing  like 
a  "gentle  wind"  upon  the  face?  I  think 
not.  Were  it  therefore  moving  at  the  rate 
of  3  miles  an  hour,  it  would  be  as  little 
felt.  Before  wind  is  felt  at  all,  one  may 
safely  conclude  that  the  air  is  moving  at 
a  greater  velocity  than  3  or  4  miles  an 
hour,  whatever  indication  anemometers 
may  give — for  the  human  skin  is  a  much 
more  delicate  indicator  of  the  gentle 
motions  of  the  air  than  any  instrument. 
On  this  view  of  the  subject  Sir  Richard 
Phillips  makes  these  pertinent  remarks  : 
"  If  wind  blows  100  miles  an  hour — that 
is,  528,000  feet — then,  as  air  is  833  times 
rarer  than  water,  this  moving  at  the  rate 
of  660  feet,  or  1  furlong  per  hour,  would 
be  equal  to  it,  which  is  absurd.  There 
must  be  some  mistake.  A  West  India 
hurricane  has  blown  heavy  cannon  out  of 
a  battery,  and  water  at  5  miles  an  hour 
■would  scarcely  beud  a  twig.  Balloons 
have  travelled  GO  miles  an  hour,  when  the 
anemometer  showed  but  8  miles."  *  When 
I  have  observed  the  shadows  of  clouds 
flying  over  the  land  in  a  windy  day  in 
spring  or  summer,  I  was  convinced  that 
the  wind  may  move  hundreds  of  miles  per 
hour  ;  and  in  this  country  the  highest 
wind  has  a  small  velocity  compared  to 
that  at  times  in  the  tropics.  It  is  recorded 
that  such  was  the  noise  occasioned  by  the 
hurricane  that  took  place  at  Pondicherry 
on  the  2!>th  October  1768,  that  when  the 
signal  guns  were  fired  to  warn  the  shijis 
oflf  the  coast,  their  reports  were  not  heard 
by  even  the  inhabitants  within  the  fort.t 

312.  The  subject  of  Storms,  in  their 
origin  and  direction,  after  a  long  period  of 
neglect,  has  of  late  again  attracted  the 


attention  of  philosophers.  So  long  ago  as 
1801,  Colonel  Capper,  of  the  East  India 
Company's  service,"  in  his  work  on  winds 
and  monsoons,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
hurricanes  would  be  found  to  be  great 
ichlrlicinds.  This  idea  was  adopted  and 
confirmed  by  Mr  W.  C.  Redfield  of  New 
York,  in  a  memoir  on  the  prevailing  storms 
of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America, 
which  appeared  in  Silliman's  Journal  in 
1831.  Colonel  Reid,  of  the  Royal 
Engineers,  has  since  then  treated  the  sub- 
ject in  a  philosophical  manner  in  a  recent 
dissertation.  His  attention  was  first 
directed  to  it  in  1831.  His  military  service 
at  Barbadoes,  immediately  after  the  de- 
solating hurricane  of  that  year,  which  in 
the  short  space  of  seven  hours  destroyed 
1477  houses  in  that  island  alone,  naturally 
led  him  to  the  consideration  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  hurricanes.  After  much  con- 
sideration and  investigation,  he  was  im- 
pressed with  the  regularity  with  which 
storms  appear  to  pass  toward  the  north 
pole,  always  revolving  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, that  is,  oi)posite  to  the  hands  of  a 
watch,  or  from  the  E.  round  by  the  N. 
W.  S.  to  E.  From  this  circumstance  he 
w\'vs  anxious  to  ascertain  whether  the  re- 
volution would  not  be  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion in  the  southern  hemisphere ;  and  this 
point  was  well  illustrated  by  the  disastrous 
storm,  in  the  Indian  Sea,  of  1809,  in  which 
nine  sail  of  Indiaraen  foundered.  He 
found  the  general  phenomena  of  these 
storms  to  be  as  a  great  whirlwind,  repre- 
sented by  the  revolution  of  a  circle,  whose 
centre  is  made  to  progress  along  a  curve 
or  part  of  a  curve,  which  is,  in  most  cases, 
of  a  form  approaching  the  parabolic,  the 
rotatory  circle  expanding  as  it  advances 
from  the  point  at  which  the  storm  began 
to  be  felt, — its  rotatory  motion  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  being  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  that  in  which  the  hands  of  a 
watch  go  round,  while  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  the  rotation  is  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  hands ;  the  diameter  of 
the  circle,  over  which  the  whirl  of  the  storra 
is  spread,  often  extending  from  lUOO  to 
1800  miles.  In  the  centre  of  the  whirl  is  a 
comparative  calm,  while  in  its  circumfer- 
ence the  storm  rages,  and  the  wind  blows 
from  every  conceivable  (j[uarter.  % 


Phillips'  FacUf  p.  455.  +  Capper  On  Winds  and  Momoont. 

X  Edinburgh  Nev  Philosophical  Journal,  vol.  xxv.  p.  342. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


83 


313.  There  are  concomitant  circum- 
stances attendant  on  storms  worth  relating. 
Major  Sabine  found  the  magnetic  intensity- 
least  at  St  Helena,  where  there  are  no 
violent  storms.  The  line  of  least  intensity 
passes  through  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  the  lines 
of  greatest  magnetic  intensity,  on  the  con- 
trary, seemed  to  correspond  with  the 
localities  of  hurricanes  and  typhoons ;  for 
the  meridian  of  the  American  magnetic 
pole  is  found  to  pass  not  far  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  that  of  the  Asiatic 
pole  through  the  China  Sea.  He  found 
two  instances  of  water-spouts,  one  in  the 
northern,  the  other  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, in  which  the  revolutions  moved  in 
opposite  directions,  and  both  in  contrary 
directions  to  great  storms.  He  explains 
the  variable  high  winds  of  our  latitudes, 
by  storms  expanding  in  size,  and  dimi- 
nishing in  force,  as  they  approach  the 
poles,  their  meridians  at  the  same  time 
Hearing  each  other,  and  occasioning  a 
huddling  together  of  the  gales. 

314.  Sir  Snow  Harris  of  Plymouth  has 
discovered  that  there  is  a  connexiori  be- 
twixt the  force  of  the  wind,  and  the  horo- 
vary  oscillations  of  the  baronn'ter.  Thus 
the  mean  force  of  the  wind  for  the  whole 
year,  at  9  a.m.  was  0*855,  and  at  9  p.m. 
0-605;  but  at  3  p.m.  it  was  1-107  of  Lind's 
anemometer.* 

815.  M.  Scliiibler  has  shown  ih^i  winds 
huve  a  characteristic  electric  power.  The 
precipitations  during  the  wind  from  the  N. 
half  of  the  circle  of  azimuth,  have  a  ratio 
of  positive  to  negative  electricity,  which 
is  a  maximum,  and  in  the  other  half  it  is 
a  mininmin ;  the  negative  precipitations 
when  the  wind  is  S.  being  more  than 
double  the  positive  ones.  The  mean  in- 
tensity of  electricity,  independent  of  its 
sign,  is  greatest  in  N.  winds.t 

316.  There  being  an  atmospherical 
wave  as  well  as  a  tidal  one,  and  as  any 
elevation  of  the  atmosphere  cannot  fail  to 
produce  a  change  in  parts  immediately 
below  the  point  of  disturbance,  there  seems 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  an  analogy  exists 
betwixt  the  tides  and  the  tcinds,  and  also 
with  rain.  If  high  tides  at  London  Bridge 
happen  at  1 2  or  1   noon,  rain  falls  more 


frequently  than  at  other  periods,  if  the 
wind  is  in  the  E.  So  it  seems  probable 
that,  when  the  changes  of  the  wind  can  be 
calculated  more  perfectly,  we  shall  have 
more  correct  tide  tables.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  nearer  the  high  tide  is  to  noon  the 
greater  is  the  probability  of  rain,  because 
the  breeze  from  the  sea  is  then  strongest. 

317.  The  approach  of  high  wind  may 
be  anticipated  from  these  general  prog- 
nostics : — when  cattle  appear  frisky,  and 
toss  their  heads  and  jump — when  sheep 
leap  and  play,  boxing  each  other — when 
pigs  squeal,  and  carry  straw  in  their 
mouths — when  the  cat  scratches  a  tree  or 
a  post — when  geese  attempt  to  fly,  or  dis- 
tend and  flap  their  wings — when  pigeons 
clap  their  wings  smartly  behind  their 
backs  in  flying — when  crows  mount  in  the 
air  and  perform  somersets,  making  at  the 
time  a  garrulous  noise — when  swallows 
fly  on  one  side  of  trees,  because  the  flies 
take  the  leeward  side  for  safety  against 
the  wind — when  magpies  collect  in  small 
companies,  and  set  ujj  a  chattering  noise. 

318.  These  are  general  indications  of 
Q.  storm: — When  the  missel  i\\rvis\\  (^Tard  us 
viscivorus)  sings  hmd  and  long,  on  which 
account  this  bird  has  received  the  name  of 
the  storm-cock — when  sea-gulls  come  in 
flocks  on  land,  and  make  a  noise  about 
the  coast, — and  when  the  porpoise  (^Pho- 
ccena  communis)  comes  near  the  shore  in 
large  numbers. 

319.  Every  one  is  aware  of  the  un- 
certainty of  foretelling  the  state  of  the 
weather,  but  every  one  who  has  attempted 
to  foretell  it,  and  has  not  succeeded,  is  not 
aware  of  the  nature  of  the  mnny  parti- 
culars which  render  bis  success  doubtful. 
These  particulars  are  thus  well  enumerated 
and  arranged  by  Mr  Mudie  : — "  Though 
one  of  the  most  intei'esting  subjects  con- 
nected with  the  economy  of  our  globe, 
and  its  use  and  comfort  to  man,  this  is 
one  of  the  mo:<t  difficult  subjects  that  can 
engage  his  inquiry.  One  reason  of  this 
is,  the  vast  number  of  elements  that  have 
to  be  studied  and  taken  into  account ;  the 
diff'erent  laws  which  each  of  these  obey; 
the  indeterminable  nature  of  many  of 
them ;  and  the  modifying  influences  which 


Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i.  p.  248.  f  Ihid. 


84 


INITIATION. 


they  liave  upon  each  otlier  in  their  joint 
working.  Thud,  tlic  daily  and  seast)nal 
motions  of  the  earth,  and  tlie  action  of  the 
sun  and  moon  ;  the  reciprocatin;^'  influences 
of  tlie  iienii.-plieres — those  of  sea  and  hind, 
of  phiin,  or  valley  and  mountain,  and  of 
surfaces  covered  with  ve<^etatiou  of  differ- 
ent cliaracters — are  ,  all  causes  of  the 
weather;  hut  in  most  instances,  particu- 
larly in  such  variahle  climates  as  present 
themselves  ahout  the  middle  latitudes  of 
the  quadrant,  and  near  the  shores  of  the 
sea — more  especially  in  small  countries 
surrounded  hy  it — these  causes  are  so 
blended  with  each  other,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible so  to  analyse  tlie  result  as  to  assign 
to  each  of  them  its  due  state  in  bringing 
about  the  particular  weather  of  any  day, 
any  week,  or  any  peiiud,  longer  or 
shorter."  * 

320.  Botany. — The  student  of  agri- 
culture should  become  accpiainted  with 
systematic  botany  and  botanical  physi- 
ology. Tlie  former  will  enable  him  to 
recognise  any  plant  he  may  meet  with  in 
the  fields  and  pastures,  and  the  latter  will 
make  him  acquainted  with  the  internal 
structure  and  functions  of  the  plants  he 
is  about  to  cultivate  in  agriculture. 

321.  Systematic  botany  may  be  ac- 
quired by  two  methods,  tlie  artificial  or 
Linnyean,  which  was  the  only  method 
known  for  many  years,  and  the  natural 
method,  which  was  later  discovered  and 
establislied  by  Jussien.  It  has  become  the 
practice  of  some  botanists  to  decry,  of  late 
years,  the  Linmeau  method  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  the  particular  parts  of 
plants,  and  to  extol  the  excellences  of  the 
natural  method.  For  my  jiart,  I  should 
be  sorry  to  see  the  Linntean  method 
entirely  abandoned,  because  I  am  per- 
suaded that  a  beginner  will  much  sooner 
be  able  to  recognise  any  plant  he  finds 
by  it  than  by  the  natural  method ;  and 
after  all,  the  Linntean  is  a  natural  method 
of  studying  the  construction  of  jdants,  in- 
asmuch as  the  conijionent  parts  of  a  flower, 
upon  which  the  system  is  founded,  as 
much  belongs  to  the  making  up  of  ajdant, 
as  its  aspect,  form,  and  habits  ;  and  besides, 
the  Linna?au  method  does  not  neglect  the 
form  of  the  leaf,  the  character  of  the  stem, 


or  the  structure  of  the  root,  any  more 
than  the  natural  or  Jussien  method. 
No  doubt,  when  plants  are  grouped  in 
relation  to  their  general  structure,  form, 
habits  and  uses,  they  become  objects  of 
much  greater  interest  and  beauty,  than 
when  examined  with  a  view  to  be  placed 
in  any  artificial  arrangement;  and  on  this 
account  the  natural  method  possesses  a 
charm  which  the  longest  and  most  inti- 
mate study  of  tlie  Linnajan  method  could 
never  present;  still  it  is  only  when  the 
botanical  student  has  far  advanced  into 
the  study  of  plants,  and  has  become  ac- 
quainted with  their  properties  and  uses, 
that  he  can  appreciate  the  beauties  and 
advantages  of  the  natural  method.  Such 
being  the  case,  it  appears  to  me  the  most 
rational  method  of  acquiring  a  kn<jwledge 
of  botany  is  to  become  acquainted  with 
individual  plants  as  well  as  possible  ;  and 
which  may  be  done  by  theLinnajan  method, 
and  then  to  contemplate  them  in  groups  ac- 
cording to  the  natural  method  of  Jussien. 

322.  Botanical  physiology,  which  makes 
us  acquainted  with  the  internal  structure 
and  functions  of  the  several  i)arts  of  plants, 
and  the  circumstances  by  which  the  exer- 
cise of  these  functions  is  observed  to  be 
modified,  can  only  be  successfully  acquired 
after  the  study  of  systematic  botany,  and, 
I  should  say,  after  it  had  been  studied  in 
the  manner  recommelided  above.  This  is  a 
science  which  has  been  but  recently  deve- 
loped, and  its  development  has  been 
maiuly  brought  about  by  the  pei'severiug 
researches  /)f  the  chemist,  and  the  use  of 
the  microscope.  We  have  only  to  look 
into  the  works  of  Professor  Johnston  and 
of  M.  Uaspail,  to  be  convinced  of  the  vast 
amount  of  labour  which  has  been  bestowed 
by  chemists  in  analysing  in  the  laboratory, 
and  observing  with  the  microscope  the 
minutest  details  of  the  structure  of  plants, 
most  of  which  had  eluded  human  research. 
In  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  their  structure,  the  functions  of  plants 
were  misunderstood,  and  in  consequence 
tlie  wildest  conjectures  were  advanced  to 
account  for  the  phenomena  they  exliibited; 
but  now  the  functions  of  jjlants  are  daily 
becoming  more  and  more  understood ;  we 
now  know  that  jilants  only  receive  their 
food  from  the  soil  in  a  state  of  solution, 


Mudie's  World,  p.  243. 


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85 


that  the  leaves  perform  the  important 
function  of  elaborating  the  sap  taken  up 
by  the  stem,  and,  at  the  same  time,  they 
act  upon  the  air  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
withdraw  from  it  materials  necessary  to 
increase  the  sti'ucture,  and  are  influenced 
by  the  light  of  the  sun,  so  .as  to  preserve 
those  materials  in  the  best  condition,  to 
support  the  good  health  of  the  plant. 

323.  The  relation  of  the  study  of  plants 
with  agriculture  will  be  well  understood 
by  the  following  extract  from  Professor 
Johnston's  lectures : — '■'  It  is  a  fact  fami- 
liarly known  to  all  of  you,  in  addition  to 
those  circumstances  by  which  we  can  per- 
ceive the  special  functions  of  any  one 
organ  to  be  modified,  there  are  nmny  by 
which  the  entire  economy  of  the  plant  is 
materially  and  simultaneously  affected. 
On  this  fact  the  practice  of  agriculture  is 
founded,  and  the  various  processes  adopted 
by  the  practical  farmer  are  only  so  many 
modes  by  which  he  hopes  to  influence  and 
promote  the  growth  of  the  whole  plant, 
and  the  discliarge  of  the  functions  of  all  its 
parts.  Though  the  manures  in  the  soil  act 
immediately  through  the  roots,  they  sti- 
mulate the  growth  of  the  entire  jjlant ;  and 
though  the  application  of  a  top-dressing  to 
a  crop  of  young  corn  or  grass  maybe  sup- 
posed first  to  affect  the  leaf,  yet  the  bene- 
ficial result  of  the  experiment  depends  upon 
the  influence  which  the  application  may 
exercise  on  any  part  of  the  vegetable  tis- 
sue. In  connexion  with  this  part  of  the 
subject,"  he  adds,  "  I  shall  only  farther 
advert  to  a  very  remarkable  fact  mentioned 
by  Sprengel,  which  seems,  if  correct,  to  be 
susceptible  of  important  practical  apjjlica- 
tions.  He  states  that  it  has  frequently 
been  observed  in  Holstein,  that  if,  on  an 
extent  of  level  ground  sown  with  corn, 
spme  fields  be  marled,  and  others  left  un- 
marled,  the  corn  on  the  latter  portions 
will  grow  less  luxuriantly^  and  will  yield 
a  poorer  crop  than  if  the  tchole  had  been 
unmarled.  Hence,"  he  adds,  "  if  the 
occupier  of  the  unmarled  field  would  not 
have  a  succession  of  poor  croj^s,  he  must 
marl  his  land  also.  Can  it  really  be  that 
the  Deity  thus  rewards  the  diligent  and  the 
improver?  Do  the  plants  which  grow  in 
a  soil  in  higher  condition  take  from  the 
air  more  than  their  due  share  of  the  car- 


bonic acid,  or  other  vegetable  food  it  may 
contain,  and  leave  to  the  tenants  of  the 
poorer  soil  a  less  proportion  than  they 
might  otherwise  draw  from  it  ?  How 
many  interesting  reflections  does  such  a 
fact  as  this  suggest!  What  new  views 
does  it  disclose  of  the  fostering  care  of  the 
great  Contriver — of  his  kind  encourage- 
ment of  every  species  of  virtuous  labour ! 
Can  it  fail  to  read  us  a  new  and  special 
lesson  on  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
the  application  of  skill  and  knowledge  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  ? "  * 

324.  A  knowledge  of  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  is  a  subject  of  inte- 
rest, not  only  to  the  general  reader,  but 
also  to  the  farmer,  and  may  be  useful  to 
him  by  aftordiug  him  the  means  of  judg- 
ing whether  or  not  plants,  recommended 
for  cultivation  in  this  country,  will  be 
suitable  to  the  soil  of  his  own  farm  situate  in 
acertainlatitudeand  elevation  above  the  sea. 

325.  "Every  country,  as  has  been  ob- 
served by  writers,  and  frequen'tly  difl'erent  . 
parts  of  the  same  country,  possesses  a  vege- 
tation peculiar  to  itself;  and  the  limits 
assigned  to  each  region  .Ie]iend  on  various 
causes,  since  the  variously  modified  or- 
ganisation of  different  vegetables  imposes 
upon  them  different  conditions  of  existence, 
and  they  can  live  and  flourish  only  where 
these  conditions  are  complied  with.  The 
geography  of  plants,  or  an  inquiry  into 
their  distribution,  according  to  soil  and 
climate,  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
general  physics  of  the  globe,  and  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  science  of  descriptive 
botany.  The  importance  of  the  former  can- 
not be  doubted,  when  we  consider  that  the 
character  of  a  country  and  the  whole  face 
of  nature  are  dependent  on  the  predomi- 
nance of  certain  families  of  plants  in  par- 
ticular districts,  and  that  the  abundance 
of  yraminea;,  grasses,  forming  vast  sa- 
vannahs, or  of  palms  or pani/crce,  produce 
the  most  important  effects  on  the  social 
state  of  a  people,  their  manners,  and  the 
progress  of  the  economical  arts. 

326.  "  It  is  the  influence  of  temperature 
which  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  distribution 
of  plants,  and  on  this  account  the  face  of 
the  globe  has  been  divided  into  eight  zones. 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology,  2d  edition,  p.  159. 


86 


INITIATION. 


caWeA  the  isothermal  zones,  each  of  wliich 
is  distinguidheil  by  a  peculiar  vegetation, 
and  they  are  tlie^.e  : — 1st,  Tlie  equatorial 
zone,  on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  to  about 
15°  of  latitude,  with  a  temperature  ex- 
tending from  the  maximum  heat  to  78'. 
2d,  Tlie  tropical  zone,  from  latitude  1 5°  to 
the  tropics,  having  a  mean  temperature 
of  78°  down  to  73' — summer  temi>erature 
86°  to  80° — winter  temperature  in  the 
eastern  coast  countries  59'.  3d,  The  sub- 
tropical zone,  from  the  tropics  to  latitude 
34' — mean  temperature  of  the  year  71°  to 
62°  ;  of  the  summer  82°  to  73°.  4th,  The 
•warmer  temperate  zone,  from  latitude  34° 
to  45° — mean  temperature  of  the  year  62° 
to  53°;  summer  temperature  in  North 
America  77°,  in  Europe  75°  to  68°,  in 
eastern  Asia  82° ;  temperature  of  winter 
in  the  New  World  44°  to  32°,  in  Europe 
50°  to  34°,  in  eastern  Asia  26°.  5th,  The 
colder  temperate  zone,  between  the  parallels 
of  45°  and  58° — temperature  of  the  year 
53°  to  42  ;  minimum  summer  temperature 
on  the  west  coast  56°,  in  the  interior  of 
the  c(mtinent  68°;  minimum  winter  tem- 
perature in  the  interior  of  Europe  14°. 
6th,  The  sub-arctic  zone,  from  latitude  58° 
to  the  polar  circle — mean  temperature  of 
the  year  between  42°  and  39°  ;  of  the 
summer  months  in  the  New  World  66°.,  in 
the  Old  World  60°  to  68°  ;  of  the  winter 
months  of  the  former  1 4°,  of  the  latter  28° — 
namely,  in  western  Europe  ;  in  the  interior 
of  Kussia  14'  to  10°.  7th,  The  arctic  zone 
from  the  polar  circle  to  latitude  72° — mean 
annual  temperature  32°  to  28°,  or  towards 
the  eastern  and  continental  positions,  far 
under  the  freezing  point.  8th,  The  polar 
zone,  beyond  latitude  72°:  this  parallel  is 
near  the  mean  temjierature  >jf  1°  in  the 
New  World,  and  16°  in  the  Old  World  ; 
the  summer  of  the  former  37°,  and  of  the 
latter  38°  ;  winter,— 28°  in  tlie  New,  and 
—2'  in  the  Old  World. 

327.  "  As  the  physiognomy  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom  is  characterised  by  certain 
plants  in  the  different  latitudinal  zones 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  sp  also,  in  a 
perj)endicular  direction,  in  the  mountain 
regions  which  correspond  with  the  zones. 
Proceeding  with  the  vegetation  of  the 
equatorial  zone,  we  follow  the  series  of 
vegetable  regions  in  ascending  lines,  one 
after  the  other,  and  may  compare  them 
with  the  different  zones  as  follows : — 


1st,  The  region  of  palms  and  bananas— equatorial  lone. 

2.1,  ~  —  treej,  ferns,  and  tiifs — tropical  tone. 

M,  ~  —  njNrUes  :in<l  hiiirel')— siili-tru|iic;ilzone. 

4tli,  _  _  evereriena — w,-irm  tiMiiiierntezone. 

5tli,  _  _  European  trees -col(^ temperate  xone. 

t>th,  _  _  pines — sub-arctic  zone. 

7th,  _  _  rhododendrons — arctic  zone. 

8cli,  _  _  alpine  plants — polar  zone. 

328.  "Observers  who,  in  a  short  period  of 
time,  have  passed  through  extensive  dis- 
tricts of  country,  and  also  have  ascended 
mountain  ranges,  in  which  climates  are 
j)laced  in  layers  one  abo\*e  the  other,  must 
soon  have  become  aware  of  tlie  regular 
distribution  of  vegetable  forms.  They 
gathered  new  materials  for  a  science,  the 
name  of  which  iiad  not  yet  been  pro- 
nounced. The  same  regions  of  plants 
which,  as  a  youth.  Cardinal  Bembo  de- 
scribed on  the  declivity  of  Etna,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  were  again  found  by 
Toumefort  on  Ararat,  who  accurately 
compared  the  alpine  flora  with  that  of 
the  plain  under  different  latitudes,  and 
was  the  first  to  remark  that  the  elevation 
of  the  soil  above  the  level  of  the  sea  affects 
the  distribution  of  plants  in  the  same 
manner  as  distance  frum  the  poles  in  level 
countries.  Marsel,  in  an  iue<lited  flora 
of  Japan,  ca-sually  makes  use  of  the  geo- 
graphy of  plants.  This  phrase  is  again 
fomid  in  the  fantastic  though  charming 
"Studies  of  Nature,"  by  Bernardin  de  St 
Pierre.  But  the  scientific  treatment  of 
the  subject  only  commenced  when  tha 
geography  of  plants  was  considered  in 
intimate  connexion  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  distribution  of  heat  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe;  when  plants  Mere  arranged  in 
natural  families,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
numerical  computation  of  the  forms  wliich 
decrease  or  increase  towards  the  poles, 
and  what  proportion,  in  different  parts  of 
the  earth,  each  family  bears  to  the  whole 
mass  of  the  indigenous  phanerogamoe. 
Jussieu  remarks  that,  notwithstanding 
several  essays  before  his  time,  A.  Yon 
Humboldt  deserves  to  be  pronounced  the 
founder  of  the  system  of  the  geography  of 
plants,  on  which  he  has  thrown  so  much 
light  by  his  labours  in  meteorology  a,s  well 
as  botany. 

329.  "The  relative  proportion  of  the  most 
important  families  of  j'lants  in  the  different 
Zones  have  been  determined  by  Humboldt  in 
the  following  order:  —  1.  The  group  of 
glumace»,  which  unites  in  itself  theplants  of 
the  three  families  of  the  juncese,  cyperacese, 


THE. SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


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and  graminese,  increases  from  the  equator 
towards  the  poles,  forming,  under  the 
tropics  t't,  in  the  temperate  zone  g,  and  in 
the  frigid  zone  i  of  the  entire  phanerogams. 
The  increase  towards  the  pole  is  owing  to 
the  rushes  and  sedges,  which  are  more 
in  proportion  to  the  other  phanerogamae 
in  the  temperate  zone  and  within  the 
tropics.  The  junceae  alone  almost  disappear 
within  the  tropics,  forming  only  jbo  of  the 
whole  phanerogamic  plants,  while  in  the 
temperate  zone  they  form  a'o,  and  in  the 
frigid  zone  25.  The  cyperaceae  alone  under 
the  tropics  in  the  New  World  h,  in  the  Old 
World  55,  in  the  temperate  zone  2'iJ ,  and  in  the 
frigid  zone  5.  The  numerous  family  of  the 
graminese  is  pretty  equally  distrihuted  over 
the  whole  earth  ;  it  increases,  in  a  small 
degree,  towards  the  })oles :  between  the 
tropics  the  grains  form  ti,  in  the  temperate 
zone  12,  and  in  the  frigid  zone  I'o  of  all  the 
phanerogamaB.  Besides,  these  families  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  species  from  the 
equator  towards  the  poles.  The  ericeae 
under  the  tropics  in  America  form  t^o  ; 
in  the  temperate  zone  of  the  Old  World  tbo, 
of  the  New  World  a'g,  in  the  frigid  zone  s's  : 
so  also,  the  families  the  flowers  of  which 
form  a  catkin,  or  the  amentacea?,  which 
in  the  torrid  zone  form  only  soo,  are  in 
the  temperate  zone  in  Europe  sS,  in 
America  35,  and  in  the  frigid  zone  20  of 
the  entire  phanerogamae.  2.  Four  other 
families  —  naijiely  the  leguminosae,  the 
rubiaceae,  euphorbiaceae,  and  malvaceje — 
bear  the  maximum  of  their  species  in  the 
torrid  zone.  The  leguminosae  form  under 
the  tropics  to,  in  the  temperate  zone  is, 
and  in  the  frigid  zone  5*5  of  all  phanero- 
gams. The  rubiacea;  under  the  tropics  of 
the  Old  World  I'j,  in  the  New  World  s's,  in 
the  temperate  zone  bV,  in  the  frigid  zone 
g'o.  The  euphorbiaceae,  in  the  torrid  zone  55, 
in  the  temperate  sV,  and  in  the  frigid  zone 
550.  The  malvaceae,  in  the  torrid  zone  s's, 
in  the  temperate  2^0,  and  in  the  frigid  zone 
the  plants  of  this  family  entirely  disappear. 
In  the  great  family  of  rubiaceae,  one  of  its 
seven  groups,  that  of  the  cofteie,  form  5  of 
all  the  rubiaceie  of  tropical  America,  whilst 
the  groups  of  the  stellatae  principally  be- 
long to  the  temperate  zone.  3.  The  four 
families  of  compositae,  cruciferae,  labiatae, 
and  umbeiliferae  have  the  maxlnmm  of 
their  species  in  the  temperate  zone,  and 


decrease  as  well  towards  the  equator  as 
towards  the  poles.  The  compositfe  form 
under  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World  I'g,  in 
the  "New  World  ij,  in  the  temperate  zone 
of  Europe  §,  in  America  s,  and  in  the 
frigid  zone  I'g  of  all  phanerogamae.  The 
cruciferae  are  almost  unknown  in  the  torrid 
zone,  if  we  consider  the  mountain  regions 
between  7670  and  10,870  feet  in  height, 
where  these  plants  scarcely  fcrm  500  of  all 
phanerogamae.  In  the  temperate  zone  their 
quotient  in  Europe  is  t's,  in  America,  on 
the  contrary,  only  g'o,  in  the  frigid  zone 
55.  The  labiatai  form  under  the  tropics 
j'o,  in  the  temperate  zone  in  Europe  I's ; 
in  America,  as  within  the  tropics,  in  the 
frigid  zone  to.  Thescarcity  of  this  family, 
as  well  as  the  cruciferae  in  the  temperate 
zone  of  the  New  World,  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance.  The  umbeiliferae  are  seldom 
found,  within  the  tropics,  at  a  height  un- 
der 7b'73  feet.  Above  this  elevation  they 
form  (with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  in 
the  plain)  only  535  of  all  phanerogamae. 
They  form  in  the  temperate  zone  s'o,  and 
are  more  numerous  in  Europe  than  in 
North  America ;  in  the  frigid  zone  they 
form  g'o.  4.  Among  the  acotyledones  the  fa- 
mily of  ferns  claim  our  attention.  Con- 
trary to  tlie  general  law  affecting  the  cryp- 
togamaj,  this  family  decreases  towards  the 
poles,  which  is  accounted  for  by  the  cir- 
cumstance, that  it  requires  a  moist  soil 
and  the  shelter  of  warm  woods.  Under 
the  tropics  it  forms  s's,  and  in  the  temperate 
zone  yo  of  all  phanerogama^.  In  arctic 
America  the  Alices  are  entirely  awanting."* 

830.  Geology. — No  farmer  who  derives 
the  entire  produce  which  supports  himself 
and  his  stock,  and  enables  him  to  supply 
the  market,  directly  from  the  soil,  but 
must  see  the  connexion  between  geology 
and  agriculture  as  an  inseparable  one ; 
but,  indispensable  as  the  connexion  un- 
doubtedly is,  geologists  have  not  afforded 
the  assistance  to  agriculture  which  they 
perhaps  might  have  done  by  this  time. 
They  have  ascertained  the  relative  posi- 
ti(m  of  the  harder  rocks  which  C(m)pose 
the  crust  of  the  globe,  but  have  paid  com- 
paratively little  attention  to  the  explana- 
tion and  classification  of  the  more  recent 
deposites,  which,  in  reality,  constitute  the 
soil  and  subsoils  with  which  the  farmer 


Johnston's  Physical  Atlas — "  Botanical  Geography." 


88 


INITIATION. 


has  alone  to  do— for  a  knowledge  of  the 
structure  and  position  of  the  harder  rocks 
would  ratlier  confer  benefit  on  the  land- 
owner tliau  on  him,  inai-uinch  as  hi.s  pro- 
perty niay  contain  numerous  and  different 
mineral  products  of  value  to  the  arts,  and 
of  benefit  to  his  plantations.  Much  yet 
remains  to  be  known  of  the  origin  of  the 
surfuce-soil,  and  of  the  position  and  struc- 
ture of  subsuils,  in  which  we  form  our 
drains,  and  whetlier  or  not  those  depositee 
have  such  a  determinate  position  as  to 
cause  them  to  be  best  drained  by  drains 
running  parallel  with  or  at  an  angle  with 
the  line  of  valleys  and  rivers ;  and  tiiere 
cannot  be  a  doubt  but  that  a  perfect  know- 
ledge of  those  recent  deposites  would  supply 
useful  hints  for  the  planting  of  trees  in 
soils  and  over  subsoils  best  suited  to  their 
natural  habits — a  branch  of  rural  economy 
that  will  probably  be  but  little  understood 
and  judiciously  practised  until  this  know- 
ledge is  aff"orded  by  geology.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  farmer,  then,  are  most  closely 
connected  with  the  most  recent  deposites 
of  earthy  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  globe; 
and  witii  these  he  should  become  as  inti- 
mately acquainted  a^>  the  works  of  geology, 
and  personal  observation,  will  enable  him. 

331.  Soils. — The  term  soil  does  not  con- 
vey the  same  meaning  to  all  persons.  The 
geologist  does  not  recognise  the  term  at 
all — except,  perhaps,  in  common  with  tlie 
botanist  and  planter,  as  the  mould  which 
supports  ordinary  vegetation  and  trees  ; 
for  "  the  term  rock,"  says  Sir  Henry  de 
la  Beclie,  "is  applied  by  geologists  not 
only  to  the  hard  substances  to  which  the 
name  is  commonly  given,  but  also  to  those 
various  sands,  gravels,  shales,  marls,  or 
clays,  which  form  beds,  strat-a,  or  masses.''* 
The  common  observer  considers  the  ground 
he  treads  on  as  the  soil.  The  farmer 
strictly  and  distinctly  confirms  his  defini- 
tion of  a  soil  to  the  portion  of  the  ground 
turned  over  by  the  plough. 

332.  The  external  characters  of  minerals 
established  by  Werner  of  Freyberg,  and 
recognised  by  mineralogists,  has  never 
been  used  to  describe  agricultural  Soils ; 
and  it  might  serve  no  practical  purpose  to 
do  so,  since  the  minute  shades  in  the  va- 
rieties of  soils,  which  are  constantly  under- 


going changes  in  the  course  of  good  and 
bad  modes  of  cultivation,  would  soon  ren- 
der the  characteristics  inapplicable  :  but 
practically  a  knowleelge  of  the  external 
characters  of  soils  is  a  matter  of  no  diffi- 
culty ;  for  however  complex  the  composi- 
tion of  any  soil  may  seem,  it  possesses  a 
character  belonging  to  its  kind  which  can- 
not be  confounded  with  any  other.  The 
leading  characters  of  all  soils  are  derived 
from  only  two  earths,  clai/  and  sand,  the 
greater  or  less  admixture  of  which  stamps 
tiieir  peculiar  character — for  the  properties 
of  these  earths  are  also  found  to  exist  in 
purely  calcareous  and  purely  vegetable  soils. 

333.  C'lai/  soil. — A  pure  cla^/  soil  has  so 
distinctive  external  characters,  that  it  may 
easily  be  recognised.  When  fully  wetted, 
it  feels  greasy  to  the  foot,  which  slips  upon 
it  backward;-,  forwards,  and  sideways.  It 
has  an  unctuous  feel  in  the  hand,  by  which 
it  can  be  kneaded  into  a  smooth  homogene- 
ous mass,"  wl)ich  retains  the  shape  given 
to  it.  It  glistens  in  the  sunshine.  It  re- 
tains the  water  upon  its  surface,  and  makes 
water  very  muddy  when  mixed  with  it  or 
runs  over  it,  and  tlie  mud  is  long  of  settling, 
to  the  bottom.  It  feels  cold  to  the  touch, 
and  easily  soils  the  hand  and  every  thing 
tliat  touclies  it.  It  cuts  like  soft  cheese 
with  the  sjiade.  It  parts  with  its  moisture 
slowly.  When  dry,  clay-soil  cracks  into 
numerous  fissures,  becomes  hard  to  the 
foot,  and  collects  into  lumps,  large  and 
small,  very  difficult  to  be  broken,  and  in- 
deed cannot  be  pulverised  by  the  imple- 
ments in  ordinary  use.  It  soils  the  hand 
and  clothes  with  a  dry,  light-coloured,  soft 
dust,  which  has  no  lustre.  It  is  heavy  and 
dffHcidt  to  labour.  It  absorbs  moisture 
readily,  and  adheres  to  the  tongue.  When 
neither  wet  nor  dry  it  is  tough,  and  soon 
becomes  hard  with  a  little  di-ought,  or  soft 
with  a  little  rain.  On  these  accounts,  it 
is  the  most  obdurate  of  all  soils  to  manage, 
being,  even  in  its  best  state,  heavy  to  turn 
over  with  the  plough,  and  difficult  to  pul- 
verise with  the  other  implements ;  and 
when  wet,  is  in  an  unfit  state  to  be  wrought 
with  any  of  the  implements.  A  large 
number  of  hori^ses  is  thus  required  to  work 
a  clay-land  farm ;  and  its  workable  state 
continues  only  for  a  short  time,  even  in  the 
best  weather.     But  it  is  a  powerful  soil  in 


De  la  Beche's  Manual  of  Geology,  p.  35. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


89 


its  capability,  bearing  luxuriant  crops,  and 
producing  them  of  an  excellent  quality. 
It  generally  occurs  in  deep  masses,  on  a 
considerable  extent  of  flat  surface,  exhibit- 
ing few  undulations,  along  the  margin  of 
a  large  river,  or  its  estuary,  and  evidently 
being  a  deposition  from  water.  Examples 
of  this  kind  of  soil  may  be  seen  in  Scotland, 
in  the  Carses  of  Gowrie,  Stirling,  and  Fal- 
kirk. It  may  be  characterised  a  naturally 
fertile  soil,  containing  little  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  of  a  yellowish-grey  colour. 

334.  Sandy  soil. — A  pure  sandy  soil  is 
as  easily  recognised  as  one  of  pure  clay. 
When  wet  it  feels  firm  under  foot,  and 
then  admits  of  being  turned  over  by  the 
plough  with  a  pretty  entire  furrow.  It 
feels  harsh  and  grating  to  the  touch,  and 
■will  not  compress  into  a  ball  with  the 
hand.  When  dry  it  feels  soft,  and  is  so 
yielding  that  every  object  of  the  least 
weight  sinks  in  it,  and  is  very  apt  to  blow 
away  with  the  wind.  Sandy  soil  generally 
occurs  in  deep  masses,  near  the  termination 
of  the  estuaries  of  large  rivers,  or  along  the 
sea-shore ;  and  in  some  countries  in  the 
interior  of  Europe,  and  over  a  large  pro- 
portion of  Africa,  it  covers  immense  tracts 
of  flat  land,  and  has  evidently  been  de- 
posited from  water. 

335.  Tilly  soil. — When  clay  is  mixed 
with  a  little- sa72(^/,  its  texture  as  a  soil  is 
very  materially  altered,  but  its  productive 
powers  are  not  improved.  AVhen  such  a 
clay  is  in  a  wet  state,  it  still  slips  a  little 
nnder  the  foot,  but  feels  harsh  rather  than 
greasy.  It  does  not  easily  ball  in  the 
hand.  It  retains  water  on  its  surface  for 
a  time,  but  is  soon  partially  absorbed.  It 
renders  water  very  muddy,  and  soils  every 
thing  touching  it ;  and  on  that  account 
never  comes  clean  off  the  spade,  except 
when  wetted  with  water.  It  has  no  lustre. 
When  dry  it  feels  hard,  but  is  not  difiicult 
to  be  wrought  with  any  of  the  implements 
of  tillage  ;  and  when  betwixt  the  states  of 
wet  and  dry,  it  is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine 
tilth  or  mould.  This  kind  of  soil  never 
occurs  in  deep  masses,  is  rather  shallow, 
in  many  instances  is  not  far  from  the 
hard  rock,  is  not  naturally  favourable  to 
vegetation,  nor  is  it  naturally  prolific.  It 
occupies  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the 


surface  of  Scotland,  much  of  the  wheat 
being  grown  upon  it,  and  may  be  charac- 
terised as  a  naturally  poor  soil,  with  but 
little  vegetable  matter,  and  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  colour. 

336.  Loam.  —  When  clay  or  sand  is 
mixed  with  a  considerable  proportion  of 
decomposed  vegetable  matter,  naturally  or 
artificially,  the  soil  becomes  a  loam.,  the  dis- 
tinguishing character  of  which  is  derived 
from  the  predominating  earth.  Thus  there 
are  clay  loams  and  sandy  loams.  Loam, 
in  the  sense  now  given,  does  not  convey 
the  idea  intended  by  many  writers,  who 
express  themselves  as  if  it  must  necessarily 
be  like  clay.  Thus,  Johnson,  in  defining 
the  verb  ''  to  loam,"  gives  as  a  synonyme 
the  verb  "to  clay;"  and  Bacon  observes 
in  one  of  his  Essays,  that  "the  mellow 
earth  is  the  best,  between  the  two  ex- 
tremities of  clay  and  sand,  if  it  be  not 
loamy  and  binding  ;"  evidently  referring 
to  the  binding  property  of  clay.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  defines  loam  as  "  the  im- 
palpable part  of  the  soil,  which  is  usually 
called  clay  or  Idam."*  And  Mr  Hugo 
Eeid  defines  the  same  substance  in  these 
words:  "The  term  'loam'  is  applied  to 
soils  which  consist  of,  about  one-third  of 
finely  divided  earthy  matter,  containing 
much  carbonate  of  lime."+  Thus  a  great 
diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  wliat  loam 
is.  Loam,  iu  my  opinion,  has  changed  its 
meaning  since  the  days  of  Johnson,  and 
consists  of  any  kind  of  earth  containing  a 
sensible  admi.vture  of  decomposed  r^'getable 
matter., — I  say  a  sensible  admixture,  since 
no  soil  under  cultivation,  whether  comjjosed 
chiefly  of  clay  or  of  sand,  but  what  con- 
tains sortie  decomposed  vegetable  matter. 
Unless,  therefore,  the  decomposed  vegetable 
matter  of  the  soil  so  preponderates  as  to 
greatly  modify  the  usual  properties  of  the 
constituent  earths,  the  soil  cannot  in  truth 
be  called  by  any  other  name  than  a  claj'ey 
or  sandy  soil ;  but  when  it  does  so  prevail, 
a  clay  loam  or  a  sandy  loam  is  formed — a 
distinction  well  known  to  the  farmer.  But 
if  loam  is  almost  synonymous  with  clav, 
then  a  sandy  \o^m.  must  be  a  contradiction 
in  terms.  Again,  a  soil  of  purely  vege- 
table origin — such  as  crude  peat  or  leaf- 
mould — cannot  becalled  loam, as  admixture 
of  an  earth  of  some  sort  with  vegetable 


Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry,  6th  edit.  p.  150. 


t  Reid's  Chemistry  of  Nature,  p.  276. 


90 


INITIATION. 


matter  is  required  to  make  loam  under 
every  recorded  definition  of  th.it  term. 
Thus,  tlien,  all  soils  have  the  properties  of 
clay  or  sand,  and  a  considerable  admix- 
ture of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  con- 
verts them  into  loam.  Hence  it  is  possible 
for  husbandry  to  convert  any  earthy  soil 
into  a  loam,  as  is  clearly  exemplified  in 
the  vicinity  of  large  towns. 

337.  Clny-loam. — A  clay-loam  consti- 
tutes a  useful  and  valuable  soil.  It  yields 
the  largest  proportion  of  the  finest  wheat 
raised  in  this  country,  occupying  a  larger 
surface  of  the  country  than  the  carse-clay. 
It  forms  a  lump  by  a  s<jueeze  of  the  hand, 
but  S!>on  crumbles  down  again.  It  is 
easily  wetted  on  the  surface  with  rain,  and 
then  feels  soft  and  greasy  ;  but  the  water 
is  soon  absorbed,  and  the  surface  again 
becomes  dry.  It  is  easily  wrought,  and 
may  be  so  at  any  time  after  a  day  or  two 
of  dry  weather.  It  becomes  finely  pul- 
verised :  is  generally  of  some  deptii,  form- 
ing an  excellent  soil  for  wheat,  beans, 
Swedish  turnips,  and  red  clover  :  and  is  of  a 
deep  brown  colour,  oftenapproaching  to  red. 

3-38.  All  clay-soils  are  better  adapted  to 
fibrous-rooted  plants  than  to  bulbs  and 
tubers  ;  and  to  that  sort  of  fibrous  root 
which  has  also  a  tap-root,  such  as  is  pos- 
sessed by  wheat,  the  bean,  red  clover,  and 
the  oak.  Its  crops  bearing  abundance  of 
straw,  require  a  deep  bold  of  the  soil. 
Clay-soils  are  generally  slow  of  bringing 
their  crops  to  maturity,  and  which  in  wet 
seasons  they  never  attain  ;  but  in  dry 
seasons  they  are  always  strong,  and  yield 
both  superior  quantity  and  quality. 

33.9.  Gravelly  -soils. — Sandy  soils  are 
divided  ijito  two  varieties,  which  do  not 
vary  in  kind  but  only  in  degree.  Sand  is  a 
powder,  consisting  of  small  round  particles 
of  siliceous  matter ;  but  when  these  are  of 
the  size  of  abazel-nut  and  larger, — that  is, 
gravel, — they  give  their  distinctive  name 
to  the  Soil,  oi  a  gravelly  soil,  which,  when 
mixed  with  a  sensible  proportion  of  veire- 
table  matter,  beconjes  gravelly  loam.  The 
small  fragments  of  a  gravelly  soil  liave 
been  derived  from  all  the  rock  formations  : 
whilst  the  large  boulders,  imbedded  prin- 
cipally under  tlie  surface,  have  been  chiefly 
supplied  by  the  older  formations.  Gravelly 
deposites  sometimes  occupy  a  large  extent 


of  surface,  and  are  of  considerable  depth. 
Such  a  soil  never  becomes  wet,  absorbing 
the  rain  as  fast  as  it  falls ;  and  after  rain, 
feels  somewhat  firm  under  the  foot.  It 
can  be  easily  wrought  in  any  state  of 
weather,  and  is  not  unplea-sant  to  work, 
though  the  numerous  small  stones,  which 
are  seen  in  countless  numbers  upon  the 
surface,  render  the  bedding  of  the  plough 
in  it  rather  unsteady.  This  soil  is  admirably 
adapted  to  plants  with  bulbs  and  tubers; 
and  no  kind  of  soil  affords  so  dry  and  cora- 
fqrtable  a  lair  to  sheep  on  turnips,  and  on 
this  account  it  is  distinguished  aa  "  turnip- 
soil." 

340.  Sandy  and  gravelly  loams. — Sandy 
and  gravelly  loams,  if  not  the  most  valu- 
able, are  the  most  useful  of  all  soils.  They 
become  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry  in 
ordinary  seasons,  and  are  capable  of  grow- 
ing every  species  of  crop,  in  evefy  variety 
of  season,  to  considerable  perfection.  On 
this  account,  they  are  esteemed  "  kindly 
soils."  They  never  occur  in  deep  masses, 
nor  do  they  extend  over  large  tracts  of 
land,  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  margins 
of  small  rivers,  forming  haughs  or  holms, 
through  which  the  rivers  direct  their  course 
from  amongst  the  mountains  towards  the 
larger  ones,  or  even  to  the  sea ;  and,  in 
their  progress,  are  apt  at  times  to  become 
so  enlarged  with  rain,  both  in  summer  and 
winter,  as  to  overflow  their  banks  to  a 
limited  extent  on  either  side,  and  carry  off 
the  valuable  soil  of  the  haughs. 

341.  Chalk  soils. — Besides  these,  there 
are  soils  which  have  for  their  basis  another 
kind  of  earth — lime,  of  which  the  chalky 
soils  of  the  south  of  England  are  examples. 
But  these  differ  in  agricultural  character  in 
nothing  from  either  the  clay  or  sandy  soils, 
according  to  the  particular  formation  in 
which  the  chalk  is  situated.  If  the  chalky 
soil  is  derived  from  flinty  chalk,  then  its 
character  is  like  that  of  a  sandy  soil ;  but 
if  from  the  under  chalk-formation,  it«  cha- 
racter is  like  that  of  clay. 

342.  Peat  soils. — Writers  on  agriculture 
also  enumerate  a  peat  soil,  derived  from 
I)eat ;  but  peat,  as  crude  peat,  does  not 
promote  vegetation,  and  when  decomposed 
assumes  the  properties  of  mould,  and 
should  be  regarded  as  such.  So  that,  for 
all  practical  purposes,  soils  are  most  con- 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


91 


veniently  divided  into  those  having  clayey 
and  sandy  properties,  with  their  respective 
loams. 

343.  Mould. — Any  of  the  loams  which 
have  been  long  under  cultivation,  and  en- 
riched bv  putrescent  manures,  is  con  verted 
into  mould,  and  forms  a  most  valuable  soil 
for  every  species  of  crop,  as  well  the  field 
as  in  the  garden. 

344;.  Subsoils. — As  the  soil  consists  of 
that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  fe 
turned  over  by  the  plough,  so  the  ground 
left  immediately  beneath  the  plough-furrow 

Fig, 


is  the  subsoil ;  and  it  may  consist  of  the 
same  earthy  substance  as  the  soil  itself; 
or  it  may  be  of  similar  character,  differing 
only  in  degree  and  not  in  kind ;  or  it 
may  be  of  quite  au  opposite  character,  or 
may  cousist  of  hard  rock.  The  subsoil, 
whatever  it  may  be  composed  of,  exercising 
a  great  influence  on  the  agriculture  of  the 
soil,  is  a  subject  of  great  interest  to  the 
farmer,  and  should  be  carefully  studied  by 
the  agricultural  student ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose I  shall  endeavour  to  illustrate  its  varie- 
ties by  this  figure.  Let  a,  fig.  1,  be  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  the  earthy  mould  derived 
from  the   growth   and   decay  of  natural 


^^^^^^^^^^ 


SECTIONS  OF  SOILS  AND  SUBSOItS. 

plants ;  b,  a  dotted  line,  the  depth  of  the     it  also  is  impervious  to  water 

plough-sole 


plough-furrow.  Now,  the  ^ 
may  either  just  pass  through  the  mould, 
as  at  b,  when  the  mould  Avill  be  the  soil, 
and  the  earth  below  it  the  subsoil ;  or  it 
may  not  pass  entirely  through  the  mould, 
as  at  c,  when  the  soil  and  subsoil  will  be 
similar,  that  is,  both  of  mould ;  or  it  may 
pass  through  the  earth  below  the  mould, 
as  at  d,  when  the  soil  and  subsoil  will  again 
be  similar,  while  neither  will  be  mould, 
but  earth;  or  it  may  move  along  the  sur- 
face of  e,  when  the  soil  will  be  of  one  kind 
of  earth,  though  not  entirely  of  mould,  and 
the  subsoil  of  another,  that  is,  one  of  sand, 
gravel,  or  clay ;  or  it  may  penetrate  to  the 
surface  of/,  when  the  soil  will  be  of  earth, 
though  again  not  entirely  of  mould,  but  a 
mixture  perhaps  of  clay,  sand,  and  mould, 
and  the  subsoil  of  hard  rock.  These 
different  cases  of  soil  and  subsoils,  thus 
represented  in  the  figure  as  each  forming 
a  distinct  sectional  division,  may  so  occur 
in  nature,  though  probably  not  all  in  the 
same  locality. 

345.  The  subsoil  uniouhtedly produces 
a  sensible  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  soil 
above  it.  If  the  soil  is  clay,  it  is  impervi- 
ous to  water,  and  if  the  subsoil  is  clay  also, 


The  imme- 
diate effect  of  this  juxtaposition  of  reten- 
tiveness  is  to  render  both  soil  and  subsoil 
habitually  wet,  until  evaporation  dries  first 
the  one  and  then  the  other.  A  retentive 
subsoil,  in  like  manner,  renders  even  a 
sandy  or  gravelly,  that  is  a  porous,  soil 
above  it  habitually  wet.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  gravelly  subsoil,  which  is  always 
porous,  greatly  assists  to  keep  a  retentive 
clay  soil  dry.  When  a  porous  soil  rests 
upon  a  porous  subsoil,  scarcely  any  degree 
of  humidity  can  injure  either.  Eock  may 
be  either  a  retentive  or  a  porous  subsoil, 
according  to  its  structure — a  massive  struc- 
ture keeping  the  soil  above  it  habitually 
wet;  while  a  stratified  one,  if  the  lines  of  stra- 
tification dip  downwards  from  the  soil,  (as 
at/,  fig.  1,)  will  preserve  even  a  retentive 
soil  above  it  in  a  comparatively  dry  state. 

346.  Condition  of  soils  and  subsoils. 
— These  are  the  different  conditions  of 
soils  and  subsoils,  con.^idered  practically. 
Tliev  have  terms  expressive  of  their  state, 
which  you  should  keep  in  remembrance. 
A  soil  is  said  to  be  stiff' ov  heavi/,  when  it 
is  difficult  to  be  wrought  with  the  ordi- 
nary implements  of  the  farm ;  and  all  clay- 
soils  are  so,  and  clay-loams  more  or  less  so. 


93 


INITIATION. 


347.  Light.— On  the  other  hand,  soil  is 
light  or  free,  when  it  is  easy  to  work ;  and 
all  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  and  loams 
are  so. 

34S.  Wet  and  dry. — A  soil  is  said  to  be 
vet,  when  it  is  habitually  wet ;  and  to  he 
rf/-y,  when  habitually  dry ;  and  all  soils, 
especially  clays,  on  retentive  "subsoils,  are 
habitually  wet;  and  on  porous  subsoils, 
especially  gravel  and  gravelly  loams,  are 
habitually  dry. 

349.  Poor  and  rich. — Any  soil  that 
cannot  bring  to  maturity  a  fair  crop,  with- 
out an  inordinate  quantity  of  manure,  is 
considered />oor;  and  any  one  that  does  so 
naturally,  or  yields  a  large  return  with  a 
moderate  quantity  of  manure,  is  said  to 
be  rich.  As  examples, — thin  hard  clays, 
and  ordinary  sands  are  poor  soils ;  and 
soft  clays  and  deep  loams  are  ricL 

350.  Deep  and  thin. — A  soil  is  deep, 
when  it  descends  to  some  depth  below  the 
reach  of  the  plough  ;  and  in  that  case  the 
plough  may  be  made  to  take  a  deeper 
furrow  than  usual,  and  yet  continue  in  the 
same  soil;  and  a  soil  is  thin,  when  the 
plough  usually  reaches  beyond  it :  but 
good  husbandry  can,  in  time,  render  a  thin 
soil  deep,  and  shallow  j^loughing  may 
cause  a  deep  soil  to  assume  the  character 
of  a  thin  one.  A  deep  soil  conveys  the 
idea  of  a  good  one,  and  a  thin  that  of  a 
bad*  Carse  clays  and  sandy  loams  are 
instances  of  deep  soils,  and  poor  clays  and 
poor  gravel  those  of  thin. 

351.  Hungry. — A  soil  is  called  a  hun- 
gry one,  when  it  requires  frequent  apj)li- 
cations  of  manure  to  bear  ordinary  crops. 
A  thin  poor  gravel  is  an  instance  of  a 
hungry  soil. 

352.  Grateful. — A  soil  is  grateful,  wl)en 
it  returns  a  larger  i)roduce  than  might  be 
expected  from  what  was  done  for  it.  All 
loams,  whether  clayey,  gravelly,  or  sandy, 
— especiallythetwolast,— aregratefulsoils. 

353.  Kindly. — A  soil  is  kindly,  when 
every  operation  performed  upon  ii  can  be 
done  without  doubt,  and  in  the  way,  and 
at  the  time  desired.  A  sandy  loam  and 
even  a  clay-loam,  when  on  porous  subsoil, 
are  examples  of  kindly  soils. 


354.  Sick. — A  soil  becomes  sick,  when  the 
same  crop  is  made  to  gro^v  too  frequently 
upon  it,  and  it  then  becomes  deteriorated; 
thus,  soils  become  eick  of  growing  red 
clover  and  turnips. 

355.  Sharp. — A  sharp  soil  is  that  which 
contains  such  a  number  of  small  gritty 
stones  as  to  clear  iip  the  plough- irons 
quickly.  Such  a  soil  never  fails  to  be  an 
open  one,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for 
turnips.  A  fine  gravelly  loam  is  an  in- 
stance of  a  sharp  soil.  Some  say  that  a 
sharp  soil  means  a  ready  one — that  is, 
quick  or  prepared  to  do  any  thing  required 
of  it ;  but  I  am  not  of  this  opinion,  because 
a  sandy  loam  isA  ready  enough  soil  for  any 
crop,  and  it  cannot  be  called  a  sharp  one. 

356.  Deaf. — A  deaf  soil  is  the  contrary 
ofasliarp  one  ;  that  is,  it  contains  too  much 
inert  vegetable  matter,  in  a  soft  spongy 
state,  apt  to  be  carried  forward  on  the 
bosom  of  the  plough.  A  deep  black 
mould,  whether  derived  from  peat  or  not, 
i^ften  an  example  of  a  deaf  soil. 

SoT.  Porous  or  open. — A  porous  or  open 
soil  and  subsoil,  are  those  which  allow 
water  to  pass  through  them  freely  and 
quickly,  of  which  a  gravelly  loam  and 
gravelly  siibsoil  are  examples. 

358.  Retentive  or  close. — A  retentive 
or  close  soil  and  subsoil  retain  water  on 
them;  and  a  clay  soil  upon  a  clay  subsoil  is 
a  double  instance  of  retentiveness. 

359.  Hard. — Some  soils  are  always 
hanl  when  dry,  let  them  be  ever  so  well 
wrought  as  in  the  case  of  thin  retentive 
clays. 

360.  Soft. — Other  %oils  are  soft,  as  fine 
sandy  loams,  which  are  very  apt  to  become 
too  soft  when  too  often  ploughed,  or  too 
much  marled. 

361.  Fine. — Some  soils  are  always  fine, 
as  is  the  case  with  deep  easy  sandy  loams. 

362.  Coarse  and  harsh. — Other  soils 
are  always  coarse  and  harsh,  as  thin  poor 
clays  and  gravel. 

363.  Smooth. — A  fine  clay  becomes 
smooth  when  in  a  wet  state. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


93 


364.  Rough. — A'thin  clayey  gravel  is 
rough  when  dry. 

365.  Fine  skin. — A  soil  has  ajine  shin 
■when  it  can  be  finished  off  with  a  beauti- 
fully granulated  surface.  Good  culture 
■will  bring  a  fine  skin  on  many  soils,  and 
rich  sandy  and  clay  loams  have  naturally 
one ;  but  no  art  can  give  a  fine  skin  to 
some  soils,  such  as  thin  hard  clay,  and 
rough  gravel. 

366.  Colours  of  soils. — Black.-^T\\Q 
colours  of  soils  and  subsoils  though  various, 
are  limited  in  their  range.  Black  soils 
are  found  on  crude  peat,  and  in  deep  deaf 
vegetable  mould,  vegetable  matter  evi- 
dently giving  origin  to  the  colour.  Soils 
of  other  colours  may  be  made  blacker  by 
the  addition  of  soot,  charcoal,  and  of  com- 
|)osts  of  peat,  when  this  vegetable  abounds 
in  the  locality.  Very  black  soils  are  deaf 
and  inert. 

367.  White. — Whitish  coloured  soil  is 
met  with  in  some  of  the  chalky  districts 
of  the  south  of  England.  Many  sandy 
soils  forming  tracts  of  country  as  well  as 
near  the  sea  shore,  are  of  a  yellow-white 
colour ;  and  so  are  calcareous  sands  formed 
in  a  great  measure  of  the  comminuted 
shells  of  crustaceous  animals.  White 
soils  assume  a  tinge  of  brown  by  the 
addition  of  vegetable  matter  in  cultivation. 
Greyish  white  stones  and  sand  indicate 
the  moory  origin  of  the  soil  in  which  they 
occur.  Some  strong  clays  are  light  yel- 
lowish brown. 

368.  Blue. — Fine  clay,  originating  in 
the  bottom  of  basins  of  still  wafer,  have 
frequently  a  bluish  colour,  which  changes 
to  dark  brown  or  brownish-black  on  culti- 
vation and  exposure  to  the  air,  and  forms  a 
useful  soil  for  wheat  and  Swedish  turnips. 

369.  Red. — Soils  are  not  unfrequently 
of  a  red  colour ;  dull  brownish  red,  de- 
rived most  probably  from  an  oxide  of  iron  ; 
and  this  colour  is  a  favouralile  indication 
of  the  good  quality  of  the  soil  or  subsoil, 
whether  of  a  heavy  or  light  texture. 

370.  Brown. — But  the  most  common 
colour  presented  by  soils  is  brown,  and 
the  tint  most  desired  is  the  brown  of  the 
hazel  nut,  and  on  that  account  is  named 


hazel-brown.  This  colour  is  most  probably 
derived  from  oxide  of  iron  existing  in  the 
soil,  which  is  rendered  darker  by  the  addi- 
tion ofvegetable  manure,  used  in  cultivation, 
to  hair  and  dark  chestnut  brown.  Sharp, 
grateful,  and  kindly  soils  are  always  of  a 
brown  colour.  Sand  and  gravel  loams  are 
usually  of  this  colour. 

371.  Colour  of  suhsoils. — The  colour  of 
subsoils  is  less  uniform  than  that  of  soils, 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  their  exclusion  from 
direct  culture  and  air.  Some  subsoils  are 
very  particoloured,  and  the  more  they 
are  so,  and  the  brighter  the  colours  they 
sport,  are  the  more  injurious  to  the  soils 
resting  upon  them ;  such  as  light  blue, 
green,  bright  red,  .and  bright  yellow. 
Dull  red  and  chestnut  brown  subsoils  are 
good ;  but  the  nearer  they  approach  to 
hazel  brown  the  better.  Tlie  dull  browns, 
reds,  and  3'ellowish  grays  are  permanent 
colours,  and  are  little  altered  by  cultiva- 
tion ;  but  the  blues,  greens,  bright  reds, 
and  yellows,  become  darker  and  duller  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  admixture  with 
manures  and  the  surface  soil. 

372.  The  colours  of  soil  have  a  consi- 
derable influence  in  regulating  the  quantities 
of  heat  absorbed  by  soils  from  the  sun's 
rays :  the  darker  coloured,  such  as  the 
black  and  brown  and  dark  reds,  absorb 
more  heat  than  the  greys  and  yellows, 
and  all  dark-coloured  soils  reflect  the 
least,  whilst  ligiit  coloured  ones  reflect  the 
most  calorific  rays.  According  to  SchiJbler, 
while  the  thermometer  was  77°  in  the 
shade  in  August,  sand  of  a  natural  colour 
indicated  a  temperature  of  11275°,  black 
sand  123^°,  and  white  sand  110°,  exhi- 
biting a  difference  of  13°  in  favour  of  the 
black  colour.  The  highest  temperature 
attained  by  the  soil  was  observed  by 
Schiibler  on  16th  June  1828,  in  a  fine 
day,  calm,  with  the  air  from  the  west, 
at  153^°,  that  in  the  shade  being  78°. 

373.  It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  farmers, 
that  the  soil  becoiues  much  more  heated 
when  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a 
perpendicular  than  in  a  sloping  direction. 
"  If  the  actual  increase  of  temperature," 
says  Schiibler,  "  produced  by  the  perj^en- 
dicular  rays  of  the  sun  be^'ond  the  tem- 
perature in  the  shade  be  between  45°  and 
63°,  as  is  often  the  case  in  clear  summer 


94 


INITIATION. 


days,  tliis  increase  would  only  be  lialf  as 
great,  if  tlie  t-ame  ligiit  spread  itself  in 
a  more  slanting  direction,  over  a  surface 
twice  as  largo.  Hence  it  is  sutiiciently 
explained  why,  even  in  our  own  climate, 
the  heat  so  frequently  increases  on  the 
el(ii)es  of  mountains  and  rocks  which  have 
an  inclination  towards  the  south.  Whe^i 
the  sun  is  at  an  elevation  of  60°  above  the 
horizon,  as  is  more  or  less  the  case  toward 
noon  in  tiie  middle  of  summer,  the  sun's 
rays  fall  on  the  slopes  of  mountains,  which 
are  raised  to  an  inclination  of  30°  to  tlie 
horizon,  at  a  right  angle ;  but  even  in  the 
latter  months  of  summer,  the  sun's  rays 
frequently  fall  on  them  under  a  right 
angle,  in  cases  where  the  slopes  are  yet 
sharper."  Where  the  exposure  and  aspect 
of  the  soil  is  most  favourably  situated 
ior  absorbing  the  sun's  rays,  the  light 
coloured  ones  will  derive  more  benelit 
than  dark  ones  in  a  less  favourable 
position. 

374.  Rptentioii  of  heat. — Colour  has 
also  an  influence  in  retaining  the  heat 
acquired  by  soils  from  the  sun  ;  the  dark 
coloured  radiating  their  beat  more  quickly 
in  the  absence  of  the  sun's  rays  than  the 
light  coloured  ;  and  colour,  together  with 
dryness,  has  a  greater  influence  in  warm- 
ing the  soil  than  that  of  the  different 
materials  comjjosing  it.  Thus  sand  will 
cool  more  slowly  than  clay,  and  the 
latter  than  a  soil  containing  much  humus. 
According  to  Schiibler,  a  peat  soil  will 
cool  as  much  in  1  hour  43  minutes,  as  a 
pure  clay  in  2  hours  10  minutes,  and  as  a 
sand  in  3  hours  30  minute:^).  Tlie  practical 
effect  of  this  difference  is,  that  while  the 
sand  will  retain  its  heat  for  three  hours 
after  the  sun  has  gone  down,  and  the  clay 
two  hours,  the  vegetable  soil  Avill  only 
retain  it  fur  one  hour ;  but  then  the  vege- 
table soil  will  all  the  sooner  begin  to 
absorb  the  dew  that  falls,  and  in  a  dry 
season,  it  may  in  consecpience  sustain  its 
crops  in  a  healthy  state  of  vegetation, 
while  those  in  the  sandy  soil  may  be  lan- 
guishing for  want  of  moisture.  If  we 
comj)are  in  the  earths  their  })ower  of  re- 
taining heat  with  their  other  ])hysical 
properties,  we  shall  find  it  to  be  nearly  in 
proportion  to  their  specific  gravities.  We 
may  therefore  conclude  from  this,  with  a 
tolerable  degree  of  i)robability,  as  to  the 
greater  or  less  power  of  retaining  heat. 


The  specific  gravity  of  some  of  the  soils 

is  the  following  : — 


Of  Siliceous  sand 
Sandy  clay 
Loamy  clay 
Brick  clay     . 
Pure  grey  clay 
Pipe  clay 
Arable  soil     . 
Garden  mould 
Humus 


2-653 
2-601 
2-51(1 
2-560 
2533 
2-440 
2-401 
2-3:{2 
1-370 


375.  Shrinking  hy  heat. — Heat  renders 
all  sorts  of  soil  dry,  by  evaporating  the 
moisture  out  of  them ;  and  so  great  an 
effect  has  heat  on  peat  and  strong  clay  in 
a  course  of  dry  weather,  that  they  shrink 
one  fifth  of  their  bulk.  Thus,  according 
to  Schiibler,  in  100  parts  the  following 
soils  shrunk  in  these  proportions : — 


Siliceous  sand 
Sandy  clay 
Loamy  clay 
Brick  clay 
Grey  pure  clay 
Garden  mould 
Arable  soil 
Humus 


DO  change. 

6  0  parts. 

8-9  ^ 
11-4  ^ 
18-3  _ 
14-9  <. 
1-20  _ 
'200      ^ 


37G.  Warmth  hy  heat. — The  influence 
of  a  damp  or  dry  stu^e  of  soils  on  their 
acquisition  of  warmth,  «5also  considerable. 
As  long  as  they  remain  moist,  the  depres- 
sion of  temperature,  arising  fiom  the  eva- 
poration of  the  water,  amounts  to  ll^°  to 
18g°  Fahrenheit;  and  in  this  state  they  ex- 
hibit but  little  difference  in  the  power  of 
acquiring  heat,  as  they  give  off  to  the  air, 
in  this  state  of  saturation  with  water, 
nearly  equal  quantities  of  vapour  in  the 
same  time.  ^VMlen  they  have  become  a 
little  dried,  it  is  found  that  the  light- 
ccdoured  euths,  with  great  powers  of  con- 
taining water,  acquire  heat  the  most  slowly, 
while  daik-ctdoured  ones,  with  less  power 
of  containing  water,  become  warm  in  a 
quicker  and  more  powerful  manner. 

377.  Absorption  of  moisture. — I'jxcept- 
ing  siliceous  sand,  all  kinds  of  soil  have 
the  pro[)crty  of  absorbing  moisture  from 
the  atmosphere ;  and  the  absorption  is 
the  greatest  in  clay  soils,  especially 
when  they  contain  humus.  Humus  shows 
the  greatest  power  of  absorption.  The 
absorption  by  all  soils  is  greatest  at  first, 
and  they  absorb  the  less  the  more  gradually 
they  become  saturated  with  moisture,  and 
they  attain  that  point  in  a  few  days.     If 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


95 


exposed  to  the  sunlight,  a  portion  of  the 
absorbed  moisture  becomes  again  vaporised, 
and  this  is  again  absorbed  during  the  night. 
These  daily  periodic  changes  in  respect  to 
moisture  must  have  a  beneficial  efi'ect  on 
vegetation.  Schiibler  has  given  the  follow- 
ing table  of  the  relative  absorbing  powers 
of  soils; — 


1000  grains  of  earth  on  a  surface  of 

50  square  inches  absorbed  in 

Kinds  of  earth. 

12  hours. 

24  hours. 

48  hours. 

72  hours. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Siliceous  sand 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Sandy  clay 

21 

26 

28 

28 

Loamy  clay     . 

25 

30 

34 

32 

Brick  clay 

30 

36 

40 

41 

Grey  pure  clay 

37 

42 

48 

49 

Garden  mould 

35 

45 

50 

52 

Arable  soil 

16 

22 

23 

23 

Humus  .    . 

80 

97 

110 

120 

378.  Saturation  hy  icater. — Different 
soils  have  different  capacities  for  contain- 
ing water  dtp- saturation.  Schiibler  gives 
this  table  of  differences  :  — 


Siliceous  sand 

.     27-3 

tt)  per 

cubic  foot 

Sandy  clay     . 

,     38-8 

„ 

V-        -. 

Loamy  clay    . 

.     41-4 

_ 

^        ~ 

Brick  clay 

.     45-4 

^ 

^        «. 

Pure  grey  clay 

.     48-3 

^ 

~                    -v. 

Pipe  clay 

.     47-4 

„ 

-,          ... 

Garden  mould 

.     48-4 

„ 

^          — 

Arable  soil     . 

.     40-8 

^ 

^        <. 

Humus  . 

.     50-1 

„ 

—           ~ 

The  sands  have  the  smallest  power  o'' 
containing  water,  whether  thev  are  com- 
pared in  weight  or  in  volume  with  the 
otherearths;  and  siliceous  sand  lias  the  least 
power  of  all.  These  differ  according  to 
the  different  fineness  of  their  grains  ;  the 
power  of  the  large  grained  becomes  dimi- 
nished down  to  20  per  cent,  while  jt 
amounts  to  40  per  cent  when  the  particles 
are  very  fine.  Humus  has  usually  the 
greatest  power  of  containing  water  to  satu- 
ration of  all  the  ingredients  of  the  soil,  and 
€S]:ecially  when  tiie  humic  acid  is  still 
mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  half  de- 
composed organic  matters,  as  remains  of 
wood,  leaves,  roots,  &c.  Where  we  meet 
■with  a  great  water-holding  power  exceed- 
ing 90,  we  may  reckon,  with  great  pro- 
bability, on  an  abundant  admixture  of 
organic  matter. 

379.  Retention  of  moisture.  —  So,  in 


like  manner,  different  soils  have  different 
powers  of  retaining  the  moisture  they  have 
absorbed  to  saturation  until  they  become 
dry,  and  this  power  increases  with  the 
depth  of  soils.  Schiibler  has  given  this 
table  on  the  subject :  — 


Water  evapo- 

Containing 

Kmds  of  earth. 

rated  in  4 

power  of  water 

days. 

of  the  earths. 

Grains. 

Per  cent. 

Calcareous  sand 

146 

29 

Light  garden  mould  . 

143 

89 

Very  light  turf  soil  . 

132 

366 

Arable  soil 

131 

60 

Black  turf  soil  not  so 

light      . 

128 

179 

White  fine  clay 

123 

70 

Grey  fine  clay  . 

123 

87 

• 

Hence  the  difference  in  the  decree  of 
looseness  of  consistency  of  the  ground 
has  a  considerable  influence  on  the  more 
or  less  easy  drying  of  deep  soil.s.  The 
garden  mould,  notwithstandiug  its  great 
power  of  containing  water,  in  which  it 
stands  near  to  pure  clay,  gave  oft'  to  the 
air  far  more  moisture,  in  the  same  time, 
than  the  clays.  The  turf  soils,  though  high 
in  containing  water,  also  became  dry 
again  at  a  quicker  rate  tlian  the  clays. 
The  fine  grey  clays,  aft.er  14  daj's,  exhi- 
bited still  «  damp  surface,,  while  the  sur- 
faces of  the  turf  soils  were  perfectly  dry 
many  days  earlier.  The  consistency  of  a 
soil,  and  its  tendency  to  become  contracted 
into  a  narrower  space,  exerts  a  greater  in- 
fluence in  a  deep  than  a  shallow  soil. 

S80.  Absorpt.io7i  of  oxygen.  —  Another 
important  physical  property  of  soils  is 
their  power  to  absorb  oxygen  from  the 
atmospheric  air.  Schiibler's  experiments 
on  this  subject  afforded  these  results :  — 


1000  Siliceous  sand,  in  a  wet  state, 

absorbed        ^  ^  ^ 

„  Sandy  clay        ^  ^  ^ 

^  Loamy  clay       ^  ^  ^ 

„  Brick  clay        ^  ^  ^ 

„  Grey  pure  clay  ^  ^ 

^  Garden  jnould  ^  ... 

„  Arable  soil        ..  _  ., 

..  Humus               „  ..  .. 


Cubic  inches. 
0-24      S 

1-65  I  ■;; 

204  \a 
2-29  I  ^ 
2-60  S 
2-43  I  I 
3-04  J  £ 


•5  o 
■S  to 


a  .3 


All  the  earths  lose,  in  drying,  the  pro- 
perty of  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air, 


96 


INITIATION. 


but  regain  it  in  the  same  proportion  as  be- 
fore on  being  int)i:«tene.l.  If  covered  with 
water,  the  absorption  takes  place  in  the 
same  manner.  A\'ater  alone,  however,  in  the 
same  uuantitv,  absorbs  only  a  small  portion 
pgi.(.(>,]t — a  clear  proof  that  it  is  the  earths 
themselves  which  induce  this  process  in  a 
greater  jtroportion.  Humus,  of  all  tlie 
earths,  exhibits  the  greatest  degree  of 
absorption  of  oxygen  ;  the  clays  a])pr()ach 
nearly  to  it,  the  sands  the  least.  The  in- 
cluded air  standing  over  them  becomes  at 
last  so  poor  in  oxygen  that  lights  Mould 
become  extinguished,  and  animals  die  in  it. 
In  this  mode  of  absorption,  there  is  an  essen- 
tial difference  between  humus  and  the  in- 
organic earths.  Humus  combiner  partly 
with  tlie  oxygen,  in  a  strictly  chemical 
sense,  and  assumes  a  state  of  higher 
oxygenation,  in  consequence  of  which 
there  is  formed  also  more  carbonic  acid. 
The  inorganic  earths,  on  the  other  hand, 
absorb  the  oxygen  without  intimate  com- 
bination. In  the  case  of  eartlis  which  are 
frozen  or  covei;ed  with  a  surface  of  ice,  no 
absorption  of  oxygen  takes  place,  any  more 
than  in  the  case  of  dry  earths.  In  a  mode- 
rately warm-  temperature,  between  59° 
and  66°  Fahrenheit,  the  earths  absorb,  in 
a  given  time,  more  oxygen  than  in  a  tem- 
perature only  a  few  degrees  above  the 
freezing  point. 

381.  Phi/sical  properties  of  soil. — M. 
Schiibler  thus  rocajtitulates  th^  results  of 
these  experiments  of  his  on  the  physical  pro- 
perties of  soils  : — "  In  the  examination  of 
soils,  the  determination  of  their  power  of 
containing  water,  and  of  their  weight,  con- 
sistency, and  colours,  in  connexion  with 
their  chemical  analyses,  will,  in  the  majo- 
rity of  cases,  be  sufficient  to  enable  us  to 
conclude,  with  great  probability,  as  to 
their  remaining  physical  properties.  The 
more  an  earth  weighs,  the  greater  also  is 
its  power  of  retaining  heat :  the  darker  its 
colour  and  the  smaller  its  power  of  con- 
taining water,-  the  more  quickly  and 
strongly  will  it  be  heated  by  the  sun's 
rays:  the  greater  its  power  of  containing 
water,  the  more  has  it  in  general  the  jtower 
also  of  absorbing  moisture  when  in  a  dry, 
and  oxygen  when  in  a  damp  state,  from 
tlie  atmosphere  ;  and  the  slower  it  usually 
is  to  become  dry,  especially  when  endued 


with  a  high  degree  of  consistency :  lastly, 
the  greater  the  power  of  containing  water, 
and  the  greater  the  consistency  of  a  soil, 
the  colder  and  wetter,  of  course,  will  that 
soil  be,  as  well  as  thestiffcr  to  work,  either 
in  a  wet  or  dry  state."  * 

382.  Discriminating  soils  hj  the  plants 
groxcing  on  them.  —  There  is  another 
method  by  which  the  physical  characters 
of  soils  and  subsoils,  such  as  I  have  endea- 
voured to  explain,  may  be  discriminated, 
namely,  by  the  plants  which  grow  ni)on 
them.  This  test  cannot  be  relied  on  so 
confidently  as  the  chemical  composition, 
or  the  external  characters,  given  above 
for  distinguisliing  soils.  The  chemical 
and  physical  properties  of  soils  are  open 
to  observation,  and  may,  therefore,  be 
acquired  with  correctness;  but  in  judging 
of  soils  by  their  vegetation,  which  neces- 
sarily excludes  them  from  observation,  the 
judgment  is  liable  to  err.  Such  a  mode 
of  estimating  the  comparative  properties  of 
soils  might  be  correct  enough  were  their 
products  constant ;  but  when  these  change 
with  the  circumstances  in  which  the  soil 
is  placed,  the  test  scarcely  admits  of  gene- 
ral aj)plication.  The  same  rock  and  the 
same  diluvium  or  alluvium  possess  the 
same  external  characters  throughout  the 
globe,  but  the  plants  which  grow  u])on 
them  differ  not  only  by  the  change  of  the 
latitude,  but  at  diflerent  heights  above 
the  sea  in  the  same  latitude.  The  sands 
of  the  tropics,  for  example,  yield  very 
different  ])lants  to  those  of  the  temperate 
and  frigid  zones.  Climate  is  thus  the 
great  agent  which  determines  the  exis- 
tence of  plants.  But,  besides  climate,  a 
great  variety  of  plants  are  found  on  the 
same  soil ;  so  that  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  plants  is  requisite  to  enable  any  one  to 
detect  a  sj>ecitic  soil.  Moreover,  natural 
])lants  alone  indicate  the  natural  state  of 
the  soil  ;  for  the  cultivated  soil  produces 
plants  very  diflerent  from  what  it  did  when 
in  a  state  of  nature. 

383.  Still,  notwithstanding  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  discrimination  of 
soils  by  plants,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact 
that  plants  do  affect  certain  soils,  as  also 
certain  conditions  of  the  same  soil.  Such 
plants  are  limited  in  number,   and   may 


*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Socitty  of  England,  Tol.  i.  p.  177-212. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGEICULTURE. 


97 


therefore  be  easily  remembered.  I  shall 
only  enumerate  those  which  have  fallen 
under  my  own  observation;  and  separate 
those  which  grow  upon  the  soil,  in  a  state 
of  nature,  from  those  which  make  their 
appearance  after  the  land  is  in  a  state  of 
cultivation.  Every  plant  found  among  the 
cultivated  corn  and  green  crops,  and  sown 
grasses,  is  a  weed. 

383.  On  good  clay  soils,  in  a  state  of 
nature,  in  the  low  country,  th6se  herbaceous 
plants  will  be  found — 


Spircea  ulmaria 
Angelica  sylvestris    - 
Ranunculus  Hngua  - 
Bumex  acetosa 


Queen  of  the  meadow. 
Wild  angelica. 
Great  spear- wort. 
Common  sorrel. 


384.  After  such  soils  are  brought  into 
cultivation,  these  plants  make  their  appear- 
ance as  tceeds,  some  of  which  have  been 
sown  with  the  corn,  others  with  the  grass 
seeds,  whilst  the  rest  have  been  carried 
by  the  wind,  or  brought  on  amongst  the 
duner. 


Rumex  oMti.nfoUus  - 
Senecio  vulgaris 
Lapsana  communis 
Agroskmma  githago 
Matricaria  chamomilla 
Sonchus  oleraceus     - 


Common  broad-leaved  dock. 

Groundsel. 

Nipple-wort. 

Corn  cockle  or  popple. 

Wild  chamomile. 

Common  sow-thistle. 


385.  Thin  clays,  in  their  natural  state 
in  the  low  country,  yield  the  following 
plants — 


Ranunculus  acris 

Aira  ccespitosa 
Equisetum  arvcnse 
SUtchys  palustris 


( Upright   meadow   or  bitter 
\     crowfoot. 

-  Tufted  hair-grass. 

-  Corn  horse-tail. 

-  Marsh  woundwort. 


386.  These  become  clay  loams  under 
cultivation,  and  then  yield  those  plants  as 
tceeds — 


Tussilagofarfara     - 
Sinapis  arvensis 
Polygonum  aviculare 


-  Common  colt's-foot. 

-  Wild  mustard. 

-  Knot-grass. 


387.  On  deep  strong  clayey  loam,  on  a 
porous  subsoil,  in  a  state  of  nature,  in  the 
low  country,  these  plants  are  found — 


Silene  infata    - 
Antirrhinum  linaria 
Scabiosa  arvensis,    - 
Ccntaurea  scabiosa   - 
Polygonum  amphibium 
DactyHs  glomerata   - 


Bladder  campion. 

Toad-Hax. 

Field  scabious. 

Great  knapweed. 

Redshank. 

Rough  cock's-foot  grass. 


388.  On  thin,  strong,  clay  loam,  on  a 
porous  subsoil,  in  a  state  of  nature,  in  the 
low  country,  these  plants  are  found — ■ 


Ononis  arvensis 
Tri/olium  arvense    - 
Trifolium  procumbem 


Common  rest-harrow. 
Hare's-foot  trefoil. 
IIop  trefoil. 


389.  After  cultivation,  both  deep  and 

VOL.  I. 


thin  clay  loams,  on  a  porous  subsoil,  in  the 
low  country,  yield  these  plants  as  iceeds — 


Anagallis  arvensis  - 
Veronica  hcderifolia 
Sinapis  nigra  - 
Ervuin  hirsutum 


-  Scarlet,  pimpernel. 

-  Ivy-leaved  speedwell. 

-  Jilack  mustard. 

-  Hairy  tare,  or  fetter. 


390.  The  herbaceous  plants  peculiar  to 
sandy  soils,  in  a  state  of  nature,  in  the  low 
country,  are — • 


Lotus  corniculatus    • 
Campanula  rotundi/olia  - 
Euphrasia  officinalis        - 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum 


Bird's- foot  trefoil. 
Common  bluebell. 
Eyebriglit. 
Sweet-scented  vernal  grass. 


391.  After  cultivation^  these  plants  ap- 
pear as  weeds — 


Spergula  arvensis     - 
Lamium  purpureum 
Fumaria  officinalis  - 
Thlaspi  bursa -pastoris 
ScUranthus  annuus 
Gnaphaliiim  gcmuinicunh 
Triticum  repens 


Common  spurry. 
Purple  dead-nettle. 
Common  fumitory. 
Shepherd's  purse. 
Common  knawel. 
Common  cud-weed. 
Common  couch-grass. 


392.  Upon  sandy  loam  on  clay  subsoil, 
in  a  state  of  nature,  in  the  low  country, 
these  are  the  characteristic  plants — 


Juncus  effusus  ■ 
Achillea  ptarmica     - 
Pctentilla  anserina  • 
Artemisia  vulgaris  • 


-  Common  or  soft  rush. 

-  Sneeze-wort. 

-  AVild  tansy  or  silver-weed. 

-  Mugwort. 


393.  After  cultivation,  these  plants  ap- 
pear on  this  soil  as  weeds — 

Raphanus  raphanistrum  Charlock, 

Rumex  acetoseUa      -        -  Slieep's  sorrel. 

Chrysanthemum  segetum  -  Corn  marigold. 

Juncus  bu/onius       -        -  Toad-rush. 

394.  Sandy  loam  upon  a  porous  subsoil, 
in  a  state  of  nature,  in  the  low  country, 
yields  these  plants  most  abundantly — 


Genista  scoparia 
Centaurea  nigra 
Galium  vcrum 
Senecio  jacobea 


-  Common  broom. 

-  Black  knapweed. 

-  Hollow  bed-straw. 

-  Common  rag- weed. 


395.  When  cultivated,  this   soil  yields 
these     plants     most      conspicuously     as 

weeds — 


Mentha  arvensis 
Centaurea  cyanus     - 
Sherardia  arvensis  - 
Lithospermum  arvense 
Alchemilla  arvensis 
Avenaelatior  • 
Cnicus  arvensis 


-  Common  corn-mint. 

-  Blue-wort. 

-  Corn  madder. 

-  Corn  gromwell. 

-  Parsley-pest. 

-  Tall  oat-grass. 

-  Corn-thistle. 


396.  Alluvial  deposites,  in  a  state  of 
nature,  in  the  low  country,  yield  a  vegeta- 
tion indicative  of  a  wet  and  strong  soil 
and  subsoil — 


Arundo  phragmitrs  - 
Juncus  conglomcratug 
Agrostis  alba    - 
Poa  aquatica    - 
Poajluitans     - 


-  Common  reed. 

-  Round-headed  rush. 

-  White  bent-grass. 

.    Reed  meadow-grass. 

-  Floating  meadow-grass. 

G 


98 


INITIATION. 


307.  All  tliese  plants  disappear  on  cul- 
tivation, except  tLe  common  reed,  which 
keeps  possession  <>f  the  suil  for  an  indefi- 
nite f>eriod  amidst  the  best  cultivation. 
^Vherc  such  soil  is  indifferently  cultivated, 
the  corn  thistle,  Cnicus  arrensis,  is  a  very 
troublesome  tceed.  In  other  resi^ects,  the 
weeds  are  the  same  as  in  the  cultivated 
clays. 

398.  Besides  these  soils,  there  are  others 
in  the  low  country  which  cannot  be  ren- 
dered arable,  but  form  the  sites  of  nume- 
rous plants  peculiar  to  them,  which  occa- 
sionally find  their  way  into  the  adjoining 
arable  soils.  From  the  sea-beach,  gravel- 
pits,  and  sandy  downs,  for  example,  plants 
stray  by  the  assistance  of  the  wind  into 
any  kind  of  arable  soil  in  their  resj>ective 
neighbourhoods. 

399.  Beaches^  consisting  chiefly  of 
pebbles,  are  maritinie,  lacustrine,  and  flu- 
viatile.  The  plants  gf  maritime  beaches 
are — 


Sileru  marilima 
Plantap<i  maritima  - 
Glai/jr  maritima 
PuJmonarin  marilima 
Enmaium  maritimum 
Salnlakaii 


•  Seaside  campioB. 

-  Sea  plantain. 

-  hiack  saltwort. 

-  Sea  liipjAvort. 

-  Sea  liplly. 

-  Gla^wurt. 


400.  Those  on  lacustrine  beaches  are — 


PrunelUt  iiiJ^iarU 
Rubiii  /"hUicofus 
Bellit  perennit 
PlaiUago  media 


•    Self-heal. 

-  .  C'lianion  bramble. 

-  Common  daisy. 

-  Uoar>'  plantain. 


401.  And  on  fluviatilebeache.?,  these — 


Anthvllir  vxilneraria 
Bilem  mar  it  ma 
Polygonum  ariculare 
AehilUa  miJU/olium 
AlchfmilUi  vulgaris 
Galium  virum  - 
Teftdaliu  nudicauii$ 
Linum  ctOiarticiim  - 
SaX'/ra;ia  aiznidft   - 
Apargia  aulumnalil 


•  Common  kidney-vetcli. 

-  Seaside  campion. 

-  Knot-gra.«. 

-  Commim  yarrow. 

-  Common  lady's  man  tie. 

-  Hollow  bei!-5trav. 

-  Naked-stalked  teesdalia. 

-  I'urge  tlax. 

-  Yellow  saxifr.ijre. 

-  Autumnal  apargia. 


402.  In  all  such  soils  the  vegetation  is 
generally  thin  and  scanty.  In  wet  seasons 
it  becomes  luxuriant,  but  in  dry  weather 
is  very  liable  to  be  burnt  up  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun. 


terior  of  the  low  country  these  plants  are 
found — 


Polygonum  avituJare 
Rutnfx  acftoteUa 
Airrvttii  tiil'))iris 
A  i  ra  ca  ryo/ih  yiUa     - 
Fet'uca  duriuMCula  • 
Armaria  S'rpyHi/iilia 
llirracium  miirorum 
Papamrdubium 
Papatvr  rhtfat 
Puij/rjotium  cunvoliitliu 
C/uwijuidium  nrticum 
L-  Hum  prrrrme 
lirimtiu  moUit 


Knot-Rran. 
Sheep's  sorrel. 
Common  bent-gtmM. 
Silver}  hair-gmjt. 
Hard  fe*cMigniia. 
Thyme-leaved  sandwort. 
^^  all  hawkweed. 
Long  smuuUilieaded  poppy. 
Coratiion  scarlet  p<>ppy. 
I  limbing  buckwheat, 
fpriglil  goose-fo-it. 
Perennial  ryegraas. 
Suft  brume-graas. 


404.  Gravel  on  the  sea-shore  produces 
these  maritime  plants — 

CakiU  maritima        -        -  Sea-rocket 

Ou-nopodium  maritimum  Seaside  gooae-fonL 

Atriplejc  laciniala   -        •  Frosted  sea-arache. 

SiUiu  maritima        -        -  Seaside  campion. 

405.  Gravel  on  the  sides  of  rivers  pro- 
duces these  plants,  which  indicate  a  wet 
subsoil — 


JuHCUt  bufonius 

acutiforus    - 

LitlortUa  lacustrit  - 


-  To-id-rusli, 

-  Sharp-flowered  ru«h. 

-  Plantain  shore-weed. 


406.  And  grit  on   the  mountain-sides 
produces  the  alpine  plants  of  the  district. 

407.  Drifting  sands,  links,  or  dotcns, 
have  a  peculiar  vegetation — 


Arundo  arenaria 
Triticum   iinceum     - 
ptttKca  duriuscula  - 
Canx  armaria 
Galium  verum 


Sea-bent. 
Sand  wheat-grass. 
Hard  feseue-grasa. 
Sand  carcx. 
Hollow  bed-straw. 


408.  This  vegetation  is  mixed  and  modi- 
fied towards  the  sea-side,  to  a  maritime 
one,  and  on  the  land  side  to  that  of  arable 
light  loam. 

409.  The  vegetation  of  moory  ground 
only  a  little  elevated,  varies  according  to 
the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the  subsoil.  The 
wetness  of  the  subsoil  arises  from  retentive 
clay.  Wet  moors  are  characterised  by 
the.^^e  plants — 


SalLrreperu 
Pinnuicula  mVmris 
Cares  piluli/rra 
Juiicut  tquarronu   - 
•Scirjitit  c-rxpitnsus    - 
Parnattia  paiuitris 


Pwarf  silky  willow. 
Hutterwort 
Itound-fniited  carez. 
Mo.-ws-hUNh. 

ScalystaHifd  rUih-rush. 
Grass  of  ^ania:>sus. 


403.  On  gravel,  whether  water-worn, 
as  usually  found  in  the  deposites  of  the 
low  country,  or  in  the  shape  of  grit,  that 
is,  angular  gravel,  as  found  in  the  debris 
on  the  sides  of  mountains,  occasioned  by 
the  disintegration  of  indurated  rocks,  the 
vegetation  is  somewhat  different  from  that 
of  the  beaches.     In  gravel  pits  in  the  in- 


410.  On  dry  moors,  which  usually  con- 
tain a  considerable  proportion  of  peat- 
earth,  when  resting  on  a  porous  subsoil  of 
sand  or  gravel,  these  plants  are  founds 

Genista  anglica 


yardvt  ttricta 
f'iiila  luli-a 

TormttUilla  officinalis 
Gnaphalium  dioicvm 


Needle  green-weed  or  petty 

whin. 
Mat-grass, 

Vell'iw  monnLiin-violet. 
Common  tormentil. 
Mountain  cud-weed 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


99 


411.  Marshes    in    the    interior  of  the 
country  produce  these  plants — 


Lychnis  Jloscuculi 
Mcnyanthi's  Iri/oliata 
CalUia  palustris 
Venntica  bi:ccabiinga 
Comarum  paltutre    - 
ijoituin  uliginosutn 


-  Ragged  robin. 

-  Fringed  buclv-bean. 

-  Marsli  marigold. 

-  BrooU-lime. 

-  Marsh  cinquefoil. 

-  Marsli  bed-straw. 


412.  And  in  marshes  near  the  sea  these 
plants  are  found — 


Triglochin  maritimum 
Poa  procumiK'ns 
Carcj;  pallesans 
riparia 


Sea  arrow-grass. 
Sea  marsh-grass. 
Pale  carex. 
Great  common  carex. 


413.  After  marshy  ground  has  been 
dried  and  cultivated,  these  plants  retain  a 
pretty  strong  hold  of  their  respective 
positions  as  tceeds — 


Txtssilartofarfara 
Pelasites  hybrida 
Galium  apariiw 


Common  colt's  foot. 
Common  butter-bur. 
Goose-griiss. 


414.  On  peat  or  moss  the  vegetation 
differs  according  to  its  state  of  wetness  or 
dryness.  On  dry  spots  of  peat  these  plants 
are  found — 


Erica  ktralix 
Ca.luna  vttiaaris 
Agrostis  canina 


-  Cross- leaved  heath. 

-  Common  ling. 

-  Dog  bent-grass. 


415.  In  wet  hollow  parts  of  peat  these 
plants  establish  themselves — 

Eriophorum  polystachion      Cotton  grass. 
Vaccinium  oxycoccus        •    Orange-berry. 

416.  When  peat  is  dried  and  cultivated, 
these  plants  infest  it  as  weeds — 


-  Bromus  mollis 
Myosotis  arvefisit 
Aviuafatua 
Galium  aparine 


-  Soft  brome-grass. 

-  Field  scorpion-grass. 

-  Wild  oats. 

-  Goose-grass. 


417.  On  mountaiii  pastures  the  plants 
are  numerous,  though  a  *iQ\y  only  serve  to 
show  the  peculiarities  of  the  range  of  ele- 
A'ation.  At  moderate  heights  these  plants 
prevail — 

Calluna  vulgaris      •  -  Common  ling. 

Astragalus  uralensis  -  Hairy  milk-vetch. 

Dryas  oclopetala       -  -  Mountain  avens. 

Salix  r.'ticulata        -  -  Keticulated  willow. 

Gnaphalium  alfrinum  -  Mountain. cud-weed. 

Jitdius  chaiiurmarus  -  Cloud-berry. 

Arbutus  uva-ursi   .  --  -  Common  bear-bcrrj-.* 

418.  In  very  elevated  mountain  pastures 
these  plants  are  found  on  a  mossy  soil, 
according  to  the  observations  of  the  late 
Mr  William  Hogg,  shepherd  in  Peebles- 
shire, brother  to  the  famed  Ettrick  Shep- 
herd— 


Calluna  vulgaris      -  -  Common  ling. 

EinjKtrum  nigrum    -  -  Crow-berry. 

Erica  titralix  -  -  Cross-leaved  heath. 

Lycopodium  claratum^  ciub-moss. 

• >^ atpuium  ) 

Juncus  squarrosus  -  Stool  bent. 

Equis.  turn  palustre  -  Paddock-pipe. 

Scirpus  ciespitosus  -  Deer-hair. 

NartJu-cium  ossi/ragum  -  Yellow  grass. 


Miiica  ca^ruUa  \ 
Scsltria  ca-rulea  ( 
Nardus  striata 


-  Fly-bent  or  rot-grass. 

-  Wire-bent  or  mat-grass. 


419.  Iu\7et  places  in  mountain  pastures 
these  plants  are  found  to  thrive — 

Juncus  effnsuf  -  -  Soft  rush. 

Holcut  mollis  •  -  Soft  meadow-grass  or  York- 
shire fog. 

Carex  cwspitosa  -  -  Risp. 

Ju7icus  acutiftorus  •  -  Sprat. 

Carex  pan icia  -  -  Pry. 

Scabiiisa  succisa  -  •  Devil's  bit  scabious. 

Hypnum  palustre  -  -  Marsh-fog.f 

420.  Professor  Macgillivray  has  truly 
remax'ked,  tiiat ''  No  soil  that  we  have  exa- 
mined has  been  found  to  produce  plants 
peculiar  to  itself,  excepting  s^wt/ and  jo^a^y 
and  these  two  soils,  so  different  from  each 
other  in  their  mechanical  and  chemical 
nature,  also  form  a  striking  contrast  in 
respect  to  the  plants  growing  upon  them, 
each  being  characterised  by  a  vegetation 
differing  in  aspect  and  qualities  from  each 
other,  and  scarcely  agreeing  in  any  one 
circumstance.":}:  The  existence  of  peat  is 
invariably  indicated  by  Calluna  vulgaris, 
common  ling, — Erica  cinerea,  fine-leaved 
heath, — and  Erica  tetralix,  cross-leaved 
heath  ;  and  loose  sand  is  as  invariably 
covered  with  Arundo  arenaria,  sand-reed, 
most  frequently  accompanied  by  Triticum 
junceiim,  sand  wheat  grass,  and  Galium 
veriim,  hollow  bed-straw. 

421.  In  so  far,  then,  as  the  arable  soils 
are  concerned,  the  information  imparted 
by  their  icecds  possesses  greater  interest  to 
the  farmer  than  their  natural  vegetation ; 
and  these  give  a  truer  account  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  soils  at  the  time,  than  of  their 
nature,  though  the  latter  pn  perty  is  by 
no  means  overlooked.  For  example, 
clayey  soils  are  indicated  by  the  existence 
of  the  grass' s^  and  of  these  the  genera  of 
Poa,  Agrostis,  and  Festuca  prevail. 

422.  Gravelly  soils  by  A  ira  caryophyl- 
lea,  silvery  hair-grass  ;  Aira  prcccox, 
early  hair-grass  ;  and  Rumex  acetdsella, 
sheep  sorrel.  When  iiiterniixed  with  a 
little  clay,  the  grasses  prevail. 


*  Prize  Essaysofthe  Highland  and  Agricultural  Societi/,  vol.  vii.  p.  123-135. 
+  Ibid.,  vol.  vii.  p.  281-2'82.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  vii.  p.  102. 


100 


INITIATION. 


423.  Good  regctallc  soil  is  indicate  J  by 
Tri/olia,  Vicicv,  and  Laf/ij/rus pnitiusis. 
Thi/muii  serjii/lluin,  wild  thyme,  indicates 
a  vo_'etable  lUijuM  of  ^'reat  tliinness;  and 
ragwee<l,  SVnecio  jacobcca,  one  of  depth  ; 
and  when  the  ragweed  prevails,  it  indicates 
the  absence  of  sheep,  which  are  very  fond 
of,  and  eat  down  its  young  leaves. 

424.  Purge  flax,  Linum  catkart'tcum ; 
Autumn  apargia,  Apargia  mtlinnnalls ; 
and  mouse-eared  hawk-weed,  llicrac'ium 
piloiflla,  indicate  a  dry  soil ; — the  Galium 
verum^  hollow  bed-straw,  a  very  dry 
one. 

425.  Yellow  iris.  Iris  pseud-acorus ; 
the  sharp-flowered  rush,  J  uncus'  acutijlo- 
rus  ;  lady's  smock,  CardnvLuie  pratensis ; 
and  ragged  robbiu,  Lj/c/inis  Jlus-cuculi, 
assure  us  of  a  supply  of  moisture  below. 

426.  The  purple  dead-nettle,  Lanpium 
vurpureum ;  and  smooth  naked  horse- 
tail, Equ'isetum  limosum,  indicate  a  re- 
tentive subsoil. 

427.  The  broom.  Genista  scoparin,  in- 
dicates a  pernicious,  and  the  whin,  LUex 
Europcuus,  a  more  favourable  subsoil. 

428.  The  common  nettle,  Urtica  dioicn; 
common  dock,  Jiumex  oilusi/ulius ;  mug- 
wort,  Artemisia  vulgaris;  annual  jji-a, 
Poa  annua;  field  poa,  Poa  prutensis ; 
and  common  tansy,  Tanacetum  vulgarp, 
grow  near  the  dwellings  of  man,  on  the 
bare  soil,  irrespective  of  its  kind;  wliile 
in  the  same  locality  the  white  clover,  Tri- 
folium  repens ;  red  clover,  Trifoliuni 
pratense ;  annual  poa;  hoary  plantain, 
Plantago  mediu  ;  ribwort,  Plantago  lan- 
ceolata;  purple  meadow  vetch,  ViciucrdC- 
ca  ;  and  common  dixiay,  Bcllis  perennls, 
are  found  in  the  pasture  around  his 
Louse. 

429.  Common  chick  weed,  Stellana  me- 
dia ;  and  common  fumitory,  Fnmaria 
officinalis,  indicate  a  rich  condition  of 
soil. 

430.  The grcaC  ox-eye,  Chrgsanthemum 
lcucanthemum,\Knnis  out  a  soil  in  a  state 
of  poverty ;  and  its  poverty  from  want  of 


manure  is  indicated  by  the  parsley-pest, 
Alc/wnillla  arcensis. 

431.  Wild  mustard,  Sinapis  arrensia, 
tells  of  the  a{»jdication  of  manure  derived 
from  towns.   • 

432.  The  common  corn  thistle,  Cnicut 
arvetisis,  indicates  that  tL«  land  is  not 
well  farmed. 

433.  "Wherever  the  least  admixture  of 
peat  is  found  in  the  soil,  the  Erica  or  Cal- 
luna  and  spotted-bearded  orchis,  Orchis 
maculata,  are  sure  to  be  there. 

434.  Taking  a  more  extended  view  of 
the  indications  of  the  condition  of  soils  by 
plants,  these  observations  of  Dr  Singer 
seem  well  founded  : — "  Green  mountains, 
like  those  of  Cheviot  and  Ettrick  Forest, 
abounding  in  grass  without  heath,  indicate 
a  strong  soil,  which  is  rendered  productive, 
though  freipiently  steep  and  elevated,  by 
a  retentive  subsoil.  Tliis  (juality,  and  the 
frequent  mists  and  showers  that  visit 
rather  elevated  sheep-walks,  render  them 
productive  in  strong  grasses  (Agrosfis.) 

.  Dark  mountains,  clothetl  with  a 
mixture  of  heath  and  grass,  indicate  a 
drier  soil  on  a  less  retentive  bottom.  Such 
are  many  of  the  Highland  mountains,  and 
such  also  are  some  of  those  which  appear 
occasionally  among  the  green  mountains 
of  the  southern  pastoral  district,  in  which 
the  light  Soil  is  incumbent  commonly  on 
gravel  or  porous  rock.  On  these  dark- 
coloured  mountains,  a  green  and  gj'assy 
part  often  apjiears  where  there  is  no  heath, 
and  the  subsoil  is  retentive ;  and  if  the 
upper  edge  of  such  a  spot  apjjcars  well 
dotincd,  tliis  is  occasioned  by  the  regular 
approach  of  a  stratum  of  clay  or  other  sub- 
stance imj)ervious  to  water  to^rards  the 
surface,  and  the  green  hue  disappears  be- 
low, when  the  subsoil  again  becomes  ojten. 
.  .  On  any  of  the  mountains,  whether 
dark  or  green,  when  the  fern  or  bracken, 
Ptrris  aquiUna,  appears  in  quantities,  it 
indicates  a  deep  soil  and  a  dry  subsoil."* 
A  stunted  growth  of  heath  indicates  a  j>art 
having  been  bared  by  the  paring-spade; 
and  when  vegetation  becomes  of  a  brown 
colour  in  summer,  the  subjacent  rock  is 
only  a  little  way  under  the  surface. 


*  Prize  Essays  of  Hie  Highland  and  Agricultural  Societt/,  vol.  vii.  p.  264. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


101 


435.  Viewing  the  connexion  of  plants 
to  the  soil  on  tlie  great  scale,  we  cannot 
but  be  forcibly  impressed  with  the  convic- 
tion, that  "  the  grand  principle  of  vegeta- 
tion is  simple  in  its  design  ;  but  view  it  in 
detail,  and  its  complication  astonishes  and 
bewilders."  And  yet,  as  Professor  Mac- 
gillivray  justly  observes,  "it  is  the  same 
sun  that  calls  forth,  and,  thus  elicited,  gives 
vigour  to  the  vegetation,  the  same  earth 
that  suj)ports  it,  the  same  moisture  that 
swells  its  vessels,  the  same  air  that  furnishes 
the  medium  in  which  it  lives  ;  but  amid  all 
these  systems  of  general,  how  multiple  the 
variations  of  particular  constituent  causes, 
andhow  infinitely  diversified  their  results!"* 

436.  Mechanical  structure  of  soils. — It 
is  now  time  to  take  a  closer  view  of  soils, 
their  structure  and  composition  ;  their 
structure  is  mechanical,  and  their  composi- 
tion chemical.  We  shall  first  considel* 
their  mechanical  structure  ;  and  I  sliall  de- 
scribe these  in  the  words  of  Dr  Henry 
!Madden  of  Brighton.  "  Soil,  considered 
scientifically,"  he  observes,  "maybe  de- 
scribed to  be  essentially  a  mixture  of  an 
impalpable  powder  with  a  greater  or 
smaller  quantity  of  visible  particles  of  all 
sizes  and  shapes.  Careful  examination 
will  prove  to  us,  that  although  fhe  visible 
particles  have  several  indirect  effects,  of  so 
great  importance  that  they  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  soil,  still  the  impalpable  pow- 
der is  the  only  portion  which  directly 
exerts  any  influence  upon  vegetation. 
This  impalpable  powder  consists  of  two 
distinct  classes  of  substances,  viz.,  inor- 
ganic or  mineral  matters,  and  animal  dinA 
vegetable  substances,  in  all  the  various 
stages  of  decomposition. 

437.,  "  A  very  simple  method  may  be 
employed  to  separate  these  two  classes  of 
particles  from  each  other,  viz.,  the  ini|)al- 
pable  powder  and  the  visible  particles  ; 
and,  in  so  doing,  we  obtain  a  very  useful 
index  to  the  real  value  of  the  soil.  In- 
deed all  soils,  except  stiff  clays,  can  be 
discriminated  in  this  manner.  The  greater 
the  proportion  of  the  impalpable  matter, 
the  greater,  cceteris  paribus^  will  be  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 


following  easy  experiment  may  be  per- 
formed. Take  a  glass-tube  about  2  feet 
long,  closed  at  one  end ;  fill  it  about  half 
full  of  water,  and  shake  into  it  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  soil  to  be  examined,  to  fill 
the  tube  about  2  inches  from  the  bottom ; 
then  put  in  a  cork,  and  having  shaken  the 
tube  well  to  mix  the  earth  and  water 
thoroughly,  set  the  tube  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion, for  the  soil  to  settle  down.  Now,  as 
the  larger  particles  are  of  course  the 
heavier,  they  fall  first,  and  form  the 
undermost  layer  of  the  deposite,  and  so  on 
in  regular  gradation,  the  impalpable  pow- 
der being  the  last  to  subside,  and  hence 
occupying  the  uppermost  portion.  Then 
by  examining  the  relatiAe  thickness  of  the 
various  layers,  and  calculating  their  pro- 
portions, a  very  accurate  mechanical  ana- 
lysis of  the  soil  may  be  made. 

439.  "The  stones  which  we' meet  with 
in  soil  have  in  general  the  same  composi- 
tion as  the  soil  itself,  and  hence,  by  gradu- 
ally crumbling  down  under  the  action  of 
air  and  moisture,  they  are  contiaually 
adding  new  impalpable  matter  to  the  soil, 
and  as  a  large  quantity  of  this  impalpable 
mineral  matter  is  annuall}'^  removed  by  the 
crops,  it  will  at  once  be  jjcrceived  that  this 
constant  addition  must  be  of  great  value 
to  the  soil.  This,  therefore,  is  one  impor- 
tant function  performed  by  the  stones  of 
soil, — viz.,  their  aftording  a  continually  re- 
newed supply  of  impalpable  mineral  mat- 
ter. 

440.  "  On  considering  the  nourishment 
of  plants,  we  find  that  their  food  undergoes 
various  preliminary  changes  in  the  soil 
previous  to  its  being  maue  use  of  by  the 
plants,  and  the  aid  of  chemistry  will  prove 
to  us  that  the  effect  is  produced  by  the 
joint  action  of  air  and  water ;  it  follows, 
therefore,  that  soil  must  be  porous.  Now, 
this  jjorosity  of  the  soil  is  in  part  produced 
by  the  presence  of  the  larger  jtarticles  of 
matter,  which,  being  of  all  varieties  of 
shape,  can  never  fit  closely  together,  but 
always  leave  a  multitude  of  pores  between 
them  ;  and  in  this  manner  permit  of  the 
free  circulation  of  air  and  water  through 
the  soil. 


438.    "To  effect  this  separation,  the         441.  "  As  the  porous  nature  of  soil  may, 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii.  p.  117. 


102 


INITIATION. 


to  a  certain  extent,  be  taken  as  an  index 
of  its  power  of  retaining'  moisture,  it  is 
advisable  to  determine  its  amount.  Tliis 
is  effected  in  the  following  way  : — Instead 
of  putting  tlie  water  first  into  the  tube,  as 
directed  above,  (438,)  and  sliaking  the 
soil  into  it,  take  a  portion  of  soil  dried  by 
a  heat  of  about  200°  Falir.,  and  shake  it 
into  the  dry  tube,  and  by  tu]>ping  the 
closed  end  frequently  on  the  table,  make, 
the  soil  lie  compactly  at  the  bottom  ;  when 
this  has  been  fully  effected,  that  is,  when 
further  tapping  produces  no  reduction  of 
bulk,  measure  accurately  the  column  of 
soil,  cork  the  tube,  shake  it  till  the  soil 
becomes  again  quite  loose,  and  then  pour 
in  the  water  as  directed  above  (438.) 
After  the  soil  has  fully  subsided,  tap  the 
tube  as  before,  and  re-measure  the  column 
of  soil,  and  the  increase  of  bulk  is  depen- 
dent upon  the  swelling  of  each  particle  by 
the  absorption  of  water,  and  hence  shows 
the  amount  of  porosity.  In  very  fertile 
soil,  I  have  seen  tliis  amount  to  one-sixth 
of  the  whole  bulk. 

442.  "  The  functinos  of  the  impalpable 
matter  are  far  more  complicated,  and  will 
require  a  somewhat  detailed  description. 
In  this  portion  of  the  soil,  the  mineral  and 
organic  matter  are  so  completely  uniteil, 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  separate  them 
from  each  other ;  indeed,  there  are  weighty 
reasons  for  believing  that  they  are  chemi- 
cally combined.  It  is  from  this  portion  of 
the  soil  that  plants  obtain  all  their  minei'ul 
ingredients,  and  likewise  all  their  organic 
portions,  in  so  far  as  these  are  obtained 
by  the  roots ;  in  fact,  plants  receive  no- 
thing from  the  soil  except  water,  which 
has  been  associated  with  that  portion 
which  is  at  present  engaging  our  attention. 

443.  "  The  particles  forming  the  impal- 
pable matter  are  in  such  cU)se  ai)p()sition, 
that  the  whole  acts  in  tlie  same  way  as  a 
sponge,  and  is  hence  capable  of  absorbing 
liquids  and  retaining  them.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  soil  remains  moist  so  near  the 
surface,  even  after  a  long  continued 
drought ;  and  I  need  not  say  how  valuable 
this  pro])erty  nmst  be  to  the  jilants,  since 
by  this  means  they  are  su])plieil  with  mois- 
ture from  below,  induced  by  the  ca])illary 
action  of  the  soil  durin":  the  heat  of  sum- 


mer,  when   otherwise,    unless  artificially 
watered,  they  would  very  soon  wither." 

444.  On  the  important  results  arising 
from  the  action  of  the  mechanical  property 
of  the  soil,  of  the  capillary  power,  and 
of  its  mode  of  action,  Professor  Joluiston 
has  these  observations: — "When  w^arm 
weather  comes,  and  tiie  surface  soil  dries 
rapidly,  then  by  capillary  action  the  water 
rises  from  beneath,  bringing  with  it  the 
soluble  substances  that  exist  in  the  subsoil 
through  which  it  ivscenjs,  for  water  is  never 
pure.  Successive  portions  of  the  water 
evaporate  from  the  surface,  leaving  their 
saline  matter  behind  them.  And  as  the 
ascent  and  evaporation  go  on  as  long  as  the 
dry  weather  continues,  the  saline  matter 
accumulates  about  the  roots  of  plants,  so 
as  to  put  within  their  reach  an  ample  sup-?, 
ply  of  any  soluble  substance  which  is  really 
not  defective  in  the  soil.  I  believe  that 
in  sandy  soils,  and  generally  in  all  light 
soils,  of  which  the  particles  are  very  fine, 
this  capillary  action  is  of  great  importance, 
and  is  intimately  connected  with  their 
power  df  producing  remunerating  crops. 
Thoy  absorb  the  falling  rains  with  great 
rapidity,  and  these  carry  down  the  soluble 
matters  as  they  descend,  so  that  when  the 
soil  becomes  soaked,  and  the  water  begins 
to  flow  over  its  surface,  the  saline  matter 
being  already  deep,  is  in  little  danger  of 
being  washed  away.  On  the  return  of  dry 
weather,  the  water  reascends  trom  beneath, 
and  again  diffuses  the  soluble  ingredients 
through  the  upper  soil."* 

44;5.  "  Am)ther  most  useful  function  of 
this  impaljmble  portion,"  continues  Dr 
Madden,  "•  is  its  jwwer  of  separating  or- 
ganic matter  from  water  in  which  it  has 
been  dissolvetl.  Thus,  for  example,  If  the 
dark  brown  liquid  which  flows  from  i^ 
dunghill  is  taken  and  poured  on  the  sur- 
face of  some  earth  in  a  flower-pot,  and  a 
sutficient  quantity  adtled  to  soak  the  whole 
eartii,  so  tiiat  a  portion  flows  out  through 
the  bottom  of  the  jxit,  this  latter  liquid  will 
be  found  much  lighter  in  colour  than  before 
it  was  poured  \x\H.m  the  earth,  and  this 
eflect  will  be  increased  the  nearer  the  soil 
approaches  in  its  nature  to  subsoil.  Now, 
as  the  colour  was  entirely  owing  to  the 
oriranic  matter  dissolved  in  it,  it  follows 


•  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology,  '2d  edit.  p. £35. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


103 


that  the  loss  of  colour  is  dependent  upon 
an  equivalent  loss  of  organic  matter,  or,  iu 
other  words,  a  portion  of  the  organic  matter 
has  entered  into  chemical  coinJnnation 
with  the  inipali)able  mineral  matter,  and 
has  thus  become  insoluble  in  water.  The 
advantage  of  this  is,  that  when  soluble 
organic  matter  is  applied  to  soil,  it  does 
not  all  soak  through  with  the  water,  and 
escape  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  but  is  retained  by  the  impalpable 
portions  in  a  condition  not  liable  to  injury 
from  rain,  but  still  capable  of  becoming 
food  for  plants  when  it  is  required. 

446.  "  Hitherto  I  have  pointed  out 
merely  the  mechanical  relations  of  the 
various  constituents  of  soil,  with  but  little 
reference  to  their  chemical  constitution  ; 
this  branch  of  the  subject,  although  by  far 
the  most  important  and  interesting,  is 
nevertheless  so  difficult  and  complex,  that 
I  cannot  hope  for  the  practical  farmer  doing 
much  more  than  making  himself  familiar 
with  the  names  of  the  various  chemical 
ingredients,  learning  their  relative  value 
as  respects  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  quantities  of 
each  requisite  to  be  applied  to  particular 
crops;  for,  as  to  his  attempting  to  prove 
their  existence  in  his  own  soil  by  analysis, 
I  fear  that  is  far  too  difficult  a  subject  for 
him  to  grapple  with,  unless  regularly  edu- 
cated as  an  analytical  chemist." 

447.  Chemical  composition  of  soils. — 
"  Soil,  to  be  useful  to  the  British  agricul- 
turalist, must  contain  no  less  than  12  dif- 
ferent chemical  substances,  viz.,  silica, 
alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese, 
lime,  magnesia,  potass,  soda,  phosphoric 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  and  organic 
matter.  I  shall  confine  my  observations 
almost  solely  to  their  relative  iuiportance 
to  plants,  and  their  amount  in  the  soil. 

448.  "Silica. — This  is  the  pure  matter 
of  sand,  and  also  constitutes  on  an  avenige 
about  60  per  cent  of  the  various  clays ; 
so  that  in  soil  it  generally  amounts  to  from 
75  to  95  per  cent.  In  its  uncombijied 
state,  it  has  no  ^//rcc^  influence  upon  plants, 
beyond  its  mechanical  action,  in  supporting 
the  roots,  &c.  ;  but,  as  it  possesses  the 
properties  of  an  acid,  it  unites  with  various 
alkaline  matters  in  the  soil,  and  produces 
compounds  which  are  required  in  greater 


or  less  quantity  by  every  plant.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  silicates  of  potass  and 
soda,  by  which  expression  is  meant  the 
conipounds  of  silica,  or,  more  properly, 
silicic  acid  with  the  alkalies  potass  and 
soda. 

449.  '■'^  Alumina. — This  substance  never 
exists  pure  in  soil.  It  is  the  characteristic 
ingredient  of  clay,  although  it  exists  in 
that  compound  to  the  extent  of  only  30  or 
40  per  cent.  It  exerts  no  direct  chemical 
influence  on  vegetation,  and  is  scarcely 
ever  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  Its 
chief  value  in  soil,  therefore,  is  owing  to 
its  efi'ects  in  rendering  soil  more  retentive 
of  moisture.  Its  amount  varies  from  ^  per 
cent  to  13  per  cent. 

450.  '"'•Oxide  of  Iron. — There  are  two 
oxides  of  iron  found  in  soils — namely,  the 
protoxide  and  peroxide  ;  one  of  which,  the 
protoxide,  is  frequently  very  injurious  to 
vegetation  :  indeed,  so  much  so,  that  \  per 
cent  of  a  soluble  salt  of  this  oxide  is  suffi- 
cient to  render  soil  almost  barren.  The 
peroxide,  however,  is  often  found  iu  small 
quantities  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  Tiie  two 
oxides  together  constitute  from  ^  to  10 
per,  cent  of  soil.  The  blue,  yellow,  red, 
and  brown  colours  of  soil,  are  more  or  less 
dependent  upon  the  presence  of  iron. 

451.  "  Oxide  of  Manganese. — This  oxide 
exists  in  nearly  all  soils,  and  is  occasionally 
found  iu  plants.  It  does  not,  however, 
ap]>ear  to  exert  any  important  influence 
either  mechanically  or  chemically. .  Its 
amount  -varies  from  a  mere  trace  to  about 
1^  per  cent.  It  assists  iu  giving  the  black 
colour  to  soil. 

45:2.  " These  four  substances  constitute 
by  far  the  greatest  bulk  of  every  soil,  ex- 
cept the  chalkv  and  peaty  varieties,  but, 
nevertheless,  cheniically  speaking.,  are  oi 
trifling  imjiortauce  to  plants;  whereas  the 
remaining  eight  are  so  absolutely  essential 
that  no  soil  can  be-  cultivated  with  any 
success,  unless  provided  with  them,  either 
naturally  or  artificially.  And  yet,  when 
it  is  considered  that  scarcely  any  of  them 
constitute  1  per  cent  of  the  soil,  their  value 
will  no  doubt  excite  surprise.  The  sole 
cause  of  their  utility  lies  in  the  fact,  that 
they  constitute  the  ashes  of  the  plants  ; 
and  as  no  plant  cau,  by  possibility,  thrive 


104 


INITIATION. 


without  its  inorganic  constituents,  (its 
athes,)  lienco  no  soil  can  be  fertile  which 
does  not  contain  the  in;i,'reilieuts  of  which 
these  are  nia.le  up.  Tlie  very  small  per- 
centage of  these  ingredients  in  any  soil 
necessitates  a  minute  analysisitf  every  soil 
before  it  can  be  ascertained  wliether  ornot 
it  contains  any,  or  what  proportion  of  these 
ingredients.  But  the  reason  for  such 
minuteness  in  auah'sis  becomes  obvious 
when  we  consider  the  immense  weights 
which  have  to  be  dealt  with  in  practical 
agriculture  ;  for  exanijde,  every  imperial 
acre  of  soil,  considered  as  only  8  inches 
deep,  will  weigh  1884  tons,  so  that  0-002 
per  cent,  that  is,  only  a  two-thousandth 
per  ceut — the  amount  of  sulphuric  acid  in 


a  barren  soil — amounts  to  S0-G4  lbs.  in  the 
imi>erial  acre ! 

4. 53.  "  Potass  and  soda  exist  in  variable 
quantities  in  many  of  the  more  abundant 
niinerals,  and  hence  it  follows  that  their 
proportion  in  soil  will  vary  according  to 
the  mineral  whicli  produced  it.  For  the 
sake  of  reference,  I  have  subjoined  the 
following  table,  which  shows  the  amount 
per  cent  of  alkalies  in  some  of  these 
minerals,  and  likewise  a  rough  calculation 
of  the  whole  amount  per  imjierial  acre,  on 
the  supposition  of  a  soil  composed  solely 
of  these  rocks,  and  of  a  depth  of  10  inches ; 
and  the  amount  is  abundant  beyond  con- 
jecture : — 


Name  of  Mineral 

Amount  per  cent 
of  Alkali. 

Name  of  Alkali. 

Amount  per  Tmperial  Acre  in  a  80il 
10  inches  deep. 

Felspar      .     . 

Clinkstone 
Clav-slate 
Basalt        .     . 

17-75. 
3-31  to  6-6-2 
2-75  to  3-31 
5-75  to  10 

Potass 
.    Potass  and  soda- 
Potass 
Potass  and  soda 

Tons.  oYt  qr.  lb.  Tons,  cwt  qr.  lb. 
422  18     2    8 

71   17     2    Oto  143  15     0     0    . 

35  16  3  Oto  71  17  2  0 
,17     0     0    7  to    25     7     3    7 

4.54.  "  One  acquainted  with  chemistry 
will  naturally  ask  the  question,  How  is  it 
that  these  alkalies  have  not  been  long  ago 
washed  away  by  the  rain,  since  tliey  are 
both  so  very  soluble  in  water?  The  rea- 
son of  tJieir  not  having  been  dissolved  is 
the  following — and  it  may  in  justice  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  those  wise  provi- 
sions of  nature,  whereby  -what  is  useful  is 
never  wasted,  and  yet  is  at  all  titnes  ready 
to  be  abundantly  supplied. : — 

455.  "These  alkalies  exist  in  combination 
with  the  various  other  ingj-edientsof  the  rock 
in  which  they  occur,  and  in  thiis  way  have 
such  a  powerful  attraction  for  these  ingre- 
dients, that  they  are  capal>le  of  completely 
resisting  the  solvent  action  of  water  as 
long  as  the  integrity  of  the  mass  is  retained. 
When,  however,  it  is  reduced  to  a  per- 
fectly iinpal})ablepowd(n-,  this  atti-action 
isdiininislied  to  a  considerable  extent,  and 
then  the  alkali  is  much  more  easily  dis- 
solved. Now  this  is  the  ca.se  in  soil,  and, 
consequently,  while  the  stony  portions  of 
soil  contain  a  vast  supply  of  these  valuable 
ingredients  in  a  condition  in  which  water 
can  do  them  no  injury,  the  impalpable 
powder  is  supplied  witli  them  in  a  soluble 
state,  and  hence  in  a  condition  available 
to  the  wants  of  vegetation. 


456.  "  In  the  rocks  which  we  have 
mentioned,  the  alkalies  are  always  asso- 
ciated with  clay,  and  it  is  to  this 
substance  that  they  have  the  greatest 
attraction ;  it  follows,  therefore,  tliat  the 
more  clay  a  soil  contain.*,  the  more 
alkalies  will  it  have,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  will  yield  them  less  easily  to  water,  and 
through  its  medium  to  plants." 

457.  Anab/sis  of  soils. — I  shall  give 
only  a  single  instance  of  the  minute  ana- 
lysis of  a  soil,  without  reference  to  its 
barrenness  or  fertility,  in  order  to  show 
the  great  variety  of  substances  found  in 
it.  The  soil  was  fr(mi  a  tract  in  North 
Holland,  gained  by  embankment  from  the 
sesv,  and  its  analyses  were  made  by  Baura- 
hauer  iu  Miilder's  laboratory  at  Utrecht. 


Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Subsoil. 

Surface.  1 

5  in.  deep. 

atlin.deep. 

Organic  matter  and 

COm- 

billed  water 

8-324 

7-700 

9-348 

Iluiuic  acid 

2-798 

3- 911 

3-428 

t'renic  acid 

0-771 

0-731 

0037 

Apocrenic  acid 

0107 

0-160 

0152 

Potash 

1-0-26 

1-4. -50 

1-521 

Soda 

\-9T2 

2-069 

1-9.37 

Ammonia 

0060 

0-078 

0075 

Lime 

4092 

.)-o;»6 

2-480 

Magnesia 

0130 

0-140 

0-1-28 

Pero.xide  of  iron 

9039 

10-305 

11-864 

Protoxide  of  iron   . 

0-350 

0-563 

0-200 

THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


105 


Soil.  Subsoil.  Subsoi!, 

'  Surface.    15  in.  deep.  30  in.  deep. 

Protoxide  of  manganese  0  -iSS"     0-354  0  284 

Alumina           .         .          1-364  2-576  2-410 

Phosphoric  acid       .          0466  0-324  0-478 

Sulphuric  acid          .          0-896  M04  0-576 

Carbonic  acid           .          6-085  6940  4.775 

Chlorine           .         .          1-240  1-382  1-418 

Soluble  silica            .          2-340  2-4!16  2-286 

Insoluble  silicates    .        57646  51-706  55-372 

Loss        .         .        .          1-006  0-935  1"231 


100- 


100- 


100-* 


4.58.  On  comparing  the  constituents  of 
such  a  soil  as  the  above,  witli  the  mineral 
ingredients  obtained  by  incineration  from 
the  ashes  of  plants,  it  is  found  that 
plants  withdraw  from  the  soil  chiefly  its 
alkaline,  mineral  acid,  and  earthy  ingre- 
dients ;  and  if  all  these  were  not  essen- 
tial to  the  very  existence  of  the  plants, 
they  would  not,  of  course,  be  taken  up  by 
them  ;  and  as  the  plants  constituting  our 
cultivated  crops  withdraw  those  ingre- 
dients in  a  varied  amount,  it  follows  that, 
unless  the  soils  we  cultivate  contain  them 
in  ample  amount  and  variety,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  the  plants  placed  upon  them 
to  arrive  at  a  perfect  state  of  development 
of  all  their  parts;  for,  chemically  speaking, 
and  rationally  speaking  too,  soils  cannot 
be  expected  to  produce  crops  abundantly, 
unless  they  contain  a  sufficient  supply 
of  every  ingredient  which  all  the  crops  we 
■wish  to  raise  require  from  them. 

4.59.  The  practical  purpose  of  all  ana- 
lyses of  plants  and  soils  should,  therefore, 
be  to  make  us  acquainted  with  the  con- 
stituents of  every  variety  of  cultivated 
crop  at  their  different  stages  of  growth ; 
and  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  each  soil 
in  use  contains  a  sufficient  supply  of  such 
ingredients.  The  analyses  of  plants  should 
Lave  thus  a  twofold  object — namely,  to 
guide  the  cultivator  in  the  treatment  of  the 
plantis  at  the  various  stages  of  their  growth,- 
and  to  instruct  him  as  to  what  quantity 
the  ripe  plant  in  its  healthy  state  finally' 
carries  off  of  those  ingredients  from  the  soil. 

460.  "  The  latter  only  of  these  two  ap- 
plications of  such  knowleilge,"  observes 
Professor  Johnston  on  this  subject,  "  has 
hitherto  been  kept  in  view  by  chemists ; 
and  so  little  has  been  done  in  reference  to 
it,  that  we  scarcely  know  as  yet  what  any 


one  entire  plant,  when  fully  ripe,  carries 
off  from  the  soil.  In  reference  to  the 
former  application,  the  few  imperfect  re- 
searches detailed  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tions," (of  the  second  edition  of  his  Lec- 
tures on  Agricultural  Chemistry,)  "  con- 
tain all  that  we  yet  know.  We  may  well 
say,  therefore,"  he  concludes,  "  that  our 
knowledge  of  the  inorganic  constituents  of 
plants  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  that  our 
present  opinion  upon  the  subject  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  permitted  to  hang  very 
loosely  about  us." 

461.  Here,  then,  the  agricultural  stu- 
dent will  observe,  is  an  extensive  and 
interesting  field  for  exercising  the  re- 
searches of  the  analytical  chemist  for  years 
to  come,  and  a  most  useful  subject 
upon  which  to  expend  a  proportion  of 
the  funds  of  agricultural  societies,  until 
every  variety  of  soil,  whether  under  culti^ 
vation  or  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  every 
A'ariety  of  plant,  whether  under  cultivation 
or  in  a  state  of  natural  pasture,  shall  have 
been  minutely  and  rigorously  analysed. 

4G2.  Per-centage  of  mineral  ingredi- 
dients  ta/cm  from  the  soiL^As  an  ex- 
ample merely  of  the  quantity  of  the 
mineral  ingredients  taken  from  the  culti- 
vated soilby  some  of  the  cultivated' plants, 
I  sliall  enumerate  these  instances  : —  • 

Bt/  grain  crops  :  — 


100  lbs.  of 

Grain. 

Husk. 

Straw^ 

Wheat,     -, 

1-2  to    2-0 

_ 

3-5  to  18-5 

Barley, 

2-.-?to    3-8 

— 

5-2  to    8-5 

Oats, 

2-6  to    3-9 

5  to  8 

4-1  to    9'2 

Rve, 

10  to    2-4 

5  to  8 

2-4  to    5-6 

Rice, 

0-9  to   0-7 

14    25 

— 

Indian  com. 

1-3 

— 

2-3 to   65 

Buck-wheat,      - 

213 

— 

— 

Millet  seed. 

3-9 

— 

— 

Field  beans. 

2-1  to   4-0  : 

?     

31  to    7-0 

Field  pease. 

2-5  to   30  Pod  7-1 

4-3  to    6-2 

Vetches,     - 

2-4 

— 

— 

Lentils,      - 

2-U6 

— 

—         Flax. 

Linseed,     - 

3-8  to  4-63 

— 

4-5     1-2S 

Hemp. 

Hemp  seed, 

5-6 

— 

1-78 

Mustard  seed,    - 

4-2  to  4-3 

— 

— 

Coffee, 

819 

— 

— 

463.  Bg  root  and  leaf  crops-: — 

Root  or  tuber.  LeaTCS. 

100  lbs.  of                 Undried.           Dried.  Undried.  Dried. 

Potato,       -        0-8  to  I  -I  3-2  to  4-6  1-8  to  2-5  IS  to  25 

'J  urnip,      -        0-G  to  O'S  (>0  to  8-0  1-5  to  2-9  14  to  20 

Beet,          -              —  6-3  _  _ 
Jerusalem  arti- 

clinke,     -              —  6-0  —  — 

Carrot,       -         07  5-1  —  16-42 

Parsnip,     -         0-8  4-3  —  15-76 
Mangold-wurt- 

zpl,        -          11  7-0  0-53  7-55 

Cabbage,                 —               —  —  18  to  26 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology,  2d  edition,  p.  528. 


106 


INITIATION. 


4fi4.  By  g  rat  get  i 

■ 

100  Ita.  ol 

GrMO. 

Ihy. 

Lucvriie          ... 

2(5 

86 

Ke-I  ili.vpr, 

1-6 

7-6 

White  clover, 

■     17 

9-1 

Ilyegni«, 

1-7 

(i-0 

Knot  ^'ni.u. 

— 

23 

llulcii^  l.iimtiis, 

— 

6(J  to  6-8 

P<ia  pr»U'iisU, 

— 

(i-2 

Bcirpiu, 

— 

2-3 

465.  Bi/  trees  : — 

lOOIU.  of  Wood.  Seed.  I/«a<rc«,  driol. 

Larcli,        -  -  0-;i3  5-0  6-0 

ScDtdi  fir,  -  0-14  to  0-19  4!l8  2-0  to  3-0 

Piicli  p.ne,  -  0-2.)  4-47  3 15 

Beech,       -  -  0-14  to  0-60  —  4-2  to  6  7 

Willow,     -  •  0-45  —  8-2 

Birch,        -  -  0-34  —  50 

Elm,          -  -  1-88  —  11-8 

Ash,           -  -  0-4    to  0-6  —  — 

Oak.          -  -  0-21  —  4-5 

Poplar,      -  -  \i)7  —  9-2 

Commou  furze,  l>-82  flower.  3-1 


Hop, 


5-0 


10-90     163 


4GG.  On  the  results  exhibited  in  these 
tables,  Professor  Johnston  makes  these  ob- 
servations. "That  the  quantity  of  inor- 
ganic matter  contained  in  the  same  weight 
of  the  different  crops  we  raise,  or  of  the 
different  kinds  of  vegetable  food  we  eat, 
or  with  ■which  our  cattle  are  fed,  is  very 
unlike;  and  the  quantity  contained  in  dif- 
fereiu  parts  of  the  same  plant  is  equally 
unlike.  These  results  caniiotbe  the  re- 
sult of  accident.  They  are  constant  on 
every  soil,  and  in  every  climate;  they 
must,  therefore,  have  their  oriijin  in  some 
natural  law.  Plants  of  ditferent  species 
must  draw  from  the  soil  that  proportion  of 
inorganic  matter  which  is  ad;tj>ted  to  the 
constitution,  and  is  fitted  to  supply  the 
wants  of  each  ;  while  of  that  which  has 
been  admitted  by  the  roots  into  the  gene- 
ral circulation  of  the  plant,  so  much  must 
proceed  to,  and  be  appropriated  by,  each 
part,  as  is  suited  to  the  functions  it  is 
destined  to  discharge.  And  as  from  the 
same  soil  different  plants  select  dilferent 
quantities  of  saline  and  earthy  matter,  so 
from  the  same  common  sap  do  the  bark, 
the  leaf,  the  wood,  and  the  seed,  select  and 
retain  that  y)roportion  which  the  healthy 
growth  and  development  of  each  requires. 
It  is  with  the  inorganic  as  with  the  organic 
food  of  plants:  some  draw  moVe  from  the 
6oil,  some  less;  and  of  that  which  circu- 
lates in  the  sap,  only  a  small  portion  is 
expended  in  the  ])rodiiction  of  the  flower, 
though  much  is  employed  in  forming  the 
stem  and  leaves. 

4G7.  "  On  tliis  subject  I  shall  add  two 
other  observations,"  continues  the  Profes- 


sor: "from  the  constant  presence  of  this 
inorganic  matter  in  plants,  given  under  all 
circumstances,  a  doubt  can  hardly  remain 
that  it  is  an  essential  part  of  their  sub- 
stance, and  that  they  cannot  live  and 
thrive  without  it.  But  that  it  really  is  so, 
is  beyonil  a  doubt,  by  the  farther  experi- 
mental fact,  that  if  a  healthy  young  plant 
be  placo<l  in  circumstances  where  it  can- 
not obtain  this  inorganic  matter,  it  droops, 
pines,  and  dies.  But  if  it  be  really  essen- 
tial tt)  their  growth,  this  inorganic  matter 
must  be  considered  as  part  of  the  /ou<I  of 
j)lants ;  and  we  may  as  correctly  speak  of 
feeding  or  supplying  food  to  plants,  when 
we  add  earthy  and  mineral  substances  to 
the  soil,  as  when  we  mix  it  with  a  supply 
of  rich  compost,  or  of  well  fermented  farm- 
yard manure. 

468.  "  I  introduce  this  observation  for 
the  purpose  of  correcting  an  erroneous 
impression  entertained  by  practical  men 
in  regard  to  the  way  in  which  mineral 
Substances  act  when  applied  to  the  soil. 
By  the  term  manure,  they  generally  de- 
signate such  substances  as  they  believe  to 
be  capable  ai  feeding  the  plant,  and  hence 
reject  mineral  substances,  such  as  gypsum, 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  generally  lime,  from 
the  list  of  manures  properly  so  called. 
And  as  the  influence  of  these  substances 
on  vegetation  is  undisputed,  they  are  not 
un frequently  considered  as  stimulants 
only.  Yet  if,  as  I  believe,  the  use  of  a 
wrong  term  is  often  connected  with  the 
prevalence  of  a  wrong  opinion,  and  may 
lead  to  grave  errors  in  practice,  I  may  be 
permitteil  to  press  ujwn  your  con-i<lera- 
tion  the  facts  above  stated — I  may  almost 
say  demonstrated — rthat  plants  do  feed 
uj)on  dead  un(»rganised  mineral  matter, 
ami  that  you,  therefore,  really  manure 
your  soil,  as  well  as  permanently  improve 
it,  when  you  add  to  it  such  substances  of 
this  kind  as  are  found  by  exi)erience  to 
I)romote  the  growth  of  your  crops." 

4G!).  The  discovery  of  the  constant  ex- 
istence of  inorganic  matter  in  plants,  which 
could  have  been  discovered  by  che- 
mistry alone,  must  have,  in  future,  a  very 
imj)ortant  influence  in  modifying  the 
notions,  and  regulating  the  ))ractice  of 
cultivating  all  our  plants.  "It  establishes  a 
clear  relation  between  the  kind  ami  qua- 
lity of  the  crop,  and  the  nature  and  che- 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


107 


niical  composition  of  the  soil  in  which  it 
grows; — it  demonstrates  what  soils  ought 
to  contain,  and  tlierefore  how  tliey  are 
to  be  improved ; — it  explains  the  effect  of 
some  manures  in  permanently  fertilising, 
and  of  some  crops  in  permanently  impo- 
verishing the  soil;  it  illustrates  the  action 
of  mineral  substances  upon  the  plant,  and 
shows  how  it  may  be,  and  really  is,  in  a 
certain  measure,  fed  by  the  dead  earth : 
— over  nearly  all  the  operations  of  agri- 
culture, indeed,  it  throws  a  new  and  unex- 
pected light."  * 

470.  The  great  importance  to  agricul- 
ture of  ascertaining  the  constituents  of 
plants  by  analysis,  is  thus  estimated  by 
Liebig  :  —  "By  an  exact  examination  of 
the  quantity  of  ashes  in  cultivated  plants," 
he  observes,  "growing on  various  kinds  of 
soils,  and  by  their  analysis,  we  learn  those 
constituents  of  the  plants  which  are  vari- 
able, and  those  wliich  remain  constant. 
Thus,  also,  we  will  attain  a  knowledge  of 
the  quantities  of  all  the  constituents  re- 
moved from  the  soil  by  difiereut  crops. 
The  farmer  will  then  be  enabled,  like  a 
systematic  manufacturer,  to  have  a  book 
attached  to  each  field,  in  which  he  will 
note  the  amount  of  the  various  ingredients 
removed  from  the  land  in  the  form  of 
crops,  and  therefore  how  much  he  must 
restore  to  bring  it  to  its  original  state  of 
fertility.  He  will  also  be  able  to  express, 
in  pounds  weight,  how  much  of  one  or  of 
another  ingredient  of  soils  he  must  add  to 
his  own  land,  in  order  to  increase  its  fer- 
telity  for  certain  kinds  of  plants.  These 
investigations  are  a  necessity  of  the  times 
in  which  we  live ;  but  in  a  few  years,  by 
the  united  diligence  of  chemists  of  all 
countries,  we  may  expect  to  see  the  rea- 
lisation of  these  views ;  and,  by  the  aid  of 
intelligent  farmers,  we  may  confidently 
expect  to  see  established,  ou  an  immove- 
able foundation,  a  rational  system  of  farm- 
ing for  all  countries  and  for  all  soils."  t 

471.  Classification  of  soils. — A  correct 
and  intelligible  classification  of  soils  would 
much  facilitate  their  description  by  writers 
on  agriculture,  and  would  render  their 
characters  more  easily  understood  by  the 
readers  of  airricultural  works.     For  want 


of  any  systematic  classification,  farmers 
have  established  a  classification  amongst 
themselves,  which  seems  to  answer  all  prac- 
tical purposes.  Thus,  when  a  soil  isdescrib- 
ed  as  being  clayey  or  sandy  as  its  fundamen- 
tal  characteristic,  it  is  understood  to  be 
strong  or  light,  and  wlieu  it  is  said  to  be 
sharp  or  heavy,  the  kind  of  crop  each  is 
best  suited  to  grow — namely,  turnips  on 
the  former,  and  wheat  on  the  latter — is 
easily  understood  ;  but,  of  course,  these 
conventional  terms  are  only  understood 
by  practical  men,  and  convey  no  definite 
meaning  to  others. 

472.  "Were  soils  as  definite  in  their  cha- 
racters as  minerals  are,  there  would  be  no 
difficulty  in  applying  to  them  the  external 
characters  employed  to  describe  minerals, 
and  these  are  quite  sufficient  to  identify 
them  to  mineralogists ;  but  as  soils  are  so 
varied  in  aspect  and  texture,  definite  rules 
are  quite  inapplicable  to  them. 

473.  And  if  the  external  characters 
cannot  be  employed  to  describe  soils  cor- 
rectly, much  less  can  their  cheniical  com- 
position be  adopted  as  a  basis  of  classifica- 
tion suited  to  the  wants  of  practical  men. 
Chemical  tests  can  only  be  employed  when 
the  soil  is  about  to  be  analysed ;  and  to 
require  an  analysis  before  a  soil  can  be  de- 
scribed or  understood,  is  to  place  a  direct 
barrier  against  acquiring  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  its  characters  by  practical 
men. 

474.  All  I  can  present  on  this  subject 
is  a  sketch  of  a  classification  of  soils,  pro- 
posed by  M.  De  Gasparin,  who,  though 
employing  some  chemical  tests  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  soils,  had  previously  en- 
deavoured to  ascertain  it  by  studying  their 
agricultural  characters.  The  result  was, 
that  he  was  led  to  adopt  the  following 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  relative  values 
of  the  characters  of  soils.  "  It  is,"  he  says, 
"  only  after  having  destined  a  particular 
soil  to  an  appropriate  culture,  that  we  can 
begin  to  consider  the  labour  and  improve- 
ment it  requires.  Those  labours  and  im- 
provements will  be  without  an  object  and 
a  bearing,  if  we  are  still  ignorant  of  the 
plant  to  which  they  would  be  useful.    And, 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  AgriculUiral  Chemistry  and  GeA>lo()y,  2d  edition,  p.  303-7. 
t  Liebig's  Chemistry  of  Agriculture  and  Fhysiology,  3d  edition,  p.  213. 


108 


INITIATION. 


moreover,  this  investigation  of  tlie  appro- 
priation of  soils  to  particular  kinds  of  cul- 
ture, is  connected  with  tbe  most  natural 
classification  in  a  niineralogical  point  of 
view ;  it  breaks  the  smallest  number  of 
affinities,  and  consequently  renders  the 
determination  of  soils  more  easy  and  more 
satisfactory^"  1  cannot  help  thinking  that 
M.  De  <  ra.'jparin  has  here  hit  upon  the 
princ'tpl'  ujxm  which  a  correct  and  useful 
classifica'ion  of  soils  may  be  founded. 

475.  In  his  endeavour  to  reduce  tliis 
principle  to  practice,  be  has  placed  soils 
in  two  gi^eat  divisions  ;  tl»e  ^first  includes 
those  having  a  tnineral  or  inorganic  basis, 
tbe  second  those  having  an  organic  one. ' 

476.  The  first  great  division,  cobsistmg 
of  ^oils  having  a  mineral  or  inorganic  basis, 
be  divides  into  four  classes,  comprehend- 
ing' saliferous  soils,  siliceous  soils,  clai/s, 
and  cal-careous  and  Diagnesian  soils. 

477-  The  character  of  ^a/Z/iro?/*  soilsis, 
that  they  have  "a  salt  or  styptic  taste,' 
containing  at  least  0*005  parts  of  hydro- 
chlorate  of  soda,  or  suljihate  of  iron  ; "  and 
they  consist  1st,  of  saline  soils;  and,  2J, 
of  vitriolic  soils. 

478.  The  character  o{  siliceous  soils  is, 
that  they  produce  "no  effervescence  with 
acids,  aft'ording  by  levigation  at  lea^t  O'TO 
of  large  particles,  which  are  deposited 
when  the  water  in  which  the  earth  isdis- 
solved  is  strongly  shaken." 

470.  Clays  are  characterised  by  "  not 
yielding  eflervescence  with  acids,  and  by 
affording  by  levigation  less  than  0*70  of 
the  first  portion." 

480.  And  the  characters  of  calcareous 
and  magnesian  soils  are,  that  they  "  pro- 
duce effervescence  with  acids;  lime  or 
magnesia,  or  both,  being  found  in  the  solu- 
tion." This  clai-s  is  subdivided  into  five 
suborders,  namely,  chalks,  sands,  dags, 
marls,  and  loams.  The  marls,  again,  arc 
farther  subdivided  into  two  sections,naniely, 
calcareous  marls  and  argillaceous  marls. 

481.  The  second  great  divison,  consist- 
ing of  soils  having  an  organic  basis,  he 
divides  into  two  classes,  comprehending 
fresh  mould  and  acid  mould. 


482.  The  charpoter  oi  fresh  mould  is, 
that  "  the  water  in  which  this  mould  is 
digested  or  boiled  does  not  redden  litmus 
I)aper." 

483.  That  of  acid  mould  being,  that,  un- 
der the  same  circumstances,  it  "  reddens 
litmus  paper."   > 

484.  It  is  intimated  that  M.  De  Gas- 
parin  has  laid"xlown  rules  for  the  descrip- 
tion of  species,  and  with  txanijdes  of  all 
the  methods  of  description.  In  reading 
these,  we  at  once  perceive  how  precise 
an  idea  of  soils  is  conveyed  in  a  manner 
that  cannot  l>e  niisunderstootl  by  any  agri- 
culturist. The  possibility  of  transmitting 
these  clear  and  pointed  descriptions  to  a 
distance,  follows  as  a  matter  of  course;  and 
we  shall  in  this  manner  be  freed  from  all 
that  Vtigueness  which  has  been  so  long  a 
just  canse  of  complaint."  This  is  all  that 
can  be  desiderated  on  the  subject ;  but, 
useful  as  all  M.  De  Gasparin's  services  to 
agriculture  have  been  in  the  right  direc- 
tion, he  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing a  faultless  description  of  soils,  for,  let 
me  apply  some  of  the  rules  he  has  offered 
above,  and  test  his  own  apjdicatidn  of 
them.  For  example,  he  says,  that  clag 
soils  are  characterised  by  ■"  not  yielding 
effervescence  with  acids,  and' affording  by 
levigation  4e?s  than  0'70  of  the  first  por- 
tion;" and  the  character  of  siliceous  t-oils 
he  gives  in  these  wtirds,  "  producing  no 
effervescence  with  acids,  affording  by 
levigation  at  lejist  0*70  of  large  j>articles." 
Surely  the  mere  difference  of  affording 
'*at  lea?t"  and  "less"  than  070  of  any 
ingredient,  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  great  difference  existing  in  agriculture 
betwixt  clay  and  sandy  soils.  He  does 
not,  however,  confound  loams  with  clays, 
as  some  Avriters  have  done,  the  loams 
containing  clay  only  a  little  "more  than 
O'lO  of  the  weight  of  tlie  «oil ;"  whereas 
clays  afford  only  a  little  "  less  than  0-70 
of  the  first  portion"  of  the  matter  sej'a- 
rated  by  levigation,  thereby  establishing 
a  great  difference  of  character  betwixt 
them. 

385.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  of  the 
truth  of  the  opinion  expressed  by  M.  De 
Gasparin,  were  a  correct  nomenclature 
and  classification  of  soils  established,  when 
he  says,  "  that  the  study  of  agricultural 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


109 


treatises  would  be  greatly  facilitated  ;  the 
different  nietliods  of  culture  which  are  fol- 
lowed in  distant  countries  will  no  longer 
appear  so  marvellous,  and  will  become 
more  intelligible;  we  shall  comprehend 
better  the  considerations  which  limit  or 
extend  the  several  cultures  ;  and  a  neces- 
sary link  beirtg  established  between  the 
science  of  agriculture  and  the  other  natu- 
ral sciences,  it  will  become  more  intelli- 
gible to  all,  and  will  more  readily  profit 
by  the  progress  of  all  the  other  branches 
of  human  knowledge."  * 

48G.  Origin  of  soils. — On  endeavouring 
to  establish- a  relationship  between  geology 
and  agriculture,  it  seems  incumbent  to  give 
the  agricultural  student  some  idea  of  the 
origin  of  the  soil  upon  the  cultivation  of 
which  he  is  about  to  exercise  his  skill,  and 
from  which  he  is  to  extract  his  future  sub- 
sistence; and,  in  cous;ulting  geological  and 
other  writers  on  this  subject,  some  seem 
to  regard  the  existing  soils  as  not  only  ex- 
ceedingly simple  in  their  origin,  but 
certainly  indicative  of  the  rock  on 
which  they  rest.  Thus,  Mr  Morton  says, 
that  "the  surface  of  the  earth  partakes  of 
the  nature  and  colour  of  the  subsoil  or 
rock  on  which  it  rests.  The  principal  mi- 
neral t)f  the  soil  of  any  district  is  that  of 
the  geological  formation  under  it;  hence 
we  find  argillaceous  soil  resting  on  the 
various  clay  formations  —  calcareous  soil 
over  the  chalk — and  oolitic  rocks  and  sili- 
ceous soils  over  the  various  sandstones. 
On  the  chalk  the  soil  is  white ;  on  the 
red  sandstone  it  is  red ;  and  on  the  sands 
and  clays  the  surface  has  nearly  the  same 
shade  of  colour  as  the  subsoil.  The  lime, 
potash,  and  iron,  existing  in  A'arious  pro- 
portions in  the  rock,  are  acted  on  by  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  rock  is  decomposed ; 
some  of  it  will  form  impalpable  matter, 
some  into  sand,  and  some  into  coarse  gravel 
or  rubble.  The  surface  is  composed  of  the 
same  materials  as  the  subsoil,  with  the 
addition  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter, 
in  every  state  of  decay,  intimately  mixed 
with  it ;  and  we  perceive  a  change  in  the 
external  appearance  of  the  surface  Avhen- 
ever  there  is  achanjrein  the  subsoil  below."t 


Here  the  direct  derivation  of  the  soil  from 
the  subjacent  rock  is  fully  stated. 

48Y.  A  subsequent  author,  Mr  Whitley, 
gives  his  view  of  the  formation  of  soils  in 
these  words:  —  "The  ordinary  effect  of 
atmospheric  influence  does  not  appear  suf- 
ficient to  produce  such  changes,  (those 
observable  on  the  surface  of  the  globe;) 
for,  if  we  examine  the  granitic  tors,  we 
shall  find  that  mosses  and  lichens  grow 
around  their  bases,  and  creep  up  their 
sides,  forming,  by  their  decay,  a  light  ve- 
getable mould  on  which  the  weather  pro- 
duces little  effect.  Much  less  would 
atmospheric  influence  be  able  to  produce 
such  extensive  changes  as  those  we  have 
described.  We  are  therefore  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  some  more  powerful  and 
effective  agent  has  been  at  work;  and  the 
phenomena  connected  with  the  facts  we 
have  reviewed,  are  only  consistent  with 
the  theory  of  a  vast  body  of  water  having, 
by  its  violent  action,  broken  and  com- 
minuted the  earth's  surface  to  a  consi-- 
derable  depth — thus  holding  in  mechanical 
suspension  the  materials  of  which  the  soil 
and  subsoil  are  composed  —  the  coarser 
and  heavier',  pai'ts  of  which  fii'st  subsided, 
then  the  clays,  and  lastly,  the  fine  earthy 

matter In  endeavouring  to 

establish  this  view  of  the  formation  of  soil, 
the  decomposition  of  rocks  by  atmospheric 
and  chemical  agencies  must  not  be  over- 
looked. These  causes  had  probably  pro- 
duced extensive  changes  before  that  catas- 
tn>phe  whose  effects  we  have  just  been 
describing ;  and  to  the  present  tii.ue  their 
operation  tends  to  improve  and  deepen 
the  soil.  The  crumbling  down  of  rocks  by 
decomposition  may  be  regarded  as  conseiiT 
vative  of  the  soil,  by  supplying  fresh  por- 
tions to  replace  those  which  are  con- 
stantly being  washed  away."  Yet  after  a 
review  of  ".the  violent  action  of  a  body  of 
water"  having  swept  away  "  large  por- 
tions -of  the  earth's  surface  from  their 
original  position,  and  deposited  them  at 
lower  levels,"  INIr  Whitley  arrives,  rat  her  un- 
expected!}', at  a  conclusion  of  the  origin  of 
the  present  soil,  which  is  much  in  unison 
with,  and  even  in  the  same  words  as,  the 


*  Comptes  Rendues  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences,  tome  viii.,  No.  8,  p.  285,  1839,  as  translated  in 
Jameson's  Edinburgh  Neic  Philosophical  Journal,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  84.  1  may  here  mention  tliat  M. 
De  Gaspariu  is  engaged  iu  a  voluminous  work  on  Agronomy,  volumes  of  which  have  already  appeared 
in  France. 

t  Morton  On  Soils,  p.  1.  1838.    I  have  not  seen  the  subsequent  editions  of  this  work. 


110 


INITIATION. 


opinion  of  Mr  Morton,  that,  "from  the  fore- 
going statement,  we  conclude  that  the  soil 
wenowcultivate  has  heen  derived  generally 
from  the  reck  on  which  it  rests,  and  ten- 
dered fertile  by  the  addition  of  decayed 
animal  and  vegetable  matter.  It  will 
follnw  that  the  same  mineral  constituents 
■which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
rock,  will  be  found  also  in  the  soil ;  and 
any  marked  colour  peculiar  to  the  one  will 
be  coTumunicated  to  the  other:  thus,  in 
the  chalk,  the  soil  is  white  ;  in  the  red 
sandstone,  red;  and  in  the  clay-slate, 
yellow."  * 

488.  Mr  Anstcd  professes  to  follow  the 
views  of  Mr  Whitley  on  this  subject,  though 
he  expresses  himself,  in  some  jiarticulars, 
in  modifie<l  language.  "  It  must  not  be 
supposed,"  he  observes,  "  that  a  violent 
rush  of  water  isnecessary  for  the  formation 
of  a  soil.  Rain,  penetrating  into  the  cre- 
vices of  an  exposed  rock,  and  succeeded 
by  frost,  crumbles  down  the  hardest  ma- 
terials ;  and  if  these  crumbled  portions  are 
washed  away,  they  are  rapidly  succeeded 
by  others,  so  that  a  soil  is  formed,  which 
at  length,  under  favourable  circumstances, 
becoiues  covered  by  mosses  an<l  lichens, 
and  from  their  decay  is  obtained  that  su})- 
ply  of  carbon  and  other  materials  which, 
in  process  of  time,  renders  the  soil  fit  for 
the  growth  of  other  vegetables  which  are 
useful  to  man.  In  either  case,  however, 
the  result  to  the  agriculturist  is  the  same  ; 
for  there  is  a  superficial  coating  of  mould., 
and  a  subsoil  chiefly  or  entirely  mineral 
between  the  mould  and  the  parent  rock. 
An  examination  of  the  soil,  and  a  chemical 
analysis  of  it,  will,  in  most  cases,  imme- 
diately show  that  the  soil,  as  well  as  tlie 
subsoil,  are  derived  from  the  underlying 
rock  ;  and  it  seems  that  this  exten<ls  even 
to  the  colour,  which  is  white  in  chalky 
soils,  red  in  the  new  red  sandstone,  and 
the  ochniceous  beds  of  the  green-sand,  and 
yellow  in  the  clays  and  clay-slate,  &c. 
But  it  will  not  be  expected  that  these  con- 
ditions should  hold  when  there  is  a  thick 
bed  of  superficial  detritus,  such  as  gravel ; 
for  the  gravel  must  then  be  looked  upon 
as  the  parent  rock,  and  the  condition  of 
the  soil  will  be  little  inllucuccd  by  the 
actual  underlying  bed."t 


489.  As  it  appears  to  me,  the  origin  of 
the  soil  is  not  so  ea-sily  explained  as  the 
matter  seems  to  be  assumed  by  the  authors 
I  have  just  quoted  ;  and  that  ditticulty 
attends  the  explanation  of  their  origin  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  of  most  geologists 
having  hitherto  paid  little  attention  to  the 
relations  of  tlie  loose  materials  composing 
the  surface  of  the  globe.  They  are  well 
acquainted,  and  coincide  in  opinion,  with 
the  relations  of  the  indurated  rocks  which 
form  the  crust  of  the  earth,  but  are  far  from 
being  agreed  as  to  the  causes  which  have 
placed  the  enormous  masses  of  incoherent 
matter,  met  with  in  every  quarter  of  the 
globe,  in  their  present  positions.  These 
massed  of  clay,  sand,  and  gravel,  bear  no 
fixed  relation  to  one  another,  like  the  in- 
durated rocks;  and  therefore  have  not  been 
placed  by  the  operation  of  any  law  of 
order,  but  simj)ly  that  of  gravity  ;  and  it 
is  this  want  of  order  in  their  jiosition 
which  bafHes  the  ability  of  the  geologist 
to  ascribe  the  origin  correctly. 

40O.  The  incoherent  rocks,  when  com- 
plete in  all  tjieir  members,  consist  of  three 
parts.  The  oldest  or  lowest '  part,  not 
uu frequently  termed  diluvium,  but  which 
is  an  objectionable  term,  innsmuch  as  it 
convevs  the  idea  of  its  having  been  forn}ed 
by  the  Noachiau  deluge,  which  it  may  not 
have  been,  but  may  have  existed  at  a  much 
older  period  of  the  globe.  This  cannot  be 
called  aUurnini,  according  to  the  definition 
of  that  deposite  given  by  Mr  Lyell,  who 
considers  it  to  consist  of  "such  transported 
niattor  as  has  been  thrown  down,  whether 
by  rivers,  floods,  or  other  causes,  upcn  land 
not  permanenthi  submerged  beneath  the 
waters  of  lakes  or  seas, — T  ^ny  prrnianeutli/ 
suhme'iyril,  in  order  to  distinguish  botween 
aUuciunis  and  regular  subaqueous  depo- 
sites.  These  regular  strata,"  he  continues, 
"  arc  accumulated  in  lakes  or  great  sub- 
marine receptacles  ;  but  the  alluvium  is  in 
the  channels  of  rivers  or  currents,  where 
the  UTaterials  mav  be  regarded  as  still  in 
transitu,,  or  on  their  way  to  a  ]>lace  of 
rest."J  Diluvium,  therefore,  should  rather 
be  termed  subaqueous  deposites,  and  may 
consist  of  clay,  or  gravel,  or  sand,  in  deep 
masses  and  of  large  extent.  It  may,  in 
fact,  be   transported  materials,  which,  if 


*  Whitley's  Application  of  Geology  to  Agriculture,  p.  10-17.   1843. 
t  Ansted's  Geology,  toI.  ii.  p.  485.  X  Lylle's  Principles  of  Geology,  vol.  iii.  p.  218. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


Ill 


they  had  been  allowed  to  remain  in  their 
original  site,  would  have  formed  indurated 
aluminous  and  siliceous  rocks.  When  such 
subaqueous  deposites  are  exposed  to  at- 
mospherical influences,  an  arable  soil  is 
easily  formed  upon  them. 

419.  True  alluc'ial  deposites  may  raise 
themselves  by  accumulation  above  their 
depositing  waters,  and  art  can  assist  the 
natural  process  by  the  erection  of  embank- 
ments against  the  waters  of  rivers  and 
lakes,  and  by  forming  large  ditches  for 
carrying  the  waters  away,  as  has  been 
done  in  several  places  in  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  our  country.  Atmospherical  in- 
fluences soon  raise  an  arable  soil  on  alluvium. 

492.  The  third  member  of  soils  is  the 
upper  mould,  which  is  directly  derived 
from  vegetation,  and  can  only  come  into 
existence  after  either  of  the  other  soils  has 
been  placed  in  a  situation  favourable  for 
the  support  of  plants — that  is,  in  the  at- 
mosphere. Mould,  being  the  production 
of  vegetation,  always  exists  on  the  surface, 
but  wlien  either  the  subaqueous  deposite 
or  the  alluvium  is  awanting,  it  rests 
upon  the  one  present ;  and  when  both  are 
awanting,  it  is  formed  upon  the  indurated 
rock  still  by  the  atmosphere. 

493.  When  the  last  case  happens,  if  the 
rocky  stratum  is  porous,  by  means  of  nu- 
merous fissures,  or  is  in  inclined  beds,  the 
mould  is  of  good  quality  fur  agricultural 
purposes, — sucli  as  are  the  moulds  upon 
sandstones,  limestones,  and  trap,  and  the 
upper  chalk  formation  ;  but  if  it  rest  on  a 
massive  rock,  then  it  is  converted  into  a 
spongy  wet  pabulum  for  subaquatic  plants, 
forming  a  marsh,  if  its  site  is  low,  but  if 
high,  is  converted  into  thin  peat ;  and  both 
are  worthless  soils  for  agriculture.  ^Yhen 
the  mould  rests  immediately  upon  clay 
suba<jueous  deposite,  a  coarse  and  rank 
vcireiation  appears  upon  it;  and  if  the 
water  which  supports  this  has  no  oppor- 
tunity of  passing  away,  in  time  a  bog  is 
formed  by  the  cumulative  growth  of  the 
subaquatic  mosses.*  On  the  other  hand, 
■when  it  is  formed  on  gravelly  deposite,  the 
vegetation  is  short,  and  dry,  and  sweet, 
and  particulai'ly  m  ell  adapted  to  promote 


the  sound  feeding  and  health  of  sheep. 
On  such  deposites  water  is  never  seen  to 
remain  after  the  heaviest  fall  of  rain. 
Mould  resting  on  alluvial  deposite  of 
whatever  nature,  is  a  rich  soil  in  conse- 
quence, and  it  will  be  dry  when  the  de- 
posite is  gravelly  or  sandy  ;  but  not  if 
clayey. 

494.  Notwithstanding  the  possibility  of 
the  formation  of  mould  upon  the  surface 
of  hard  rocks  by  means  of  atmospheric 
influences,  there  cannot,  I  think,  a  doubt 
exist  that  by  far  the  largest  proportion  of 
tlie  agricultural  soil  is  based  upon  the  in- 
coherent, and  not  the  indurated  rocks. 
And  that  there  may  be  no  mistake  in  the 
use  of  terms,  I  here  use  the  term  rock  as 
gcol()gists  use  it,  tiiat  is,  according  to  the 
definition  of  Sir  Henry  De  la  Beclie.  "  The 
term  rock  is  applied  by  geologists,  not  only 
to  the  hard  substances  to  which  this  name 
is  commonly  given,  but  also  to  those  vari- 
ous sands,  gravels,  shales,  marls,  or  clays, 
which  form  beds,  strata,  or  masses."t  I 
do  not  profess  to  be  a  geologist,  -in  the 
legitimate  sense  of  the  term,  but  I  hfeve  paid 
some  attention  tothe^cieucefor  many  j^ears 
past,  and  never  have  had  an  op[)ortunity 
of  observing  the  position  of  rocks  without 
availing  myself  of  it  in  order  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  loose  deposites  on  the 
surface,  because  they  evidently  have  an 
immediate  connexion  with  agriculture  ; 
and  I  must  say  that  all  my  observations 
in  this  country,  as  well  as  on  the  Continent, 
have  convinced  me  that  the  agricultural 
soils  of  the  low  part  of  a  country  are  gene- 
rally not  derived  from  the  hard  mcks  upon 
which  they  may  happen  to  be  placed,  but 
have  been  brought  to  their  present  position 
from  a  distance  by  means  of  water. 

495.  Many  instances  occur  to  my  know- 
ledge of  great  tracts  of  soils,  including  sub- 
soils, having  no  relation  to  the  "geotogical 
formation  under  them."  The  fine  strong 
deep  clay  of  the  Carse  of  Gowrie  rests  on 
the  old  red  sandstone — a  rock  having  no- 
thing in  common,  eitlier  in  consistence  or 
colour,  with  the  clay  above  it.  The  large 
extent  of  the  grey  sands  of  Barrie,  and  the 
great  gre\'  gravellv  deposites  of  the  valley 
of  the  Lunan,  in  Forfarshire,  both  rest  on 


*  For  an  account  of  the  origin  of  Bogs,  see  Aiton  On  Moss,  p.  1-120. 
+  De  la  Beclie's  Manual  of  Geology,  p.  35. 


112 


INITIATION. 


the  same  fonnation  as  tlie  carse  clay — 
namely,  the  ulJ  red  gandstone,  and  so  of 
numerous  other  examples  in  Scotland,^  In 
fact.  Soils  are  freijuently  found  of  infinitely 
diversified  diameter,  over  extensive  dis- 
tricts of  roCk,  wliose  structure  is  nearly 
uniform  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  soils  of 
uniform  character  occur  in  districts  wiiere 
the  underl^'ing  rocks  differ  as  well  in 
their  chemical  as  th6ir  geological  pro- 
perties. Thus  a  uniform  integument  of 
clav  rests  upon  the  grey  sandstone  to  the 
westward  of  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  in 
Perthshire,  and  the  same  clay  covers  the 
Ochil  Hills  in  that  county  and  Fifeshire 
with  a  uniform  mantle — over  hills  which 
are  entirely  composed  of  trap.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  diversified  clay  and  gravel 
are  found  to  cover  a  uniform  track  of 
grevwacke  in  Perthshire.  "  We  have 
grey  sandstone,"  says  Mr  Buist  aptly, 
when  treating  of  the  gedogy  of  the  north- 
east portion  of  Perthshire,  "  red  sandstone, 
and  rock-marl,  as  it  is  called,  cut  by  vari- 
ous massy  veins  of  trap  or  beds  of  conglo- 
merate and  lime  ;  yet  I  defy  any  man  to 
form  the  smallest  guess  of  the  racks  below 
from  the  soils  al)ov€  them,  though  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  uniform  to  give  fair 
scope  for  all  to  manifest  the  influence  pos- 
sessed by  them.  There  are  lands  whose 
agricultural  value  has  been  so  greatly 
modified  by  the  presence  or  withdrawal  of 
a  bed  of  gravel  between  the  arable  soil  and 
tilly  subsoil,  tliat,  when  present,  it  aftords 
a  universal  drain — when  absent,  it  leaves 
the  land  almost  unarable.  But  if  we  must 
show  a  relation  betwixt  the  sandstone  and 
any  of  these  beds,  which  of  the  three," 
very  properly  asks  Mr  Buist,  "  are  we  to 
select  as  having  affinity  with  the  rock  ?"* 

490.  What  are  we  to  say  of  the  vast 
quantity  of  solid  matter  held  for  a  time  in 
mechanical  suspension  in  the  water  of 
rivers,  and  brought  down  to  be  deposited  at 
the  mouth  of  the  stream,  or  spread  over  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  ?  The  matter  brought  down 
the  lUiine,  and  deposited  in  Holland  before 
the  Avator  reaches  the  sea,  to  the  extent 
that,  in  2U00  years,  it  may  have  brought 
down  materials  to  form  a  soil  one  yard 
thick,  and  covering  an  extent  of  3G  square 
miles — the  gigantic  delta  of  the  Ganges, 


whose  head  commences  at  a  distance  of 
220  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  so;i,and 
whose  base  is  200  miles  along  the  coast, 
comprises  a  triangular  space  of  20,000 
square  miles  of  new  made  soil — the  immense 
tract  of  swamp  forming  along  the  coast  of 
Guiana,  in  South  America,  by  thedeposite 
of  the  mud  brought  down  by  the  Amazons 
river,  and  the  shallow  sea  along  that  coa^t 
is  rapidly  being  converted  into  land.t 
Many  other  instances  of  a  similar  character 
could  be  referred  to.  Are  we  to  say  tliat 
these  great  deposites  of  soil  rest  upon  the 
indurated  rocks  upon  which  they  rest  ? 

497.  It  is  not  denied  that  the  chemical 
action  of  the  air,  and  the  physical  force  of 
rain,  frost,  and  wind,  produce  visible 
elFects  upon  the  most  indurated  rocks, 
but,  of  course,  they  must  have  much 
greater  effects  upon  incoherent  t»nes. 
Combined  in  their  action,  they  could  only 
originate  a  mere  coating  of  soil  over  the 
surface  of  induratetl  rock,  if  the  rock  were 
situated  witliin  the  region  of  phanarogam- 
ous  vegetation,  because  then  it  would  be 
constantly  covered  with  plants.  But  the 
plants,  in  their  tmn,  would  protect  the 
rocks  against  the  action  of  external  agen- 
cies;  and  although  they  could  not  entirely 
prevent,  they  would  at  least  retard,  the  ac- 
cumulation of  soil  beyond  what  the  decay 
of  vegetation  supplied.  Even  in  the 
tropics,  where  vegetation  displays  its 
greatest  luxuriance  on  the  globe,  the  mould 
does  not  increase,  though  the  decay  of 
vegetables  every  year  is  enormous.  "  The 
quantity  of  timber  and  vegetable  matter 
which  grows  in  a  tropical  forest  in  the 
course  of  a  century,"  says  Mr  LycU,  "  is 
enormons,  and  multitudes  of  animal  ske- 
letons are  scattered  there  during  the  same 
period,  besides  innumerable  land  shells 
and  other  organic  substances.  The  aggre- 
gate of  these  materials,  therefore,  might 
constitute  a  mass  greater  in  volume  than 
that  which  is  produced  in  any  coral  reef 
during  the  same  lapse  of  years;  but  al- 
though this  process  should  continue  on  the 
laud  for  ever,  no  mountains  of  wood  or 
bone  would  be  seen  stretching  far  and 
wide  over  the  country,  or  pushing  out 
bold  promontories  into  the  sea.  The  whole 
solid  mass  is  either  devoured  by  animals, 


Prizt  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  Tol.  xiiL  p.  44-9. 
t  Auated's  Geology,  vol,  i.  p.  6-9. 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


113 


or  decomposies  into  their  gaseous  con- 
stituents, as  does  a  portion  of  the  rock 
on  which  the  animals  and  plants  are  sup- 
ported." These  are  the  causes  of  the 
prevention  of  the  accumuLit.ion  of  soils  in 
the  tropics.  In  colder  regions  a  similar 
result  is  thus  brought  about.  "It  is  well 
known,"  continues  Mr  Lyell,  "  that  a 
covering  of  herbage  and  shrubs  may  pro- 
tect a  loose  soil  from  being  carried  away 
by  rain,  or  even  by  the  ordinary  action  of 
a  river,  and  may  prevent  hills  of  loose 
sand  from  being  blown  away  by  the  wind  ; 
for  the  roots  bind  together  the  separate 
particles  into  a  firm  mass,  and  the  leaves 
intercept  tlie  rain-water,  so  that  it  dries 
up  gradually,  instead  of  flowing  off  in  a 
mass  and  with  great  velocity."* 

498.  Some  other  agent,  therefore,  more 
powerful  than  the  ordinary  atmospherical 
elements,  must  be  brought  to  bear  upon  in- 
durated rocks,  before  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  formation  of  soils  can  be  accepted. 
That  other  agent  is  water;  but  the  mo- 
ment we  assent  to  the  agency  of  water 
being  able  by  its  abrasive  power  and 
buoyant  property,  when  in  motion,  to 
transport  the  abraded  parts  of  rocks  to  a 
distance,  and  let  them  fall  on  coming  in 
contact  with  some  opposing  barrier,  that 
moment  we  must  abandon  the  idea  of  the 
soils  formed  from  abraded  matter  having 
been  derived  from  the  indurated  rock  upon 
which  they  rest.  Mr  Buist  draws  these 
conclusions  after  describing  the  relative 
positions  of  the  deposites  to  the  rocks  upon 
which  they  rest  in  a  large  and  important 
districtof  Perthshire,  where  he  says,  "  that 
the  alluvial  matters  of  these  districts,  in 
general,  belong  to  periodsmuch  more  remote 
than  those  ordinarily  assigned  to  them,  and 
came  into  existence  under  circumstances 
prodigiously  different  from  those  which 
presently  obtain  :  that  the  present  causes — 
that  is,  the  action  of  our  modern  rivers, 
brooks,  and  torrents,  and  of  the  air.  and 
water  on  the  surfaces  now  ex})osed  to 
them — have  had  but  little  share  in  modify- 
ing our  alluvial  formations,  or  bringing 
them  into  their  present  form.  The  doctrine 
seems  to  me  most  distinctly  demonstrable, 
that  wherever  gravel  or  clay  beds  alternate 
with  each  other,  and  wherever  boulder 
stones  prevail  remote  from  the  parent 
Lyell's  Principles  of  Gealogy,  vol.  iii.  p. 


rock,  or  cut  off  from  it  by  high  interven- 
ing ridges,  that,  at  the  time  when  the 
surface  of  the  solid  rock  became  covered 
with  such  alluvium,  much  the  greater  part 
of  it  was  hundreds  of  feet  beneath  the 
waves.  The  supposition  of  the  prevalence 
of  enormous  lakes,  requiring  barriers  only 
less  stupendous  than  our  highest  secondary 
mountaiu-ranges,  whose  outbursts  must 
have  swept  every  movable  thing  before 
them,  seems  far  more  untenable  than  the 
assumption  that  the  present  dry  land,  at 
the  era  of  boulders  being  transported,,  was 
beneath  the  level  of  the  ocean,  from  which, 
by  slow  elevations,  it  subsequently 
emerged.  Our  newer  alluvia,  again, 
which  ai'e  destitute  of  erratic  boulders  in 
general — such  as  our  Carse  of  Gowrie  and 
other  clays — must  hav(5  originated  when 
the  sea  occasionally  invaded  the  land  to 
such  moderate  extent,  that  the  transporta- 
tion of  rocky  masses  from  great  distances 
from  our  mountain-land  had  been  rendered 
impossible,  by  the  intervention  of  elevated 
ridges,  or  of  secondary  mountain-ranges."t 

499.  More  than  this,  is  it  not  p.obable 
that,  when  the  sedimentary  rocks  were 
being  deposited  in  water,  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  matter  of  which  they  were 
about  to  be  formed,  were  never  indurated  at 
all,  probably  from  want  of.superincumbent 
pressure,  and  were  afterwards  carried 
away  by  currents,  and  deposited  at  a  dis- 
tance in  eddies  in  a  mechanical  instead 
of  the  crystalline  form  of  indurated  rock? 
May  not  all  diluvium  have  thus  origi- 
nated, instead  of  being  abraded  from 
solid  strata  ?  It  is  quite  conceivable  that 
where  indurated  rock — such  as  chalk,  and 
sandstone,  and  limestone — were  left  bare 
by  the  subsiding  waters,  and  exposed  to 
atmospherical  influences,  the  upper  surface 
may  have-  been  converted  into  thin  soil ; 
but  we  can  allow  no  greater  power  to  the 
atmosphere. 

.500.  Since  we  have  ventured  on  the 
field  of  speculation,  why  may  we  not 
go  a  little  farther,  and  imagine  that,  since 
the  structure  and  appearance  of  the 
beds  of  clay  and  sand  existing  at  present 
are  so  very  similar  to  those  of  the  existing 
sedimentary  indurated  rocks,  that  after 
these  beds  had  all  been  deposited  in  the 
177  and  184.      Fourth  edition. 


+  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  vol.  xiii.  p.  49. 
VOL.   I.  H 


114 


INITIATION. 


bottom  of  the  ocean,  they  had  never  been 
indurated,  either  for  want  of  pressure 
above,  or  the  indurating  effect  of  the  lieat 
below,  or  fntiii  tlie  want  of  both  causes, 
and  that  in  consequence  of  tlie  subsequent 
and  general  upheaving  of  the  indurated 
part  of  the  se<liinentary  rocks  by  the  rising 
of  the  igneous  rocks  below  them,  suppose 
of  granite,  which  is  universally  distributed 
over  the  globe  as  a  fundamental  rock,  the 
upper  unindurated  parts  had  been  re- 
moved from  their  site  in  superposition  upon 
the  indurated,  by  the  currents  created  in 
the  ocean  in  consequence  of  the  general 
upheaving,  and  been  deposited  in  those 
places  which  presented  the  greatest  calm- 
ness in  the  water,  and  have  covered 
other  loose  or  indurated  rocks  as  the 
case  might  have  happened.  The  sub- 
sequent and  partial  upheavings  of  the  trap 
rocks  would  produce  somewhat  similar 
though  partial  results.  This  conjecture 
would  explain  the  existence  of  the  enor- 
mous masses  of  diluvial  deposites  found  in 
the  globe  more  satisfactorily  than  from  the 
disintegration  of  indurated  rock  by  ordi- 
nary existing  causes ;  for  as  to  the  great 
changes  occasioned  by  the  action  of  rivers, 
alluded  to  above,  it  should  be  borne  in 
remembrance,  that  their  visible  effects  are 
produced  chiefly  by  the  action  of  water 
on  existing  disintegrated  masses,  and  not 
to  any  sensible  effect  on  indurated  rock. 

501.  Keeping  in  mind  these  conjec- 
tures, and  employing  them  as  modifying 
strictures,  I  think  the  agricultural  student 
will  find  a  satisfactory  accomit  of  the 
origin  of  soils  in  these  wMjrds  of  Pro- 
fessor Johnston  : — "  On  many  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface,  the  naked  rocks  apjjcar 
over  considerable  tracts  of  country,  with- 
out any  covering  of  loose  materials  from 
■which  a  soil  can  be  formed.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  mountainous  and 
granitic  districts,  and  in  the  neiglibourliood 
of  active  and  extinct  volcanoes,  where,  as 
in  Sicily,  streams  of  naked  lava  stretch  in 
long  black  lines  amid  the  surrounding 
verdure.  But  over  the  greater  jjortion  of 
our  islands  and  continents,  the  rocks  are 
covered  by  accumulations,  more  or  less 
deep,  of  loose  materials — sands,  gravels, 
and  clays  chieily, — the  upper  layer  of 
which  is  more  or  less  susceptible  of  cul- 
tivation, and  is  found  to  reward  the  exer- 
tions of  human  industry  with  crops  of  com 


of  greater  or  less  abundance.  This  super- 
ficial covering  of  loose  materials  varies 
from  a  few  inches  to  one  or  two  hundred 
in  depth,  and  is  occasionally  observed 
to  consist  of  different  layers  or  beds, 
placed  one  over  another, — such  as  a  bed 
of  clay  over  one  of  gravel  or  sand,  and  a 
loamy  bed  under  or  over  both.  In  such 
cases,  the  characters  and  capabilities  of 
the  soil  must  depend  upon  which  of  these 
layers  may  chance  to  be  uppermost  ;  and 
its  qualities  may  often  be  beneficially 
altered  by  a  judicious  admixture  with 
portions  of  the  subjacent  layer.  It  is 
often  observe<l,  where  naked  rocks  present 
themselves,  either  in  cliffs  or  on  more  level 
parts  of  the  earth,  that  the  action  of  the 
rains  and  frosts  causes  their  surfaces 
gradually  to  shiver  off,  crumble  down,  or 
wear  away.  Hence,  at  the  base  of  cliffs, 
looi^e  matter  collects, — on  comjiaratively 
level  surfaces,  the  crumbling  of  the  rocks 
gradually  forms  a  soil, —  while  from  those 
which  are  suflicicntly  inclined,  the  rains 
wash  away  the  loo^e  materials  as  soon  as 
they  are  separated,  and  carry  them  down 
to  form  tleep  deposites  in  the  valleys. 
The  suj)erticial  accumulation  of  which  we 
have  spoken,  as  covering  rocks  in  many 
places  to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  hundred 
feet,  consist  of  materials  washed  down  or 
otherwise  transported — by  water,  by 
winds,  or  by  other  geological  agents. 
Much  of  these  heaps  of  transported  matter 
is  in  the  state  of  too  fine  a  powder  to  per- 
mit us  to  say,  upon  examining  it,  from 
whence  it  has  been  derived.  Fragments 
of  greater  or  less  size,  however,  are  always 
to  be  found,  even  among  the  chiys  and 
fine  sands,  which  are  sufficient  to  point 
out  to  the  skilful  geologist  the  direction 
from  which  the  whole  has  been  brought, 
ami  often  the  very  rocks  from  which  the 
entire  accumulations  have  been  derived. 

.502.  "  Thus,  the  general  conclusion  is 
fairly  drawn,  that  the  earthy  matter  of  nil 
soils  has  been  ]>ro(luccd  by  the  gradual 
decay,  degradation,  or  crumbling  down  of 
previously  existing  rocks.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  whenever  a  soil  rests  im- 
mediately upon  the  rock  from  which  it  has 
been  derived,  it  may  be  expwted  to  i)ar- 
take  more  or  less  of  the  composition  and 
character  of  that  rock  ;  and  that  where  the 
soil  forms  only  the  surface  la^'cr  of  a  con- 
siderable depth  of  trausported  materials, 


THE  SCIENCES  MOST  APPLICABLE  TO  AGRICULTUKE. 


115 


it  may  have  no  relation  whatever,  either 
in  mineralogical  character  or  in  chemical 
constitution,  to  the  immediately  suhjacent 
rocks.  The  soils  of  Great  Britain  are 
divisible  into  two  such  classes.  In  some 
counties,  an  acquaintances  with  the  pre- 
vailing rock  of  the  district  enables  us  to 
predict  the  general  character  and  quality 
of  the  soil ;  in  others — and  nearly  all  our 
coal-fields  are  in  this  case — the  general 
character  and  capabilities  of  tl)e  soil  have 
no  relation  whatever  to  the  rocks  on  which 
the  loose  materials  immediately  rest."  * 

503.  I  have  hitherto  purposely  abstained 
from  even  mentioning  the  fertility/  oi  soils, 
whether  natural  or  artificial,  as  the  subject 
will  more  appropriately  engage  our  atten- 
tion when  we  come  to  treat  of  manures. 
On  viewing,  then,  the  chemical  composition 
of  soils  of  known  natural  fertility,  a  stand- 
ard will  be  aflbrded  us  by  which  we  may, 
perhaps,  be  enabled  to  render  other  soils 
equally  fertile  by  artificial  means  ;  but  all 
our  exertions  may  soon  find  a  limit  in  this 
direction,  inasmuch  as  without  a  certain 
amount  of  impalpable  matter,  soils  cannot 
possibly  be  fertile,  and  how  can  we  produce 
this  impalpable  matter?  Yet,  while  the 
existence  of  this  material  proves  the  soil  to 
be  mechanical  y  well  suited  for  cultivation, 
chemical  analysis  alone  can  prove  its  "ab- 
solute value  to  the  farmer.  The  subject 
of  soils  is  thus  full  of  interest  to  the 
agricultural  student. 

504.  Zoology. — Zoology  treats  of  the 
classification  and  habits  of  all  animals,  from 
the  lowest  or  simplest  to  the  highest  or 
most  complicated  structure — man.  It  is 
thus  a  comprehensive  branch  of  natural 
history,  embracing  within  its  range  the 
study  of  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  and 
insects.  The  history  and  habits  of  the 
quadrupeds  and  birds  that  form  the  domes- 
ticated live  stock  of  the  farm,  cannot  fail 
to  engage  the  interest  of  the  agricultural 
student;  and  though  such  a  study  may  not 
afford  him  much  information  in  the  prac- 
tical treatment  of  stock,  it  will  certainly 
present  him  with  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  animal  economy,  and  of  the  relaticuis 
which  one  class  of  animals  bear  to  every 
other.  The  geographical  distribution,  too, 
of  animated  beings  over  the  surface  of  the 

*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemist 
well's  Geology,  p.  192-202. 


globe  is  a  subject  which  at  once  finds  ac- 
ceptance in  any  intelligent  mind  ;  and  this 
delightful  and  instructive  study  is  now 
placed  in  every  one's  power  by  the  really 
beautiful  maps  published  by  Johnston  in 
his  Physical  Atlas,  a  work  which  may  be 
studied  and  consulted  in  all  its  details 
with  profit  by  every  dweller  in  the  country. 

505.  Many  of  the  animals  indigenous 
to  this  country,  whether  quadruped,  bird, 
or  insect,  are  found  in  their  habits  at  one 
season  to  be  injurious,  and  at  another  bene- 
ficial to  the  interests  of  the  farmer.  No 
method  is  more  effectual  of  knowing  how 
to  ascertain  their  injurious  practices,  or 
how  tf)  encourage  tlieir  beneficial  ones, 
than  to  acquire  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  their  habits  at  all  seasons.  The  weasel 
destroys  tiie  eggs  and  young  birds  of  the 
poultry  yard,  but  it  also  overcomes  the 
rats  and  mice,  whether  in  granary  or  stack, 
and  these  do  no  good  at  all  to  the  farmer. 
The  rook  and  hedge-birds  devour  grain  at 
the  ripening  of  the  crops,  but  they  destroy 
myriads  of  the  insect  tribe  in  the  season  of 
rearing  tlieir  young.  All  insects  are  not 
injurious  to  the  farmer;  on  the  contrary, 
many  are  positively  beneficial.  Tiie  lady- 
bird destroys  multitudes  of  the  aj)liides, 
which  injure  many  useful  plants  and  trees, 
while  itself  does  no  injury  at  any  time. 
The  song-birds  cheer  our  hearts  in  siiring; 
and  the  only  way  for  the  farmer  of  re- 
paying them  for  their  song,  is  to  feed  them 
generously  during  the  severity  of  winter, 
and  which  if  he  do,  he  is  quite  entitled  to 
protect  his  fruit  from  their  depredations  in 
autumn  by  the  use  of  simple  safeguards. 

506.  Entomology ^  or  the  study  of  in- 
sects, might  be  made  to  serve  agriculture 
to  a  considerable  extent.  In  this  depart- 
ment of  science,  farmers  might  greatly 
assist  the  entomohigist,  by  observing  the 
minute,  but  varied  and  interesting,  habits 
of  insects.  The  dithculty  of  comprehend- 
ing the  true  im])uls(>s  of  insects,  as  well  as 
of  identifying  species  in  the  tlifferent  states 
of  transformation,  render  the  observations 
of  faruiers  less  exact  than  those  of  entomo- 
logists who  have  successful, y  studied  the 
technioalties  of  the  science.  The  field  of 
observation  in  the  insect  cieation  being 
very  wide,  and  there  being  comparatively 

•y  and  Geology,  2d  edition,  p.  449-50,  and  Bake- 


116 


INITIATION. 


blit  few  cxj)lorers  in  it,  a  large  portion  of 
a  man's  life  would  be  occujiied  in  merely 
observing  t;j)ecies  and  their  habits,  and  a 
much  larger  in  forming  general  ileductiona 
from  rej)eated  observations.  The  result 
would  be,  were  farmers  to  study  entomo- 
lojsy,  that  a  long  period  must  elapse  ere 
the  habits  of  even  the  most  common  de- 
structive insects,  and  the  marks  of  their 
identity,  would  become  familiarised  to 
them.  In  conseijuence  of  this  obstacle  to 
the  stufly  of  entomolog}',  the  obligations 
of  the  fawner  ought  to  be  the  greater  to 
those  entoni(dogists  wbo  daily  observe  the 
habits  of  insects  in  the  fields  and  woods, 
and  simplify  their  individual  character- 
istics ;  and  at  the  same  time  devise  plans 
to  evade  their  extensive  ravages,  and  re^ 
commend  easy  and  effective  means  for 
their  destriiction.  The  English  farmer, 
living  in  a  climate  congenial  to  the  de- 
velopment of  insect  life,  painfully  expe- 
riences their  destructive  powers  cm  croj^s 
and  woods ;  and  though  the  entomologists 
of  England  are  ever  vigilant  and  active, 
yet  their  efforts  to  overcome  tlie  tenacity 
of  insect  life,  with  a  due  regard  to  the 
safety  of  tiie  plant,  have  hitherto  proved 
but  partially  availing. 

507.  Veterinary  Science.-^A  more 
general  diffusion  of  veterinary  science  has 
tended  much  to  improve  tlic  treatment  of 
live  stock  in  the  hands  of  farmers.  For- 
merly stock  used  to  be  exposed  to  the 
changes  of  weather,  and  made  to  subsist 
on  the  smallest  quandty  of  food  ;  and  the 
consequence  was,  that  they  were  overtaken 
with  fatal  diseases,  which  annually  swept 
them  away  in  numbers.  Veterinary  science 
has  exjdained  to  the  farmer,  that  to  expose 
any  living  animal  to  a  depressing  tcmj»era- 
ture,  is  to  derange  the  functions  of  its 
vital  organs ;  and  to  stint  it  at  the  same 
time  of  a  due  proportion  of  food,  is  to  de- 
prive it  of  the  power  to  generate  heat 
within  itself,  and  to  protect  its  body  with 
a  covering  of  flesh  and  fat  against  the  cold- 
ness of  the  tem2)erature.  Veterinary 
science  may  now  vie  with  the  medical 
sciences  in  importance  and  refinement,  and 
alargenun)berof  skilful  veterinarians  are 
now  qualified  to  practise  the  art  in  every 
part  of  the  empire. 

508.  In  recommending  farmers  to  accjuire 
a    competent    knowledge   of    veterinary 


science,  it  is  not  to  be  imagined  tbat  tbej 
should  become  vetcrinar3'  surgeons.  Let 
every  class  of  persons  adhere  to  their  own 
profession.  Dut  doubtless  a  knowledge  of- 
veterinary  science  is  of  great  use  to  the 
farmer,  not  in  enabling  him  to  a<lminister 
to  the  diseased  necessities  of  his  live  stock 
— for  that  requires  nujre  i)rofessionaI  skill 
and  experience  than  any  farmer  can  attain, 
and  is  the  proper  ])rovince  of  the  regu- 
larly bred  veterinarian — but  to  enable  liim 
readily  to  detect  a  disease  by  its  symptoms, 
in  order  to  apply  immediate  checks  against 
its  pntgress,  until  he  can  communicate  with 
and  inform  the  veterinary  surgeon  of  the 
nature  of  the  complaint,  whereupon  to 
briqg  with  him  materials  for  treating  it 
correctly  on  his  arrival.  The  death  of  a 
single  animal  may  be  a  serious  1  iss  to  the 
farmer,  and  if,  by  his  knowledge  of  the 
jirinciples  of  the  veterinary  art,  he  can 
.stay  the  progress  of  every  disease,  he  may 
not  only  avert  the  loss,  but  prevent  the 
animal  being  much  atl'ected  by  disease  ; 
and  disease,  though  not  proving  fatal  to 
animals,  leaves  injurious  eflects  on  the 
constitution  for  a  long  .time  thereafter 

509.  Epidemical  diseases,  such  as  the 
murrain  and  pleuro-pneumonia,  have  of 
late  years  ravaged  the  flocks  and  herds  of 
many  farmers;  but  the  mode  of  evading 
or  warding  off  their  attacks  in  no  respect 
differs  from  that  of  other  diseases.  Shelter 
aifd  abundance  of  focnl  at  all  tinies,  and 
attention  to  premonitory  SAMiiptoms  of 
disease,  are  infalliablc  means  of  evasion 
and  cure. 

.")10.  Comparatice  Anatomp.  —  Com- 
parative anatomy  cx{)lain3  the  internal 
structure,  and  the  functions  of  the  bodies, 
of  vertebrated  animals — that  is,  of  those 
animals  provided  with  the  high  organisa- 
tion of  a  back-bone,  or  spinal  column. 
This  science  is  best  acquired  along  with 
the  veterinary  art,  which  particularly  has 
regard  to  the  or^ranisation  of  all  the  infe- 
rior animals,  and  especially  of  the  domesti- 
cated ones.  At  the  same  time,  this  species 
of  anatomy  is  only  clearly  understood 
after  the  acquisition  of  a  familiar  acquain- 
tance of  the  human  frame.  So  many 
opportunities  of  learning  human  anatomy 
exist,  that  no  difficulty  need  be  experienced 
by  any  one  who  passes  a  little  time  in  any 
town  that  forms  the  seat  of  a  university; 


BEST  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


117 


and  possessing  a  general  acquaintance  of 
the  human  frame,  a  knowledge  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  inferior  animals,  in  all  its 
varieties,  will  .  be  easily  acquired.  A 
knowledge  of  anatomy  may  prove  useful 
to  the  practical  farmer,  inasmuch  as  it  ex- 
plains to  him  the  structure  of  the  carcasses 
of  the  animals  upon  which  he  bestows  so 
mu^h  cai'e  in  rearing.  Acquainted  with . 
the  structure,  functions,  and  seats  of  the 
most  common  diseases  of  the  several  parts 
which  constitute  the  corporeal  body,  he 
will  be  the  better  able  to  apportion  the 
food  to  the  peculiar  constitution  of  the 
animal ;  and  also  to  anticipate  any  ten- 
dency to  disease,  by  a  previously  acepired 
knowledge  of  premonitory  symtoms. 

511.  These  are  the  physical  sciences 
whose  principles  seem  most  applicable  to 
agriculture;  and  being  so,  they  should  be 
studied  by  every  farmer  who  wishes  to 
be  considered  an  enlightened  member  of 
his  profession.  Tliat  farmers  are  quite 
competent  to  attain  these  sciences,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  observations  of  Sir 
John  Hers'ehel: — "There  is  scarcely  any 
well  informed  person  who,  if  he  has  but 
the  will,  has  not  the  power  to  add  some- 
thing essential  to  the  general  stock  of 
knowledge,  if  he  will  only  observe  regu- 
larly and  methodically  some  particular  class 
of  facts  which  may  most  excite  liis  atten- 
tion, or  which  his  situation  may  best  enable 
him  to  study  with  effect.  To  instance  one 
subject  which  can  only  be  eflectually  im- 
proved by  the  united  observations  of  great 
numbers  widely  dispersed — ^Meteorology, 
one  of  the  most  complicated  but  important 
branches  of  science,  is  at  the  same  time 
one  in  which  any  person  who  will  attend 
to  plain  rules,  and  bestow  the  necessary 
degree  of  attention,  may  do  effectual 
service."  '  But  in  drawing  conelusious, 
great  caution  is  requisite,  for,  "  In  form- 
ing inductions,  it  will  most  commonly 
happen  that  we  are  led  to  our  conclusions 
by  the  especial  force  of  some  two  or  three 
strongly  impressive  facts,  rather  than  by 
affording  the  whole  mass  of  cases  a  regu- 
lar consideration  ;  and  hence  the  need  of 
cautious  verification.  Indeed,  so  strong 
is  this  propensity  of  the  human  mind,  that 
there  is  hardly  a  more  (;ommon  thing' than 
to  find  persons  ready  to  assign  a  cause  for 


every  thing  they  see,  and  in  so  doing,  to 
join  things  the  most  incongruous,  by  ana- 
logies the  most  fanciful.  This  being  the 
case.  It  is  evidently  of  great  importance 
that  these  first  ready  impulses  of  the  mind 
should  be  made  on  the  cotitemidation  of 
the  cases  most  likely  to  lead  to  good  in- 
ductions. The  misfortune,  however,  is,  in 
natural  philosophy,  that  the  choice  does 
not  rest  with  us.  We  must  taj^e  the  in- 
stances as  nature  presents  them.  Even  if 
we  are  furnished  with  a  list  of  them  in 
tabular  order,  we  must  understand  and 
comi)are  them  with  each  other,  before  we 
can  tell  which  ai-e  the  instances  thus  de- 
servedly entitled  to  the  highest  considera- 
tion. And,  after  all,  after  much  labour  in 
vain,  and  groping  in  the  dark,  accident  or 
casual  observation  will  present  a  case 
which  strikes  us  at  once  with  a  full  in- 
sight into  the  subject,  before  we  can  even 
have  time  to  determine  to  what  class  its 
2)rerogative  belongs."  *. 


ON  THE  IJSrSTITUTIOlirS   OP  EDUCATION  BEST 
SUITED  TO  AGRICULTURAL  STUDENTS. 

512.  No  course  of  elementary  education 
is  better  taught  than  at  the  excellent  paro- 
chial schools  of  Scotland.  The  sons  of  far- 
mers andof  peasants  of  Scotland  have  thus  a 
favourable  opportunity  of  acquiring  the 
elementsof  a  sound  education,  and  they  do 
not  fail  to  avail  themselves  of  it.  There, 
also,  a  classical  education,  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive and  profound  for  persons  in  ordi- 
nary life,  may  be  obtained.  But  as  to 
the  acquirement  of  all  the  sciences  enume- 
rated above,  it  must  be  sought  for  in  the 
universities,  and  some  of  them  are  taught 
in  academies. 

513.  Four  universities  exist  in  Scotland, 
two  in  England,  and  one  in  Ireland,  in 
any  one  of  which  is  taught  all,  and  more 
than  all,  the  sciences  I  have  enumer- 
ate<l. 

514.  There  exist,  besides,  a  great  num- 
ber of  academies  in  many  of  the  provincial 
towns  in  the  kingdom,  in  which  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  are  chiefly 
taught,  together  with  practical  mathe- 
matics, grammar,  and  book-keeping. 


Herschel's  Di'yfour^e  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy,  p.  133  and  182. 


118 


INITIATION. 


515.  For  the  study  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy,  I'prefer  the  academies 
to  the  colleges,  because  their  course  occu- 
pies twenty  mouths,  aud  two  hours  are 
devote<l  each  day  to  each  subject;  whereas 
the  college  session  extenrls  only  to  six 
montlis,  and  devotes  only  one  hour  for  five 
days  in  the  week  to  one  subject.  The  longer 
session,  and  the  fuller  teaching  on  each 
subject,  and  a  smaller  fee,  are  great  advan- 
tages to  students — great  inducements  for 
them  to  attend  the  academies ;  while  the 
more  fully  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy are  taught,  the  more  heartily  are 
they  appreciated  by  the  student.  Two 
sessions  of  twenty  months,  with  a  vacation 
of  two  months  intervening  between  the 
sessions,  might  thus  be  profitably  employed 
at  an  academy  in  learning  mathematics, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  English 
grammar,  and  the  theory  of  book-keeping. 

516.  Natural  history  and  chemistry  are 
best  acquired  at  college,  as  they  are  not 
always  taught,  and  never  fully  so,  at  the 
academies;  and  without  the  most  ample  ex- 
periments and  illustrations,  which  cannot 
be  expected  to  be  afforded  in  provincial 
towns,  these  sciences  cannot  be  profitably 
studied. 

517.  Many  farmers,  I  dare  say,  will 
consider  it  beyond  the  reach  of  their  means, 
and  others  beyond  their  station,  to  bestow 
on  their  sons  so  learned  an  education  as 
that  implied  in  the  acquirement  of  the 
sciences  enumerated.  ISuch  an  idea  is  ill- 
founded;  because  no  farmer  who  can  afford 
to  support  his  sons  at  home,  without  work- 
ing for  their  bare  subsistence,  but  possesses 
the  means  of  giving  them  such  an  educa- 
tion ;  and  no  farmer,  who  confessedly  has 
wealth,  should  grudge  to  give  his  sons 
an  education  such  as  will  fit  them  to  adorn 
the  profession  they  are  to  follow. 

518.  It  cannotbe denied  tliatmathematics 
and  natural  j)hilosophy  are  sciences  which 
tend  greatly  to  elevate  the  mind.  Tlmse 
farmers  who  have  acquired  them  must  be 
sensible  of  this  tendency ;  and  they  must 
naturally  desire  their  sons  to  j)artake  in 
what  they  themselves  enjoy.  Those  who 
are  not  acquainted  with  these  sciences,  on 
being  made  aware  of  their  tendency,  should 
feel  it  their  duty  to  put  it  in  the  power  of 
their  sons  to  raise  themselves  in  society, 


and  shed  a  lustre  on  their  profession.  The 
.same  sort  of  reasoning  applies  to  a  know- 
ledge of  natural  history  and  chemistry. 
Neither  the  time  n(»r  expense  of  acquiring 
such  an  education  should  deter  any  farmer's 
son  from  attempting  it,  whti  desires  tooccupy 
a  position  above  that  of  a  farm  steward;  for 
without  the  education,  his  knowledge  of 
farming  is  not  superior  to  that  of  a  steward. 
Besides  these  considerations,  since  a  good 
education  is  the  best  legacy  a  parent  can 
leave  his  child,  it  is  actually  better  for 
the  young  farmer  himself  to  bestow  on 
him  a  superior  education  with  part  of  the 
patrimony  destined  by  his  father  to  stock 
him  a  farm,  than  to  plenish  for  him  a 
larger  farm,  and  stint  his  education.  The 
lar<;er  farm  would,  probably,  enable  the 
half  educated  son  to  earn  a  livelihood  more 
easily;  but  the  well-educated  one  would 
be  more  than  compensated  by  the  posses- 
sion of  a  cultivated  intelligence,  which 
would  enable  him  to  draw  forth  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  soil,  and  make  himself  an 
infinitely  superior  member  of  society. 
Were  industrious  farmers  as  desirous  to 
improve  their  sons'  minds  by  superior 
education,  as  they  too  often  are  to  amass 
fortunes  for  them,  —  a  boon  nuprofitably 
used  by  uncultivated  minds, — they  would 
be  regarded  as  wiser  men.  No  really 
sensible  farmer  should  hesitate  to  decide 
which  cour.-e  to  take,  when  the  intellec- 
tual improvement  of  his  family  is  con- 
cerned. He  should  never  permit  conside- 
rations of  mere  pelf  to  overcome  a  sense 
of  right  and  of  duty.  Rather  than  prevent 
his  son  raising  himself  in  society,  he  should 
economise  his  own  expenditure. 

510.  I  shall  show  that  the  time  occu- 
pied in  ao<|uiring  these  sciences  is  not  lost 
M'hen  compared  with  the  advantages  they 
bestow.  Part  of  three  years  will  suffice  ; 
but  three  years  are  no  doubt  reganled  as 
an  iuHHonse  time  for  a  young  man  to  lose .' 
So  it  would  be  were  it  really  lost ;  and  if  it 
be  lust,  the  blame  should  be  imputed  to 
the  negligence  of  the  student.  But  is  the 
young  fanner's  time,  who  is  for  years 
constantly  following  his  father's  footsteps 
over  the  farm,  aud  only  engaged  in  super- 
intending in  his  fatlier's  absence,  not  as 
much  lost  as  it  could  possibly  be  in  acquir- 
ing a  scientific  education  at  a  little  distance 
from  home  ?  Insomuch  as  the  young 
man's  time  is  of  use  to  the/awvH,  the  two 


BEST  INSTITUTIONS  TOR  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


119 


cases  are  nearly  on  a  par ;  and  in  as  far  as 
g  they  affect  himself,  there  is  no  question 
that  science  would  benefit  him  the  more, 
—  no  question  that  a  superior  education 
would  enable  him  to  learn  the  practice  of 
his  profession  with  much  greater  ease  to 
himself.  The  question  of  education  is  thus 
narrowed  to  the  consideration  of  the  cost 
of  keeping  the  son  at  home,  following  his 
father  as  idly  as  a  shadow,  or  of  sending 
him  to  college.  In  a  pecuniary  point  of 
view,  the  difference  is  between  mainte- 
nance at  home,  and  that  in  a  town,  with 
the  addition  of  fees ;  and  that  this  diffe- 
rence is  not  great,  I  shall  now  show. 

520.  Part  of  three  years,  as  I  have  said, 
would  suffice  ; — the  first  year  to  be  devoted 
to  mathematics,  the  second  to  natural  philo- 
sophy, and  the  third  to  natural  history 
and  chemistry;  and  along  with  these  prin- 
cipal subjects,  in  the  first  two  years  practi- 
cal mathematics,  as  surveying,  &c.,  English 
granmiar  and  composition,  book-keeping, 
and  a  knowledge  of  cash  transactions. 
The  vacations  would  be  spent  at  home,  and 
not  unprofitably  in  revising  studies. 

521.  The  cost  of  acquiring  all  these 
subjects  at  the  several  colleges  and  acade- 
mies is  not  insurmountable,  even  to  the 
limited  purse  of  a  small  farmer.  In  any 
of  the  towns  possessing  an  academy,  the 
two  sessions  of  twenty  months  would  not 
exceed  in  board  a  guinea  a-week,  and  in 
fees  twelve  guineas — say  £100;  and  the 
short  session  of  six  months  at  college,  at 
a  guinea  a-week,  and  fifteen  guineas  for 
fees,  other  £45 — making  in  all,  in  twenty- 
six  mcmths,  say  £150.  This  is  a  small 
sum  compared  with  the  advantages  derived 
from  it;  and  from  this  falls  io  he  deducted 
the  cost  of  keeping  the  son  at  home  in 
idleness^  which,  even  at  ploughmen's 
usual  wages  of  10s.  a-week,  would  amount 
to  £54,  so  that  his  education  would  only 
cost  about  £100,  which  economy  might  re- 
duce to  a  smaller  sum  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  larger  should  be  given  to  make 
the  student,  if  diligent,  comfortable.  I 
am  quite  aware  it  may  be  remarked  on 
this  subject,  that  it  applies  only  to  the 
case  of  one  son,  whereas  the  farmer  may 
have  more  to  educate  and  maintain.  But 
as  I  am  only  advocating  the  cause  of  the 
young  farmer,  by  desiring  his  elevatitm  in 
society ;  and  as  only  one  son  can  succeed 


his  father  as  a  farmer,  I  hold  I  have  made 
good  the  proposition  I  made. 

522.  Besides  the  sciences,  the  agricul- 
tural student  has  the  opportunity  in  Edin- 
burgh of  attending  the  class  of  agriculture 
in  the  university,  in  which  the  professor 
explains  the  principles  and  describes  the 
practice  of  the  most  approved  systems  of 
husbandry.     This  chair  was  endowed  iu 
1790   by    Sir  William  Pulteney,  with  a 
small  salary,  and  placed  under  the  joint 
patronage  of  the  Judges  of  the  Court  of 
Session,   the    Senatns  Academicus  of  the 
University,  and  the  Magistrates  and  Town- 
Council  of  the  City  of  Edinburgh.     The 
first  professor,  elected  by  the  patrons  to 
this  chair  in  1791,  was  the  late  Dr  Co- 
ventry, whose  name,  at  one  time,  in  con- 
nexion   with     the     agriculture    of     this 
country,    stood  prominent.     He  occupied 
the  chair  until  his  death  in  1831.     The 
present     Professor     Low    succeeded     Dr 
Coventry.     He  has  rekindled  the  dying 
embers  of  the  agricultural  class,  by  lectures 
suited  to  the  improved    state  of    British 
agriculture,  and  by  forming  a  museum  of 
models   of  agricultural    implements,    and 
portraits  of  live  stock,  of  the  most  exten- 
sive and  valuable  description.     The  funds 
which  attained  this  object,  were  derived 
from  the  revenues  under  the  management 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  the  encour- 
agement   of    Arts    and    Manufactures    in 
Scotland,    which    was    instituted   by    the 
15th  Article  of  the  Treaty  of  Union  be- 
tween Scotland  and  England.     Professor 
Low,  during  his  incumbency,  has  contri- 
buted, in   his  several    publications,  much 
valuable  matter  to  the  agricultural  litera- 
ture of  the  country. 

523.  Classes  for  the  tuition  of  practical 
chemistry  exist  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh under  Professor  Gregory,  and  in 
that  of  Glasgow  under  Dr  Robert  D. 
Thomson;  and,  until  the  end  of  1«48,  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry Association  of  Scotland  in  Edin- 
burgh under  the  care  of  Professor  John- 
ston. 

524.  The  Agricultural  Chemistry  Asso- 
ciation of  Scotland  was  established  in  1843 
for  five  years  certain,  and  now  that  that 
period  is  about  to  expire,  it  will  cease  to 
exist  in  a  separate  form  in  November  1848; 


120 


I>riTIATION. 


the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of 
Scothin.l  having  undortiiken,  by  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  spocial  general  nieeting  on  the 
12th  April  1840,  to  conduct  the  chemical 
department  of  agriculture  under  its  own 
direction  and  control. 

t2.5.  During  its  existence,  the  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry  Association  has  laboured 
very  assidously  in  its  vocation.  I-t  has 
made  elaborate  analyses  of  i)lants,  espe- 
cially of  tbe  oat  and  potato, — of  numerous 
sorts  of  grasses — of  clays — of  manures — of 
the  refuse  of  manufactories,  and  of  many 
other  substances,  consisting  altitgethcr  of 
considerably  above  2001)  analyses  ;  and 
all  these  have  been  ably  and  correctly 
conducted  by  Professor  Johnston. 

52G.  Besides  undertaking  the  chemical 
department,  the  Highland  and  Agricul- 
tural iSociety  propose  to  issue  dij)lomas 
or  degrees  to  young  men  whose  aim  it 
is  to  become  the  managers  of  farms  and 
estates,  and  who  have  acquired  a  know- 
ledge of  practical  agriculture,  and  have 
also  followed  such  a  course  of  educatiini 
at  any  institution  ■  or  institutions  which 
teach  the  branches  of  science  having  more 
immediate  relation  to  agriculture,  and  who 
have  undergone  a  searching  examination 
by  a  competent  board  of  persons  appointed 
for  the  purpose. 

527.  This  will  form  a  new  feature, 
and  give  a  fresh  stimulus  to  the  agricul- 
tural education  of  Scotland,  and  cannot  fail 
to  imbue  the  young  agriculturists  of  Scot- 
land witli  enlightened  ideas,  and  elevate 
their  character  much  more  than  any  course 
of  education  they  can  just  now  pursue. 

528.  In  enumerating  the  means  of 
obtaining  knowledge  befitting  the  agri- 
cultural student,  I  must  mention  the 
Veterinary  Colleges.  Their  great  oljject 
is  to  teach  the  veterinary  science,  in  which 
the  anatomical  structure  of  all  the  domes-- 
ticated  quadrupeds — horses,  rattle,  slieep, 
pigs,  dogs,  and  poultry — the  diseases  to 
which  they  are  subject,  and  the  remedies 
proper  to  be  applied  for  their  removal,  are 
investigated  and  demonstrated;  in  order 
that,  by  iheir  means,  enlightened  practi- 
tioners of  liberal  etliicati(jn,  whose  wliole 
study  has  been  devoted  to  the  veterinary 
art  in  all  its  branches,  may  be  gradually 


dispersed  over  all  the  kingdom.  The 
Veterinary  College  of  Edinburgh  had  its  ^ 
origin  in  1818,  in  the  personal  exertions 
of  the  present  Professor  Dick,  who,  after 
five  years  of  unrequited  labour,  obtained 
the  patronage  of,  and  a  small  endowment 
from  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland  in  1823.  Since  then 
his  exertions  and  success  have  been  equally 
extraordinary,  not  fewer  than  from  seventy 
to  onehundredjiupils  attending  the  college 
every  session,  of  whom  fully  twenty  every 
year,  after  two  years'  study  of  practical 
anatomy,  pharmacy,  and  chemistry  be- 
come candiilates  for  dij>lomas  to  practise  as 
veterinary  surgeons.  Their  qualifications 
are  judged  of  by  examination  by  eminent 
medical  and  zootric  practitioners.  At  the 
request  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society,  permission  has  been  obtained  for 
the  graduates  to  enter  as  veterinary 
surgeons  into  her  Majesty's  cavalry  regi- 
ments, as  well  as  those  of  the  Honourable 
East  India  Company. 

529.  Some  suspicious  attempts  have 
lately  been  made  by  the  Veterinary  College 
of  London  to  obtain  an  uncalled-for  control 
over  the  veterinary' college  in  Edinburgh  ; 
but  I  hope  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  will  retain  the  management  of  their 
own  school  in  their  own  hands.  Of  all 
institutions  this  college  has  given  less  cause 
for  interference  than  any  other;  and  there 
is  no  man  who  has  elevated  the  character 
of  a  profession,  by  dint  of  professional 
ability,  in  so  short  a  time  and  to  so  high  a 
position,  as  Professor  Dick  has  done  that 
of  veterinary  science  in  Scotland.  By  his 
prelections  and  demonstrations,  a  number 
of  young  men  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe  are  annually  qualified  to  ]>ractise  the 
veterinary  art.  He  is  assisted  by  comjie- 
tent  lecturers  in  chemistry,  pharmacy,  and 
the  practice  of  physic. 

580.  The  Veterinary  College  of  London 
was  instituted  in  1791,  according  to  the 
plan  of  Mr  Sain  Bel,  who  was  appointed 
llie  first  professor.  Parliamentary  grants 
have  been  afforded  at  times  to  aid  this 
instituti(m,  when  its  finances  rendered 
such  assistance  necessary.  It  is  supported 
bv  subscription.  Every  subscriber  of  the 
sum  of  £2\  is  aniember  of  the  society  for 
life.  Subscribers  of  two  guineas  annually 
are  members  for  one  year,  and  arc  equally 


«^ 


BEST  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


121 


entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  institution. 
A  subscriber  has  the  privilege  of  having 
his  horses  admitted  into  the  infirmary,  to 
be  treated,  under  all  cii-cunistances  of 
disease,  at  3s.  6d.  per  night,,  including 
keep,  medicines,  or  operations  of  whatever 
nature  that  may  be  necessary:  likewise  of 
bringing  his  horses  to  the  college  for  the 
advice  of  the  professor  gratis^  in  cases 
where  he  may  prefer  the  treatment  of  them 
at  home.* 

531.  In  regard  to  attending  lectures  on 
agriculture  and  veterinary  science,  I  should 
say,  from  my  own  experience,  that  more 
benefit  will  be  derived  from  attending 
them  after  having  acquired  a  practical 
knowledge  of  husbandry,  and  the  treatment 
of  live  stock,  than  before ;  because  most  of 
the  operations  of  farming  cannot  be  un- 
derstood unless  described  where  they  are 
performed. 

532.  Other  means  of  obtaining  a 
scientific  education  in  connexion  with 
agriculture  exist  in  the  kingdom.  The 
Royal  Agricultural  College  at  Cirencester, 
founded  in  1845,  admits  both  in  and  out 
students  on  the  nomination  of  proprietors. 
The  college  fee  is  £50  a-year  for  resident, 
and  £30  a-year  for  non-resident  students, 
and  the  college  course  extends  over  two 
years.  The  college  is  situate  in  the  middle 
of  a  farm  of  400  acres,  where  an  im- 
proved system  of  tillage,  consistent  with 
the  purposes  of  the  college,  is  carried  out. 
In  addition  to  practical  agriculture,  the 
various  sciences  connected  with  it — chem- 
istry, botany,  geology,  natural  history,  na- 
tural philosophy,  surveying,  &c.,  are  taught 
by  resident  professors.  A  well  appointed 
laboratory,  conducted  upon  the  Giessen 
system,  gives  every  facility  for  chemical 
manipulation. 

533.  The  Agricultural  Training  School 
for  agriculture  and  civil  engineering  was 
established  at  Hoddesden,  Hertfordshire,  a 
few  years  ago.  An  extensive  philoso- 
phical apparatus,  library,  museum,  labo- 
ratory, and  a  f;;rni,  are  attached  to  the 
school ;  and  the  charge  for  board,  lodging, 
lectures,  laboratory,  &c.,  is  so  arranged 
by  the  committee  of  management  as  to 
include  every  expense,  except  for  washing 


and  books,  at  25  guineas  the  term,  the 
school  session  being  divided  into  two 
terms.  The  course  of  education  embraces 
the  V  classics,  mathematics,  mechanics, 
physics,  chemistry,  botany,  mineralogy, 
geology,  practical  land-surveying  and 
levelling,  drawing,  book-keeping,  the 
French  and  German  languages,  practical 
agriculture,  and  lectures  on  the  breeds, 
management,  and  diseases  of  cattle. 

534.  Dr  Daubeny  hohls  the  agricultural 
chair  in  one  of  the  colleges  of  Oxford 
University. 

535.  An  agricultural  seminary  has 
existed  at  Templemoyle,  in  the  county  of 
Londonderry,  for  some  years.  It  originated 
with  the  members  of  the  North-west  of 
Ireland  Farming  Society,  and  in  it  the 
sons  of  farmers  and  tradesmen  are  taught 
agriculture.  "  The  formation  of  this 
establishment  has  caused  its  founders  an 
expenditure  of  above  £4000,  of  which 
about  £3000  were  raised  at  its  commence- 
ment by  shares  of  £25  each,  taken  by  the 
noblemen,  gentlemen,  and  members  of  the 
North-west  Society.  The  Grocers'  Com- 
pany of  London,  on  whose  estate  it  is 
situated,  have  been  most  liberal  in  their 
assistance,  and  have  earned  a  just  reward 
in  the  improvement  of  their  property,  by 
the  valuable  example  the  farm  of  Temple- 
moyle presents  to  their  tenantry.  In 
sending  a  pupil  to  Templemoyle,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  nomination  from  one 
of  the  shareholders,  or  from  a  subscriber 
of  £2  annually.  The  annual  payment 
for  pupils  is  £l0,  and  for  this  trifling 
sum  they  are  found  in  board,  lodging, 
and  washing,  and  are  educated  so  as  to 
fit  them  for  land-stewards,  directing 
agents,  practical  farmers,  schoolmasters, 
and  clerks.  From  fifteen  to  seventeen  is 
the  age  best  suited  to  entrance  at  Temple- 
moyle, as  three  years  are  quite  suflicient 
to  qualify  a  student  possessed  of  ordinary 
talents,  and  a  knowledge  of  tlie  rudiments 
of  reading  and  writing,  to  occupy  any  of 
the  above  situations."  + 

536.  On  the  Continent  are  several  insti- 
tutions for  the  instruction  of  young  men 
in  agriculture,  among  which  is  the  far- 
famed  one  at   Hofvvyl,   canton  of  Berne, 


Beauties  of  England  and  Wales,  vol.  x.  part  iv.  p.  181.       +  Irish  Farmers'  Magazine,  No.  51 


132 


.INITIATION. 


Switzerland,  founded  by  the  late  Fellen-  labour  of  the  field,  their  varioua  sports, 
berg.  "  This  establiisbinent  is  not  intended  their  lessons,  their  choral  songs,  and  n©- 
Bo  much  for  a  school  of  agricultui^,  as  that  cessary  rest,  fiH  the  whole  circle  of  the 
of  education  and  moral  Wiscipline.  All  the  iwenty-four  hours  ;  and.  judging  from  their 
pupils  are  obliged  to  remain  nine  years,  open,  cheerful,  contented  countenances, 
at  least  until  they  attain  the  age  of  twenty-  nothing  seems  wanting  to  their  happiness, 
one,  during  which  time  they  undergo  a  Hofwyl,  in  short,  is  a  great  whole,  where 
strict  moral  discifjline,  such  as  the  incul-  one  hundred  and  twenty,  or  one  hundred 
cation  of  habits  of  industry,  frugality,  and  thirty  pupils,  more  than  fifty  masters 
veracity,  docility,  and  mutual  kindness,  and  professors,  aa  many  servants,  and  a 
by  means  of  good  example  rather  than  pre-  number  of  day-labourers,  six  or  eight 
cepLs,  and  chiefly  by  the  absence  of  all  bad  families  of  artificers  and  tradesmen — alto- 
example.  The  pupils  are  divided  into  the  gether  about  three  hundred  persons — find 
hic^her  and  lower  orders,  among  the  former  a  plentiful,  and  in  many  respects  a  luxu- 
of  whom  may  be  found  members  of  the  rious  subsistence,  exclusive  of  education, 
richest  families  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  out  of  a  produce  of  one  hundred  and 
Italy.  For  these  the  course  of  study  is  seventy*  acres ;  and  a  money  income  of 
divided  into  three  periods  of  three  years  i.'6000  or  £7U00,  reduced  more  than  half 
each.  In  the  first,  they  study  Greek,  by  salaries,  alTords  a  very  considerable 
Grecian  history,  and  the  knowledge  of  surplus  to  lay  out  io  additional  buildings.'' 
animals,    plants,    and    minerals  ;     in    the 

second,    Latin,    Roman    history,  and  the  537.  It  seems    that,    since    1807,    two 

geography  of  the  Roman  world ;  and  in  convents — one  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg, 

the  third,  modern  languages  and  literature,  and  the  other  in  that  of  Thurgovie — have 


modern  history  to  tlie  last  century,  geo- 
graphy, the  physical  sciences,  and  chemi- 
stry. During  the  whole  nine  years  they 
apply  themselves  to  mathematics,  drawing, 
music,  and  g^incastic  exercises.  The 
pupils  of  the  canton  of  Berne  only  pay     on  the  Oder,    under  the  direction  of  the 


formed  establishments  analogous  to  those 
of  M.  de  Fellenberg.t 

538.  An  institution  for  teaching  agri- 
culture exists  at  Mdeglin,  near  Frankfort 


45  louis  each,  and  do  not  cost  their  parents 
above  100  louis  or  120  louis  a-year. 
Strangers  pay  125  louis,  including  board, 
clothing,  washing,  and  masters. 

"  The  pupils  of  the  lower  orders  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  their 
age  and  strength.  The  first  get  a  lesson 
of  half  an  hour  in  the  morning,  then  break- 
fast, and  afterwards  go  to  the  farm  to 
work.  They  return  at  noon.  Dinner 
takes  them  half  an  hour,  and  after  another 
lesson  of  one  hour,  they  go  again  to  work 
on  the  farm  until  six  in  the  evening.  This 
is  their  summer  occupation  ;  and  in  winter 
they  plait  straw  for  chairs,  make  baskets, 
saw  logs  and  sj)lit  them,  thrash  ancl  winnow 
com,  grind  colours,  knit  stockings  :  for  all 
of  which  different  sorts  of  labour  an  ade- 


celebrated  M.  Yon  Thaer.  There  are 
three  professors  besides  himself  —  one 
for  mathematics,  chemistry,  and  geology; 
one  for  veterinary  knowledge;  and  a  third 
for  botany,  and  the  use  of  the  different 
vegetable  productions  in  the  materia  me- 
dica,  as  well  as  for  entomology.  Besides 
these,  an  experienced  agriculturist  is  en- 
gaged, whose  office  it  is  to  point  out  to  the 
pu})ils  the  mode  of  applying  the  sciences 
to  the  practical  business  of  husbandry 
— a  person  difficult  to  be  found  in  this 
country.  The  course  commences  in  Sep- 
tember, riie  best  season  in  my  opinion  for 
commencing  the  leaniing  of  agricult'ure. 
During  the  winter  months  the  time  is 
occupied  in  mathematics,  and  in  summer 
the  geometrical  knowledge  is  practically 


quate  salary  is  credited  to  each  boy's  class,  applied  to  the  measurement  of  lan<l,  tim- 

until  they  are  ready  to  leave  the  establish-  ber,  buildings,  and   other  objects.     Much 

ment.     Such  as  have  a  turn  for  any  of  the  attention  is  paid  to  the  analysaticm  of  soils, 

trades  in  demand  at  Hofwyl — wheelwright,  There  is  a  large  botanic  garden,  with  a 

carpenter,  smith,  tailor,  or  shoemaker —are  museum  containing  models  of  inij)lements 

allowed    to    apply   to   them.       Thus    the  of  husbandry.      The  various   implements 

•  This  is  the  number  of  acres  in  the  farm  as  stated  in    the   Edinburgh  Periev  for  October  1819, 
No.  64  ;  but  a  corresponrlent  in  Hull's  Ph'tlatithrofilc  Jifpertor i/ for  IS32,  m&kes  it  250 acres. 
+  Ebel,  Manuel  du  Voyageur  en  Huune,  tome  u.  p.  1&5. 


BEST  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 


123 


used  on  the  farm  are  made  by  the  smiths, 
wheelwrights,  and  carpenters  residing 
round  the  institution — their  workshops 
being  open  to  the  pupils.  As  the  sum 
paid  by  each  pupil  is  400  rix-doUars 
annually,  nearly  £60  sterling,  and  they 
provide  their  own  beds  and  breakfasts, 
none  but  youths  of  good  fortune  can  at- 
tend at  Mdeglin.  Each  has  a  sejiarate 
apartment.  They  are  from  twenty  to 
twenty-four  years  of  age,  generally  well 
behaved  young  men  ;  and  their  conduct  to 
ea*h  other,  and  to  the  professors,  is  polite 
even  to  punctilio.  The  estate  of  Moeglin 
consists  of  twelve  hundred  English  acres. 

539.  "  A  number  of  men  distinguished 
for  their  learning,  and  zeal  for  the  pros- 
perity of  France,  and  convinced  of  the 
utility  of  teaching  agriculture,  formed  an 
association  of  the  nature  of  a  joint-stock 
company,  with  500  shares  of  1200  francs 
each,  forming  a  capital  of  600,000  francs 
(£25,000.)  The  first  half  of  this  sum 
was  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  supe- 
rior culture,  and  the  second  half  to  tlie 
establishment  of  two  schools — one  for  pupils 
who,  having  received  a  good  education, 
wish  to  learn  the  theory  and  the  applica- 
tion of  agriculture,  and  of  the  various 
arts  to  which  it  is  applicable ;  and  the 
other  for  children  withoiit  fortune,  des- 
tined to  become  labourers,  instructed  as 
good  ploughmen,  gardeners,  and  shepherds, 
worthy  of  having  confidence  placed  in 
them."*  This  society  began  its  labours 
in  1826  by  purchasing  the  domain  of  Gri- 
gnon,  near  Versailles,  in  the  valley  of  Gaily, 
in  the  commune  of  Thiverval,  and  ap- 
pointed manager  M.Bella,  amilitary  officer 
who  had  gained  much  agricultural  informa- 
tion from  M.  Thaer,  during  two  years' 
sojourn  with  his  corps  at  Celle.  Grignon 
was  bought  in  the  name  of  Charles  X., 
who  attached  it  to  his  domain,  and  gave 
the  society  the  title  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society,  for  a  period  of  forty 
years.  The  statutes  of  the  society  were 
approved  of  by  royal  ordinance  on  the 
2.3d  May  1827,  and  a  council  of  adminis- 
tration was  named  from  the  list  of  share- 
holders, consisting  of  a  president,  two 
vice-presidents,  a  secretary,  a  treasurer, 
and  directors.     The  domain,  which  occu- 


pies the  bottom  and  the  two  sides  of  the 
valley,  is  divided  into  two  principal  parts: 
the  one  is  composed  of  a  park  of  2t)0  hec- 
tares (387  acres,)  enclosed  with  a  stone 
wall,  containing  the  mansion-house  and 
its  dependencies,  the  piece  of  water,  the 
trees,  the  gardens,  and  the  land  appropri- 
ated to  the  farm  ;  the  other,  called  the 
outer  farm,  is  composed  of  176  hectares 
(234  acres,)  of  unenclosed  land,  to  the 
south  of  the  park.  The  course  of  edu- 
cation at  Grignon  is  divided  into  theo- 
retical .  and  practical  —  the  course  to 
continue  for  two  years.  In  the  first  year 
to  be  taught  mathematics,  topography, 
physics,  chemistry,  botany  and  botanical 
physiology,  veterinary  science,  the  princi- 
ples of  culture,  the  principles  of  rural 
economy  applied  to  the  employment 
of  capital,  and  the  interior  adminis- 
tration of  farms.  The  second  year  to 
comprehend  the  principles  of  culture  in 
the  special  application  to  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing and  using  products;  the  mathema- 
tics applied  to  mechanics,  hydraulics,  and 
astronomy;  physics  and  chemistry  applied 
to  the  analysis  of  various  objects;  mine- 
raloiryand  geology  applied  to  agriculture  ; 
gardening,  rural  architecture,  legislation 
in  reference  to  rural  properties,  and  the 
principles  of  health  as  applicable  both  to 
man  and  beast.  There  are  two  classes  of 
pupils,  free  and  internal.  Any  one  may 
be  admitted  a  free  puj)il  that  has  not 
attained  twenty  years  of  age,  and  every 
free  pupil  to  have  a  private  chamber.  The 
pupils  of  the  interior  must  be  at  least 
fifteen  years  of  age.  The  fee  of  the  free 
pupils  is  1500  francs,  about  £60  a-year; 
that  of  the  pupils  of  the  interior  1300 
francs.  They  are  lodged  in  the  dormitories 
in  box-beds;  those  who  desire  private  apart- 
ments pay  300  francs  more,  exclusive  of  fur- 
niture, which  is  at  the  cost  of  the  pupils.t 

540.  It  appears  to  me,  from  the  best 
consideration  I  have  given  to  the  manner 
in  which  asrriculture  is  taught  at  all  these 
schools,  that  as  means  of  nnparting  prac- 
tical knowledge  to  pupils,  they  are  inferior 
to  the  mode  usually  adopted  in  this  country, 
of  boarding  with  farmers.  In  reference 
to  the  results  of  the  education  obtained  at 
Moeglin,  Mr  Jacob  says — "  It  appeared  to 


*  Rapport  General  sur  la  ferme  de  Grignon,  Juin  1828,  p.  3. 
f  Annates  de  Grignon,  3e  liyraison,  1830,  p.  108. 


124 


INITIATION. 


me  that  tlicre  was  an  attempt  to  crowd 
too  mucli  instruction  into  too  short  a  com- 
pass, for  many  of  the  pupils  spend  but 
one  year  in  the  institution  ;  and  thus  only 
the  foundation,  and  that  a  very  slight  one, 
can  be  laiil  in  so  short  a  space  of  time. 
It  is  however  to  be  presumed,  that  the 
young  men  come  here  prepared  with  con- 
siderable previous  knowledge,  as  they  are 
mostly  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and 
twenty-four,  and  some  tew  appeared  to  be 
etill  older.'* 

5-41.  It  seems  to  be  a  favourite  notion 
with  some  writers  on  agriculture,  that  one 
of  the  best  institutions  in  which  for  young 
men  to  learn  farming  is  an  experimental 
farm ;  and  they  go  the  length  of  recom- 
mending all  the  field  operations  and  ex- 
periments to  be  conducted  by  the  i)upils. 
They  are  nearly  unanimous  in  conceiving 
that  200  acres,  or  less,  would  be  a  large 
enough  extent  for  an  experimental  farm ; 
and  that  on  such  a  farm  100  pujjils  could 
be  trained  to  become  fanners,  stewards, 
and  jiloughmen.  A  very  slight  acfiuain- 
tance  with  an  experimental  farm  will  serve 
to  show  how  unsuitable  a  place  it  is  fur 
learning  farming.  The  sole  object  of  an  ex- 
perimental farm  is,  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  best  properties  of  plants  and 
animals  by  experiment,  and  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  those  objects  are  worthy  of 
being  introduced  into  an  ordinary  farm.  It 
is,  therefore,  obviously  needless  to  f(dlow 
the  ordinari/  modes  of  cultivating  the  ordi- 
nary plants,  and  of  rearing  the  ordinary 
animals  on  an  experimental  farm.  Either 
neic  plants,  and  otiier  modes  than  the 
ordinary  ones,  should  be  tried  on  an  ex- 
perimental farm,  or,  if  ordinary  nu>des  are 
adopted,  it  is  no  experimental  farm  at  all. 
In  witnessing  new  or  unusual  modes  of 
culture,  the  pupil  would  learn  nothing  of 
orJinory  farming.  Extraordinary  modes 
of  cultivation,  which  are  necessarily 
attended  with  the  risk  of  failure,  only 
serve  to  impress  the  mind  of  a,  pupil  with 
experimental  schemes,  instead  of  instruct- 
ing him  with  the  most  ai)i)roved  mode  of 
cultivation.  To  confound  the  juind  of  a 
beginner  thus,  would  do  it  a  lasting  injury. 
Were  a  pupil,  trained  on  an  ordinary  farm, 
to  have  opportunities  of  witnessing  varie- 
ties of  experiments  on  an    experimental 


one,  he  might  benefit  by  the  numerous 
hints  and  suggestions  he  would  receive  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  •were  an  experi- 
mental farm  wrought  by  inexjierienced 
pupils  it  would  be  injured.  »So  far  from 
pupils  being  able  to  conduct  experiments, 
the  most  experienced  cultivators  are 
balfled  by  unforeseen  diHiculties ;  and 
were  it  known  that  the  experiments  on 
such  a  farm  were  conducted  by  ])upils, 
their  results  would  inspire  no  contidence 
in  farmers. 

542.  Model  farms. — Model  farms  have 
been  recommeuded  to  be  established  with 
a  view  to  promote  the  teaching  of  practi- 
cal agriculture.  I  do  not  comprehend 
what  such  a  model  farm  is — for  a  farm, 
which  is  laboured  by  pupils  can  show  a 
model  of  farming  to  no  one  ;  and  any 
farming  practised  by  a  body  of  men  hav- 
ing the  management  of  a  school,  will  he 
greatly  eclipsed  by  that  of  many  a  sinu'le 
farmer,  and  it,  therefore,  in  justice  to  far- 
mers, cannot  be  recommended  as  a  model. 
Schools  established  for  teaching  agriculture 
to  young  men,  or  boys  and  girls,  should 
have  attached  to  them  what  may  be  termed 
instriictire,  not  model  farms.  There  is 
much  meaning  in  an  appropriate  name. 
Thoruutjh  draining,  for  example,  indicates 
any  systeni  of  draining  which  renders  the 
land  ihoroio/hh/  dry  in  all  circumstances; 
whereas  the  term  furrow,  frequent,  j^arallel, 
shallow,  or  deep  draining,  though  intended 
to  convey  the  same  idea,  only  conveys  the 
idea  of  the  specific  mode  of  draining  im- 
plied in  the  term. 


ON  THE  EVILS  ATTENDING  THE  NEGLECT 
OF  LANDOWNERS  AND  OTHERS  TO  LEARN 
PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

.543.  There  would  be  no  want  of  pupils 
of  the  highest  class  for  such  institutions  as 
we  have  been  considering,  did  landowners 
learn  practical  agriculture.  The  usual  suc- 
cession of  young  farmers  to  fill  the  places 
of  those  who  retire,  would  afl'ord  the 
largest  proportion  of  the  pupils  ;  but  were 
every  son  of  a  landowner,  who  has  the 
jirospect  of  bein;;  an  owner  himself,  to 
become  an  agricultural  puj)il,  the  number 
of  pupils  would  not  only  be  increased,  but 


•  Jacob's  Trarels  in  Germany,  &c.  p.  185. 


EVILS  OF  LANDOT^T^ERS  NEGLECTING  AGRICULTURE. 


125 


the  character  of  landowners  as  agricultur- 
ists would  be  much  elevated. 

544.  TLe  expectant  landlord  should 
undergo  tuition  in  liis  profession  as  well  as 
the  youth  of  any  other.  But  instead  of 
the  fann- field,  the  camp  and  tlie  bar  seem 
to  be  the  favourite  arenas  for  the  young 
scions  of  the  gentry  to  pursue  their  youth- 
ful career.  These  are  highly  honourable 
professions,  and  conduce  to  form  the  char- 
acter of  the  gentleman,  but  are  seldom 
followed  out  by  the  young  squire.  The 
moment  he  obtains  the  command  of  acom- 
j)any,  or  walks  the  Parliament  House  for 
a  session  or  two,  he  quits  the  public 
service,  and  assumes  the  fashion  of  an 
incipient  country  gentleman.  In  rural 
life  he  becomes  enamoured  of  field  sports ; 
but  should  these  prove  too  rough  for  his 
taste,  he  leaves  the  country — travels  abroad, 
peradventure  in  search  of  sights — and  re- 
turns home  with  new  ideas  of  men  and 
manners.  Now,  this  course  of  life  is  quite 
unexceptionable  in  itself,  but  in  pursuing 
it  to  the  neglect  of  the  most  important  part 
of  his  duty, — that  of  learning  to  become  a 
good  and  efficient  landlord — it  is  repre- 
hensible. 

545.  Even  though  he  devote  himself  to 
the  profession  of  arms  or  the  law,  and 
thereby  confer  distinction  on  himself,  if  he 
prefer  either  to  the  neglect  of  agriculture, 
he  is  rendering  himself  unfit  to  undertake 
the  duties  of  a  landlord.  To  become  a 
soldier  or  a  lawyer,  he  willingly  under- 
goes initiatory  drillings  and  examinations; 
but  to  acquire  the  duties  of  a  landlord 
before  he  becomes  one,  he  considers  quite 
unnecessary  to  undergo  initiatory  tuition. 
These,  he  conceives,  can  be  learned  at  any 
time,  and  seems  to  forget  that  the  con- 
ducting of  a  landed  estate  is  a  profession,  as 
difficult  of  thorough  attainment  as  ordinary 
soldiership  or  legal  lore.  The  army  is  an 
excellent  school  for  confirming  in  the 
young,  princijjles  of  honour  and  habits  of 
discipline  ;  and  the  bar  for  giving  a  clear 
insight  into  the  principles  upon  which  the 
rights  of  property  are  based,  and  of  the 
relation  betwixt  landlord  and  tenant ;  but 
a  knowledge  of  practical  agriculture  is  a 
weightier  matter  than  either  for  a  landlord, 
and  should,  not  be  neglected. 

546.  One   evil  arising   from   studying 


those  exciting  professions  before  agriculture 
is,  that  however  short  may  have  been  the 
time^  in  acquiring  them,  it  is  sufficiently 
long  to  create  a  distaste  to  learn  agricul- 
ture afterwardspnictically — for  such  a  task 
can  only  be  undertaken,  after  the  turn  of 
life,  by  enthusiastic  minds.  But  as  farm- 
ing is  necessarily  the  profession  of  the 
landowner,  it  should  be  learned,  theoreti- 
cally and  practically,  before  his  education 
is  finished.  If  he  so  incline,  he  can  after- 
wards enter  the  army  or  go  to  the  bar, 
and  the  exercise  of  those  professions  will 
not  efface  the  knowledge  of  agriculture 
previously  acquired.  This  is  the  proper 
course,  in  my  opinion,  for  every  young 
man  destined  to  become  a  landowner  to 
pursue,  and  who  is  desirous  of  finding  em- 
ployment as  long  as  he  has  not  to  exercise 
the  functions  of  a  landlord.  Were  this 
course  invariably  pursued,  the  numerous 
engaging  ties  of  a  country  life  would  tend 
in  many  to  extinguish  the  kindling  desire 
for  any  other  profession.  Such  a  result 
would  be  most  advantageous  for  the 
country ;  for  only  consider  the  efl'ects  of 
the  course  pursued  at  present  by  land- 
owners. It  strikes  every  one  as  an  in- 
congruity for  a  country  gentleman  to  be 
unacquainted  with  country  afiairs.  Is  it 
not  strange  that  he  should  recjuirc  induce- 
ments to  learn  his  hereditary  profession, — 
to  become  familiar  Avith  tlie  only  business 
which  can  enable  him  to  enhance  the  value 
of  his  estate,  and  increase  his  incon.e  ? 
Does  it  not  infer  infatuatinn  to  neglect 
becoming  well  acquainted  with  the  con- 
dition of  his  tenants,  by  whose  exertions 
his  income  is  raised,  and  by  which  know- 
ledge he  might  confer  happiness  on  many 
families,  and  in  ignorance  of  which  he 
may  entail  lasting  misery  on  many  more? 
It  is  in  this  way  too  numy  country  gen- 
tlemen neglect  their  moral  obligations. 

547.  It  is  a  manifest  inconvenience  to 
country  gentlemen,  when  taking  a  pro- 
minent part  in  county  matters  without  a 
competent  knowledge  of  agriculture,  to  be 
obliged  to  aj)ol(igise  for  not  having  suffi- 
ciently attended  to  agricultural  afiairs. 
Such  an  avowal  is  certainly  candid,  but 
is  any  thing  but  creditable  to  those  who 
have  to  make  it.  When  elected  mem- 
bers of  the  legislature,  it  is  deplorable 
to  find  so  many  of  them  so  little  ac- 
quainted  with  the  questions   which   bear 


126 


INITIATION. 


directly  or  indirectly  on  afrricnlture.  On 
these  accounts,  the  tenantry  are  left  to 
fi;;ht  their  own  battles  on  public  (juestions. 
Were  landowners  practically  acquainted 
with  a;,'ricultiire,  such  painful  avowals 
would  be  unnecessary,  and  a  familiar 
acquaintance  with  agriculture  would  enable 
the  man  of  cultivated  mind  at  once  to  per- 
ceive its  practical  bearing  on  most  public 
questions. 

548.  A  still  greater  evil,  because  less 
personal,  arises  on  consigning  the  manage- 
ment of  valuable  estates  to  the  care  of  men 
as  little  acquainted  as  the  landowners 
themselves  with  practical  agriculture.  A 
fiictor  or  agent,  in  tiiat  condition,  always 
affects  much  zeal  for  the  interest  of  his 
employer.  Fired  by  it,  and  possessing  no 
knowledge  to  form  a  sound  judgment,  he 
soon  discovers  something  he  considers 
wrong  among  the  poorer  tenants.  Some 
rent  perhaps  is  in  arrcar — the  strict  terms 
of  the  lease  have  been  deviated  from — the 
condition  of  the  tenant  seems  declining. 
These  are  favourable  symptoms  for  a  suc- 
cessful contention  witli  him.  Instead  of 
interpreting  the  terms  of  the  lease  in  a 
generous  spirit,  the  factor  hints  that  the 
rent  would  be  better  secured  tlirough 
another  tenant.  Exjilanation  of  circum- 
stances affecting  the  actual  condition  of 
the  farm,  over  which  he  has,  perhai)3,  no 
control, — the  inapplicability,  periiaps,  of 
peculiar  covenants  in  the  lease  to  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  the  farm — the 
lease  having  perhaps  been  drawn  uj)  by  a 
person  ignorant  of  agriculture, — are  ex- 
cuses unavailingly  offered  to  a  factor  con- 
fessedly unacquainted  with  country  affairs, 
and  the  result  ensues  in  dis])utes  betwixt 
him  and  the  tenant.  To  exj)lanations,  the 
landlord  is  unwilling  to  listen,  in  order  to 
preserve  intact  the  authority  of  the  factor; 
or,  what  is  still  worse,  is  unahle  to  inter- 
fere, because  of  his  own  inability  to  judge 
of  the  actual  state  of  the  case  betwixt  him- 
self and  the  tenant,  and,  of  course,  the  dis- 
putes are  left  to  be  settled  by  the  originator 
of  them.  Thus  commence  actions  at 
law, — criminations  and  recriminations, — 
much  alienation  of  feeling  ;  and  at  length 
a  proposal  for  the  settlement  of  matters, 
at  (irst  i)erhaps  unimportant,  by  the  arbi- 
tration of  practical  men.  The  tenant  is 
glad  to  submit  to  an  arbitration  to  save 
his  money ;  and  in  all  such  disputes,  being 


the  weaker  party,  he  suffers  most  in  purse 
and  character.  The  landlord,  who  ought 
to  have  been  the  protector,  is  thus  con- 
vertefl  into  the  unconscious  oppressor  of  bis 
tenant. 

549.  A  factor  acquainted  with  ]iractical 
agriculture  would  conduct  himself  very 
differently  in  the  same  circumstances.  He 
would  endeavour  to  prevent  legitimate 
differences  of  opinion  on  points  of  manage- 
ment from  terminating  in  disputes,  by 
skilful  investigation  and  well-timed  com- 
promise. He  would  study  to  uphold  the 
honour  of  both  landlord  and  tenant.  He 
would  at  once  see  whether  the  terms  of 
the  lease  were  strictly  applicable  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  farm,  and  judging 
accordingly,  would  check  improper  devia- 
tions from  proper  covenants,  whilst  he 
would  make  allowances  for  ina})propriate 
ones.  He  wotdd  soon  discover  whether  the 
condition  of  the  tenant  was  caused  more  by 
his  own  mismanagement  than  by  the  nature 
of  the  farm  he  occupies,  and  he  would  con- 
form hiscon<luct  towards  him  accordingly — 
enci)uragiiig  industry  and  skill,  admonish- 
ing indolence,  and  amending  the  objection- 
able circumstances  of  the  farm.  .Such  a 
factor  is  always  highly  respected,  and  his 
opinion  and  judgment  entirely  confided 
ill  by  the  tenantry.  Mutual  kindliness  of 
intercourse,  therefore,  always  subsists  be- 
twixt such  factors  and  the  tenants.  No 
landlord,  whether  acquainted  or  unac- 
quainted with  farming,  especially  in  the 
latter  case,  should  cotiHde  the  management 
of  his  estate  to  any  person  less  qualified. 

550.  Another  evil  affecting  the  landed 
proprietor's  own  comfort  and  interest,  may 
arise  in  the  selection  of  a  steward  or  grieve 
for  con<lucting  the  home-farm.  In  all  cases 
it  is  necessary,  for  personal  comfort  and 
convenience,fora  lamlowner  to  ha vea  home- 
farm,  and  a  steward  to  conduct  it.  But  the 
steward  of  a  s({uire  acquainted,  and  of  one 
unac(|uaiiited  witli  farming,  is  placed  in 
verydissimilar  circumstances.  The  former, 
enj<yiiig  good  wages,  and  holding  a 
resjiectable  and  resjjonsible  situation,  trill 
conduct  himself  as  an  honest  and  skilful 
manager,  as  he  knows  he  is  overlooked  by 
one  who  can  criticise  his  management 
])ractically  :  the  latter  must  necessarily 
have,  and  will  soon  take  care  to  have, 
every  thing  his  own  way ;  and  will  soon 


EVILS  OF  LANDOWNERS  NEGLECTING  AGRICULTURE. 


127 


become  haughty  to  the  labourers,  regard- 
ing himself  as  their  master,  and  will  act 
towards  them  as  if  he  dispensed  their 
wages  from  his  own  cash.  Thus  advan- 
cing in  authority  step  by  step,  finding  the 
most  implicit  reliance  placed  in  him  by 
his  master,  and  regarding  his  own  services 
indispensable,  the  temptations  of  office 
prove  too  powerful  for  his  virtue — he  ag- 
grandises himself  by  peculation,  and  con- 
ceals his  mal-practices  by  deception.  At 
length  both  are  detected  by,  perhaps,  some 
trivial  event,  the  unimportance  of  which 
had  escaped  his  watchfulness.  Loss  of 
character  and  loss  of  place  then  overtake 
him  at  the  same  time,  and  his  master 
ever  afterwards  suspects  every  one  who 
fills  the  situation.  I  could  specify  in- 
stances of  both  factor  and  steward,  whose 
mismanagement  has  come  under  my  own 
observ^ation  ;  but  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  both  species  of  pests  are  engen- 
dered from  the  same  cause, — the  ignorance 
of  landowners  in  country  affairs. 

551.  An  injurious  effect  is  produced 
by  absenteeism.  When  farming  pos- 
sesses no  charms  to  the  country  gentle- 
man, and  field-sports  become  irksome  by 
monotonous  repetition,  his  desire  for  a 
country  life  diminishes,  and,  to  escape 
from  it,  undergoes  A'oluntary  banishment. 
Were  lukewarm  landowners,  when  they 
go  abroad,  always  to  confide  the  manage- 
ment of  their  estates  to  experienced  fac- 
tors, their  absence  would  have  little  bad 
effect  on  the  tenants,  who  would  go  on 
with  the  cultivation  of  their  farms  with 
more  zest  under  a  sensible  factor,  than 
a  landlord  who  contemns  agriculture. 
But  doubtless  they  farm  with  much  greater 
confidence  under  a  landlord  acquainted 
with  farming,  who  remains  always  at 
home,  than  under  the  most  unexception- 
able factor.  The  disadvantages  of  ab- 
senteeism are  chiefly  felt  by  day-labourers, 
tradesmen,  and  shopkeepers  in  villages 
and  small  country  towns. 

552.  Now,  every  one  of  these  evils,  and 
many  more  I  have  not  alluded  to,  would  be 
averted,  if  landowners  would  make  it  a 
point  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  practical 
agri'  .ilture.  This  should  be  done  in  youth, 
when  it  ought  to  be  studied  as  a  necessary 
branch  of  education,  and  learned  as  the 
most  useful   business  country  gentlemen 


can  acquire.  It  would  qualify  them  to 
appoint  competent  factors, — to  determine 
the  terms  of  the  lease  best  suited  to  the 
nature  of  each  farm,  and  to  select  the 
fittest  tenant  for  each  ;  and  such  qualifica- 
tions would  ensure  landlords  their  tenants* 
confidence,  which  would  support  them 
in  cultivating  their  farms  in  the  best  man- 
ner ;  and  without  which  no  estate,  in 
otherwise  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances, will  ever  be  cultivated  with  spirit. 
It  would  enable  them  to  judge  whether 
the  onerous  and  multifarious  duties  of  a 
factor  are  properly  fulfilled,  and  to  con- 
verse freely,  in  even  technical  phraseology, 
with  their  tenants  on  every  particular  of 
practice,  to  criticise  work,  and  to  predi- 
cate the  probability  of  success  or  failure 
of  any  proposed  course  of  culture.  The 
approbation  or  disapprobaticm  of  such 
landlords  operates  beneficially  on  tenants. 
How  many  useful  hints  may  not  a  land- 
lord suggest  to  his  tenants  on  skilfulness, 
economy,  and  neatness  of  work  ;  and 
how  many  salutary  precejits  may  he  not 
inculcate  to  cottagers,  on  the  necessity  of 
parental  discipline  and  domestic  cleanli- 
ness! The  amount  of  good  which  the 
direct  moral  influence  of  such  a  landlord 
effects  among  the  tenantry  can  scarcely 
be  over-estimated;  it  is  certain  to  secure 
respect,  and  create  regard.  His  good 
opinion  will  go  nmch  farther  in  inducing 
tenants  to  maintain  their  farms  in  the 
highest  order,  and  in  cherishing  a  desire 
to  remain  upon  them,  than  that  of  the  most 
judicious  factor.  Were  all  landlords  so 
qualified,  they  could  command  the  services 
of  superior  factors  and  skilful  tenants. 
They  would  find  there  is  not  a  more  pleas- 
ing, rational,  and  interesting  study  than 
practical  agriculture ;  and  would  soon  de- 
sire to  follow  every  minute  portion  of 
every  operation  to  its  ultimate  results. 
In  practising  every  minutia,  they  would 
find  their  estates,  every  year,  presenting  a 
fresher  and  fairer  aspect,  by  the  removal 
of  objects  that  ollend  the  eye  or  taste,  and 
the  introduction  of  others  that  aftord  shel- 
ter, produce  abundance,  and  contribute  to 
the  beauty  of  the  landscape  around.  Nor 
would  such  rural  pursuits  interfere  with 
the  exercise  of  manly  field-sports,  in  which 
it  is  the  pride  and  boast  of  our  country 
gentlemen  to  excel,  especially  as  hunting 
is  prosecuted  with  the  greatest  ardour  in 
the  season  in   which  field  operations  are 


"^ 


128 


INITIATION. 


least  practised,  and  tbe  crops  can  sustain 
the  least  injury. 

553.  Agricultural  shows  afford  excellent 
opportunities  for  landlords  and  tenants  to 
meet  togetlier.  They  are  the  most  inte- 
resting and  the  nmst  social  meetings  held 
in  the  country;  and  are  now  conducted  on 
such  well  regulated  principles,  that,  in  the 
mixing  of  all  ranks  of  persons,  the  respect 
due  to  high  station  is  never  lost  sight 
of. 

554.  A  personal  acquaintance  with 
tenants  of  all  classes  presents  landlords 
a  wide  field  for  the  ohservation  of 
human  nature  under  different  aspects. 
Landowners  who  couple  the  facts  thus 
derived  with  their  own  experience  of  prac- 
tical agriculture,  possess  favourable  oppor- 
tunities of  collecting  a  store  of  truths,  ever 
ready  to  supply  them  with  the  strongest 
arguments  and  the  best  illustrations,  in 
every  department  of  rural  economy,  and 
which,  when  put  to  the  right  use,  cause 
their  sentiments  to  command  attention  in 
every  public  assembly  in  which  they  choose 
to  give  them  utterance. 

555.  It  appears  extraordinary  to  those 
who  have  experienced  difficulty  in  ac- 
quiring a  competent  knowledge  of  country 
affairs,  to  observe  landowners,  who  have 
spent  their  lives  in  learning  every  thing 
else,  coolly  undertaking  to  jierform  all  the 
functions  of  country  gentlemen,  without 
previous  preparation.  They  are  entitled, 
it  is  true,  to  the  privilege  by  hereditary 
birth ;  but  what  would  be  thought  of  a 
subaltern  who  presumed  to  command  an 
army,  or  a  student  of  law,  to  conduct  an 
imjiortant  cause  before  the  highest  tribu- 
nal ?  To  command  an  army,  or  to  plead 
a  great  cause,  ]»erhap3  requires  a  higher 
degree  of  intellect  tiian  to  perform  the 
functions  of  a  country  gentleman  in  the 
most  perfect  manner.  Yet,  taking  the 
most  from  this  admission,  it  cannot  be 
maintained  that  the  duties  of  landowner- 
ship  may  be  actiuired  by  intuition,  anymore 
than  commanding  or  pleading.  No  doubt, 
incomes  may  be  enjoyed  without  a  know- 
ledge of  agricidture  ;  but  surely  the  privi- 
leges of  laudownership  were  bestowed  by 
law  for  far  higher  ])uri)oses  than  merely 
expending  an  income.  Surely  they  were 
granted  on  the   condition  of  performing 


certain  onerous  duties.  Of  those,  there- 
fore, who  reside  on  their  estates — profess 
to  exercise  a  hereditary  and  paternal  su- 
perintendence over  them, — claim  a  seat 
on  the  magisterial  bench, — take  a  share  in 
ail  public  affairs  cimnected  with  agricul- 
ture, in  and  out  of  the  legislature, —  it  can- 
not be  unreasonable  to  expect  them  to  be 
qualified  for  tiie  character  they  have  as- 
sumed, by  possessing  a  knowledge  of 
agriculture. 

556.  There  is  another  class  of  persons 
connected  with  agriculture  who  should 
become  practically  acquainted  with  it  ere 
they  embark  in  it  with  an  outlay  of  capi- 
tal. I  allude  especially  to  emigrants  to 
our  colonies,  in  Canada  and  Australia. 
The  plea  not  unfrequently  urged  by  such 
persons,  of  having  plenty  of  time  to  learn 
farming  in  the  colony,  with  the  old 
settlers,  or  abundance  of  cash  to  purchase 
the  services  of  experienced  men  in  colo- 
nial agriculture,  is  one  befitting  only  the 
thoughtless  and  procrastinating;  nor  should 
the  somewhat  correct  assumption,  that  the 
agriculture  of  the  old  country  is  not 
exactly  suited  to  the  colonies,  serve  as  an 
excuse  ;  because,  however  differently  field 
operations  may  be  performed  there  and 
here,  the  nature  of  land,  of  vegetables,  and 
of  animals,  is  the  same  in  every  country ; 
and  if  these  particulars  are  well  understood 
here,  there  is  little  doubt  but  the  know- 
ledge may  be  apjdied  with  advantage  in 
the  colonies.  Such  are  only  plausible  ex- 
cuses ;  for  though  colonial  farming  may  be 
learnt  from  old  and  experienced  settlers, 
it  sliould  be  borne  in  mind,  that  few  young 
emigrants  will  have  the  patience  to  remain 
with  settlers  to  acquire  a  competent 
knowledge  of  farming,  when  they  con- 
ceive that  they  themselves  may  be  enjoy- 
ing the  advantages  they  witness  ;  and  be- 
sides, should  they  so  determine  to  learn 
farming,  thev  cannot  take  out  farm-ser- 
vants and  implements  of  husbandry  with 
them. — a  plan  well-suiteil  to  emigrants 
wIk)  take  capital  to  the  colonies. 

557.  But  Cfdonial  agriculture,  in  the 
temperate  zones,  differs  little  from  our 
own.  Wherever  the  same  Ir'uuh  uf  crops 
are  raised,  the  same  practice  must  be 
ado]ite<l ;  and  wherever  the  same  sorts  of 
stoci-  are  reared  for  the  sarne  purposes,  the 
same   mode  of  treatment   must   be   pur- 


OBSERVING  AND  RECORDING  FACTS. 


129 


sued.  Superior  fertility  of  soil,  amenity 
of  climate,  nourishment  in  the  foo  J  of  ani- 
mals, but  slightly  affect  principles,  and 
only  modify  practice.  Want  of  efficient 
beasts  of  labour  and  implements  may  at 
first  induce  settlers  to  try  extraordinary 
expedients  to  accomplish  their  end,  but 
as  those  means  improve,  and  the  ground  is 
brought  into  tillage,  the  peculiar  colonial 
practices  will  gradually  yield  to  the  more 
matured  ones  of  the  old  country.  Even- 
tually the  colonies  will,  most  probably, 
exhibit  splendid  examples  of  British  agri- 
culture, under  the  fostering  encouragement 
of  a  fine  climate.  The  sooner  they  attain 
that  perfection,  the  sooner  will  the  pros- 
perity of  the  settlers  be  secured  ;  and 
nothing  will  delay  that  consummation  so 
effectually  as  emigrants  quitting  this  coun- 
try in  breathless  haste,  in  total  ignorance 
of  husbandry. 

558.  Let  every  intending  settler,  there- 
fore, learn  agriculture  thoroughly  before 
he  emigrates  ;  and,  if  it  suits  his  taste,  time, 
and  arrangements,  let  him  study  in  the 
colony  the  necessarily  imperfect  system 
pursued  by  the  settlers,  before  he  embarks 
in  it  himself;  and  the  fuller  knowledge 
acquired  here,  will  enable  him  not  only  to 
understand  the  colonial  scheme  in  a  short 
time,  but  to  select  the  part  of  the  country 
best  suited  to  his  purpose.  But,  in  truth, 
he  has  much  higher  motives  for  learning 
agriculture  here  ;  for  a  thorough  acquain- 
tance will  enable  hira  to  make  the  best 
use  of  inadequate  means, — to  know  to  ap- 
ply cheap  animal  instead  of  dear  mauual 
labour,  —  to  suit  the  crop  to  the  soil,  and 
the  labour  to  the  weather;  —  to  construct 
appropriate  dwellings  for  himself  and 
family,  live  stock,  and  provisions;— to  su- 
perintend every  kind  of  work,  and  to 
show  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  them 
all.  These  are  qualifications  which  every 
emigrant  may  acquire  here,  but  not  in  the 
colonies  without  a  large  sacrifice  of  time — 
and  time  to  a  settler  thus  spent,  is  equal 
to  a  sacrifice  of  capital,  whilst  eminent 
qualifications  are  equivalent  to  capital 
itself.  This  statement  may  be  stigma- 
tised by  agricultural  settlers  who  may 
have  succeeded  in  amassing  fortunes 
without  more  knowledge  of  agriculture 
than  what  was  picked  up  by  degrees  on  the 
spot;  but  such  persons  are  incompetent 
judges  of  a  statement  like  this,  never  hav- 

VOL.  I. 


ing  become  properly  acquainted  with  agri- 
culture; and  however  successful  their  exer- 
tions may  have  proved,  they  might  have 
realised  larger  incomes  in  the  time,  or  as 
large  i-n  a  shorter  time,  had  they  brought  an 
intimate  acquaintance  of  the  most  perfect 
system  of  husbandry  known,  to  bear  upon 
the  favourable  position  they  occupied. 


ON  OBSERVING  THE  DETAILS,  AND  RE- 
CORDING THE  FACTS,  OP  FARMING  BY 
THE  AGRICULTURAL  STUDENT. 

559.  The  only  object  I  have  in  view  in 
entering  into  all  these  particulars,  is  the 
preparation  of  the  mind  of  the  agricultural 
student,  to  enable  him,  when  he  becomes  a 
pupil  on  a  farm,to  anticipate  what  would  ap- 
pear to  him  insuperable  difficulties  in  farm- 
ing operations,  and  which,  with  an  unpre- 
pared mind,  he  could  not  know  existed  at 
all,  far  less  to  overcome  ;  but  on  being 
thus  informed  of  them  at  the  very  outset  of 
his  career,  he  might  employ  himself  in 
meeting  and  overcoming  them.  The  diffi- 
culties I  have  alluded  to,  arise  from  the 
pupil  not  understanding  the  import  of  any 
farm  operation,  because  he  always  sees 
it  in  an  incomiilete  state,  and  uncon- 
nected with  the  operations  of  a  future 
period,  of  which  it  for  the  present  con- 
stitutes only  a  progressive  operation.  The 
only  way  for  the  pupil  to  satisfy  his  mind  is 
to  ascertain  by  inquiry  the  ultimate  purport 
of  every  operation  he  sees  performing; 
and  although  he  may  not  easily  compre- 
hend what  he  does  not  see,  still  the  infor- 
mation will  warn  him  of  a  result  which, 
on  that  account,  will  not  take  him  by  sur- 
prise when  it  actually  arrives.  I  see  no 
better  mode  of  rendering  all  farming  ope- 
rations intelligible  to  his  mind. 

560.  Believing  that  the  foregoing  obser- 
vations are  competent  to  give  such  a  di- 
rection to  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  as,  when  he 
goes  to  a  farm,  he  will  appi'eciate  t«.e  im- 
portance of  his  profession,  and  feel  an 
earnest  desire  for  its  attainment,  I  shall 
proceed  to  describe  the  details  of  every 
farm  operation  as  it  should  come  in  course 
through  the  year.  The  details,  being 
multifarious,  and  somewhat  intricate  to 
describe,  will  occupy  the  largest  portion 
of  this  work,  and  constitute  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  one  to  the  pupil. 

X 


130 


IXITIATION. 


In  the  descriptions,  I  have  resolved  to  go 
very  minutely  into  detail,  that  no  particular 
may  be  omitted  in  any  operation,  to  give 
it  the  appearance  of  an  inip>erfect  work. 
The  resolution  may  render  the  descriptions 
so  prolix,  as  to  fatigue  the  general  reader, 
but,  on  that  very  account,  thete  ought  to 
determine  the  pupil  to  follow  them  into 
their  most  minute  particulars  ;  and  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  a  series  of  detailed 
instructions,  which  will  give  him  such  an 
insight  into  the  nature  of  field  labour,  as 
will  ever  after  enable  him  easily  to  recog- 
nise similar  work  whenever  and  wherever 
begun  to  be  executed.  Unless,  however,  he 
bestow  considerable  attention  on  all  the 
details  of  the  descriptions,  he  will  be  apt 
to  pass  what  may  appear  to  him  an  unim- 
portant particular,  but  which  may  form 
the  very  keystone  of  the  whole  operation 
to  which  it  relates.  With  a  tolerable 
memory,  I  feel  pretty  sure  that  an  atten- 
tive perusal  of  the  descriptions  will  enable 
the  pupil  to  identify  ever}'  piece  of  work  he 
may  afterwards  see  performing  in  the  field. 
This  result  is  as  much  as  any  book  on  agri- 
culture can  be  expected  to  accomplish. 

561.  Constant  attention  to  the  minutise 
of  labour  evinces  in  the  pupil  an  acuteness 
to  perceive  the  quickest  mode  of  acquir- 
ing his  profession.  He  will  soon  per- 
ceive that  the  larger  pieces  of  work  are 
easily  undertaken  by  the  ordinary  work- 
people ;  but  the  minuter  ones  are  lest  ad- 
justed by  the  master  or  steward.  The 
difference  arises  from  the  larger  operations 
being  left  in  a  coarse  state,  when  the 
cmaller  do  not  follow  and  finish  them 
neatly.  There  are  many  minor  operations, 
unconnected  with  the  greater,  which  require 
the  greatest  skill  to  perform  ;  and  which  are 
BO  arranged  as  to  be  performed  with  neat- 
ness and  despatch.  Many  of  these  are 
frequently  performed  concurrently  with 
the  larger  operations ;  and  to  avoid  confu- 
sion both  should  harmonise.  Many  of  the 
minuter  operations  are  confined  to  the 
tending  of  live-stock,  and  the  various 
works  performed  about  the  farmstead. 
Attention  to  minutiae,  constituting  the 
chief  difference  between  the  neat  and  care- 
less farmer,  it  is  necessary  that  I  bestow 
due  consideration  on  them.  They  form  a 
particular  which  has  been  too  much  over- 
looked by  systematic  writers  on  agricul- 
ture. 


562.  In  describing  the  details  of  farming, 
it  is  necessary  to  adhere  to  a  determinate 
method ;  and  the  method  which  appears 
to  me  most  instructive  to  the  pupil  is,  to 
fellow  the  usual  routine  of  operations  as 
performed  on  a  farm.  To  follow  that 
routine  implicitly,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
describe  every  operation  from  the  f.uyin- 
nin(/ ;  audit  should  be  remembered  by  the 
pupil  that  farm  operations  are  not  con- 
ducted at  random,  but  on  a  tried  and 
approved  system,  which  commences  with 
preparatory  labours,  and  then  carries  them 
on,  with  a  determinate  object  in  view, 
throughout  the  seasons,  until  they  termi- 
nate at  the  end  of  the  agricultural  year. 
The  preparatory  operations  commence  im- 
mediately after  harvest,  whenever  that 
may  happen,  and  it  will  be  earlier  or  later 
in  the  year,  according  as  the  season  is 
early  or  late ;  and  as  the  harvest  is  the 
consummation  of  the  labours  of  the  year, 
and  terminates  the  autumnal  season,  so 
the  preparatory  operations  commence  the 
winter  season.  Thus  the  winter  season 
takes  the  precedence  in  the  arrangements 
of  farming,  and,  doing  so,  should  be  the 
period  for  the  pupil  to  begin  his  career 
as  an  agriculturist.  He  will  then  have 
the  advantage  of  witnessing  every  p7-e- 
paration  as  it  is  made  for  each  crop, — 
an  advantage  he  cannot  enjoy  if  he  enter 
at  an}'  other  season, — and  it  is  a  great 
advantage,  inasmuch  as  every  piece  of 
work  is  much  better  understood  when 
viewed  from  it5  commencement,  than  when 
seen  for  the  first  time  in  a  state  of  pro- 
gression. 

563.  Let  me  inform  the  pupil  regarding 
the  length  of  the  agricultural  seasons.  In 
the  year  of  the  calendar,  each  season  ex- 
tends over  a  period  of  three  calendar 
months;  so  that  every  season  is  of  the 
same  length.  The  seasons  of  the  agricul- 
tural year,  though  bearing  the  same  names 
as  those  of  the  calendar,  vary  in  length 
every  year  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather.  The  agricultural  seasons  are 
thus  characterised  :  The  spring  revives 
the  dormant  powers  of  vegetables;  the 
summer  enlarges  their  growth  ;  the  autumn 
develops  their  reproduction  ;  and  the  winter 
returns  them  to  the  state  of  dormancy. 
In  the  calendar  thei=e  characteristics  are 
assumed  to  last  three  months  each,  but  in 
the  agricultural  year  they  extend  as  long 


OBSERVIXG  AND  RECORDIXG  FACTS. 


131 


as  each  season  continues  to  exhibit  its 
function.  The  spring,  for  example,  may 
be  contracted  within  its  three  months, 
either  by  the  protraction  of  winter  on  the 
one  hand,  or  the  earliness  of  summer  on 
the  other,  or  by  both  combined  ;  a  case  in 
which  results  both  a  late  and  short  spring, 
— a  state  of  season  which  creates  very 
bustling  spring  work  to  the  farmer.  And 
so  with  the  other  seasons.  It  is  this  elas- 
ticity of  the  agricultural  seasons  which 
contradistinguishes  them  from  those  of  the 
calendar.  The  commencement,  continu- 
ance, and  termination  of  field-work  being 
thus  dependent  on  the  seasons  of  the  agri- 
cultural year,  and  the  seasons,  in  their 
turn,  being  dependent  upon  the  weather,  it 
follows  that  all  field  operations  are  de- 
pendent upon  the  weather,  and  not  upon 
such  conventional  terms  as  the  seasons  of 
the  calendar.  But  whether  an  agricultural 
season  be  long  or  short,  the  work  that  pro- 
perly belongs  to  it  must  be  finished  in  it. 
If  it  be  of  sufficient  length,  the  work  is 
well  finished,  but  if  uot,  the  crop  runs  the 
risk  of  failure.  If  it  be  shortened  by  the 
preceding  season  encroaching  upon  it, 
its  work  should  have  been  advanced  in 
the  prolonged  season  ;  and  should  it  be 
curtailed  by  the  earliness  of  the  succeeding 
one,  and  the  weather  improve,  as  in  the 
case  of  summer  appearing  before  its  time, 
no  apprehension  need  be  entertained  of 
finishing  the  work  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner ;  but  if  the  weather  become  worse,  as 
in  the  premature  approach  of  winter  upon 
autumn,  extraordinary  exertions  are  re- 
quired to  avert  the  disastrous  consequences 
of  winter  weather  upon  the  crops.  The 
unusual  protraction  of  a  season  is  attended 
with  no  risk  to  its  work,  but  nia}'^  be  to  a 
crop ;  and  during  a  protracted  season,  much 
time  is  often  wasted  in  waiting  for  the 
arrival  of  the  succeeding  one,  in  which  the 
particular  work  in  hand  is  most  properly 
finished ;  but  in  a  contracted  season,  a 
great  part  of  the  work,  though  attended  with 
much  labour,  is  hurriedly  gone  through, 
and  even  slovenly  performed.  The  most 
perfect  field-work  is  performed  when  the 
seasons  are  each  of  proper  duration. 

5Q4i.  The  entire  business  of  a  farm 
necessarily  occupies  a  year;  which  em- 
braces sometimes  more,  and  sometimes 
less,  than  twelvemonths.  The  agricultural 
year,  both  in  its  commencement  and  termi- 


nation, not  corresponding  with  that  of  the 
calendar,  its  length  is  determined  by  the 
duration  of  the  life  of  the  cultivated  vege- 
tables which  constitute  the  chief  product 
of  thfe  farm.  In  the  temperate  zones, 
vegetable  life  becomes  dormant,  or  extinct, 
according  as  the  vegetable  is  perennial  or 
annual,  at  the  beginning  of  winter;  and 
when  the  dormant  state  of  vegetation 
occurs  again,  the  labours  of  the  field  have 
gone  their  annual  revolution.  The  same 
kind  of  work  is  performed  year  after  year 
upon  the  same  kind  of  farm. 

565.  Two  modes  of  describing  farm- 
business  maybe  adopted.  One,  to  arrange 
it  under  different  heads,  and  describe  all 
similar  operations  under  the  same  head, 
as  has  hitherto  been  done  in  systematic 
works  on  agriculture.  The  other  is  to 
describe  the  operations  as  they  actually 
occur,  singly,  and  in  succession,  on  the 
farm  ;  as  is  to  be  done  in  this  work. 
Both  methods  describe  the  general  farm 
operations,  and  may  be  consulted  for  any 
2)articular  work.  But  the  relative  position 
any  particular  work  stands  in  regard  to, 
and  influences  every  other,  can  only  be 
shown  by  the  latter  method,  and  it  does 
so  at  a  glance  ;  and  as  one  farm-work 
commences  and  another  terminates  at 
different  periods  of  the  year,  the  latter 
method  only  can  clearly  indicate  the  period 
in  which  every  particular  work  commences, 
is  continued,  or  terminated,  and  give  the 
details  of  it  minutely. 

560.  The  agricultural  year,  like  the  com- 
mon, is  conveniently  divided  under  the  four 
seasons,  and  the  entire  farm  business  is  also 
conveniently  divided  into  four  parts,  each 
bearing  the  name  of  the  season  that  influ- 
ences the  operations  performed  in  it.  It 
is  by  such  an  arrangement  only  that  every 
operation,  whether  requiring  longer  or 
shorter  time  for  completion,  is  described 
as  it  takes  its  turn  in  the  fields.  The 
work  that  occupies  only  a  short  time  to 
finish,  in  any  of  the  seasons,  may  be  de- 
scribed in  a  single  narrative.  Very  few 
of  the  ojierations,  however,  are  completed 
in  one  of  the  seasons,  some  extending  over 
the  whole  four,  and  most  into  two  or  three. 
Any  work  that  extends  over  most  of  the 
seasons,  can  nevertheless  be  described  with 
accuracy ;  for  although  it  may  occupy  a 
long  time  to  reach  its  completion,  every 


132 


INITIATION 


season  imposes  its  peculiar  work,  and 
termiDates  it  so  far ;  an  J  tliese  ce^j^utions 
of  labour  are  not  mere  conveniences,  but 
necessary  and  temporary  finishings  of 
work,  wiiich  would  be  improperly  resumed 
but  at  the  appropriate  season.  In  this 
way  the  extensive  works  are  advanced, 
in  progressive  steps,  season  after  season, 
until  tlieir  completion ;  while  the  smaller 
ones  are  concurrently  brought  onwards 
and  completed  in  their  proper  season. 

5G7.  Besides  observing  the  details  of 
farm  work,  the  pupil  should  observe  every 
phenomenon  that  occurs  within  the  field 
of  his  observation.  Creation,  both  animate 
and  inanimate,  lies  before  him,  and,  being 
necessarily  much  out  of  doors,  observation 
becomes  a  subject  of  interest  to  him  rather 
than  otherwise.  It  is  at  all  times  useful 
to  observe  facts,  and  become  faraiiiarised 
with  those  more  immediately  connected 
with  his  profession  ;  and  the  relation  I  have 
so  largely  traced  as  existing  between  agri- 
culture and  the  sciences,  may  show  the 
immense  extent  of  the  field  of  observa- 
tion in  which  the  student  may  occupy 
himself.  Xor  let  him  suppose  that  auv 
fact  is  too  trivial  for  observation,  as  the 
minutest  may  form  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween greater  ones,  which  may  exhibit  no 
relationship  to  one  another,  but  through 
the  minute  one.  In  course  of  time,  obser- 
vation will  enable  him  to  discriminate 
between  phenomena  that  influence  one 
another,  and  that  stand  in  isolation ;  and 
the  discrimination  will  only  be  learned  in 
time,  for  every  fact  will  appear  to  hira  at 
first  as  alike  valuable  and  valueless. 

568.  It  should  be  kept  in  remembrance 
that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  observe  phe- 
nomena with  accuracy.  There  is  a  tide 
in  their  existence,  as  in  the  aflairs  of  men, 
which,  when  taken  at  the  proper  time,  may 
lead  to  sound  conviction  ;  but  if  not,  to  erro- 
neous deduction.  How  many  systems  of 
belief  have  arisen  from  improper  observa- 
tion !  With  some  persons,  if  observation  con- 
firm not  preconceived  notions,  the  pheno- 
menon is  neglected  or  perverted  ;  but  the 
agricultm-al  student  should  have  no  pre- 
judiced notions,  ami  regard  every  occur- 
rence with  calmness,  ami  a  determination 
to  arrive  at  the  truth.  It  is  only  in  such  a 
state  of  mind  he  can  hope  to  make  the 
results  of  actual  observation   in  the  field 


subservient  to  acquiring  a  practical  know- 
ledge of  agriculture. 

.569.  The  facts  to  which  he  should  first 
direct  his  attention,  are  the  ejects  of  the 
tceather  for  the  time  on  the  operations  of 
the  fields  and  their  products,  and  on  the 
condition  of  the  live  stock.  He  should 
notice  every  remarkable  occurrence  of 
heat  or  cold,  raiu  or  drought,  unpleasant 
or  agreeable  feeling  in  the  air;  the  effects 
following  any  peculiar  state  of  the  clouds, 
or  other  meteors  in  the  air — as  storms, 
aurora-boreal  is,  haloes,  and  the  like ;  the 
particular  effect  of  rain  or  drought,  heat 
or  cold,  in  retarding  or  materially  altering 
the  labours  of  the  field,  and  the  length 
of  time  and  quantity  of  rain  required  to 
produce  such  an  effect  ;  a.s  well  as  the 
influence  of  these  on  the  health  or  growth 
of  plants,  and  the  comfort  and  condition  of 
animals. 

.'>70.  He  should  mark  the  time  each  kind 
of  crop  is  committed  to  the  ground — how 
long  it  takes  to  appear  above  it,  when  it 
comes  into  ear,  and  the  juried  of  harvest : 
also  try  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  every 
kind  of  crop  on  the  ground  before  it  is  cut 
down,  and  observe  whether  the  event  cor- 
roborates previous  judgment :  estimate  the 
weight  of  cattle  by  the  eye  at  different 
periods  of  their  growth,  and  check  the 
trials  by  measurements;  the  handling  of 
the  beasts  for  this  purpose  will  convey 
much  information  regarding  their  progres- 
sive state  of  improvement :  attend  to  sheep 
when  slaughtered,  weigh  the  carcass,  and 
endeavour  to  discover  the  sources  of  error 
committed  in  estimating  their  weights. 

.'/71.  He  should  keep  a  register  of  each 

field  of  the  fiirm :  note  the  quantity  of  labotir 
it  has  received,  the  quantity  of  manure 
applied,  the  kind  of  crop  sown,  with  the 
circumstances  attending  these  operations 
— whether  done  quickly  and  in  good  style, 
or  interruptedly,  from  the  hinderanco 
of  weather  or  other  circumstances.  He 
should  ascertain  in  each  field  the  number 
of  ridges  required  to  make  an  acre,  and 
whether  the  ridges  be  of  equal  length  or 
not.  By  this  he  will  the  more  easily  as- 
certain how  much  dung  the  field  receives 
per  acre,  the  time  taken  to  perform  the 
same  quantity  of  work  on  ridges  of  different 
length,  and  the  comparative  value  of  the 


OBSERVING  AND  RECORDING  FACTS. 


133 


crop  produced  on  an  acre  in  different  parts 
of  the  field.  The  subdivision  of  the  field 
into  acres  will  enable  a  comparison  to  be 
made  of  the  relative  values  of  the  crops 
produced  on  varieties  of  soil  in  the  same 
field,  under  the  same  treatment. 

572.  The  easiest  way  of  preserving  facts 
is  in  the  tabular  form,  which  admits  of 
every  one  being  put  down  under  its 
proper  head.  A  table  not  only  exhibits 
all  the  facts  at  a  glance,  but  records  every 
one  with  the  least  trouble  in  writing.  The 
advantage  of  writing  them  down  is  to  im- 
press them  more  strongly  on  the  memory. 
The  tables  should  consist  of  ruled  columns, 
in  a  book  of  sufficient  size  of  leaf  to  contain 
columns  for  every  subject. 

573.  There  should  be  a  plan  of  the 
farm,  with  every  field,  having  its  figure, 

dimensions,  name,  and  direction  of  the 
ridges,  with  the  number  of  ridges  required 
to  make  an  acre  marked  upon  it. 

574.  There  should  be  apian  of  the  stack- 
yard made  every  year,  with  each  stack 
represented  by  a  circle,  the  area  of  which 
should  contain  the  name  of  the  field  upon 
which  the  crop  was  grown,  the  quantity 
of  corn  yielded  by  the  stack,  how  the  pro- 
duce was  disposed  of,  and  the  cash  (if  any) 
which  the  produce  realised. 

575.  To  render  the  whole  system  of 
recording  facts  complete,  a  summary  of 
tlie  weather,  together  with  the  produce 
and  value  of  the  crop  and  stock,  should 
be  made  every  year  to  the  end  of  autumn, 
— the  end  of  the  agricultural  year.  In  all 
these  ways  a  mass  of  useful  facts  would 
be  recorded  within  the   narrow   compass 


of  a  single  book ;  comparisons  could  be 
made  between  the  results  of  diflerent  sea- 
sons ;  and  deductions  drawn  which  could 
not  be  ascertained  by  any  other  meaud. 

576.  The  only  objection  that  can  possi- 
bly be  urged  against  this  plan,  is  the  time 
required  to  record  the  facts.  Were  the 
records  to  be  made  twice  or  thrice  a-day, 
like  the  observations  of  a  meteorological 
register,  the  objection  might  be  well- 
founded  ;  for  it  is  irksome  to  be  obliged  to 
note  down  frequently  dry  and  (in  them- 
selves) unmeaning  details.  But  the  changes 
of  the  weather  possess  a  very  different 
interest  when  they  are  known  to  influence 
the  growth  of  the  crops.  The  records  of 
such,  however,  are  only  required  occa- 
sionally at,  perhaps,  an  interval  of  days. 
The  only  toil  would  be  the  drawing  up 
of  the  abstract  of  the  year ;  but,  when 
the  task  is  for  permanent  benefit,  the 
time  devoted  to  it  should  be  cheerfully 
bestowed. 

577.  These  preliminary  remarks  I  trust 
will  enable  tlie  agricultunil  student  to  fol- 
low the  details  of  fanning,  as  they  usually 
occur,  and  the  kind  of  farming  I  shall 
select  as  the  most  perfect  system  of  hus- 
bandry known,  is  the  mixed,  (53;)  whilst, 
at  the  same  time,  I  shall  make  liim 
acquainted  with  the  differences  in  the  cor- 
responding operations  iu  the  otlier  modes 
of  farming,  adopted  on  account  of  pecu- 
liarities in  the  localities  in  which  they 
are  practised.  Narrating  the  operations  iu 
the  order  they  arc  performed,  I  .shall  begin 
with  Winter,  and  proceed  in  the  natural 
order  tlirough  Spring,  Summer,  and 
Autumn,  until  we  reach  the  winter  season 
again. 


1S4 


PRACTICE. 


WINTER. 


8UMMARY  OF  THE   WEATUKU,  AND   FIELD- 
OPERATIONS  IN  WINTER. 

578.  The  subjects  which  court  attention 
in  winter  are  of  the  most  interesting  de- 
scription to  the  farmer.  Finding  little  in- 
ducement to  spend  much  time  in  the  fields 
at  this  torpid  season  of  the  year,  he  directs 
bis  attention  to  the  more  animated  work 
conducted  iu  the  steading,  where  all  the 
cattle  and  horses  are  collected,  and  the 
preparation  of  the  grain  fur  market  affords 
pleasant  employment  within  doors.  The 
progress  of  live-stock  to  maturity  is  always 
a  prominent  object  of  the  farmer's  solici- 
tude, and  especially  so  in  winter,  when 
tbey  are  comfortably  housed  in  the  farm- 
stead, plentifully  supplied  with  wholesome 
food,  and  so  arranged  in  various  classes, 
according  to  age  and  sex,  as  to  be  easily 
inspected  at  any  time. 

579.  The  labours  of  the  field  in  winter 
are  confined  to  a  few  great  operations. 
These  are  ploughing  the  soil  in  prepara- 
tion of  future  crops,  and  supplying  food  to 
the  live  stock.  The  ploughing  partly  con- 
sists of  turning  over  the  ground  which  had 
borne  a  part  of  the  grain  crops,  and  the 
method  of  ploughing  this  stubble  land — so 
called  because  it  bears  the  straw  left  un- 
cut of  the  previous  crop — is  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  That  part  of  the 
stubble  land  which  was  first  ploughed  is  first 
brought  into  crop  in  spring,  and  the  rest  is 
ploughed  in  succession  as  the  different  crops 
follow  each  other  in  the  ensuing  seasons. 

580.  The  whole  land  thus  ploughed  in  the 
early  part  of  winter  in  each  field,  where 
the  farm  is  subdivided  into  fields,  or  in 
each  division  where  are  no  fences,  is  then 
provided  with  channels,  cut  with  the  spade, 
in  places  that  permit  the  water  that  falls 
from  the  heavens  to  run  most  quickly  ofl' 
into  the  ditches,  and  to  maintain  the  soil 
in  a  dry  state  until  spring. 


581.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  winter, 
the  newest  grass  land,  or  tea,  as  grass  land 
is  generally  termed,  intended  to  bear  a  crop 
in  spring  is  then  ploughed  ;  the  oldest 
grass  land  being  earliest  ploughed,  that 
its  toughness  may  have  time  to  be  melio- 
rated before  spring  by  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere. 

582.  "When  the  soil  is  naturally  damp 
underneath,  winter  is  selected  for  remov- 
ing the  damp  by  draining.  It  is  ques- 
tioned by  some  farmers  whether  winter  is 
the  best  season  for  draining,  as  the  usually 
rainy  and  otherwise  unsettled  state  of  the 
weather  renders  the  carriage  of  the  re- 
quisite materials  on  the  land  too  laborious. 
By  others,  it  is  maintained  that,  as  the 
quantity  of  water  to  be  drained  from  the 
soil,  determines  both  the  number  and  size 
of  the  drains,  these  are  best  ascertained  in 
winter ;  and  as  the  fields  are  then  entirely 
free  of  crop,  that  season  is  the  most  con- 
venient for  draining.  Truth  may  perhaps 
be  found  not  to  acquiesce  in  either  of  these 
reasons,  but  rather  in  the  opinion  that 
draining  may  be  successfully  pursued  at  all 
seasons. 

583.  Where  fields  are  unenclosed,  and 
are  to  be  fenced  with  the  thorn-hedge, 
winter  is  the  season  for  commencing  the 
planting  of  it.  Hard  frost,  a  fall  of  snow, 
or  heavy  rain,  may  put  a  stop  to  the  work 
for  a  time,  but  in  all  other  states  of  the 
Aveather  it  may  bo  proceeded  with  in 
safety. 

584.  When  water-meadows  exist  on  a 
farm,  winter  is  the  season  for  carrying  on 
the  irrigation  with  water,  that  the  grass 
may  be  ready  to  be  mown  in  the  early 
part  of  the  ensuing  summer.  It  is  a  fact 
worth  keeping  in  remembrance  as  to 
irinter  irrigation,  that  it  produces  whole- 
some, while  summer  irrigation  produces 
unwholesome,  herbage  for  stock.    On  the 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS  IN  WINTER. 


135 


other  hand,  summer  is   the  most  proper 
season  for  forming  water-meadows, 

585.  Almost  the  entire  live  stock  of  an 
arable  farm  is  dependent  on  the  hand  of 
man  for  food  in  winter.  Thus  bringing 
the  stock  into  the  immediate  presence  of 
their  owner,  they  excite  a  stronger  inter- 
est than  at  any  other  season.  The  farmer 
then  classifies  them  in  the  farmstead  by 
their  age  and  sex,  and  observes  their  com- 
parative progress  towards  maturity.  He 
desires  to  see  them  provided  with  a  com- 
fortable bed  and  sufficient  clean  food,  at 
appointed  hours,  in  their  respective  apart- 
ments. 

586.  The  feeding  of  stock  is  so  impor- 
tant a  brunch  of  farm  business  in  winter, 
that  it  regulates  the  time  for  prosecuting 
several  other  operations.  It  determines 
the  quantity  of  turnips  that  should  be  car- 
ried from  the  field  in  a  given  time,  and 
causes  the  farmer  to  consider  whether  it 
would  not  be  prudent  to  take  advantage 
of  the  first  few  dry  fresh  days  to  store  up 
a  quantity  of  them  to  be  in  reserve  for  the 
use  of  the  stock  during  the  storm  that  may 
be  portending. 

587.  It  also  determines  the  quantity  of 
straw  that  should  be  provided  from  the 
stack-yard  for  the  use  of  the  animals  ;  and 
upon  this,  again,  depends  the  quantity  of 
grain  that  may  be  sent  to  the  market  in 
any  given  time.  For,  although  it  is  cer- 
tainly in  the  farmer's  power  to  thrash  as 
many  stacks  as  he  pleases  at  one  time — 
provided  the  machinery  for  the  purpose  is 
competent  for  the  task — and  he  may  be 
tempted  to  do  so  when  prices  are  high  ; 
yet  as  new  thrashed  straw  is  superior  to 
old,  both  as  litter  and  fodder,  its  thrashing 
depends  mainly  on  the  use  made  of  it  by 
stock ;  and  as  its  use  as  litter  is  greater  in 
wet  than  in  dry  weather,  and  wet  weather 
prevails  in  winter,  the  quantity  used  in 
that  season  is  most  considerable ;  and  so 
must  be  the  grain  sent  to  market.  All  the 
cattle  in  the  farmstead  in  winter  are 
placed  under  the  care  of  the  cattle-man. 

588.  The  feeding  of  sheep  on  turnips,  in 
the  field,  is  practised  in  winter  ;  and  it 
forms  fully  a  more  interesting  object  to 
the  farmer  than  the  feeding  of  cattle,  in- 
asmuch as  the  behaviour  of  sheep,  under 


every  circumstance,  is  always  attractive. 
When  put  on  turnips  early  in  winter, 
sheep  consuming  only  a  proportion  of  the 
crop,  a  favourable  opportunity  is  aflforded 
to  store  the  remaining  portion  for  the 
cattle,  iu  case  of  an  emergency  in  the 
weather,  such  as  rain,  snow,  or  frost.  The 
turnips  to  be  used  by  the  cattle  determine 
the  quantity  that  should  be  taken  from  the 
field. 

589.  The  ewes  roaming  at  large  over  the 
pastures  require  attention  in  winter,  espe- 
cially in  frosty  weather,  or  when  snow  is 
on  the  ground,  when  they  should  be  sup- 
plied with  clover-hay,  or  with  turnips 
when  the  former  is  not  abundant.  The 
shepherd  is  the  person  who  has  the  charge 
of  the  sheep  flock. 

590.  The  preparation  of  grain  for  sale 
is  an  important  branch  of  winter  farm 
business,  and  should  be  strictly  superin- 
tended. A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
labour  of  horses  and  men  is  occupied  in 
carrying  the  grain  to  the  market-town, 
and  delivering  it  to  the  purchasers,  —  a 
species  of  work  which  jades  farm-horses 
very  much  in  bad  weather ;  but  the  rail- 
way now  presents  itself  to  the  assistance 
of  the  horse  in  this  laborious  work. 

591.  In  hard  frost,  when  the  plough  is 
laid  to  rest,  of  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  and  as  soon  as 

■  by  frequent  hoof  and  wheel,  the  roads 


A  beaten  path  afford, 

the  farm-yard  manure  is  cariied  from  the 
courts,  and  placed  in  large  heaps  on  con- 
venient spots  near  the  gate  of  the  fields 
which  are  to  be  manured  in  the  ensuing 
spring  or  summer.  This  work  is  continued 
as  long  as  there  is  manure  to  carry  away, 
or  the  weather  proves  severe. 

592.  Of  the  implements  of  husbandry, 
only  a  few  are  used  in  winter ;  —  the 
plough  is  constantly  so  when  the  weather 
will  permit, — the  thrashing-machine  en- 
joys no  sinecure, — and  the  cart  finds  fre- 
quent and  periodic  employment. 

593.  The  winter  is  the  season  for  visit- 
ing the  market  toicn  regularly,  where  the 
surplus  produce  of  the  farm  is  disposed  of, 
— articles  purchased  or  bespoke  for  the  use 


1S6 


PRACTICE— AVINTER. 


of  tlie  farm,  when  the  busy  seasons  arrive, 
— where  intermixture  with  the  world  af- 
fords the  farmer  an  insiglit  into  the  actions 
of  mankind,— and  where  he  sees  selfish- 
ness and  cupidity  heighten  as  a  foil  the 
brilliancy  of  honest  dealing. 

594.  I'^ield  sports  have  their  full  sway 
in  winter,  when  the  fields,  hared  of  crop 
and  stock,  su.<tain  little  injury  hy  heing 
traversed.  Altliough  farmers  bestow  but  a 
small  i)ortion  of  their  time  on  field  sports, — 
and  many  have  no  inclination  for  them  at 
all, — they  should  harmlessly  enjoy  the  re- 
creation at  times.  When  duly  qualified, 
why  should  not  farmers  join  in  a  run  with 
the  fox-hounds? — or  lake  a  cast  over  the 
fields  with  a  pointer  ? — or  sound  a  whoop 
with  the  greyhounds  ?  Either  sport  forms 
a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  week's  business, 
gives  a  fillip  to  the  mind,  and  a  stimulus 
to  the  circulation.  The  dweller  in  the 
country,  possessing  leisure  and  a  good 
nag,  who  can  remain  insensible  to  the 
"joys  of  a  tally-ho,"  must  have  a  soul 
"  dull  as  night.''  These  sports  arc  only 
pursued  in  fresh  weather,  and  when  the 
ground  is  not  very  heavy  with  wet  ;  but 
should  frost  and  snow  prevent  their  pursuit, 
curling  and  skating  afford  healthful  exer- 
cise both  to  body  and  mind. 

595.  Winter  is  the  season  for  those  in 
the  country  reciprocating  the  kindnesses 
of  hospitality,  and  participating  in  the 
amusements  of  society.  The  farmer  de- 
lights to  send  the  best  produce  of  his 
poultry-yard  as  Christmas  presents  to  his 
friends  in  town,  and  in  return  to  be  invited 
into  town  to  partake  of  its  amusements. 
But  there  is  no  want  of  hospitality  nearer 
home.  Country  people  maintain  inter- 
course with  each  other  ;  while  the  annual 
county  ball  in  the  market  town,  or  an 
occasional  charity  one,  to  assist  the  wants 
of  the  labouring  ])oor,  affords  a  seasonable 
treat;  and  the  winter  is  often  wound  up 
by  a  meeting  given  by  the  Hunt  to  those 
who  had  shared  in  the  sport  during  the 
hunting  season. 

596.  Winter  is  the  season  of  domestic 
enjoyment.  The  fatigues  of  the  long 
summer  day  leave  little  leisure,  ami 
less  inclination,  to  tax  the  mind  with 
study ;  but  the  long  winter  evening,  after 
a  day  of  bracing  exercise,  affords  a  favour- 


able ojiportunity  of  partaking  in  conver- 
sation, quietly  reading,  or  listening  to 
music.  In  short,  1  know  of  no  chi^s  of 
peoj)le  more  capable  of  enjoying  a  winter's 
evening  in  a  rational  manner,  than  the 
family  of  the  country  gentlcmau  or  the 
farmer. 

5!)7.  AHewing  winter  in  a  higher  and 
more  serious  light,  —  in  the  repose  of 
nature,  as  etnblematical  of  the  mortality 
of  man, — in  the  exquisite  pleasures  which 
man  in  winter,  as  a  being  of  sen.-ation, 
enjoys  over  the  lower  creation, — and  in 
the  eminence  in  which  man,  in  the  tempe- 
rate regions,  stands,  with  respect  to  the 
development  of  his  mental  faculties, 
above  his  fellow-creatures  in  the  trr)pics; 
— in  the^'C  respects,  winter  must  be  hailed 
by  the  dweller  in  the  country  as  the 
purifier  of  the  mental  as  well  as  of  the 
physical  atmosphere. 

598.  The  reflections  of  a  modern  writer 
on  the  wholesome  effects  of  winter  on  the 
mind  of  man,  coincide  with  my  own  senti- 
ments and  feelings: — '-Winter,"  says  he, 
"  is  the  season  of  nature's  annual  repose, — 
the  time  when  the  working  structures  are 
reduced  to  the  minimum  of  their  extent, 
and  the  energies  of  growth  and  life  to  the 
minimum  of  their  activity,  and  when  the 
phenomena  of  nature  are  fewer,  and 
address  themselves  less  pleasingly  to  our 
senses,  than  they  do  in  any  other  of  the 
three  seasons.  There  is  hope  in  the  bud 
of  Spring,  jilcasure  in  the  bloojn  of  Sum- 
mer, and  enjoyment  in  the  fruit  of 
Autumn;  but,  if  we  make  our  senses  our 
chief  resource,  there  is  something  both 
blank  and  gloomy  in  the  aspect  of  Winter. 
And  if  we  were  of  and  for  this  world 
alone,  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  would 
be  the  correct  view  of  the  winter,  as  com- 
pared with  the  other  seasons;  and  the 
partial  death  of  the  year  would  point  as  a 
most  mournful  index  to  the  death  and  final 
close  of  our  existence.  But  we  are  beings 
otherwise  destined  and  endowed, —  the 
world  is  to  us  only  what  the  lodge  is  to 
the  wayfaring  man  ;  and  while  we  enjoy  its 
rest,  our  thoughts  can  be  directed  back  to 
the  past  ])art  of  our  journey,  and  our  hopes 
forward  to  its  end,  when  we  shall  reach 
our  jtrojier  home,  and  dwell  there  securely 
and  for  ever.  This  is  our  sure  consohition, 
— the  anchor  of  hope  to  our  minds  during 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


137 


all  storms,  whether  they  be  of  physical     proof  of  the  identity  of  the  magnetic  and 
nature,  or  of  social  adversity."  *  electric  agencies. 


599.  The  weather  in  Tpinter  being  very 
precarious,  is  a  subject  of  intense  interest, 
and  puts  the  farmer's  skill  to  anticipate 
its  changes  severely  to  the  test.  Seeing 
that  every  operation  of  the  farm  is  so 
dependent  on  the  weather,  a  familiar 
acquaintance  with  the  local  prognostics 
which  indicate  a  change  for  the  better  or 
worse  becomes  incumbent  on  the  farmer. 
In  actual  rain,  snow,  or  hard  frost,  none 
but  in-door  occupations  can  be  executed  ; 
but,  if  the  farmer  have  wisely  "  discerned 
the  face  of  the  sky,"  he  may  arrange  them 
to  continue  for  a  length  of  time,  if  the 
storm  threaten  to  endure, — or  be  left  with- 
out detriment,  should  the  strife  of  the  ele- 
ments quicklycease.  Certain  atmospherical 
phenomena  only  occurring  in  winter,  they 
should  be  noticed  here ;  and  these  are — 
aurora  borealis,  frost,  ice,  snow,  and  the 
like. 

600.  Aurora  Borealis. — The  only  elec- 
trical excitation  witnessed  in  winter  is 
the  aurora  borealis,  or  northern  lights,  or 
"merry  dancers,"  as  they  are  vulgarly 
called.  It  mostly  occurs  in  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  northern  hemisphere  of 
the  globe,  where  it  gives  forth  almost  con- 
stant light  during  the  absence  of  the  sun. 
So  intense  is  this  radiance,  that  a  book 
may  be  read  by  it  ;  and  it  confers  a 
great  blessing  on  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Arctic  regions,  at  a  time  they  are  be- 
nighted. The  aurora  borealis  seems  to 
consist  of  two  varieties  ;  one  a  luminous 
quiet  light  in  the  northern  horizon,  gleam- 
ing most  frequently  behind  a  dense  stratum 
of  cloud  ;  and  the  other  of  vivid  corrusca- 
tions  of  almost  white  light,  of  a  sufficient 
transparency  to  alloAV  the  transmission  of 
the  light  of  the  fixed  stars.  The  corrusca- 
tions  are  sometimes  coloured  yellow,  green, 
red,  andof  adusky  hue  :  they  are  generally 
short,  and  confined  to  the  proximity  of 
the  northern  horizon;  but  occasionally 
they  reach  the  zenith,  and  even  extend  to 
the  opposite  horizon,  their  direction  being 
from  NW.  to  SE.  It  seems  now  undeni- 
able, that  the  aurora  borealis  frequently 
exercises  a  most  marked  action  on  the 
magnetic  needle ;  thus  affording  another 

*  Mudie's  Winter,  preface,  p.  iii. 

X  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  7th 


601.  It  is  not  yet  a  settled  point 
amongst  philosophers,  whether  the  aurora 
borealis  occurs  at  the  highest  part  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  near  the  earth.  Mr  Caven- 
dish considered  it  probable,  that  it  usually 
occurs  at  an  elevation  of  71  miles  above 
the  earth's  surface,  at  which  elevation  the 
air  must  be  but  tih'jct  time  the  density 
of  that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth — a  degree 
of  rarefaction  far  above  that  afforded  by 
our  best  constructed  air-pumps.  Dr  Dalton 
conceives,  from  trigonometrical  measure- 
ments made  by  him  of  auroral  arches, 
that  their  height  is  100  miles  above  the 
earth's  surface.  His  most  satisfactory 
measurement  was  made  from  the  arch  of 
29th  March  1826.  As  the  peculiar  appear- 
ance of  the  aurora,  and  its  corruscations, 
precisely  resemble  the  phenomena  which 
we  are  enabled  to  produce  artificially  by 
discharges  of  electricity  between  two 
bodies  in  a  receiver  through  a  medium  of 
highly  rarefied  air,  Lieut.  Morrison,  R.  N., 
of  Cheltenham  conceives,  "  that  these 
(fleecy)  clouds  are  formed  by  the  discharges 
and  currents  of  electricity,  which,  when 
they  are  more  decided,  produce  aurora." 
Mr  Leithead  conjectures  that  the  aurora 
becomes  "  visible  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  upon  their  entering  our  atmo- 
sphere."t  If  these  conjectures  be  at  all 
correct,  the  aurora  cannot  he  seen  bei/ond 
our  atmosphere,  and  therefore  cannot  ex- 
hibit itself  at  the  height  of  100  miles,  as 
supposed  by  Dr  Dalton,  since  the  height 
of  the  atmosphere  is  only  acknowledged  to 
be  from  40  to  50  miles.  This  view  of  the 
height  of  the  aurora  somewhat  corroborates 
that  held  by  the  Eev.  Dr  Farquharson, 
Alford,  Aberdeenshire,  and  which  was 
supported  by  Professor  Jameson.;}: 

602.  The  prognostics  connected  with 
the  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis  are 
these  : — When  exhibiting  itself  in  a  gleam 
of  light  in  the  north,  it  is  indicative  of 
good  steady  weather ;  when  it  corruscates 
a  little,  the  weather  may  be  changeable  ; 
and  when  the  corruscations  reach  the 
zenith,  and  beyond,  they  augur  cold  stormy 
wind  and  rain.  It  has  been  long  alleged, 
that  the  aurora  borealis  has  the  efl'ect  of 

+  Leithead  On  Electricity,  p.  263-4. 
editiou  ;  art.  Aurora  Borealis. 


138 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


producing  a  certain  direction  of  wind. 
Mr  Wiun  stated,  as  lung  ago  as  1774,  that 
the  aurora,  in  the  south  of  England,  was 
constantly  followed  by  a  SW.  wind  and 
rain,  and  that  the  gale  always  began  three 
hours  after  the  phenomenon  ;*  and  in  1833, 
Captain  "Winn  observed  in  the  English 
Channel,  that  the  aurora  shifted  the  wind 
to  SW.  and  S.,  and  that  the  gale  began  24 
hours  after  the  phenomenon,  accompanied 
with  hazy  weather  and  small  rain.  The 
apparent  discrepancy  in  the  two  accounts, 
in  the  same  locality,  of  the  time  when  the 
gale  commenced,  may  perhaps  have  arisen 
from  calculating  the  time  from  different 
periods  of  the  phenomenon.  Captain  Winn 
further  remarks,  that  the  intensity  of  the 
storm,  and  the  time  it  appears,  may  perhaps 
depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  aurora.t 
During  long  observation  of  the  effects  of  the 
aurora  borealis  in  one  of  the  midland 
counties  of  Scotland,  I  never  saw  any 
change  of  the  wind  effected  by  it,  except 
in  frost,  when  the  aurora  seldom  occurs, 
and  then  a  SW.  wind  followed  with  gales. 
Coloured  aurora  borealis  is  always  indi- 
cative of  a  change  of  the  existing  weather, 
whether  from  good  to  bad,  or  bad  to  good. 

603.  Thunder.  —  Thunder-storms  are 
of  rare  occurrence  in  winter,  owing,  pro- 
bably, to  the  generally  humid  state  of  the 
atmosphere  at  that  season  carrying  off  the 
superfluous  electric  matter  silently,  and 
not  allowing  it  to  accumulate  in  any  one 
place.  Sometimes,  however,  they  do 
occur,  and  then  are  always  violent  and 
dangerous ;  at  times  setting  fire  to  dwell- 
ings, rending  trees,  and  destroying  ele- 
vated buildings,  such  as  the  storm  which 
occurred  on  the  3d  January  1841.  Such 
storms  are  almost  always  succeeded  by  in- 
tense frost,  and  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  in 
the  line  of  their  march.  Flashes  of  white 
lightning  near  the  horizon  are  sometimes 
seen  in  clear  fresh  nights,  when  stars  are 
numerous  and  twinkling,  and  falling  stars 
plentiful,  and  they  always  indicate  a  com- 
inir  storm. 


between  the  spectator  and  the  sun  or  moon. 
This  cloud  is  generally  the  denser  kind  of 
cirro-stratus,  the  refraction  and  reflection 
of  the  rays  of  the  sim  or  moon  at  definite 
angles  through  and  upon  which  cause  the 
luminous  phenomenon.  The  breadth  of 
the  ring  of  a  halo  is  caused  by  a  number 
of  rays  being  refracted  at  somewhat 
different  angles,  otherwise  the  breadth  of 
the  ring  would  equal  only  the  breadth  of 
one  ray.  Mr  Forster  has  demonstrated 
mathematically  the  angle  of  refraction, 
which  is  equal  to  the  angle  subtended  by 
the  semidiameter  of  the  halo.  Haloa 
may  be  double  and  triple ;  and  there  is 
one  which  Mr  Forster  denominates  a 
discoid  halo,  which  constitutes  the  bound- 
ary of  a  large  corona,  and  is  generally  of 
less  diameter  than  usual,  and  often  coloured 
with  the  tints  of  the  rainbow.  "A  beau- 
tiful one  appeared  at  Clapton  on  the  22d 
December  1809,  about  midnight,  during 
the  passage  of  a  ciri'o-stratus  cloud  before 
the  moon.":^  Halos  are  usually  j)retty 
correct  circles,  though  they  have  been 
observed  of  a  somewhat  oval  shape ;  and 
are  generally  colourless,  though  snmetimes 
they  display  the  faint  colours  of  the  rain- 
bow. They  are  most  frequently  seen 
around  the  moon,  and  acquire  the  appel- 
lation of  lunar  or  solar  halos,  as  they 
happen  to  accompany  the  particular  lumi- 
nary. 

605.  Corona. — The  corona  or  Irough 
occurs  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  seen 
through  a  thin  cirro-stratus  cloud,  the 
portion  of  the  cloud  more  immediately 
around  the  sun  or  moon  appearing  much 
lighter  than  the  rest.  Corona)  are  double, 
triple,  and  even  quadruple,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  intervening  vajiours. 
They  are  caused  by  a  similar  refractive 
power  in  vapour  as  the  halo,  and  are 
generally  faintly  coloured  at  their  edges. 
Their  diameter  seldom  exceeds  10°.  A 
halo  frequently  encircles  the  moon,  when 
a  small  corona  is  more  immediately  around 
the  moon's  disc. 


604.  Halo. — A  halo  is  an  extensive 
luminous  ring,  including  a  circular  area, 
in  the  centre  of  which  the  sun  or  moon 
appears,  and  is  only  seen  in  winter.  It  is 
formed   by   the   intervention   of  a  cloud 

•  Thomson's  Ilittory  of  the  lioi/al  Societif,  p.  513 


606.  The  prognostics  indicated  by  a 
few  of  the  appearances  of  the  ol)jects  in  the 
air  and  sky  may  be  usefully  remarked  in 
winter: — Sharp  horns  of  anew  tnooti^  and 
a  clear  moon  at  any  time,  arc  character- 
t  The  Field  NaturntUt,  vol.  i.  ]..  108. 


Forster's  Researches  into  Atmotpherical  Phenomena,  p.  101- 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER, 


139 


istics  of  coming  frost.  la  frost,  the  siai's 
appear  small,  clear,  and  twinkling,  and 
not  very  numerous ;  but  when  few  in 
number  in  fresh  weather,  it  is  probable 
that  much  vapour  exists  in  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  atmosphere ;  and  if  very 
numerous,  having  a  lively  twinkle,  rain  is 
indicated — the  transparent  vapour,  in  the 
act  of  subsiding  into  clouds,  causing  the 
twinkling.  Falling  stars  are  meteors  which 
occur  pretty  frequently  in  winter,  appear- 
ing in  greatest  number  when  stars  are 
numerous,  and  .are  therefore  indicative  of 
a  deposition  of  vapour,  accompanied  with 
wind  from  the  point  towards  which  they 
fall.  Dull  sun,  moon,  and  stars, — occa- 
sioned by  a  thin  cirro-stratus,  almost 
invisible,  are  indicativ^e  of  a  change  to 
rain  in  fresh,  and  to  snow  in  frosty  weather. 
Coro«(C  always  indicate  the  fall  of  vapour, 
whether  in  rain,  snow,  or  hail,  according 
to  the  warmer  or  colder  state  of  the  air 
at  the  time.  Coloured  coronce  and  halos 
are  sure  indications  of  an  approaching 
fall  of  rain  in  fre^h,  and  snow  in  frosty, 
weather. 

607.  Clouds. — The  most  common  cloud 
in  winter  is  the  cirro-stratus,  whether  in 
the  state  of  a  shrouding  veil,  more  or  less 
dense,  across  the  whole  sky  for  days,  or 
in  heavy  banked  clouds  in  the  horizon 
before  and  after  sunset.  Whenever  this 
form  of  cloud  is  present,  there  must  be  a 
large  amount  of  vapour  in  the  air,  coming 
nearer  to  the  ground  as  the  power  that 
suspends  it  is  by  any  means  weakened. 
Rain  mostly  falls  direct  from  the  cirro- 
stratus  ;  but  ere  snow  fall  in  any  quantity, 
the  cirro-stratus  descends  to  the  horizon 
into  cumulo-stratus,  from  whence  it 
stretches  over  the  zenith  in  a  dense  bluish- 
black  cloud.  Cirri  in  winter  are  a  sure 
indication  of  a  change  of  wind  in  a  ievr 
hours  from  the  quarter  to  which  their 
turned  up  ends  point. 

608.  Rain.  —  The  variation  in  the 
amount  of  rain  in  any  season  follows,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  same  law  as  that  ex- 
pounded by  Dalton  in  reference  to  the 
heights  of  mountains.  Of  all  the  seasons 
the  least  quantity  of  rain  falls  in  winter. 
According  to  M.  Flaugergues,  taking  the 
mean   amount   as    1,    the   quantity   that 


falls  in  the  winter  quarter  of  December, 
January,  and  February,  is  0'1937  inches. 
The'proportional  results  of  each  month  of 
the  winter  quarter,  as  I  have  divided  the 
agricultural  year,  are  for — 


November 
December 
Jauuary 


0-1 250 
00693 
00716 

0-2659 


This  division  transfers  the  minimum  of 
rain  from  the  winter  to  spring,  which 
is  more  in  accordance  with  experience  in 
Scotland,  than  the  observations  of  M. 
Flaugergues,  which  refer  to  France.  The 
number  of  rainy  days  in  the  same  winter 
quarter  is  thus  enumerated,  in — 

November       .        .         150  days. 
December        .         .         17"7    — 
January  .        .         14  4    — 


In  all 


471 


G09.  The  character  of  winter-rain  has 
more  of  cold  and  discomfort  than  of  quan- 
tity. When  frost  suddenly  gives  way  in 
the  morning  about  sunriae,  it  is  said  to 
have  "  leapt,''  and  rain  may  be  looked  for 
during  the  day.  If  it  do  not  actually  fall, 
a  heavy  cloudiness  will  continue  all  day, 
unless  the  wind  change,  when  the  sky 
may  clear  np.  If  a  few  drops  of  rain 
fall  before  mid-day  after  the  frost  has 
leapt,  and  then  it  fairs,  a  fair,  and  most 
likely  a  fine  day  will  ensue,  with  a  plea- 
sant breeze  from  the  N.  or  W.,  or  even  E. 
When  the  moon  shines  brightly  on  very 
wet  ground,  it  may  be  remarked  how  very 
black  the  shadows  of  objects  become; 
and  this  is  a  sign  of  continuance  of  rain, 
and  of  an  unsettled  state  of  the  wind. 
Rain  sometimes  falls  with  a  rising  baro- 
meter ;  and  when  this  happens,  it  is 
usually  followed  by  fine  healthy  weather, 
which  is  attended  with  circumstances  that 
indicate  a  strong  positive  state  of  the 
electricity  of  the  air.  This  often  occurs 
in  winter.  "  We  have,"  says  Mr  Forster, 
"  usually  a  warm  and  agreeable  sensation 
of  the  atmosphere  with  such  rain,  which 
is  strikingly  contrasted  to  tl:e  cold  and 
raw  sensation  occasioned  by  the  fall  of 
thick  wet  mists  or  rain,  which  happen 
when,  even  with  a  N.  or  E.  wind,  the 
barometer  and  thermometer  sink  together, 
and   when   the   air   has   previously  been 


EncyclopoEdia  Metropolitana ;  art.  Meteorology. 


140 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


example — and  placing  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  evaporation  ;  hut  its  chief  utility  in 
winter  is  supplying  <  'f  thrashing  machinery, 
or  irrigation,  with  abundance  of  water. 

fil3.  Frost. — Frost  has  been  represented 
to  exist  only  in  the  absence  of  heat ;  but  it 
is  more,  fur  it  also  implies  an  absence  of 
moisture.  Sir  Richard  Phillips  defines 
cold  to  be  "  the  mere  absence  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  atoms  called  heat,  or  the 
abstraction  of  it  by  eva})()ration  of  atoms, 
so  as  to  convey  away  the  motion,  or  by 
the  juxtaposition  of  bodies  susceptible  of 
motion.  Cold  and  heat  are  mere  rela- 
tions of  fixity  and  motion  in  the  atoms  of 
bodies. "t  This  definition  of  heat  implies 
that  it  is  a  mere  property  of  matter,  a 
point  not  yet  settled  by  j)hilosophers  j  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  by  motion,  heat  is 
evolved,  and  cold  is  generally  attended  by 
stillness  or  cessation  of  motion. 

614.  Frost  generally  originates  in  the 
upper  portions  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is 
supposed,  by  the  expansion  of  the  air 
carrying  off  the  existing  heat,  and  making 
it  susceptible  of  acquiring  more.  What 
the  cause  of  the  expansion  may  be,  when 
no  visible  change  has  taken  place  in  the 
mean  time  in  the  ordinary  action  of  the 
solar  rays,  may  not  be  obvious  to  a  spec- 
tator on  the  ground  ;  but  it  is  known, 
from  the  experiments  of  Lenz,  that  elec- 
tricity is  as  capable  of  producing  cold  as 
heat,  to  the  degree  of  freezing  whter 
rapidly.;}:  The  poles  of  cold  and  the  mag- 
netic poles  probably  coincide. § 

615.  The  most  intense  frosts  in  this 
country  never  penetrate  more  than  one 
foot  into  the  ground,  on  account  of  the 
excessive  dryness  occasioned  in  it  by  the 
frost  itself  withdrawing  the  moisture  for 
it  to  act  upon.  Frost  cannot  penetrate 
through  a  thick  covering  of  snow,  or  be- 
low a  sheet  of  ice,  or  through  a  covering 
of  grass  on  pasture,  or  the  fine  tilth  on 
the  ploughed  land,  all  which  act  as  non- 
conductors against  its  descent. 

616.  Frost  is  always  present  in  winter, 
though  seasons  do  occur  in  which  very 
little  occurs.     The  winters  of   1834-5-6 

Forster's  Researches  into  Atmospherical  Phenomena,  p.  247  and  342.         t  Phillips'  FacU,  p.  395. 
t  Bird's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,  p.  232. 
§  Kaemtr's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  462. 


found  to  be  either  negatively  or  non- 
electrified  ;  and  the  cause  of  this  is  most 
probably  occasiont'cl  by  a  supervening  cur- 
rent of  colder  or  suj)ersaturated  air;  and 
the  rise  of  the  thermometer,  which  accom- 
panies the  fall  of  the  barometer  in  this 
case,  may  be  owing  to  the  increase  of 
temjierature  produced  by  the  condensation 
of  the  vapour  in  the  case  of  rain."  "  Gusts 
of  wind,  in  some  high  windy  weather," 
says  Mr  Forster,  "  seem  to  fluctuate  in  a 
manner  somewhat  analogous  to  the  undu- 
Jatory  motion  of  waves.  This  fact  may 
easily  be  seen  by  a  pendulous  anemome- 
ter. When  the  wind  is  accompanied  by 
the  rain,  the  periods  of  the  gusts  may  be 
counted  by  the  intervals  of  the  more  or 
less  violent  impulses  of  the  water  on  the 
windows  opposed  to  the  wind,  or  the  leaves 
of  any  tree  twined  across  them."* 

610.  The  mean  annual  fall  of  rain  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe  has  been  taken  at 
34  inches.  On  estimating  the  area  of  the 
globe,  the  quantity  of  rain  that  annually 
falls  at  this  rate  will  be  found  to  be  almost 
incredible.  The  mean  diameter  of  the 
earth  is  7913g  miles,  its  mean  circum- 
ference of  course  24,871  miles,  and  the 
area  of  its  surface  106,816,6.18  square 
miles,  or  5,486,033,518,387,200,  square 
feet,  which,  at  34  inches  of  rain,  give 
15,546,200,603,173,652  cubic  feet  of 
water,  at  1000  ounces  per  cubic  foot, 
amount  to  431,033,808,059,644  tons  6 
cwt.  of  rain  per  annum  ! 

611.  According  to  the  estimate  of  Pro- 
fessor Kigaud  of  Cambridge,  the  sea  bears 
to  the  land  a  ratio  of  36  :  13,  so  the  land 
has  an  area  of  52,353,231  square  miles, 
which  will  receive  15.3,684.431,013,2041 
tons  of  rain  per  annum.  Wiiat  renders 
this  result  the  more  surprising  is,  that  all 
this  enormous  quantity  of  rain  could  not 
have  fallen  unless  it  had  at  first  been  eva- 
porated from  the  ocean,  seas,  lakes,  rivers, 
and  the  land  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
sustained  in  the  air  until  precipitated. 

612.  Kain  is  usefulinhusbandry  by  con- 
solidating light  soils,  and  dissolving  and 
carrying  down  solutions  of  manure  into  the 
soil — when  sheep  are  feeding  on  turnips,  for 


SOIMAEY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


141 


may  be  remembered  as  seasons  remarkably 
free  from  frost.  It  is  a  useful  assistant  to 
the  farmer  in  pulverising  the  ground,  and 
rendering  the  upper  portion  uf  the  ploughed 
soil  congenial  to  the  vegetation  of  seeds. 
It  is  obvious  that  it  acts  in  a  mechanical 
manner  on  the  soil,  by  freezing  tlie  mois- 
ture in  it  into  ice,  which,  on  expanding  at 
the  moment  of  its  formation,  disintegrates 
the  indurated  clods  into  fine  tilth.  Frost 
always  produces  a  powerful  evaporation 
of  the  pulverised  soil,  and  renders  it  very 
dry  on  the  surface ;  by  the  affinity  of  the 
soil  for  moisture  putting  its  capillary 
attraction  into  action,  the  moisture  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  arable  soil,  or  even 
from  the  subsoil,  is  drawn  up  to  the  sur- 
face and  evaporated,  and  the  whole  soil  is 
thus  rendered  dry.  Hence,  after  a  frosty 
winter,  it  is  possible  to  have  the  ground 
in  so  fine  and  dry  a  state  as  to  permit  the 
sowing  of  spring  wheat  and  beans,  in  the 
finest  order,  early  in  spring,  as  witnessed 
in  1847.  Frost  being  favourable  to  the 
exhibition  of  the  electric  agency,  may  also 
prove  useful  to  husbandry,  by  stimulating 
the  electric  influence,  not  only  in  the  soil 
itself,  but  in  vegetation,  in  the  manner 
formerly  described  in  M.  Pouillel's  experi- 
ments (127.) 

616.  Show. — Eain  falls  at  all  seasons, 
but  snow  only  in  winter,  which  is  just  frozen 
rain  ;  whenever,  therefore,  there  are  symp- 
toms of  rain,  snow  may  be  expected  if  the 
temperature  of  the  air  is  sufficiently  low 
to  freeze  vapour.  Vapour  is  supposed  to 
be  frozen  into  snow  at  the  moment  it  is 
collapsing  into  drops  to  form  rain,  for  we 
cannot  suppose  that  clouds  of  snow  can 
float  about  the  atmosphere  any  more  than 
clouds  of  rain.  Snow  is  a  beautifully 
crystallised  substance  when  it  falls  to  the 
ground ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  never 
falls  from  a  great  height,  otherwise  its 
fine  crystalline  configurations  could  not  be 
preserved. 

618.  "  If  flakes  of  snow,"  obserA'es 
Kaenitz,  "  are  received  on  objects  of  a 
dark  colour,  and  at  a  temperature  below 
the  freezing  point,  a  great  regularity 
is  observed  in  their  forms  :  this  has  for  a 
long  time  struck  attentive  observers.  The 
crystals  of  ice  are  never  so  regular  as  when 


snow  falls  without  being  driven  by  the 
wind  ;  but  temperature,  moisture,  the 
agitntiou  of  the  air,  and  other  circum- 
stances, have  a  great  influence  over  the 
forms  of  the  crystals.  Notwithstanding 
their  variety,  they  may  be  all  associated 
under  a  single  law.  We  see  that  isolated 
crystals  unite  under  angles  of  30,  60,  and 
120  degrees.  Flakes  which  fall  at  the 
same  time  have  generally  the  same  form ; 
but  if  there  is  an  interval  between  two 
consecutive  falls  of  snow,  the  forms  of  the 
second  are  observed  to  diflfer  from  those  of 
the  first,  although  always  alike  among 
themselves.  Kepler  speaks  of  their  struc- 
ture with  admiration — and  other  philoso- 
phers have  endeavoured  to  determine  the 
cause  of  their  regularity — but  it  is  only 
within  the  period  in  which  we  have 
learned  to  know  the  laws  of  crystallisa- 
tion in  general,  that  it  has  been  possible 
to  throw  any  light  on  the  subject."* 

619.  The  forms  of  snotc  have  been 
arranged  by  Scoresby  into  5  orders.  1 . 
The  lamellar,  which  is  again  divided  into 
the  stelliform,  regular  hexagojis,  apgre- 
gation  of  hexagons.,  and  coinbinatioii  of 
hexagons  with  radii,  or  spines  and  project- 
ing angles.  2.  Another  form  is  the  lamellar 
or  spherical  niiclciis  with  spinous  rami- 
fications in  diflereut  places.  3.  Fine  spi- 
culcB  or  6-sided  prisms.  4.  Pryamids 
with  six  faces.  .5.  Spiculw.,  having  one 
or  both  extremities  affixed  to  the  centre 
of  a  lamellar  crystal.  There  are  nume- 
rous varieties  of  forms  of  each  class. t  All 
the  forms  of  crystals  of  snow  aflord  most 
interesting  objects  for  the  microscope,  and 
when  jjerfect  no  objects  in  nature  are  more 
beautiful  and  delicately  formed.  The  la- 
raellated  crystals  fall  in  calm  weather,  and 
in  heavy  flakes,  and  are  evidently  pre- 
cipitated from  a  low  elevation.  The 
spiculaj  of  6-sided  prisms  occur  in  heavy 
drifts  of  snow,  accompanied  with  wind  and 
intense  cold.  Tiiey  are  formed  at  a  consi- 
derable elevation;  and  they  are  so  fine  as  to 
pass  through  the  minutest  chinks  in  houses, 
and  so  hard  and  firm  that  they  may  be  pour- 
ed like  sand  from  one  hand  into  another, 
with  a  jingling  sound,  and  without  the 
risk  of  being  melted.  In  this  country 
these  are  most  frequently  accompanied 
by  one  of  the   varieties   of  the   lamellar 


Kaemtz's  Compete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  127. 


t  Scoresby 's  Polar  Eegions. 


142 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


crystals,  whicli  meet  tlieir  full  at  a  lower 
elevation;  but  in  luountaiiious  countries, 
and  especially  above  tlie  line  of  perpetual 
enow,  tliey  constitute  tlie  greatest  bulk  of 
the  snow,  where  they  are  ready  at  the 
surface  to  be  blown  about  with  the  least 
agitation  of  the  air,  and  lifted  up  in  dense 
clouds  by  gusts  of  wind,  and  precipitated 
suddenly  on  the  unwary  traveller  like  a 
sand-drift  of  the  torrid  zone.  These  spiculie 
feel  exceedingly  sharp  when  driven  by  the 
wind  against  the  face,  as  I  have  expe- 
rienced on  the  Al])s.  How  powerless  is 
man  when 

down  he  sinks 

Beneath  the  shelter  of  the  shapeless  drift, 
Thinking  o'er  all  the  bitterness  of  death  !  * 

And  how  helpless  is  a  flock  of  sheep  when 
overwhelmed  under  a  cloud  of  snow-drift! 
Other  forms  of  snow  are  more  rare,  yet  the 
total  number  seen  by  Scoresby  amounted 
to  96.  "  Yet  I  have  met,"  remarks 
Kaemtz,  "  with  at  least  20  lie  has  not 
figured ;  but  I  never  found  a  single  one 
in  which  the  crystals  were  in  planes  per- 
pendicular to  each  other.  The  varieties 
probably  amount  to  several  hundreds. 
Who  would  not  admire  the  infinite  power 
of  Nature,  which  has  known  how  to  create 
so  many  different  forms  in  bodies  of  so 
small  a  bulk  !  " 

620.  All  other  things  being  equal.  Pro- 
fessor Leslie  supposes  that  a  flake  of  snow, 
taken  at  9  times  more  expanded  than 
water,  descends  3  times  as  slow. 

621.  From  the  moment  snow  alights  on  the 
ground  it  begins  to  undergo  certain  changes, 
which  usually  end  in  a  more  solid  crystal- 
lisation than  it  originally  possessed.  The 
adhesive  property  of  snow  arises  from  its 
needly  crystalline  texture,  aided  by  a  de- 
gree of  attendant  moisture  which  after- 
wards freezes  in  the  mass.  Sometimes, 
when  a  strong  wind  sweeps  over  a  surface 
of  snow,  portions  of  it  are  raised  by  its 
power,  and,  passing  on  with  the  breeze  under 
a  diminished  temperature,  become  cry- 
stallised, and  by  attrition  assume  globular 
forms.  Mr  Howard  describes  having  seen 
these  snow-balls,  as  they  may  be  termed,  in 
January  1 8 14,andMrPatrickShirre8",  when 
at  Mungoswells  in  p]ast  Lothian,  observed 


the  like  phenomenon  in  February  1830.t 
I  observed  the  same  phenomenon  in  For- 
farshire in  the  great  snow-storm  of  Feb- 
ruary 1823. 

622.  During  the  descent  of  enow,  the 
thermometer  sometimes  rises,  and  the 
harometi'r  usualli/  falls.  Snow  has  the 
effect  of  retaining  the  temperature  of  the 
ground  at  what  it  was  when  the  snow  fell. 
It  is  this  property  which  maintains  the 
warmer  temjierature  of  the  ground,  and 
sustains  the  life  of  plants  during  the  severe 
rigours  of  winter  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
where  the  snow  falls  suddenly,  after  the 
warmth  of  summer;  and  it  is  the  same  i)ro- 
perty  which  supplies  water  to  rivers  in 
winter,  from  under  the  perpetual  snows 
of  the  Alpine  mountains.  "•  While  air, 
above  snow,  may  be  70°  below  the  freez- 
ing point,  the  ground  below  the  snow  ia 
only  at  32°.|  Hence  the  fine  healthy 
green  colour  of  young  wheat  and  young 
grass,  after  the  snow  has  melted  off  them 
in  spring. 

623.  In  melting,  27  inches  of  snow 
give  3  inches  of  water.  Rain  and  snow- 
water are  the  so/test  natural  waters  for 
domestic  purposes ;  and  are  also  the  purest 
that  can  be  obtained  from  natural  sources, 
provided  they  are  procured  either  before 
reaching  the  ground,  or  from  newly  fallen 
snow.  Nevertheless,  they  are  impreg- 
nated with  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid,  especially  with  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  ;  and  rain-water  and  dew 
contain  nearly  as  much  air  as  they  can 
absorb. §  Liebig  says  that  both  rain  and 
snow-water  contain  ammonia ;  and  it  is 
the  probable  cause  of  their  great  softness. 

624.  Snow  reflects  beautifully  blue  and 
pink  tints  at  sunset,  as  I  have  often  ob- 
served, with  admiration,  on  the  Alps  of 
Switzerland.  It  also  reflects  so  much 
light  from  its  surface,  as  to  render  tra- 
velling at  night  a  cheerful  occupation ; 
and  in  some  countries,  as  in  Russia  and 
Canada,  when  frozen,  it  forms  a  delightful 
highway  for  man  and  horse  and  rein-deer. 

625.  A  heavy  fall  of  snow  generally  com- 
mences in  the  evening,  continues  through- 


Thomson's /Sm-'ows, —  Winter.  t  Enciiclopcfdia  'MetropoVitana  ;  art.  Mettorology. 

Phillips'  Facts,  p.  440.  §  Heia's  Chemiflry  of  Nature,  p.  192. 

II  Liebig'fi  Organic  Chemistry,  p.  45. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


143 


out  the  next  day,  and  at  intervals  in  suc- 
ceeding days.  Snow-showers  may  fall 
heavily  for  the  time  ;  and  when  they  fall, 
and  the  sky  clears  up  quickly  but  is  again 
overcome  with  another  shower,  it  is  said 
to  be  a  '■'•feeding  storm."  In  such  a  case,  the 
air  always  feels  cold.  In  moonlight,  masses 
of  cumulo-strati  may  be  seen  to  shower 
down  snow  at  times,  and  then  roll  across 
the  face  of  the  moon  with  the  most  beauti- 
ful fleecy  and  rounded  forms  imaginable. 
The  forms  of  the  flakes  of  snow  are  pretty 
correct  indications  of  the  amount  of  fall  to 
be ;  as,  when  large  and  broad,  and  falling 
slowly,  there  will  not  be  much,  and  the 
probability  is  that  a  thaw  will  soon  follow; 
but  when  they  fall  thick  and  fast,  and  of 
medium  size,  there  may  be  a  fall  of  some 
inches  before  it  fairs,  and  may  lie  some 
time.  When  the  flakes  are  spicular  and 
fall  very  thick  and  fast,  a  heavy  fall,  or  a 
"•  li/inrf  storm,"  as  it  is  called,  may  be 
expected ;  and  this  last  sort  of  fall  is  al- 
ways accompanied  with  a  firm  breeze  of 
wind,  varying  from  NE.  to  SE.,  and  con- 
stitutes the  minute  drift,  which  penetrates 
into  every  crevice  that  is  open  in  doors, 
windows,  or  sheds.  Neither  frost  nor  snow 
will  last  long,  if  either  come  when  the 
ground  is  in  a  very  wet  state,  in  conse- 
quence of  rain. 

626.  Snow  renders  important  services 
to  husbandry.  If  it  fall  shortly  after  a 
confirmed  frost,  it  acts  as  a  protective 
covering  against  its  farther  cooling  effects 
on  soil ;  and,  in  this  way,  protects  the 
young  wheat  and  clover  from  destruction 
by  intense  frosts.  On  tlie  other  hand,  frost, 
and  rain,  and  snow,  may  all  retard  the 
operations  of  the  fields  in  winter  very  ma- 
terially, by  rendering  ploughing  and  the 
carriage  of  turnips  impracticable. 

627.  Hoar-frost. — Hoar-frost  is  defined 
to  be  frozen  dew.  This  it  not  quite  a  cor- 
rect definition ;  for  dew  is  sometimes 
frozen,  especially  in  spring,  into  globules 
of  ice  which  do  not  at  all  resemble  hoar- 
frost,— this  latter  substance  being  beauti- 
fully and  as  regularly  crystallised  as  snow. 
The  formation  of  hoar-frost  is  always  at- 
tended with  a  considerable  degree  of  cold, 
because  it  is  preceded  by  a  great  radiation 
of  heat  and  vapour  from  the  earth,  and 


the  phenomenon  is  the  more  perfect  the 
wai'mer  the  day  and  the  clearer  the  night 
havd  been.  In  tlie  country,  hoar-frost  is 
of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  autum- 
nal months  and  in  winter,  in  such  places 
as  have  little  snow  or  continued  frost  on 
the  average  of  seasons ;  and  this  chiefly 
from  great  radiation  of  heat  and  vapour  at 
those  seasons,  occasioned  by  a  suspension 
of  vegetable  action,  which  admits  of  little 
absorption  of  moisture  for  vegetable  pur- 
poses.* 

628.  The  late  Dr  Farquharson,  Alford, 
Aberdeenshire,  j)aid  great  attention  to  the 
subject  of  hoar-frost  or  rime,  which  fre- 
quently injures  the  crops  in  the  northern 
portion  of  our  island  long  before  they  are 
ripe.  The  results  of  his  observations  are 
very  instructive.  He  observed,  that  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  day  and  night 
at  which  injurious  hoar-frosts  may  occur, 
may  be,  relatively  to  the  freezing-point,  very 
high.  Thus,  on  the  nights  of  the  2!jth  and 
31  stAugustl  840,  theleaves  of  potatoes  were 
injured,  while  the  lowest  temperatures  of 
those  nights,  as  indicated  by  a  self-regis- 
tering thermometer,  were  as  high  as  41° 
and  .39°  respectively. 

629.  Hoar-frost,  at  the  time  of  a  high 
daily  mean  temperature,  takes  place  only 
during  calm.  A  very  slight  steady  breeze 
will  quickly  melt  away  frosty  rime. 

630.  The  air  is  always  unclouded,  or 
nearly  all  of  it  so,  at  the  time  of  hoar- 
frost. So  incompatible  is  hoar-frost  with 
a  clouded  state  of  the  atmosphere,  that  on 
many  occasions  when  a  white  frosty  rime 
has  been  formed  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
night,  on  tlie  formation  of  a  close  cloud  at 
a  later  part,  it  has  melted  ofi"  before  the 
rising  of  the  sun. 

631.  Hoar-frosts  most  frequently  hap- 
pen with  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  at 
a  high  point  and  rising,  and  with  the  hy- 
grometer at  comparative  dryness  for  the 
temperature  and  season;  but  there  are 
striking  exceptions  to  these  rules.  On  the 
morning  of  the  15th  September  1840,  a 
very  injurious  frost  occurred,  with  a  low 
and  falling  barometer  column,  and  with 
a  damp  atmosphere. 


Mudie's  World,  p.  254. 


144 


PRACTICE— ^TNTER. 


632.  In  general,  low  and  flat  lands  in 
the  bottoms  of  valleys,  and  grounds  that 
are  land-locked  hollows,  suflTer  njost  from 
hoar-frost,  while  all  sloping  lands,  and 
open  uplands,  escape  injury.  But  it  is  not 
their  relative  elevation  above  the  sea,  in- 
dependently of  the  freedom  of  their  expo- 
sure, that  is  the  source  of  safety  to  the 
uplands ;  for  provided  they  are  enclosed 
by  higher  lands,  without  any  wide  open 
descent  from  them  ou  some  side  or  other, 
they  suffer  more,  under  other  equal  circum- 
stances, than  similar  lands  of  less  altitude. 

G33.  A  very  slight  inclination  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  generally  <juite 
protective  of  the  crops  on  it  from  injury 
by  hoar-frost,  frum  which  flat  and  hollow 
places  suffer  at  the  time  great  injury.  Luta 
similar  slope  downward  in  the  bottom  of  a 
narrow  descending  hollow  does  uot  save  the 
crop  in  the  bottom  of  it,  although  those 
ou  its  side-banks  higher  up  may  be  safe. 

634.  An  impediment  of  no  great  height 
on  the  surface  of  the  slope,  such  as  a  stone- 
wall fence,  causes  damage  immediately 
above  it,  extending  upwards  proportion- 
ally to  the  height  of  the  impediment.  A 
still  loftier  impediment,  like  a  closely- 
planted  and  tall  wood  or  belt  of  trees, 
across  the  descent,  or  at  the  b()ttom  of 
sloping  land,  causes  the  damage  to  extend 
on  it  much  more. 

635.  Rivers  have  a  bad  repute  as  the 
cause  of  hoar-frosts  in  their  neiglil)ourhood; 
but  the  general  opinion  regarding  their 
evil  influence  is  altogether  erroneous:  the 
protective  effect  of  ;-«/(/<(«_f/  water,  such  as 
waterfalls  from  mill-sluices,  on  pieces  of 
potatoes,  when  others  in  like  low  situa- 
tions are  blackened  by  frost,  is  an  illustra- 
tio"  which  can  be  referred  to. 

63G.  The  severity  of  the  injury  by  hoar- 
frost is  much  influenced  by  the  wetness  or 
dryness  of  the  soil  at  the  place;  and  this 
is  exemplifled  in  potatoes  growing  on 
haugh-lands  by  the  sides  of  rivers.  These 
lands  arc  generally  dry,  but  bars  of  clay 
sometimes  intersect  the  dry  portions,  over 
which  the  land  is  comparatively  damp. 
Hoar-frost  will  affect  the  crop  growing 
upon  these  bars  of  clay,  Mhile  that  on  the 


dry  soil  will  e8caj»e  injury  ;  and  the  expla- 
nation of  this  is  (juite  easy.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  damp  lands  is  lower 
than  that  of  the  dry,  and  on  a  diminution 
of  the  temperature  during  frost,  it  sooner 
gets  down  to  the  freezing  point,  as  it  haa 
less  to  diminish  before  reaching  it. 

637.  Hoar-frost  produces  peculiar  cur- 
rents in  the  atmosphere.  On  flat  lands, 
and  in  land-locked  hollows,  there  are  no 
currents  that  are  at  all  sensible  to  the  feel- 
ings ;  but  on  the  eloping  lands,  during  hoar- 
frost, there  is  rarely  absent  a  very  sensible 
and  steady,  although  generally  only  feeble, 
current  towards  the  most  direct  descent  of 
the  slope.  The  current  is  produced  in  this 
way  :  The  cold  first  takes  place  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  lower  stra- 
tum of  air  becoming  cooled,  descends  to  a 
lower  temperature  than  that  of  the  air  im- 
mediately above,  in  contact  ■with  it.  Bv 
its  cooling,  the  lower  stratum  acquires  a 
greater  density,  and  cannot  rest  on  an 
inclined  plane,  but  descends  to  the  valley; 
its  place  at  the  summit  of  the  slope  being 
supplied  by  warmer  air  from  above,  which 
prevents  it  from  getting  so  low  as  the 
freezing  temperature.  On  the  flat  ground 
below,  the  cool  air  accumulates,  and  com- 
mits injury,  while  the  warmer  current 
down  the  slope  does  none ;  but  should 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  day  and  night 
be  already  very  low  before  the  calm  of  the 
evening  sets  in,  the  whole  air  is  so  cooled 
down  as  to  jtrevent  any  current  down  the 
slope.  Injury  is  then  effected  both  on  the 
slope  and  the  low  ground ;  and  hence  the 
capricious  nature  of  hoar-frost  may  be 
accounted  for.* 

638.  "  In  hoar-frost,"  observes  Kaemtz, 
"the  crystals  are  generally  irregular  and 
opa(jue  ;  and  it  seems  that  great  numbers 
of  vesicles  are  solidified  at  their  surface 
without  having  had  time  to  unite  inti- 
mately with  the  crystalline  molecules. 
During  wind  the  crystals  are  broken  and 
irregular;  rounded  grains  are  then  found 
com])osed  of  unequal  rays.  In  the  Alps, 
and  in  Germany,  I  have  often  seen  per- 
fectly symmetrical  crystals  fall.  (Should 
the  wind  rise,  they  become  grains  of  the 
size  of  millet,  or  small  peas,  whose  struc- 
ture is  any  thing  but  compact;  or  even 


•  Priw  Eisar/M  of  the  IligUand  and  Aijrlcultural  Society,  Tol.  xiv.  p.  250. 


SUI^IARY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


145 


bodies  having  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  the 
base  of  which  is  a  spherical  cup.  These 
])odies  may  be  compared  to  sleet ;  yet  they 
are  found  under  the  influence  of  the  same 
meteorological  circumstances  as  the  flakes 
which  fall  before  gales  of  wind."  * 

639.  Frost-smoke. — Clear  calm  air,  ad- 
mitting much  sunshine  at  the  middle  of 
the  day,  is  very  bracing,  healthy,  and 
agreeable ;  but  in  the  evening  of  such  a 
day,  the  sun  usually  sets  in  red,  and  a 
heavy  dew  falls,  which  is  frozen  into  rime 
or  hoar-frost,  incrusting  every  twig  and 
sprig  of  trees  and  shrubs  into  the  semblance 
of  white  coral.  When  the  cold  is  intense, 
the  dew  is  frozen  before  it  reaches  the 
objects  on  which  it  is  deposited,  and  it  then 
appears  like  smoke  or  mist,  and  is  called 
'"'' frost-smoke"  which,  when  deposited  on 
the  naked  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
converts  them  into  a  resemblance  of  the 
most  beautiful  filagree-work  of  silver. 
This  mist  may  last  some  days,  during  the 
day  as  well  as  night,  and  then  new  depo- 
sitions of  incrusted  dew  take  place  on  the 
trees  and  walls  every  night,  until  they 
seem  overloaded  with  it.  The  smallest 
puff  of  winter  wind  dispels  the  enchanting 
scene,  as  described  by  Phillips  in  his  Letter 
from  Copenhagen  :  — 

When,  if  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  arise, 

The  brittle  forest  into  atoms  flies ; 

The  crackling  wood  beneath  the  tempest  bends, 

And  in  a  spangled  shower  the  prospect  ends. 

Winter-fog,  as  long  as  it  hovers  about  the 
plains,  is  indicative  of  dry  weather;  but 
when  it  betakes  itself  to  the  hills,  a  thaw 
may  be  expected  soon  to  follow ;  and  no- 
thing can  be  more  true  than  ''  He  that 
would  have  a  bad  day,  may  go  out  in  a 
fog  after  frost ; "  for  no  state  of  the  air 
can  be  more  disagreeable  to  the  feelings 
than  a  raw  rotten  fog  after  frost,  with 
the  wind  from  the  SE. 

640.  Hail. — Hail,  consisting  of  soft, 
snowy,  round  spongy  masses,  frequently 
falls  in  winter  after  snow,  and  may  lie 
for  some  time  unmelted. 

641.  Ice. — Though  a  solid,  ice  is  not  a 
compact  substance,  but  contains  large  in- 
terstices filled  with  air,  or  other  substances 


that  may  have  been  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Ice  is  an  aggregation  of 
crystals,  subtending  with  one  another  the 
angles  of  60°  and  120°.  It  is  quickly 
formed  in  shallovv^,  but  takes  a  long  time 
to  form  in  deep  water ;  and  it  cannot  be- 
come very  thick  in  the  lower  latitudes  of 
the  globe,  from  want  of  time  and  intensity 
of  the  frost.  By  1 1  years'  observations  at 
the  observatory  at  Paris,  there  were  only 
58  days  of  frost  throughout  the  year,  which 
is  too  short  and  too  desultory  a  period  to 
freeze  deep  water  in  that  latitude. 

642.  The  freezing  of  water  is  effected 
by  frost  in  this  manner.  The  upper  film 
of  water  in  contact  with  the  air  becomes 
cooled  down,  and  when  it  reaches  39°'39 
it  is  at  its  densest  state,  and  of  course  sinks 
to  the  bottom  through  the  less  dense  body 
of  water  below  it.  The  next  film  of 
water,  which  is  now  uppennost,  undergoes 
the  same  condensation  ;  and  in  this  way 
does  film  after  film  in  contact  with  the  air 
descend  towards  the  bottom,  until  the 
whole  body  of  water  becomes  equally 
dense  at  the  temperature  of  39°*39.  When 
this  vertical  circulation  of  the  water  stops, 
the  upper  fihu  becomes  frozen.  If  there  is 
no  wind  to  agitate  the  surface  of  the 
water,  its  temperature  will  descend  as  low 
as  28°  before  it  freezes,  and  on  freezing 
will  start  up  to  32°  ;  but  should  there  be 
any  wind,  then  the  ice  will  form  at  once  at 
32°,  expanding  at  the  same  time  one-ninth 
larger  than  in  its  former  state  of  water. 

643.  It  is  worth  while  to  trace  the  pro- 
gress of  this  curious  property — the  expan- 
sion of  ice.  In  the  first  place,  the  water 
contracts  in  bulk  by  the  frost,  until  it 
reaches  the  temperature  of  39°'39,  when  it 
is  in  its  state  of  greatest  density  and  least 
bulk,  and  then  sinks.  After  this  the 
water  resists  frost  in  calm  air,  until  it 
reaches  28°,  without  decreasing  more  in 
hulk,  and  it  remains  floating  on  the 
xcarmer  water  below  it,  v-hich  continue* 
at  29°-39.  So  placed,  and  at  28°,  it  then 
freezes,  and  suddenly  starts  up  to  32°,  and 
in  the  form  of  ice  as  suddenly  expands 
one-ninth  more  in  bulk  than  in  its  ordi- 
nary temperature.,  and  of  course  more  than 
that  when  in  its  most  condensed  state  at 
39°'39.     After  the  water  has  undergone 


*  Kaemtz's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  ]31. 


VOL.  I. 


146 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


all  these  mutations,  it  retains  its  enlarged 
state  us  ice  until  tliat  is  melted. 

644.  So  great  is  the  force  of  water  on 
bcinir  sudJcnlv  expanded  into  ice,  that, 
according  to  the  experiments  of  the  Flo- 
rentine Academy,  every  cubic  inch  of  it 
exerts  a  power  of  27,000  lbs.  This  re- 
markable power  of  ice  is  of  use  in  agricul- 
tnre,  as  I  have  noticed  when  speaking  of 
the  effects  of  frost  on  ploughed  land.  (620.) 

645.  It  is  obvious  that  no  large  body  of 
fresh  water,  such  as  a  deep  lake  or  river, 
can  be  reduced  in  temperature  below 
39°*39,  when  water  is  in  it5  densest  state,  as 
what  becomes  colder  floats  upon  and  covers 
the  denser,  which  is  also  the  warmer,  por- 
tion ;  and  as  ice  is  of  larger  bulk,  weight 
for  weight,  than  water,  it  must  float  above 
all,  and,  in  retaining  its  form  and  position, 
prevent  the  farther  cooling  of  the  water 
below  it  to  a  lower  temperature  than 
3y°-39.  On  the  other  hand,  jrca-water 
freezes  at  once  on  the  surface,  and  that 
below  the  ice  retains  the  temperature  it 
had  when  the  ice  was  formed.  Frost  in 
the  polar  regions  becomes  suddenly  in- 
tense, and  the  polar  sea  becomes  as  sud- 
denly covered  with  ice,  without  regard  to 
the  temperature  of  the  water  below.  The 
ice  of  the  polar  sea,  like  the  snow  upon  the 
polar  land,  thus  becomes  a  protective 
mantle  against  the  intense  cold  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  is  sometimes  as  great  as 
37°  below  zero.  In  this  way  sea  animals, 
as  well  as  land  vegetables,  in  those  regions 
are  protected  at  once,  and  securely,  against 
the  effects  of  the  intensest  frosts. 

646.  "Water  presents  a  phenomenon 
analogous  to  sulphur,"  observes  Kaemtz ; 
"  it  crystallises  under  the  influence  of 
cold  alone.  However,  on  examining  the 
ice  of  rivers,  we  do  not  discover  the  small- 
est trace  of  crystals  ;  it  is  a  confused  mass 
like  that  of  the  rolls  of  brimstone.  But  ii 
the  progress  of  crystallisation  is  followed 
on  the  banks  of  a  river,  needles  are  seen  to 
dart  from  the  bank,  or  rather  from  the  ice 
already  formed,  and  to  advance  parallel  to 
each  other,  or  making  angles  with  each 
other  from  30  to  60  degrees.  Other 
needles  dart  from  these  at  the  above 
angles,  and  so  on  until  a  compact  uniform 


mass  is  the  effect  of  their  interlacing.  If 
a  sheet  of  ice  thus  formed  is  raised,  very 
irregular  crystals  are  often  discovered  in 
its  lower  surface.  Similar  phenomena  are 
observed  in  winter  on  panes  of  glass.  The 
secondary  crystals  are  seen  to  make  a  con- 
stant angle  with  the  crystals  which  serve 
as  a  common  axis  ;  and  if  the  glass  were  a 
perfect  jilane,  very  regular  figures  would 
be  seen.  They  occur  sometimes  when  the 
pane  of  glass  is  very  thin.  The  air  of  the 
room  is  moist,  then  each  scratch,  each 
grain  of  dust,  becomes  a  centre  of  crystal- 
line formation  ;  and  by  radiating  in  all 
directions,  these  crystals  form  a  net-work, 
which  excites  admiration  by  its  astonishing 
complication."  * 

647.  Ice  evaporates  moisture  as  largely 
as  tcater,  which  property  preserves  it 
from  being  easily  melted  by  any  unusual 
occurrence  of  a  high  temperature  of  the 
air,  because  the  rapid  evaporation,  occa- 
sioned by  the  small  increase  of  heat,  super- 
induces a  greater  coldness  in  the  body  of 
ice. 

648.  The  great  cooling  potcert  of  ics 
may  be  witnessed  by  the  simple  experi- 
ment of  mixing  1  lb.  of  water  at  32°  with 
1  lb.  at  172° — the  mean  temperature  of  the 
mixture  will  be  as  high  as  102°;  whereas 
1  lb.  of  ice  at  32°,  on  being  put  into  1  lb. 
of  water  at  172°,  will  reduce  the  mixture 
to  the  temperature  of  ice,  namely  32°.  This 
perhaps  unexpected  result  arises  from  the 
greater  capacity  of  ice  for  caloric  tltsn 
water  at  the  temperature  of  32° ;  that  is, 
more  heat  is  required  to  break  up  the  crys- 
tallisation of  ice  than  to  heat  wat»,'r. 

649.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  notice, 
that  pomis  and  lakes  are  generally  frozen 
trith  different  thicknesses  of  ice,  owing 
either  to  irregularities  in  the  bottom, 
which  constitute  different  depths  of  water, 
or  to  the  existence  of  deep  springs,  the 
water  of  which  seldom  falls  below  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  place,  40°. 
Hence  the  unknown  thickness  of  ice  on 
lakes  and  ponds  until  its  strength  has  been 
ascertained  ;  and  hence  also  the  origin  of 
most  of  the  accidents  on  ice. 

650.  Wind. — The  true  character  of  all 


•  Kaemta's  ConpleU  Couth  of  MeUorology,  p.  128. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


147 


the  phenomena  of  rain  and  snow  is  much 
modified  by  the  directio7i  of  the  tcind.  In 
winter,  it  may  be  generally  stated  as  a  fact, 
that  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  NW.  to 
SE.  bv  the  N.  and  E.,  cold  and  frost  may 
be  looked  for  as  certain,  and  if  there  are 
symptoms  of  a  deposition  from  the  air, 
snow  will  fall ;  but  if  the  wind  blows 
from  the  SE.  to  NW.  by  the  S.  and  W., 
fresh  weather  and  rain  will  ensue.  Heavy 
falls  of  snow  occur,  however,  with  the 
wind  direct  from  the  S.  ;  but  they  are 
always  accompanied  with  cold,  and  such 
are  usually  termed  "  Flanders'  stoni^s." 
In  this  case,  the  wind  veers  suddenly  from 
the  N.  or  NE.  to  the  S.,  which  causes  the 
lower  stratum  of  vapour  to  give  way  by 
the  introduction  of  warm  air,  and  the  cold 
vapour  above  then  suddenly  descends  in 
quantity, 

(Jol.  The  characters  of  the  winds  in 
winter  are  very  well  described  by  old 
Tusser  in  these  lines  : — 

N.  winds  send  hail,  S.  winds  bring  rain, 
E.  winds  we  bewail,  W.  winds  blow  amain  ; 
NE.  is  too  cold,  SE.  not  too  warm, 
NW.  is  too  bold,  SW.  dotli  no  harm.* 

In  winter,  the  N.  wind  is  firm,  powerful, 
cold,  and  bracing;  the  NE.  howling,  de- 
ceitful, cold,  disagreeable,  and  may  bring 
either  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  or  rain ;  the 
E.  wind  is  cold,  piercing,  and  drying, 
causing  a  quick  evaporation  ;  the  SE.  feels 
cold,  damp,  and  thin,  and  causes  a  shiver; 
the  S.  wind  is  soft  and  undecided,  and 
sometimes  causes  shivering  ;  the  SW. 
generally  blows  a  loud  and  steady  gale 
for  hours,  frequently  accompanied  with 
heavy  battering  showers  ;  the  W.  wind 
is  bluffy  and  buoyant;  and  the  NW. 
pouring  and  steady,  and  often  cold. 
Any  wind  that  blows  fur  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  such  as  two  or  three  days, 
always  brings  down  the  temperature  of 
the  air.  When  any  wind  blows  a  good 
way  over-head,  it  will  be  fair  weather  for 
some  time,  or  until  a  change  of  the  wind 
takes  place ;  but  when  it  blows  low  and 
very  near  the  ground,  and  feels  raw,  cold, 
and  thin  to  the  feelings, —  which  is  fre- 
quently the  case  in  winter  with  the  SW., 
S.,  and  SE.  winds, — rain  will  follow  in 
fresh  weather,  and  thaw  in  frost.     Mostly 


all  winds  begin  to  blow  in  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  whether  they 
will  descend  to  the  earth  or  not  depends  on 
the  quantity,  first,  of  the  cirri,  and  then  of 
the  cirro-strati,  in  the  air.  Very  frequently 
different  currents  of  air,  at  different  eleva- 
tions, may  be  seen  in  winter  at  the  same 
time  by  means  of  the  clouds.  When  this 
is  observed,  it  may  be  relied  upon  that  the 
uppermost  current  will  ultimately  prevail. 
It  is  characteristic  of  winds  in  winter  to 
sliift  much  about, — sometimes  to  all  points 
of  the  azimuth  in  the  course  of  twenty-four 
hours,  and  seldom  remaining  more  than 
three  days  in  one  quarter.  Winter  winds 
are  heavy,  overpowering,  stormy  (242.) 

6.52.  A  set  of  rules  was  published  about  a 
hundred  years  ago,  to  judge  of  the  changes 
of  the  weather,  by  John  Claridge,  shepherd, 
many  of  which  are  much  akin  to  those  given 
above  ;  but  a.s  a  few  are  expressed  in  so 
definite  terms  in  regard  to  the  wind,  they 
must  have  been  the  result  of  observation,  and 
therefore  deserve  attention.  He  says  : — 
"  When  the  wind  turns  to  NE.  and  it  con- 
tinues two  days  without  rain,  and  does  not 
turn  S.the  third day,nor  rains  the  third  day, 
it  is  likely  to  continue  NE.  for  8  or  9  days, 
all  fair,  and  then  to  come  to  the  S.  again. 
If  it  turn  again  out  of  the  S.  to  the  NE.  with 
rain,  and  continue  in  the  NE.  two  days 
without  rain,  and  neither  turn  S.  nor  rain 
the  third  day,  it  is  likely  to  continue  NE.  for 
two  or  three  months.  The  wind  will  finish 
these  turns  in  3  weeks.  After  a  N.  wind, 
for  the  most  jjart  two  months  or  more,  and 
then  coming  S.,  there  are  usually  3  or  4 
fair  days  at  first,  and  then,  on  the  fourth 
or  fifth  day,  comes  rain,  or  else  the  wind 
turns  N.  again,  and  continues  dry.  If  it 
return  to  the  S.  in  a  day  or  two  without 
rain,  and  turn  N.  with  rain,  and  return  to 
the  S.  in  one  or  two  days  as  before,  two  or 
three  turns  together  after  this  sort,  then  it 
is  like  to  be  in  the  S.  or  SW.  two  or  three 
months  together,  as  it  was  in  the  N.  before. 
The  wind  will  finish  these  turns  in  a  fort- 
night. Fair  weather  for  a  week,  with  a 
S.  wind,  is  like  to  produce  a  great  drought, 
if  there  has  been  much  rain  out  of  the  S. 
before.  The  wind  usually  turns  from  N. 
to  S,  with  a  quiet  wind  without  rain,  but 
returns  to  the  N,  with  a  strong  wind  and 
rain.      The  strongest  winds   are  when  it 


•  Tusser's  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Goad  Husbandry,  Introduction,  p.  xxxviii. 


148 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


turns  from  S.  to  N.  by  W.  "When  the  N. 
wind  first  clears  the  air,  (which  is  usually 
once  a-week,)  be  euro  of  a  fair  day  or 
two."* 

653.  <S7.;v. — A  difference  in  the  blue  tint 
of  the  sky  in  winter  indicates  a  fall  of 
different  states  of  moisture  ;  for  if  of  a  deep 
blue,  in  fresh  weather,  rain  will  fall ;  of  a 
yellowish  or  greenish  colour  near  the 
horizon  in  frost,  snow  will  certainly  come; 
and  on  a  clear  watery  blue  opening  in  the 
clouds,  occurring  in  fresh  weather  near  the 
horizon  in  the  S.,  a  heavy  rain  may  soon 
be  expected. 

654.  Mean  of  the  atmospherical  pheno- 
mena occurring  in  winter  is  as  follows  : — 

Mean  of  barometer  in  England,  in — 

November       .         .         ,         29P.1    inches. 
December       .         .         .         29-SO 
January  .         .         29'97 


Mean  of  Winter 


29-89 


Mean  of  thermometer  in  England,  in — 
November       .         .         .         42°-6  FaLr. 
December       .         .         .         37  °0 
January  .  .         Z4'-o 


Mean  of  Winter 


38° 


Tension  of  vapour  for  33°-3="-04. 

Mean  fall  of  rain  in  November,  December,  and 
January,  is  192  inches. 

Prevailing  wind  in  November,  December,  and 
January,  is  the  SW. 

Number  of  storms  in  winter  is  j's  of  those  of 
the  year. 

Hail  and  sleet  fall  mo-^t  in  winter  in  the  pro- 
portion of  45o  in  100. 

Aurora-borealis  has  been  seen  in — 
November         .         .         .         285  times. 
December  .         ,  225 

January  .         .         .         229 

Number  of  fire-balls  have  been  eeen  in  — 
November         ...  89 

December  .         .         .  71 

January  ...  69 


0>-     PREPARING     FOR,     AND     COM.MKNCING 
THE   WINTER    OPERATIONS. 

655.  We  shall  now  direct  onr  atten- 
tion to  the  practice  of  farming.  I  have 
said,  that  the  agricultural  year  commences 
immediately  after  the  completion  of  har- 
Test,  and   the   sowing  of  the    autumnal 


•wheat ;  and  as  these  operations  may  be 
finished  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  season,  so  the  agricultural 
year  may  commence  sooner  or  later  in 
different  years.  It  seldom,  however, 
commences  before  the  middle  of  October, 
which  it  does  when  the  harvest  has  been 
very  early,  and  it  is  less  seldom  postponed 
until  the  end  of  November,  which  it  only 
is  when  the  harvest  has  been  a  very  late 
one.  Jhe  last  week  of  October  may  be 
regarded  as  the  average  time  for  com- 
mencing winter  operations. 

65G.  To  join  consistency  to  practice,  it 
is  necessary  to  adopt  some  regular  method 
of  good  farming,  and  as  I  have  recom- 
mended the  jnixcd  husbandry  (52,)  we 
shall  take  that  as  our  model ;  and  it 
is  eminently  adapted  for  such  a  purpose, 
since  it  embraces  the  raising  of  grain,  as 
in  the  farming  of  heavy  carse  clays — the 
raising  of  green  crops,  as  does  the  farming 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns, — the 
rearing  of  stock,  as  in  pastoral  farming, — 
tlie  making  of  cheese  and  butter,  as  in 
dairy  farming, — and  the  fattening  of  cattle 
and  sheep,  by  grazing  in  summer,  and  on 
turnips  in  winter,  as  is  practised  in  ordi- 
nary farming  in  many  of  the  rural  districts. 
Thus  the  mixed  husbandry  affords  full 
scope  for  every  species  of  farming  practised 
in  this  country,  and  if  there  is  any  pecu- 
liarity of  farming  in  any  remarkablo 
district,  the  mixed  may  be  introduced  into 
it  if  desired  ;  and  as  a  large  farm  affords  a 
greater  scope  for  displaying  the  capabilities 
of  management  in  the  arrangement  of 
labour  than  a  small  one,  I  shall  suppose 
that  we  are  about  to  commence  one  year's 
operations  on  a  farm  of  500  acres  in  extent, 
— a  size  of  farm  within  reach  of  most 
intelligent  farmer-capitalists. 

657.  The  winter  work  does  not  every 
year  begin  with  the  same  operation,  this 
matter  being  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  preceding  season  of  autumn.  When 
the  harvest  has  been  completed  early,  and 
the  after  season  so  mild  as  that  the  live 
stock  may  occupy  the  fields  with  advan- 
tage to  themselves,  that  is  to  say,  have 
still  a  full  bite  of  grass,  the  first  winter 
work  IS  ploughing  ;  but  when  the  han-est 
work  is  not  completed  until  after  the  grass 


•  The  Shfpherd  o/JBanlmrft  Ohtertatiotu,  p.  15-23. 


THE  PLOUGH. 


149 


has  failed  to  support  the  stock,  and  which 
is  always  the  case  in  a  late  season,  the 
stock  must  be  put  upou  turnips,  and 
occupy  their  respective  apartments  in 
the  steading,  before  the  land  is  begun  to 
be  ploughed.  But  as  the  usual  occurrence 
of  seasons  allows  the  finisliing  of  harvest 
before  the  entire  failure  of  the  grass,  the 
common  practice  is  to  commence  winter 
operations  with  ploughing ;  and  I  sliall 
therefc.re  adopt  this  alternative,  and  de- 
scribe the  manner  of  ploughing  land  into 
the  different  sorts  of  ridges,  and  point 
out  first  how  the  plough  itself  is  harnessed 
and  managed. 


ON     THE 


PLOUGH,       SWING-TREES,       AND 
PLOUGH-nAF.NESS. 


658.  The  plough. — The  plough  serves 
the  same  purpose  to  the  farmer  as  the 
spade  to  the  gardener,  both  being  used  to 
turn  over  the  soil ;  and  the  object  of  doing 
this  is,  to  obtain  such  a  command  over  the 
soil  as  to  render  it  friable,  and  to  enclose 
the  manure  within  it,  so  that  the  seeds 
sown  upon  it  may  grow  a  crop  to  the 
greatest  perfection. 

659.  The  spade  is  an  implement  so 
simple  in  construction,  that  there  seems  but 
one  way  of  using  it,  namely,  that  of  push- 
ing its  blade  into  the  ground  with  the  foot, 
lifting  it  up  with  both  hands  with  as  much 
earth  upon  it  as  it  can  carry,  and  invert- 
ing the  earth  so  as  to  place  its  upper  part 
undermost.  This  operation,  cvlWq A  dunging, 
may  be  done  in  the  most  perfect  manner  ; 
and  every  attempt  at  impro\ing  it  has 
failed,  and,  indeed,  seems  unnecessary. 
Hitherto  the  spade  has  only  been  used  by 
the  hand,  and  is  thus  an  instrument  en- 
tirely under  man's  personal  control, 
though  means  have  been  devised  to  apply 
horse-power  to  wield  it ;  but  no  locomo- 
tive machine  can  compete  with  tlie  human 
body  in  executing  work  within  the  sphere 
of  its  strength  and  dexterity. 

6fi0.  The  effect  intended  to  be  produced 
on  the  soil  by  the  plough,  is  to  imitate  the 
work  of  the  spade  ;  bat  .*'ie  plough  being 
too  large  and  licavy  an  implement  to  be 
wielded  by  the  hand,  it  is  not  so  entirely 
under  man's  control  as  the  spade.  He 
is  obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  horses  to 


wield  it,  and  through  the  means  of  ap- 
propriate appliances,  such  as  harness,  he 
can  command  its  motions  pretty  effectively. 
It  is  thus  not  so  much  man  himself,  as  the 
horses  he  employs,  that  turn  over  the 
ground  with  the  plough  ;  and  he  is  there- 
by a  gainer  in  the  end,  inasmuch  as  they 
can  turn  over  a  much  greater  quantity 
of  soil  with  the  plough,  in  a  given  time, 
than  he  can  Avitli  the  spade.  Turning 
over  the  soil  with  so  very  simple  an  in- 
strument as  the  spade,  seems  a  very 
simple  operation  ;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
act  of  digging  is  not  a  simple  operation, 
requiring  every  muscle  of  the  body  to 
be  put  into  action,  so  that  any  machine 
to  imitate  it  must  have  a  A'ery  complex 
structure.  This  would  be  the  case  even 
were  such  a  machine  always  fixed  to 
the  same  spot ;  but  it  is  a  difficult 
problem  in  practical  mechanics,  to  con- 
struct a  light,  strong,  durable,  convenient 
instrument,  and  easily  moved  about,  which 
shall  produce  a  complicated  effect,  with 
a  complex  structure,  by  a  simple  action  ; 
and  yet  the  modem  plough  is  an  instru- 
ment possessing  all  these  properties  in  an 
eminent  degree. 

661.  The  common  plough  used  in  Scot- 
land is  made  either  wholly  of  iron,  or 
partly  of  wood  and  partly  of  iron.  Until 
a  few  years  ago  it  was  universally  made 
of  wood  and  iron,  but  is  now  generally 
entirely  of  iron.  A  wooden  plough  seems 
a  clumsier  instrument  than  an  iron  one, 
though  it  is  lighter.  The  plough  is  now 
made  wholly  of  iron,  because  iron  with- 
stands the  vicissitudes  of  weather  better 
than  wood — and  this  is  a  desirable  property 
in  any  implement  that  must  necessarily  be 
much  exposed  to  the  weather — and  when 
it  becomes  old  the  iron  is  always  worth 
something ;  and  because  good  ash  timber, 
of  Avhich  ploughs  were  usually  made,  is 
now  so  scarce  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
tr}',  that  it  fetches  the  large  price  of  3s. 
per  cubic  foot,  whereas  iron  is  daily  be- 
coming more  abundant.  A  wooden  plough 
with  iron  mountings  usually  weighs  13 
stones  imperial,  and  an  iron  one  for  the 
same  work  15  stones.  The  cost  of  a 
Avooden  jdough  is  £8,  16s.,  that  of  an  iron 
one  £4,  4s.,  both  capable  of  being  service- 
able, with  repairs,  for  a  lease  of  19  years. 
Some  farmers,  however,  still  prefer  the 
wooden   one,  alleging  that  it  goes  more 


150 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


steadily  than  tlie  iron.  Whatever  may  be 
the  cause  for  the  pro<lilection,  the  iron 
plou^'h  executes  its  wurk  in  a  very  satis- 
factory manner.  In  point  of  economy, 
both  are  much  alike. 

662.  There  are  three  different  varieties 
of  ploughs  used  in  Scotlaml,  all  nearly  of 


the  same  construction,  and  I  do  not  know 
how  many  in  England  ;  and  of  the  three 
varieties,  I  give  the  ]»ref(.rence  to  the  one 
called  the  Ea^^t  Lothian,  or  Small's,  plough. 
Kfurroicsiie  elevation  of  this  plough  is 
represented  in  fig  2,  m  liere  the  member  to 
which  the  horses  or  oxen  are  yoked,  marked 
a  in  the  figure,  is  the  beam.    Those  parts  by 


A  VIEW  OF  THE  FTRROW-SIDE  OF  A.  PLOLGH. 


which  the  ploughman  holds  and  guides  the 
implement  are  called  the  stilts  or  handler, 
b  Xic'vagihc  greatest  still  or  left  handle^  and 
c  the  little  stilt  or  rir^ht  handle ;  d  is  the 
muzzle  or  bridle  by  which  the  horses  are 
attached  to  the  beam  ;  c,  the  coulter,  is  the 
cutting  instrument  that  severs  the  slice 
from  the  firm  land ;  /  the  sock  or  share 
which  cuts  the  slice  below  from  the  subsoil ; 
y  the   icrcst   or  mould-board,  which  re- 


ceives the  slice  from  the  share,  turns  it 
gradually  over,  and  deposits  it  continu- 
ously at  the  proper  angle,  45°;  h  is  the 
sole-shoe  upon  which  the  plough  has  its 
principal  support,  and  on  which  it  moves ; 
and  i  is  the  heel. 

663.  Fig.  3  shows  the  land-side  of  the 
plough,  in  which  m  is  the  land-side  plate, 
only  serving  to  complete  the  sheathing  of 


A  VIEW  OF  THE  LAND-SIDE  OF  A  PLOUGH. 


the  land-side,  presenting  a  uniform  smooth 
surface  to  the  firm  land,  and  preventing 
the  crumbled  earth  from  falling  within  the 
body  of  the  plough.  These  last  parts 
cover  the  body -frame  from  view  ;  but  all 
the  parts  described  in  fig.  2  may  be  seen 
in  different  perspective  in  this. 

664.  The  plough  as  seen  in  fig.  2  is 
supposed  to  stand  upon  a  level  plane,  the 
heel  i  and  point  of  the  share/ touching  that 
I)lane — these  being  actually  the  points  on 
which  the  plough  is  supported  when  in 
motion, and  this  plane  k  k,  is  called  the  base- 


line. The  dotted  line  / 1  above  the  base-line 
is  the  surface-line,  which  represents  the 
depth  of  the  furrow  taken  by  the  plough, 
and  which  is  seen  to  intersect  the  mould- 
board  and  coulter  at  certain  points. 

665.  Fig.  4  represents  the  plan  o£  the 
same  plough,  in  which  all  the  parts  de- 
scribed will  be  easily  i<lentified,  with  the 
additional  advantage  of  showing  that  the 
proper  lines  of  the  body  on  the  land-side 
lie  all  in  one  jdane  as  froTii  a  to  b,  which, 
in  working,  should  be  held  in  the  vertical 
position,  or  very  slightly  inclining  to  the 


SWING-TREES. 


151 


left  The  coulter  c  slightly  oblique  to  the  vertical  sectional  lines  approximate  to 
land-side  plane,  the  point  standing  towards  straight  lines,  giving  the  character  of  ap- 
the  left :  the  rake  of  the  coulter  varies  from  ^  parent  concavity,  and  it  is  truncated  lor- 
55°  to  65°.     In  the  mould-board  i  the     ward.   The  share  is  pointed,  with  a  feather 

Fig.  4. 


A  VIEW  OF  THE  PLAN  OP  A  PLOUGH. 


or  cutter  e  standing  to  the  right,  having  a 
breadth  of  at  least  two-thirds  the  breadth  of 
the  furrow,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  feather 
lying  nearly  as  low  as  the  plane  of  the 
sole.    The  neck  of  the  share/ is  prolonged 
backward,  joining  and  coinciding  with  the 
curve  of  the  mould-board,  which   curva- 
ture is  also  carried  forward  on 
the  back  of  the  feather  of  the       Fig.  5. 
share.      The    character    of  this 
plough  is  to  cut  a  furrow-slice  of     (N. 
10  inches  in  breadth,  by  7  inches         iTL^v, 
in    depth,  a  rectangle,   leaving 
the  sole  of  the  open  furrow  level 
and  clean.     It  is  for  this  pro- 
perty, which  I  consider  of  para- 
mount importance  in  ploughing 
laud  well  and  thoroughly,  that 
I  give  it  the  preference  to  all 
others,  inasmuch  as   others  cut 
the   slice  more  or  less  of  a  tra- 
pezoidal   form,    and    leave   the 
bottom  of  the  open  furrow  in  an 
inclined,  instead  of  a  level  posi- 
tion.      The    resistance    to   the 
draught  is  generally  below  the 
average    of    ploughs,    and  this 
plough  is  employed    for   every 
kind  of  soil. 

666.  A  necessary  accompani- 
ment of  every  plough  is  the 
plough-staff,  or  plough-spade,  as 
it  is  called  in  some  places,  fig.  5. 
Its  use  consists  in  shovelling  off 
the  mould  that  may  happen  to  plqugh- 
adhere  to  the  front  of  the  mould-  staff. 
board,  between  d  and/,  fig.  4; 
in  pushing  away  any  stubble  or  weeds  that 
may  accumulate  in  the  angle  formed  by 
the  coulter  e  and  beam  a,  fig.  2 ;  and  in 
striking  out  the  stones  that  may  become 
fixed  between  the  points  of  the  coulter 


and  share.  It  rests  on  the  plough,  when 
not  in  use,  by  its  spade  being  inserted  into 
a  staple  on  the  inside  of  the  land-side  of 
the  body,  and  its  shank  lying  on  the  cross 
bar,  g,  fig.  4,  of  the  stilts,  with  its  handle 
quite  convenient  to  the  ploughman. 

667.   Stclng-trecs. — Horses  are  yoked 
to  the  plougli  by  means  of  a  set  of  levers 
named   swing-trees,  arranged  as  to  cause 
the  united  strength  of  the  horses  employed 
to  be  exerted  in  one  point,  namely,  that 
formed  by  linking  the  ring  e,  fig.  6  of  the 
main  lever  of  the  swing-trees  h  b,  to  the 
hook  of  tlie  bridle  of  the  plough  «,  fig.  3. 
By  this  contrivance  the  horses  draw  the 
plough  from  one  puint  only.     The  swing- 
trees  have  various  other  names  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.      Such  as  sicingle- 
trees,  tchipple-trees,  draught-bars,  or  sim- 
ply bars.     The  swing-trees  are  used   for 
attaching  horses  to  other  implements  be- 
sides the  plough,  such  as  liarrows,  small 
ploughs,  &c.     In  the  plough  yoke  a  set  of 
swing-trees  consist  of  3,  as  represented  in 
fig.  6,  where  a  points  out  the  bridle  of  the 
plough,  b  b  the  main  swing-tree  attached 
immediately  to  die  bridle,  c  c  the  furrow  or 
off-sidesmall  swing-tree,and  d  d  tlie  land  or 
nigh-side  small  tree,  arranged  in  the  posi- 
tion in  which  they  arc  employed  in  working: 
h  is  a  section  of  a  swing-tree  at  the  centre 
of  attachment,  with  clasp  and  eye  mount- 
in"-;  the  scale  of  which  is  double  the  size 
of  the  principal  figure  in  the  cut.    Swing- 
trees  are  for  the  most  part  made  of  wood, 
oak  or  ash  being  most  generally  used  ;  but 
the    former,  if  sound  English   oak,  is  by 
much    the    most   durable — thougli     good 
Scotch  ash  is  the  strongest,  so  long  as  it 
remains  sound,  but   it   is  liable,  by  long 
exposure,  to  a  species  of  .decay  resem- 
bling dry-rot.  The  small  treesare  furnished 


152 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


with  S  books,  by  wbicb  they  are  appended  to  tbe  ends  of  the  main  tree  ;  and  end 

Fig.  6. 


THE  SWING-TRKKS  FOR  TWO  HORSES. 


clasps  are  adapted  to  receive  the  hooks  of 
the  trace  chains,//,  ff  ff,  a.  small  part  only 
of  which  are  shown  in  the  figure. 

66)^.  Though  wood  has  hitherto  been 
tbe  material  chiefly  used  for  swing-trees, 
there  have  been  some  successful  trials  of 
malleable  iron  for  the  purpose.  These 
have  been  variously  constructed,  in  some 
cases  entirely  of  sheet  iron  turned  round 
into  a  form  somewhat  resembling  the 
wooden  trees  ;  but  in  this  form,  either  the 
iron  must  be  thiii,  or  the  bar  must  be  iu- 
conveuiently  heavy ;  if  tbe  former,  dura- 
bility becomes  limited,  by  reason  of  the 


oxidation  of  the  iron  acting  over  a  large 
surface,  and  soon  destroying  the  fabric. 
Another  method  has  been  to  form  a 
diamond-shaped  truss  of  solid  iron  rods, 
the  diamond  being  very  much  elongated, 
with  a  stretcher  between  the  obtuse  angles. 
A  third  has  been  tried,  consisting  of  a 
straight  welded  tube  of  malleable  iron,  as 
in  fig.  7.  In  this  tube,  acting  as  a  strut,  a 
tension  rod,  also  of  malleable  iron,  is 
aj)})lied  with  a  deflection,  the  extremities 
of  the  tension-rod  being  brought  into  con- 
tact by  welding  or  riveting  with  the  ends 
of  the  tubular  strut,  and  eyes  formed  at  the 
ends  and  middle,  for  the  attachment  of  the 


Fig.  7. 


TRUSSED  IRON  SWING-TREK. 


hooks  and  chains.  A  tree  thus  formed  is 
sufficiently  strong  for  every  purpose  to 
which  it  is  applied,  while  its  weight  does 
not  exceed  7  lb.,   and   the   weight  of   a 


wooden  tree,  with  its  mounting,  frequently 
weighs  8  lb.  The  price  of  a  set  of  com- 
mon wooden  trees,  with  the  iron  mounting, 
is  12s.,  and  of  the  iron  trees  16s. 


SWmG-TREES. 


153 


669.  This  form  of  swing-trees  is  adapted 
for  the  use  of  two  horses,  but  ploughing  is 
sometimes  performed  by  three  horses,  such 
as  in  cross-furrowing,  or  in  breaking  up 
stubble  in  autumn,  when  the  land  is  clean, 
or  in  ploughing  old  rough  lea  ground ; 
and  sometimes  four  horses  are  employed 
at  one  time  in  tlie  plough,  when  the  sub- 
soil or  trench  plough  is  used.  There  are 
various  ways  of  yoking  three  horses  to 
the  plough,  the  simplest  of  which  is  a  pair 
working  in  the  common  trees,  fig  6  ;  and 
for  the  third  horse,  a  light  chain  is  attached 
by  a  shackle  to  the  middle  of  the  main 
bar  h  b.     To  this  chain  a  third  horse  is 


yoked,  taking  his  place  ia  front  of  the 
other  two,  in  unicorn  fashion.  This  yoke 
is'  defective,  inasmuch  as  there  are  no 
means  of  ec^ualising  the  draught  of  the 
third    horse. 

670.  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  method 
of  yoking  a  3-horse  team,  whether  abreast 
or  unicorn-fashion,  is  that  by  the  com- 
pensation levers,  fig.  8  —  a  statical 
combination,  which  is  at  once  correct  in 
its  equalisation,  scientific  in  principles, 
and  elegant  in  arrangement.  The  appa- 
ratus in  the  figure  is  represented  as  applied 
to  the  subsoil  plough ;  a  being  the  bridle 


Fig.  8. 


THE  SWING-TREES  FOR  THREE  HORSES. 


of  that  plough  ;  5  is  a  main  swing-tree, 
of  strength  proportioned  to  the  draught  of  3 
horses ;  and  c  d  e  axe  three  small  common 
trees,  one  for  each  horse.  The  trace-chains 
are  here  broken  off  at/,  g,  respectively. 
Between  the  main  swing-tree  and  the  three 
small  ones  the  compensating  apparatus  is 
placed,  consisting  of  three  levers,  usually 
constructed  of  iron.  Two  of  these,  h  i  and 
h  i,  are  levers  of  the  first  order,  but  with 
unequal  arms,  the  fulcrum  k  being  fixed 
at  J  of  the  entire  length  from  the  outward 
end  of  each  ;  the  arms  of  these  levers  are 
therefore  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  1,  and 
the  entire  length  of  each  between  the 
points  of  attachment  is  27  inches.  _  A 
connecting  lever  I,  of  equal  arms,  is  jointed 
to  the  longer  arras  i  i  of  the  former,  by 
means  of  the  double  short  links  m,  n. 
The  two  levers  hi,  hi,  are   hooked  by 


means  of  their  shackles  at  k  to  the  main 
swing-tree  b  ;  and  the  three  small  swing- 
trees  c,  d,  e,  are  hooked  to  the  compensa- 
tion lever  at  h,  h  and  /. 

671.  The  judicious  farmer  will  fre- 
quently see  the  propriety  of  lightening 
the  labour  of  some  individual  horse;  and 
this  is  easily  accomplished  by  the  com- 
pensation apparatus.  For  this  purpose, 
one  or  more  holes  are  perforated  in  the 
levers  h  i,  on  each  side  of  the  true  ful- 
crum k,  to  receive  the  bolt  of  the  small 
shackle  k.  By  shifting  the  shackle  and 
bolt,  the  relation  of  the  forces  h  and  i  are 
changed,  and  that  in  any  proportion  that 
may  be  desired;  but  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  that  the  distance  of  the  additional 
holes,  on  either  side  of  the  central  i)ole  or 
fulcrum   of    equilibrium    in    tlie    system, 


154 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


sliould  be  in  the  panic  proportion  as  the 
length  of  the  amis  in  which  tlic  holco  arc 
perforatcil.  Thus,  if  llie  distance  between 
those  in  the  short  arm  is  half  an  inch, 
those  in  the  longer  arm  should  be  an  inch. 
By  such  arrangement,  every  increase  to 
the  exertion  of  the  power,  whether  on  the 
long  or  the  short  arm,  would  be  equal. 

672.  The  same  principle  of  compensa- 
tion has  been  applied  to  various  ways  of 
yoking,  one  of  which  is  a  complicated 
form  of  that  ju.st  described.  The  main 
swing-tree  and  the  compensation  levers 
are  tlie  same,  except  that  they  may  be 
a  few  inches  shorter  in  all  the  anns,  and 
the  middle  one  of  the  three  small  swing- 
trees  also  shorter.  The  yoking  is  per- 
formed in  this  manner :  The  nigh  trace- 
Fig, 


chain  of  the  nigh  horse  is  hooked  to  the  end 
0  of  the  swing-tree  f,  fig.  8,  and  his  off-side 
trace-chain  to  the  end  o  of  the  swing-tree  d. 
The  middle  horse  has  his  nigh-aide  chain 
hooked  to  the  end  ^  of  the  swing-tree  c  ; 
while  his  off-side  chain  goes  to  the  end  p 
of  the  swing-tree  e,  and  the  off-side  horse 
has  his  nigh-side  chain  attached  to  the  end 
q  of  the  middle  swing-tree  d,  and  his  off- 
side to  <7  of  the  swing-tree  e.  This  system 
of  yoking  is  complicated,  and  though  in 
principle  it  equalises  the  forces  so  long  as 
all  the  horses  keep  equally  a-hcail,  yet  it 
is  in  some  degree  faulty.  Whenever  the 
middle  horse  gets  either  behind  or  before 
his  proper  station, — or  out  of  that  position 
which  keeps  all  the  swing-trees  parallel 
to  each  other, — the  outside  horses  have  a 
larger  share   of    the    draught   upon    one 

9. 


THE  SWING-TREES  TOR  FOUR  HORSE& 


SWING-TREES. 


155 


shoulder  than  upon  the  other;  and  as  this 
produces  an  unnecessary  fatigue  to  the 
animal,  it  should  be  avoided.  Such  irre- 
gularity cannot  occur  with  the  simple  mode 
of  giving  each  horse  his  own  swing-tree. 
There  are  still  other  modifications  in  the 
yoking  of  three  horses,  but  these  may 
suffice  for  every  practical  purpose. 

673.  In  the  yoking  of  4  horses,  various 
modes  are  also  adopted.  The  old  and 
simple  method  is  for  the  plough  horses  to 
draw  by  a  set  of  common  swing-trees,  fig. 
6 ;  and  to  the  centre  of  the  main  swing- 
tree  at  e  a  soam-chain  is  hooked  by  means 
of  a  shackle  or  otherwise.  The  leading 
horses  are  thus  yoked  by  a  second  set  of 
common  swing-trees  to  the  end  of  the 
soam.  This  is  now  seldom  employed;  but 
an  improved  method  of  applying  the  soam 
has  been  adopted  in  its  place,  which  is 
represented  by  fig.  9,  where  a  is  the  bridle 
of  the  plough,  with  its  swivel  hook.  A 
pully  b  of  cast-iron  mounted  in  an  iron 
frame,  of  which  an  edge-view  is  given  at  /n, 
is  attached  to  the  hook  of  the  bridle.  A 
link  chain  c  is  rove  through  the  frame  of 
the  pulley :  and  to  one  end  of  it,  the  short 
end,  is  hooked  the  main  swing-tree  (i  of  a  set 
of  common  trees.  The  other  endof  the  chain 
passes  forward  to  a  sufficient  distance  to 
allow  the  leading  horses  room  to  work ;  and 
to  it  is  hooked  the  second  set  of  common 
swing-trees  at  e  for  the  leaders.  In  the 
figure,  a  part  of  the  chain,  from/  to^<7,  is 
broken  off;  but  the  full  length  is  about 
11  feet.  In  this  yoke,  the  trace-chains  of 
the  nigh-side  hind  horse  are  hooked  to  the 
swing-trees  at  h  A,  and  those  of  the  off- 
side horse  at  i  i,  the  leaders  being  yoked 
at  k  k  and  1 1  respectively.  In  this  arrange- 
ment, the  balance  of  forces  is  perfectly 
preserved ;  for  the  hind  horses  and  the 
leaders,  as  they  pull  at  opposing  ends  of 
the  chain  passing  round  a  pulley,  which 
must  inevitably  be  always  in  equilibrium, 
each  pair  of  horses  has  an  equal  share  of 
the  draught;  and  from  the  principles  of 
the  common  swing-trees  through  which 
each  pair  acts,  the  individual  horses  must 
have  an  equally  perfect  division  of  the 
labour.  In  order  to  prevent  either  the 
hind  horses  or  the  leaders  from  slipping 
too  much  ahead,  it  is  common  to  apply  a 
light  check-chain  o,  of  about  15  inches 
long,  connecting  the  two  parts  of  the 
main-chain,  so  as  to  allow  only  a  short 


oscillation  round  the  pulley,  which  is 
limited  by  the  check-chain.  When  this 
is  adopted,  care  should  be  taken  never  to 
allow  the  check-chain  to  remain  upon  the 
stretch ;  for  if  it  do  so,  the  advantage  of 
equalisation  in  the  yoke  is  lost,  and  it 
becomes  no  better  than  the  simple  soam. 
In  all  cases  of  using  a  chain,  that  part  of 
it  which  passes  forward  between  the  hind 
horses  must  be  borne  up  by  means  of 
attachment  to  their  back  bands,  or  sus- 
pended from  their  collars. 

674.  The  late  Mr  Stirling  of  Gleubervie, 
Stirlingshire,  recommended  a  method  of 
yoking  four  horses  in  pairs,  the  arrange- 
ments of  which  are  represented  in  fig.  10  ; 
rtis  part  of  a  main  swing-tree  of  the  com- 
mon length,  i,  a  small  swing-tree,  a  little 
longer  than  the  usual  length,  but  both 
mounted  in  the  usual  form,  except  that,  at 
each  end  of  the  small  swing-trees,  cast- 
iron  pulleys,  c  c,  and  set  in  an  iron  frame, 
are  hooked  on  to  the  eyes  of  the  swing- 
tree.  The  common  trace-chains  are  rove 
through  the  frames  of  these  pulleys,  as  in 
the  figure,  the  ends,  d  d,  of  the  chains  are 
prolonged  forward  to  the  collar  of  the  nigh- 
hind  horse,  and  the  ends,  ee,  are  extended  to 
thai  of  the  nigh  leader.  At  the  opposite  end 
of  the  main  swing-tree,  which  in  this  figure 
is  cut  off,  the  same  arrangement  is  repeated 
for  the  oflf-side  horses.  The  principle  of 
action  in  this  yoke  is  simple  and  effective, 
though  different  in  efiect  from  the  former. 
There  the  two  hind  horses  are  equalised 
through  the  medium  of  their  set  of  common 
swing-trees.  The  leading  horses  are  alike 
equalised  by  their  set,  and  thus  the  two 
pairs  balance  each  other  through  the 
medium  of  the  soam.  Here,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  two  nigh-side  horses  have  their 
forces  equalised  through  the  trace-chains 
which  are  common  to  both  bypassing  over 
the  pulleys,  cc,  and  the  same  holds  in 
respect  to  the  two  off-sides.  The  couple 
of  nigh-side  and  of  off-side  horses,  again, 
are  equalised  through  the  medium  of  the 
one  set  of  swing-trees.  In  both,  there- 
fore, the  principle  of  equalisation  is  com- 
plete, but  there  is  a  trifling  difference  in 
their  economy.  In  the  yoke,  fig.  9,  the 
soam-chain  and  pulley  are  the  only  articles 
required  in  addition  to  the  every- day  gear. 
In  that  of  fig.  10,  there  is,  first,  the  set  of 
swing-trees,  which,  as  they  have  to  resist 
the  force  of  4  horses,  must  in  all  their 


156 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


parts  be  made  stronger  than  the  common     all  of  which  are  applicable  only  to  thia 
set;  then  the  4  pulleys  have  to  be  added,     yoke;  and  lastly,  the  trace-chain,  though 

Fig.  10. 


THB  SWING- TRESS  ALSO  FOR  POtTR  H0B8B& 


not  necessarily  stronger  than  those  for 
common  use,  is  required  about  three  times 
longer  than  single  horse-chains,  that  is  to 
say,  4  horses  will  require  the  chains  of  6; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  chains  of  the 
leaders  are  more  conveniently  supported 
when  they  pass  along  the  sides  of  the  hind 
horses,  and  it  is  free  of  the  annoyance  of 
the  swing-trees  which  dangle  behind  the 
leaders,  of  the  method  fig.  9. 

675.  Tn  cases  where  6,  8,  and  even  12 
horses  are  required,  such  as  for  trenching, 
subsoil-ploughing,  and  especially  draining 
with  the  plough,  the  yoking  is  accomplished 
by  modifications  and  extension  of  the  forms 
here  laid  down.  For  example,  a  team  of  6 
can  be  very  conveniently  applied  with 
equalised  efi"ect  by  employing  the  compen- 
sation levers  of  fig.  8,  along  with  3  single 
swing-trees  with  pulleys  at  each  end,  and 
running  trace-chains,  as  in  fig.  10  ;  but  in 
all  cases  where  more  than  4  horses  are 
yoked  together,  their  strength  can  seldom 
be  managed  to  have  it  simultaneously  ap- 
plied. It  is  therefore  much  better  to  work 
2  sets  of  4  horses  than  1  set  of  8. 

676.  Plough  harness. — Besides  swing- 
trees,  horses  require  harness  to  enable  them 
to  apply  their  strength  to  the  plough.    The 


harness,  as  used  in  Scotland,  is  exceed- 
ngly  simple,  and  perfectly  eflBcient.  It 
consists  of  a  collar,  fig.  11,  which  surrounds 
the  neck  of  the  horse, 
and  serves  as  a  pad- 
ding to  protect  the 
skin  of  the  neck,  and 
the  points  of  the 
shoulder,  while  the 
horse  exerts  his 
strength  in  the 
draught.  This  form 
of  collar  is  used  in 
the  Lothians,  and  its 
covering  consists  of 
one  piece  of  leather 
stiS'ened  in  its  upper 
part  with  stripes  of 
whalebone  to  form 
the  cape.  The  body 
of  the  collar  is  stuffed 
with  wheat-straw,  or 
what  is  better,  rye- 
straw,  and  covered 
with  stout  woollen 
cloth.    It  will  be  ob- 

served  that  tlie  under  part  of  the  collar  is 
broader  than  the  upper,  because  the  under 
partof  the  neck  of  ahorse  is  thickcrthan  the 
upper  or  mane,  upon  which  the  collar  rests; 
but  as  the  crown  of  the  head  of  the  horse 


THK  LOTHIAN 

DRAl'GHT  HORSE 

CULLAR  AND  HAIMS. 


PLOUGH-HARXESS. 


157 


is  broader  than  the  muzzle,  the  collar  is 
slipped  over  the  head  in  the  inverted  posi- 
tion, and  turned  round  upon  the  neck. 

G77.  Another  form  of  cape  is  seen  iu 
fig.  12,  which  is  in  use  in  Forfarshire  and 
the     midland     dis- 


Fig.  12. 


tricts.  Iftheuseof 
the  cape  is  to  prevent 
rain  falling  upon  the 
top  of  the  shoulder, 
and  getting  between 
the  collar  and  the 
shoulder,  and  heat- 
ing and  blistering 
the  skin  there,  this 
cape,  which  lies  flat- 
ter and  reaches  far- 
ther back  than  that 
of  fig.  11,  should  be 
preferable  to  it.  It 
certainly  forms  a 
complete  protection 
from  rain,  but  makes 
the  collar  rather 
heavy,  and  the 
weight  of  the  cape, 

from  its  much    inclined  position,  ia  apt  to 
cause  the  sewing  to  become  loose. 

678.  Fig.  13  is  a  form  of  cape  common 
in  England,  which  answers  no  purpose  of 

Fix.  13. 


THE  FORFARSHIRE 

DRAUGHT-HORSE 

COLLAR. 


THE  ENGLISH  DRAUGHT-HORSE  COLLAR. 

protection  from  rain,  but  rather  to  catch 
the  wind,  and  thereby  obstruct  the  progress 
of  the  horse.  Such  a  cape  is  frequently 
ornamented  with  flaring  red  worsted  fringes 


round  the  edge,  or  with  large  tassels  from 
the  cofner  and  middle,  and  even  with  bells. 

679.  The  haims  are  placed  immediately 
behind  the  outer  rim  of  the  collar  at  a, 
fig.  11.  They  consist  of  two  pieces  fixed 
below  the  throat  of  the  horse  with  hooks 
and  a  link,  and  at  the  upper  part  at  a 
with  a  leather  strap.  The  pieces  are 
formed  entirely  of  iron,  or  of  wood  covered 
with  thin  sheet-iron,  as  in  the  Lothians, 
or  of  wood  alone,  as  in  the  greater  part  of 
Scotland.  On  each  piece  above  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  is  attached  a 
staple  with  hook  h,  to  which  is  fastened 
the  trace-chains  of  the  plough,  or  the 
draught-chains  of  the  other  implements, 
such  as  the  cart.  Tlie  haims  are  never 
removed  from  the  collar. 

680.  Another  part  of  the  harness  is  the 
bridle,  which  serves  to  guide  the  horse's 
head.  It  is  commonly  of  as  simple  a  form 
as  possible,  consisting  of  a  head-stall,  nose- 
band, blinders,  bit,  throat-lash,  and  bear- 
ing-reins. In  some  parts  of  the  country, 
the  blinders  or  blinkers  are  omitted.  The 
plea  for  the  use  of  the  blinders  is,  that  they 
prevent  the  horse  looking  around  and  being 
frightened  hy  distant  objects  he  cannot 
distinctly  see,  and  they  keep  his  attention 
steady  to  his  work.  Horses  accustomed 
to  blinders  are  easily  scared  when  they 
are  taken  ofi".  I  knew  a  horse  that  be- 
came so  timid  when  his  bridle  was  taken 
off,  while  in  the  yoke,  that  he  always  at- 
tempted to  run  away  from  the  draught, 
and  to  avoid  such  an  accident,  the  bit  was 
removed  from  his  mouth  by  means  of  a 
buckle  and  strap,  when  a  feed  of  corn  was 
given  him  in  the  nose-bag  while  in  the 
yoke  ;  but  horses  broke  in  without  the 
bridle,  are  less  likely  to  be  scared  by  any 
occurrence  in  the  read,  than  those  accus- 
tomed to  it,  as  they  see  every  object  near 
them  distinctly ;  and  the  want  of  it  keeps 
the  head  cooler  in  summer,  and  saves  the 
eyes  from  injury  by  its  pressure. 

681.  The  bearing  re'ijis  are  now  gene- 
rally dispensed  with  in  all  carriages  moved 
at  a  fast  speed  ;  and  the  change  is  a  great 
relief  to  the  horses,  for  truly  it  was  a  painful 
sight  to  witness  the  excessive  tiglitness  in 
which  the  horses'  heads  were  kept  by  them. 
They  were  used  with  the  view  of  making 
the  horses  look  smart,  and  of  preventing 


158 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


their  stumMing  on  the  road  ;  bat  the 
notion  was  a  mistaken  one,  for  a  horse 
never  looks  better  tlian  with  the  head  in 
its  natitral  position,  and  as  to  his  being 
prevented  stumbling  by  any  form  of  rein, 
when  he  makes  the  slightest  trip  he  cannot 
recover  himself  with  his  head  bound  up, 
and  his  fall  becomes  the  more  inevitable 
and  severe.  But  in  the  case  of  the  draught- 
horse  the  bearing  reins  cannot  be  dispensed 
with,  as  they  are  the  only  means  of  keeping 
his  head  steady  in  the  draught,  while  they 
are  never  at  all  tight  braced  up,  the  horse 
having  full  liberty  to  use  his  head  in  any 
direction,  though  not  to  the  most  unli- 
mited extent  of  turning  it  round  alto- 
gether. The  complete  bridle  may  be  seen 
in  use  in  fig.  14  in  the  plough,  and  still 
better  in  the  cart  in  Plate  III. 

682.  Another  piece  of  harness  required 
for  the  plough-gear  is  the  back-band,  which 
consists  of  a  broad  piece  of  leather  passing 
over  the  horse's  back,  having  a  small  pad 
where  it  rests  on  the  top  of  the  back,  and 
both  ends  are  fastened  to  the  trace-chains  of 
the  plough  by  means  of  small  iron  hooks, 
its  office  being  to  support  them  just  below 
the  exact  line  of  their  draught ;  if  above 
that  line,  the  force  of  the  draught  would 
be  thrown  as  a  strain  upon  the  groins  of 
the  horse,  by  means  of  the  back-band. 

683.  A  necessary  portion  of  the  equip- 
ment ol"  a  draught  horse  in  harness  is  the 
l>\ou^\\-7'eins,  which  are  made  of  cord,  on 
purpose  light  and  strong,  being  fabricated 
of  the  best  hemp.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country,  as  the  midland  and  northern  dis- 
tricts, one  rein  attached  to  the  nigh-horse 
only  is  used  in  driving  a  pair  of  horses  in 
the  plough,  and  the  consecjuence  is  that 
most  of  their  motions  are  performed  by  the 
command  of  the  voice  of  the  ploughman — 
the  only  use  of  the  rein,  in  such  a  case, 
being  to  pull  the  horses  to  the  nigh-side. 
To  give  the  ploughman  a  perfect  command 
of  his  hor-es,  double  reins  should  be  used — 
one  passing  from  the  left-hand  stilt  of  the 
plough  by  the  nigh-side  of  the  nigh-horse, 
through  one  ring  on  the  nigh-side  of  the 
back-band,  then  through  another  ring  on 
the  nigh-side  of  the  haims,  to  the  ring  of 
the  bridle-bit,  to  which  it  is  fastened  :  the 
other  rein  goes  from  the  right  hand  stilt  of 
the  plough  i)y  the  off-side  of  the  off-horse, 
through  rings  in  the  back-band  and  haims 


to  the  bridle-bit  on  the  off-side  of  the  off- 
horse.  The  ends  of  the  reins  are  looped 
upon  the  handles  of  the  stilts  of  the  plough. 

684.  With  regard  to  ornamenting  farm 
harness,  it  never  appears,  in  my  estima- 
tion, to  greater  advantage  than  when  <piite 
plain,  and  of  the  best  materials  and  work- 
manship. Brass  or  plated  buckles  and 
brow-bands,  worsted  rosettes,  and  broad 
bands  of  leather  tattooed  with  filigree  sew- 
ing, serve  only  to  load  and  cover  the  horses 
when  at  work,  to  create  trouble,  collect 
dirt,  and  at  best  display  a  wasteful  and 
vulgar  ta.ste  in  the  owner.  Whatever 
temptation  there  may  be  in  towns  to  show 
off  the  grandeur  of  the  teams  of  rival 
establishments,  such  displays  of  vanity  are 
incompatible  with  the  country. 

68').  Thus  harnessed,  each  horse  has  not 
much  weight  to  bear,  nor  is  its  harness 
costly,  though  made  of  the  strongest  har- 
ness leather,  as  this  statement  will  show : — 

Weiglit  Value. 

Collar,  ....  15  lbs.  £100 
Haims,  when  cover- 
ed vvitii  plate-iron, 

and  witli  a  strap,  7  0     5     6 

Bridle,      .     .     .  4i  0  10     0 

Back-band,    .     .  .3^  0     8     0 

Chains,      ...  8       at  7d.  per  lb.   0     4     8 


flaking  a  total 
weight      for  ^  38  lbs.,  and  of  cost,    £2     8 
each  horse  of 


When  compared  with  the  weight  of  Eng- 
lish harness,  these  constitute  little  more 
than  feather- w'eight. 

686.  The  English  farmer  is  not  unfre- 
quently  recommended  by  writers  on  agri- 
culture to  adopt  thetwo-horse  plan  of  work- 
ing the  plough  ;  but  the  recommendation  is 
never  accompanied  with  such  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  plough  as  any  farmer  may 
understand,  who  had  never  seen  a  plough 
with  two  horses  at  work ;  and  it  is  not 
enough  to  tell  people  to  adopt  any  new 
plan,  without  putting  it  in  their  power  to 
undcrstan<l  what  is  recommended.  To 
enable  the  English  farmer,  who  may  never 
have  chanced  to  see  a  two- horse  plough  at 
work,  and  to  fncilitafe  the  understanding 
of  its  arrangements  by  tliosc  who  may 
have  seen,  but  not  have  paid  suflicient 
attention  to  it,  fig  14  is  here  given,  of  a 
Scotch  plough  with  swing-trees,  horses  and 


LANGUAGE  TO  HORSES. 


159 


harness  complete,  and  of  a  ploughman 
holding  it.  The  extreme  simplicity  of  the 
whole  arrangement  of  the  horses,  harness, 


plou^^li,  and  man,  ciiunot  fail  to  impress 
a  conviction  that  no  part  of  it  can  go 
wrong.     On  examining  the  particulars,  the 


Fig.  14. 


A  SCOTCH  PLOUGH  AT  WORK. 


collar  will  bo  found  round  the  horses' 
necks,  serving  as  a  padding  to  preserve  the 
shoulders  from  injury  while  pressing  for- 
ward in  the  draught.  Embracing  a  groove 
in  the  anterior  part  of  the  collar,  are  the 
habns.  The  horses  are  yoked  to  the  swing- 
trees,  by  light  trace-c/iai7is,  linked  on  one 
end  to  the  hooks  of  the  haims,  and  hooked 
at  the  other  into  the  eyes  of  the  swing- 
trees.  Back-bands  of  leather  across  the 
back,  near  the  groins  of  the  horses,  support 
the  trace-chains  by  means  of  simple  hooks. 
The  bridles  have  blinders,  and  the  hearing- 
reins  are  supported  on  the  top  of  the 
haims.  H\\e  sicing-trees  sa'&  hooked  to  the 
draught-swivel  of  the  bridle  of  the  plough, 
enabling  both  horses  to  exercise  their 
united  strength  on  that  single  point ;  and 
being  yoked  abreast,  they  are  enabled  to 
exert  their  united  strength  much  more 
effectually  than  if  yoked  a-trip — that  is, 
one- before  the  other.  The  two  horses  are 
kept  together  either  by  a  leather-strap, 
buckled  at  each  end  to  the  bridle-ring,  or 
by  short  VQWi-ropes  or  tugs,  passed  from  the 
bridle-ring  to  the  shoulder  of  each  horse, 
where  they  are  fastened  to  the  trace-chains 
by  a  knot.  The  strap  only  prevents  the 
horses  separating  beyond  its  length,  and 
allows  their  heads  to  move  about  loosely  ; 
but  the  short  reins  not  only  prevent  them 
separating,  but  keep  their  heads  steady  ; 
and  on  this  latter  account,  horses  fastened 
with  them  can  be  turned  round  more 
quickly  and  simultaneously  than  with  the 
strap.  The  ?ri??5  proceed  from  the  plough- 
man's hands  to  the  horses'  heads.  The 
off-side  horse — that  is,  the  one  nearest  to  the 
spectator  of  the  above  tigure — is  seen  to 
walk  in  the  last  made  open  furrow — the 
nigh-horse  walking  on  the  Jirm  land. 
The  plough  is  iu  the  act  of  turning  over  a 


slice  of  land,  and  the  ploughman  is  walk- 
ing in  the  K^Mr-made  open  furrow. 

687.  Language  to  horses. — Besides  the 
use  of  the  reins,  it  is  always  customary 
to  desire  the  horses  to  go  through  their 
accustomed  motions  when  yoked  to  the 
draught,  with  the  voice.  It  would  be  quite 
possible  to  cause  the  horses  to  perform  all 
their  motions  by  means  of  the  double  reins 
alone,  but  the  A-oice  enlivens  the  monotony 
of  a  day's  work  both  to  the  men  and  the 
horses.  It  is  not  practicable  to  make 
horses  at  the  plough  go  through  the  proper 
motions  with  a  single  rein,  unassisted  by 
the  voice  ;  nor  is  the  single  rein  at  all  com- 
mendable, inasmuch  as  ploughmen  accus- 
tomed to  it,  fall  into  the  practice  of  inces- 
santly bawling  to  their  horses,  which  at 
length  become  regardless  of  the  noise, 
and  make  the  turns  at  their  own  leisure. 

688.  The  language  addressed  to  horses 
varies  as  much  as  do  the  dialects  in  diffe- 
rent parts  of  the  country.  One  word, 
Wo,  to  stop,  seems,   however,  to   be  in 

general  use.  The  motions  required  to  be 
performed  by  the  horse  at  work,  are,  to  go 
forward,  to  go  backward,  to  go  from  you, 
to  come  towards  you,  and  to  turn  round, 
and  the  cessation  from  all  these,  namely,  to 
stop  or  stand  still. 

689.  To  lessen  or  cease  motion. — The 
word  Wo  is  the  common  one  for  a  cessa- 
tion of  motion ;  and  it  is  also  used  to  the 
making  any  sort  of  motion  slower ;  and 
it  also  means  to  be  careful,  or  cautious, 
or  not  be  afraid,  when  pronounced  with 
a  protracted  tone,  such  as  Wo-o-o.  In 
some  parts,  as  in  Forfarshire,  Stand  has  a 
similar  signification  ;  but  there,  when  it  is 


160 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


desircil  of  the  horse  to  stand  without  any 
movement  at  all,  tlie  wonl«SV»7/  is  added — 
standy  still.     In  En^dand,   Wo  is  to  stop. 

GOO.  To  go  forward. — Tlie  name  of  the 
nigh-horse  is  usually  pronounced,  as  also  the 
well-known  Chuck.,  Chuck.,  made  with  the 
side  of  the  tongue  at  one  side  of  the  mouth, 
while  inhaling  the  breath  in  impulses. 

691.  To  step  backward. — Back  is  the 
only  word  I  can  remember  to  have  heard 
for  this  motion. 

692.  To  come  towards  you. — Hie  is  used 
in  all  the  border  counties  of  England  and 
Scotland  ;  Hie  here.,  Come  other.,  are  com- 
mon in  the  midland  counties  of  Scotland. 
In  towns  one  hears  frequently  Wynd  and 
Vane.  In  the  west  of  England  Wo-e  is 
used. 

693.  Togo  from  i/ou. — Hup  is  the  coun- 
terpart to  hie  in  the  southern  counties, 
whilst  Haud  off"  is  the  language  of  the 
midland  counties ;  and  in  towns,  Haap  is 
used  where  wynd  is  heard,  and  Hip  bears 
a  similar  relation  to  vane.  '  ^n  the  west  of 
England  Gee  agen  is  used. 

694.  In  all  these  cases,  the  speaker  is 
supposed  to  be  on  what  is  called  the  nigh 
or  nearside  of  the  horse — that  is,  on  the 
horse's  left  side.  As  a  single  word  is 
more  convenient  to  use  than  a  sentence,  I 
shall  employ  the  simple  and  easily  pro- 
nounced words  hup  and  hie  when  having 
occasion  to  describe  any  piece  of  work,  in 
which  horses  are  employed. 

695.  The  plough,  as  it  is  now  made,  con  • 
sists  of  a  number  of  parts;  but,  how  well 
soever  these  different  parts  may  be  put 
together,  if  not  tempered.,  as  it  is  termed, 
to  one  another,  that  is,  if  any  part  has 
more  to  do  than  its  own  share  of  the  work, 
the  entire  implement  will  go  unsteadily. 
It  is  easy  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  a 
plough  will  go  steadily. 


ON  PLOUGHING,  AND  I'LOUGIIING  MATCHES. 

696.  Ploughing. — On  holding  a  ydough 
by  the  handles  with  both  hands,  while  the 
horses  are  drawing  it  through  the  land, 
if  it  have  a  constant  tendency  to  go  deeper 


into  the  soil  than  the  depth  of  the  furrow- 
slice  previously  determined  on,  it  is  not 
going  steadily.  The  remedy  is  twofold,' 
either  to  press  harder  upon  the  stilts  with 
the  hands,  and,  by  their  power  as  levers, 
bring  the  share  nearer  the  surface  of  the 
gro\ind,  or  to  put  the  draught-bolt  of  the 
bridle  a  little  nearer  the  ground,  and 
thus  give  the  plough  less  '■'•earth."  The 
pressure  upon  the  stilts  should  first  he 
tried,  as  being  the  most  ready  at  com- 
mand; but  should  it  fail  of  effecting  the 
purpose,  and  holding  the  stilts  be  then  too 
severe  upon  the  arms,  the  draught-holt 
should  be  lowered  ;  and  should  both  these 
expedients  fail,  there  must  be  some  error 
in  another  part  of  the  plough.  On  exa- 
mining the  share,  its  point  may  possibly 
be  found  to  dip  too  nmch  below  the  base 
line,  which  will  cause,  it  to  go  deej)er 
than  it  should.  This  error  in  the  share 
can  only  be  rectified  at  the  smithy. 

697.  Again,  the  plough  may  have  a 
tendency  to  come  out  of  the  ground.  This 
cannot  be  remedied  by  supporting  the 
stilts  upwards  with  tiic  arms,  because  the 
body  having  no  supj)ort  cannot  walk 
steadily  in  the  furrow.  Hence,  a  very 
short  man  can  scarcely  hold  a  plough 
steady  at  any  time ;  and  does  not  make 
a  desirable  ploughman.  The  draught- 
bolt  should,  in  the  first  instance,  be  placed 
farther  from  tiie  ground,  and  give  the 
plough  more  '•'•earth."  Should  this  not 
effect  the  purpose,  the  point  of  the  share 
will  probably  be  above  the  base-line,  and 
must  therefore  be  brought  down  to  its 
proper  level  by  the  smith. 

698.  It  may  be  difficult  to  make  the 
plough  turn  over  a  furrow-slice  of  the 
breadth  desired.  This  tendency  is  obviated 
by  moving  the  draught-bolt  a  little  to  the 
right,  which  gives  the  plough  more  '•Hand;" 
but  in  case  it  arises  from  some  casual 
obstruction  under-ground,  such  as  direct 
collision  against  a  small  stone,  or  apiece  of 
unusually  hard  earth,  it  may  be  overcome 
by  leaning  the  plough  a  little  over  to  tlio 
right. 

699.  The  tendency,  liowever,  may  in- 
cline to  take  a  slice  broader  than  is  wanted  ; 
in  which  case,  for  permanent  work,  the 
draught-bolt  should  be  put  a  little  to  the 
left,  which  gives  the  plough  loss  '•'•land;" 


PLOUGHING. 


161 


and  for  a  temporary  purpose  tbe  plough 
may  be  leaned  a  little  over  to  the  left. 

700.  These  are  the  ordinary  causes  of 
unsteadiness  in  i\\Q going  of  ploughs;  and 
though  narrated  singly,  any  two  of  tliem 
may  couibine  to  produce  the  same  result, 
such  as  the  going  deeper  or  coming  out 
along  with  a  narrow  or  broad  furrow-slice. 
The  most  obvious  remedy  should  first  be 
tried;  but  both  may  be  adopted  at  the 
same  time  if  a  compound  error  is  appre- 
hended. 

701.  Some  ploughmen  habitually  make 
the  plough  lean  a  little  over  to  the  left, 
thus  giving  it  less  land  than  it  would 
naturally  have,  and  to  counteract  the  con- 
sequent tendency  to  a  narrow  furrow-slice, 
they  move  the  draught-bolt  a  little  to  the 
right.  This  ploughing  with  a  lean  to  the 
left  is  a  bad  custom,  because  it  makes  the 
lowest  side  of  the  furrow-slice  thinner  than 
the  upper,  which  is  exposed  to  view  when 
turned  over,  and  gives  the  appearance 
to  the  land  of  being  ploughed  equally 
deep;  and  it  gives  the  horses  a  lighter 
draught  than  those  which  have  turned 
over  a  deeper  furi"ow-slice.  Old  plough- 
men, becoming  infirm,  are  very  apt  to 
practise  this  deceptive  mode  of  plough- 
ing. The  plough  should  always  move 
level  upon  its  sole,  and  turn  over  a  rec- 
tangular furrow-slice. 

702.  The  difference  in  the  incliuation 
of  the  bottom  of  the  farrow,  here  referred 
to,  is  made  by  ploughs  of  diftereut  con- 
struction, as  well  as  practised  by  cunning 
ploughmen  in  the  raanuer  just  described. 
The  East  Lothian  or  Small's  plough,  fig.  2, 
makes  a  rectangular  furrow;  the  Lanark- 
shire orWilkie  plough  makes  a  trapezoidal 
or  crested  furrow,  and,  as  we  are  consider- 

Fig.  15. 


ing  the  subject,  it  may  be  well  to  illustrate 
it  at  once.  Fig.  15  is  an  example  of  the 
rectangular  slice  of  10  by  7  inches  -.abed 
may  be  taken  as  a  transverse  section  of 
the  body  of  the  plough,  the  line  a  c  being 
the  terminal  outline  of  the  mould-board, 
a/  a  section  of  the  slice  which  is  just  being 
laid  up,  and^  h  a  slice  previously  depf)site<i. 
In  the  triangle  i  g  k  the  base  i  ^  ia  10 
inches,  being  always  equal  to  the  breadth 
of  the  slice,  the  angle  at  ^  a  right  angle, 
and  the  sides  i<7,  (7  X;  each  equal  to  7'07i 
inches,  the  perpendicular  height  ^  ^  being 
5  inches. 

703.  Fig.  16  is  a  similar  representation 
of  a  cresting  plough,  with  its  effects  on 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  BRCTANGULAR  F jniRO W-SLICH, 
VOL.  I. 


thj:  effects  of  a  trapezotdaj,  or  crested 
fl'rkow-slick. 

the  slice  and  the  subsoil  ;  Ic  n  p  o  \&  ^ 
section  of  the  plough,  h  m  a  section  of  a 
slice  in  the  act  of  being  deposited  on  the 
preceding  slice  I  c.  Here  the  slices  are 
trapezoidal,  as  they  are  always  cut  by  thia 
species  of  plough  ;  and  from  this  configu- 
ration of  the  slice,  the  broader  sides  ar« 
not  parallel,  nor  do  the  conterminous  sidea 
of  the  adjacent  slices  lie  parallel  to  each 
other  in  the  transverse  direction ;  the 
side  b  c  lying  at  an  angle  of  48°  with  tli» 
base  a  b,  while  the  side  b  m  makes  tho 
opposite  angle  at />  only  41'',  the  angle  at 
c  being  84°,  and  the  triangle  ahc  isosceles. 
The  base  a  i  of  the  triangle  ab  c  is  now 
supposed  to  be  8^  inches,  and  the  side  a  o 
6|  inches,  the  opposite  side  I  h  being  4^ 
or  5  inches.  The  base,  a  b  when  bisected 
in  d,  gives  a  (7=4"25  inches,  and  sine© 
a  <? — aop^c  f?-,  c  d  will  be  4'918  inches; 
but  cases  occur  still  more  extreme,  a  h 
being  only  7^  inches,  but  the  angle  at  o 
becomes  as  acute  as  75°,  yet  with  these 
dimensions  c  d  is  still  under  5  inches; 
hence,  in  all  practical  cases,  with  a  furrow 
less  than  9  inches  in  breadth,  the  result 


162 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


will  be  a  redaction  in  the  quantity  of  the 
land  as  a  cover  for  seed. 

704.  Another  point  remains  to  be  noticed 
in  reference  to  these  two  forms  of  slice. 
We  have  seen  that  the  rectangular  slice 
necessarily  implies  that  the  bottom  of  the 
farrow  shall  be  cut  upon  a  level  in  its 
transverse  section,  fig.  1 5,  while  the  slice 
that  is  cut  by  the  cresting  plough  leaves 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  with  a  sloiting 
rise  from  the  land-side  towards  the  furrow- 
side  at  every  slice,  and  this  rise  may  range 
from  1  to  J  5  inch  or  more.  Returning  to 
fig.  16,  the  serrated  line /A  o,  exhibits  a 
transverse  section  of  the  surface  of  the 
subsoil,  from  which  the  soil  has  been 
turned  up  by  the  cresting  plough.  The 
triangular  spaces  e/ff,  g  h  i  represent  the 
quantity  of  soil  left  by  such  ploughs  at  the 
lifting  of  each  slice.  Each  quantity  may 
amount  to  one-seventh  of  what  the  slice 
ought  to  be,  and  is  robbed  from  it,  and  left 
adhering  to  the  subsoil,  except  in  so  far  as 
it  may  be  rubbed  down  by  the  abrading 
action  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould- 
board,  as  at  /  and  A,  and  the  portion  of 
soil  so  rubbed  off  is  thrust  into  the  space 
nnder  the  edge  of  the  slice  as  it  is 
successively  laid  up.  This  last  process 
may  be  readily  observed  at  any  time  when 
the  plough  is  vrorking  in  tough  land  or  in 
lea.  With  a  cresting  plough,  the  spaces 
/,  A,  0  will  be  seen  more  or  less  filled  up 

with  crumbled  soil ;  while,  with  the  rectan- 
gular plough,  the  corresponding  spaces 
will  be  left  nearly  void.  Whether  or  not 
the  filling  in  of  these  voids  is  beneficial  to 
the  land  in  a  greater  degree  than  if  the 
seventh  here  left  below  had  been  turned  up 
with  the  slice,  I  should  say  it  was  not ; 
but  it  is  certain,  that  it  is  more  frequently 
left  adhering  to  the  subsoil  than  to  be 
found  stuffed  under  the  edge  of  the  slice. 
Under  any  view,  the  system  of  the  crested 
furrow  ploughing  is  not  equal  in  value  to 
the  rectangular. 

705.  In  considering  this  question,  there 
are  two  points  deserving  attention.  1st, 
The  immediate  effects  upon  the  labour  of 
men  and  horses.  It  may  be  asserted 
generally,  that  all  ploughs  adapted  to  form 
a  crested  furrow  are  heavier  in  drauglit 
than  those  tliat  produce  the  rectangular 
furrow.  This  seems  a  natural  inference 
from  the  manner  in  which  they  work  ;  the 


tendency  that  they  all  have  to  under-cut 
by  the  coulter ;  the  narrow  feather  of  the 
share  leaving  more  resistance  to  the  body 
in  raising  and  turning  the  slice;  and,  not 
least,  the  small  ridge  left  adhering  to  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  if  rubbed  down  and 
stuffed  under  the  slice,  is  performed  by  an 
unnecessary  waste  of  power,  seeing  that 
the  mould-board  is  not  adapted  for  remov- 
ing such  adhering  obstructions.  2d,  The 
loss  of  time  and  labour  arising  from  the 
breadth  of  furrow,  compared  with  those 
j)loughs  that  take  a  10-inch  furrow.  Thus, 
in  ploughing  an  imperial  acre  with  a  10- 
inch  furrow,  —  leaving  out  of  view  the 
taking  up  of  closings,  turnings,  &c, — the 
distance  walked  over  by  the  man  and 
horses  will  amount  to  U'9  miles  nearly; 
with  a  9-inch  furrow  the  distance  will  be 
11  miles;  with  8|-inch  furrow,  it  will  be 
11^  miles  or  thereby;  and  with  a  T|-inch 
furrow  \3\  miles  nearly. 

706.  But  to  resume  ourraore  immediate 
subject,  no  ploughman  assumes  the  habit 
of  leaning  the  plough  over  to  the  right, 
because  it  is  not  so  easy  to  hold  it  in  that 
position. 

707.  Other  ploughmen,  especially  tall 
men,  are  in  the  habit  of  constantly  leaning 
hard  upon  the  stilts;  and  as  this  has  the 
tendency  to  lift  the  plough  out  of  the 
ground,  tliey  are  obliged  to  put  the  draught- 
bolt  higher  up  to  keep  it  in  the  ground. 
A  slight  leaning  of  the  hands  upon  the 
stilts  is  requisite  at  all  times,  to  retain  a 
firm  hold  of  them,  and  give  a  quick 
guidance  to  the  plough. 

708.  A  good  ploughman  will  use  none 
of  these  expedients  to  make  his  plough 
go  steadily ;  for,  he  will  temper  the  irons 
so,  as  there  shall  be  no  tendency  in  the 
plough  to  go  too  deep  or  too  shallow  into 
the  ground,  or  make  too  wide  or  too 
narrow  a  furrow-slice,  or  cause  less  or 
more  draught  to  the  horses,  or  less  or  more 
trouble  to  himself,  than  the  work  requires 
to  be  jierforined  in  the  best  manner ;  and  ho 
will  also  temper  tliem  so,  as  to  hold  the 
plough  with  ease  to  himself,  have  plenty 
of  leisure  to  guide  the  hor.fos  aright,  and 
execute  tlie  work  in  a  creditable  manner. 
I  have  known  such  ploughmen,  and  they 
invariably  did  their  work  the  best;  but 
I  never  yet  saw  a  ploughman  do  so,  who 


PLOUGHING. 


163 


had  not  acquired  the  art  of  tempering  the 
irons.  Until  this  art  is  acquired,  the  best- 
made  plougli  will  be  comparatively  worth- 
less in  the  hands  of  any  ploughman, 

709.  In  the  attempt  to  temper  the  irons, 
many  ploughmen  place  the  coulter  in  a 
position  which  increases  the  draught  of  the 
plough.  When  its  point  is  brought  down  as 
far  as  that  of  the  share,  and  much  asunder 
from  it,  to  the  left  or  land  side,  (fig.  4)  a 
stone  in  light  land  is  very  apt  to  be  caught 
between  the  points  of  the  coulter  and 
share,  which  will  have  the  eflectof  throw- 
ing the  plough  out  of  the  ground.  Such 
an  accident  is  of  little  consequence  in 
ploughing  land  to  be  ploughed  again  ;  but 
it  disfigures  the  land  in  ploughing  lea,  and 
must  be  rectified  instantly;  but  in  doing 
this,  time  is  lost  in  backing  the  horses  to 
the  spot  where  the  plough  was  thrown 
out.  To  avoid  such  an  accident  on  lea- 
ploughing,  on  such  land^  the  point  of  the 
coulter  should  be  put  immediately  above, 
and  almost  close  upon,  that  of  the  share. 
In  smooth  soils,  free  of  small  stones,  the 
relative  positions  of  the  points  of  the 
coulter  and  share  are  not  of  much  impoi*- 
tance  as  regards  the  steadiness  of  the 
plough ;  but  the  best  practice  is  always  to 
cut  the  soil  clean. 

710.  The  state  of  the  irons  themselves 
has  a  material  effect  on  the  temper  of  the 
plough.  If  the  cutting  edge  of  the  coulter, 
and  the  point  and  cutting  edge  of  the  share, 
are  steeled,  the  irons  will  cut  clean,  and 
go  long  in  smooth  soil.  This  is  an  eco- 
nomical treatment  of  plough-irons  for  clay- 
soils.  But  in  gravelly,  and  all  sharp 
soils,  (3.t5)  the  irons  wear  down  so  very 
quickly,  that  farmers  prefer  thejn  of  cold 
iron,  and  have  them  laid  anew  every  day, 
rather  than  incur  the  expense  of  steeling 
them,  which  perhaps  would  not  endure  the 
work  much  longer.  Irons  are  now  seldom 
if  ever  steeled  ;  but  whether  steeled  or  not, 
they  are  always  in  the  best  state  when 
sharp,  and  of  the  requisite  dimensions. 

711.  An  imperfect  state  of  the  mould- 
board  is  another  interruption  to  a  perfect 
temper  of  the  plough.  When  new  and 
rough,  the  soil  adheres  to  it,  and,  pressing 
against  the  turning  furrow-slice,  causes  the 
plough  to  deviate  from  its  right  course. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  mould-board 


is  worn  away  much  below,  it  leaves  too 
much  of  the  crumbled  soil  on  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow,  especially  in  loose  soils. 
Broken  side-plates,  or  worn  into  holes, 
easily  admit  the  soil  through  them  into 
the  body  of  the  plough,  and  cause  a  rough 
and  unequal  edge  to  the  firm  land ;  and 
when  soil  accumulates  in  the  body,  it  affects 
the  plough,  both  in  temper  and  draught. 
These  remarks  are  made  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  all  the  ploughs  are  equally  well 
made,  and  may,  therefore,  bo  tempered 
equally  well ;  but  ploughs  are  sometimes 
so  ill  constructed,  that  the  best  tempering 
the  irons  are  capable  of  receiving  will 
never  make  them  do  good  work. 

712.  When  all  the  particulars  which 
ploughmen  should  attend  to  in  execut- 
ing their  work — in  having  their  plough- 
irons  in  a  proper  state  of  repair,  in  tem- 
pering them  according  to  the  kind  of 
ploughing  to  be  executed,  in  guiding  their 
horses,  and  in  ploughing  the  land  in  a  me- 
thodical way — are  considered,  it  ceases  to 
surprise  one  that  so  few  ploughmen  be- 
come first-rate  workmen.  Good  plough- 
manship  requires  greater  powers  of  obser- 
vation than  most  young  ploughmen  possess, 
—  greater  judgment  than  most  will  take 
time  to  exercise,  —  more  patience  than 
most  will  bestow  to  become  familiarised 
with  all  these  particulars. — audgreater  skill 
than  most  can  acquire  to  use  them  all  to 
the  best  advantage.  To  be  so  accomplished, 
implies  the  possession  of  talent  of  no  mean 
order.  The  ship  has  been  aptly  compared 
to  the  plough,  and  the  i)hrase  "  ploughing 
the  deep,"  is  as  familiar  to  us  islanders  as 
ploughing  the  land :  to  be  able  to  put  the 
ship  in  ''  proper  trim,"  is  the  perfection 
aimed  at  by  every  seaman — so,  in  like  man- 
ner, to  "  temper  a  plough  "  is  the  great 
aim  of  the  good  ploughman ;  and  to  be 
able  to  do  it  with  judgment,  to  guide 
horses  with  discretion,  and  to  execute 
ploughing  correctly,  imply  a  discrimina- 
tion akin  to  sailing  a  ship. 

713.  But  want  of  attention  is  the  great 
bar  to  young  men  becoming  good  plough- 
men ;  and  if  they  do  not  acquire  the  art 
when  comparatively  young,  they  will 
never  do  so  in  an  advanced  period  of  life. 
It  is  want  of  attention  at  first  that  makes 
some  ploughmen  bunglers  all  their  days, 
and  the  great  majority  exhibit  bul  medi- 


IM 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


ocre  attainments.  Tlie  latter  class  no 
doubt  is  preferable  to  the  former,  because 
the  injurious  effects  of  lad  ploughing  are 
obvious ;  but  the  effects  of  mediocre  com- 
pared with  first-rate  ploughing  not  being 
so  easily  a-scertained,  must  nevertheless  bo 
considerable.  "  It  is  well  known,"  says  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  "  that  the  horses  of  a  good 
ploughman  suffer  less  from  the  work  than 
those  intrusted  to  an  awkward  and  unskil- 
ful hand  ;  and  that  a  material  difference 
will  be  found  in  the  crops  of  those  ridges 
tilled  by  a  bad  i)loughman,  when  compared 
to  any  part  of  the  field  where  the  opera- 
tion has  been  judiciously  performed."* 
Marshall  contends  that  "  one-fourth  (»f  the 
produce  of  the  arable  lands  of  the  king- 
dom is  lost  through  a  wo7)t  of  tilhipe"  f 
which  may  have  been  an  approximation 
to  the  truth  in  his  day;  but  ploughing  is 
certainly  now  better  performed  in  Scotland 
than  it  was  then,  though  it  must  be 
owned  that  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  that 
work  is  yet  of  a  mediocre  description  ;  and 
other  reasons  than  I  have  given  for  its 
mediocrity  are  not  difficult  to  adduce. 
Thus — 

714.  Plottghmen  cannot  learn  their  pro- 
fession at  a  very  early  age,  and  every 
profession  ought  to  be  acquired  then,  to 
reach  a  high  attainment  in  it  ;  because 
ploughing  requires  a  considerable  degree 
of  strength,  even  from  grown-up  men,  and 
it  bears  much  harder  on  the  learner  ;  but 
even  after  young  men  |>ossess  sufficient 
strength  to  hold  the  plough,  they  are  left 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  ploughing  more 
through  sheer  experience  than  by  tuition 
from  those  better  actjuainted  with  the  art. 
Experience  cannot  be  transmitted  from 
father  to  son  more  in  this  than  in  any 
other  art ;  and  in  this,  as  in  other  arts, 
improvement  is  more  generally  effected 
by  imitation  of  a  better  ^tyle  of  work  than 
by  individual  ingenuity. 

715.  To  teach  a  young  beginner  to 
plough,  it  has  been  recommended,  "  to  put 
a  cross-bar  between  the  cheeks  of  the  bridle, 
so  as  to  keep  the  horses  precisely  at  the 
same  distance  from  each  other,  and  then, 
setting  up  a  pole  at  the  end  of  a  furrow, 
exactly  measured  to  the  same  line  as  that 


from  which  he  starts,  fixes  his  eye  steadily 
npou  it,  and  carries  the  plough  in  a  direc- 
tion precisely  to  that  point."  |  To  do  all 
this  implies  that  the  beginner  has  suffi- 
cient strength  to  hold  a  plough,  which,  if 
he  have,  he  must  be  a  stout  lad ;  and  to 
"  fix  the  eye  steadily  "  upon  a  pole  at  a 
distance,  while  holding  the  plough  with  a 
staggering  gait,  and  unable  for  want  of 
breath  to  speak  even  a  word  to  the  horses, 
far  less  to  guide  them  with  the  reins,  is 
much  beyond  the  power  of  any  lad,  and 
far  more  of  a  boy.  In  fact,  it  would 
require  a  very  good  ploughman  to  do  all 
this,  for  it  is  nothing  short  of  feering,  and 
none  but  the  expertestof  the  ploughmen  is 
intrusted  to  feer  land  on  a  farm.  No  single 
j)ole,  besides,  can  possibly  guide  any 
ploughman  in  a  straight  line  :  he  may 
imagine  he  is  moving  to  it  in  a  straight 
line,  while  all  the  while  he  may  be  forming 
a  very  devious  route.  The  truth  is,  the 
young  man,  desirous  of  becoming  a  plough- 
man in  a  short  time,  ought  to  be  taught 
day  by  day  by  an  experienced  ploughman 
to  temper  the  irons,  and  guide  the  plough 
according  to  his  strength.  Very  ievr 
young  men  have,  or  are  permitted  to  have, 
such  opportunities  of  learning;  and  the 
consequence  is,  and  my  observation  con- 
firms it,  the  best  jdoughmen  are  generally 
those  who  have  been  taught  directly  by 
their  fathers,  and  work  constantly  upon 
their  fathers'  farms;  and  they  make,  be- 
side-',  the  best  stewards,  because  they  have 
been  accustomed  to  command  servants, 
and  have  not  associated  freely  with  them. 
A  steward  promoted  from  the  rank  of 
common  ploughmen  is  aj>t  to  continue  on 
too  familiar  a  footing  with  them  to  sobtain 
the  authority  due  to  his  situation. 

TIG.  In  England  boys  are  not  unfre- 
quently  sent  to  tend  the  plough,  for  they 
cannot  be  said  to  hold  it,  which  is  so 
constructed  with  wheels  and  apj)aratus 
as  to  turn  over  the  soil  without  the  aid  of 
man,  and  his  aid  is  only  required  for  the 
turnings  at  the  ends  of  the  ridges.  The 
work  performed  by  such  implements  is  a 
mere  skimming  of  the  ground,  not  plough- 
ing it. 

717.  As  I  have  adverted  to  the  English. 


•  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  p.  290,  fifth  edition,     t  Marshall's  Gloucester fhire,  vol.  i.  p.  72. 
^  British  Ilusbandrn,  Tol.  ii.  p.  39. 


PLOUGIIIXG. 


165 


mode  of  ploughing,  it  may  be  worth  while 
to  show  the  great  difference  in  the  weight 
of  soil  turned  over  in  a  deep  and  shallow 
furrow.  If  10  inches  are  taken  as  a  fair 
width  for  a  furrow-slice,  there  will  be  18 
such  slices  across  a  ridge  of  15  feet  in 
breadth ;  and  taking  7  inches  as  a  proper 
depth  for  such  a  furrow-slice,  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  slice  will  have  70  square  inches. 
A  cubic  foot  of  earth  is  thus  turned  over 
in  every  24*7  inches  of  length  of  such  a 
slice;  and  taking  1"48  as  the  specific  gra- 
rity  of  common  earth,  (119)  the  24-7 
inches  of  slice  will  weigh  6  stones  8  lb. 
imperial.  If  a  furrow  of  only  4  inches  in 
depth  is  taken,  and  its  breadth  should  only 
be  9  inches,  the  area  of  the  slice  will  be 
36  square  inches,  and  its  weight  will  be 

Fig. 


fs  of  6  stones  8  lb.,  or  3  stones  5  lb.,  a 
considerable  difference  of  weight  for  horses 
to  turn  over  in  the  same  distance  travelled. 

718.  The  proper  form  and  position  of 
the  furrow-slice  are  essential  requisites  in 
good  ploughing.  The  furrow-slice  should 
always  be  of  such  dimension,  and  laid  in 
such  position,  that  the  two  exposed  faces 
in  a  series  of  slices  shall  be  of  equal 
breadth,  and  any  departure  from  this  rule 
is  a  positive  fault.  Laid  up  agreeably  to 
this  rule,  furrow-slices  will  not  only  pre- 
sent the  niaximuui  of  surface  to  the  at- 
mosphere, but  also  contain  the  maximum 
of  cubical  contents.  Fig.  17  represents 
the  movement  of  the  furrow-slice,  as  well 
as   its   position   after    it  is   laid   by   the 

17. 


A  VIEW  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  FURROW-SLICE. 


plough,  where  a  b\s  the  edge  of  the  land  as 
cut  by  the  preceding  furrow:  c  d  the 
slice  in  the  act  of  turning  over,  but  from 
which  the  plough  has  been  removed;  ef\ 
the  edge  of  the  land  from  which  the  slice 
c  d  \s  being  cut ;  j  h,  g  h  the  sole  of  the 
furrows,  and  i  k  I  m,  slices  previously  laid 
up.  A  consideration  of  this  figure  will 
also  show,  that  the  extension  of  tlie  slice 
takes  place  along  the  land-side  edge  e  d 
only,  from  e  to  where  the  backward  flexure 
is  given  to  it  when  rising  on  the  mould- 
board;  and  where  it  is  again  compressed 
into  its  original  length,  by  the  back  parts 
of  the  mould-board  in  being  laid  down. 
The  slices  c  i  I,  are  laid  over  at  an  angle 
of  4.5  degrees  ;  and  in  slices  of  7  inches  in 
depth  and  10  inches  in  breadth,  tlie  alti- 
tude of  the  triangle  at  o,  t,  and  /,  is  5 
inches,  each  of  their  sides  7"071   inches, 


and  the  sum   of  the  two   exposed   faces 
14"142  inches. 

719.  Correct  ploH(/kinff  possesses  these 
characteristics: — The  furrow-slices  should 
be  quite  straight  ;  for  a  ploughman  that 
cannot  hold  a  straight  furrosv  is  unworthy 
of  his  charge.  Tlie  furrow-slices  should 
be  quite  parallel  in  length,  and  this  pro- 
perty shoM's  tliat  they  have  been  turned 
over  of  an  uniform  thickness ;  for  thick 
and  thin  slices  lying  together  present  irre- 
gularly horizontal  lines.  The  furrow-slices 
should  be  of  the  same  height,  which  shows 
that  they  have  been  cut  of  the  same 
breadth];  for  slices  of  different  breadths, 
laid  together  at  whatever  angle,  present 
unequaf  vertical  lines.  The  furrow-slices 
should  present  to  the  eye  a  similar  form  of 
crest  and  equal   surface ;   because    where 


IM 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


one  fiirrow-slice  exhibits  a  narrower  sur- 
face than  it  should  have,  it  has  been  covered 
with  a  broader  slice  than  it  should  be;  and 
■where  it  di:«plays  a  broader  surface  than 
it  should  have,  it  is  so  exposed  by  a  nar- 
rower slice  than  should  be  upon  it.  The 
furrow-slices  should  have  their  back  and 
face  parallel ;  aud  to  discover  this  property 
after  the  land  has  been  ploughed  requires 
rather  minute  examination ;  but  it  is 
easily  ascertained  at  the  time  of  plough- 
ing. The  ground,  on  being  ploughed, 
should  feel  equally  firm  under  the  foot  at 
all  places,  for  slices  in  a  more  upright  po- 
sition than  they  should  be,  not  only  feel 
hard  and  unsteady,  but  will  allow  the 
fceed-corn  to  fall  down  between  them  and 
become  buried.  Furrow-slices  in  too  flat  a 
state  always  yield  considerably  to  the 
pressure  of  the  foot ;  and  they  cover 
each  other  too  much,  affording  insufficient 
mould  for  the  seed.  Furrow-slices  should 
lie  over  at  the  same  angle,  45°,  thus  pre- 
senting crests  in  the  best  possible  position 
for  the  action  of  the  harrows.  Crowns  of 
ridges  formed  by  the  meeting  of  opposite 
furrow-slices,  should  neither  be  elevated 
nor  depressed  in  regard  to  the  rest  of  the 
ridge ;  although  ploughmen  often  commit 
the  error  of  raising  the  crowns  too  high  into 
a  crest,  the  fault  being  easily  committed 
by  not  giving  the  first  furrow-slices  suf- 
ficient room  to  meet,  aud  thereby  pressing 
them  upon  one  another.  The  last  furrow- 
slice  should  be  uniform  with  those  of  the 
rest  of  the  ridge;  but  ploughmen  are  very 
apt  to  miscalculate  the  width  of  the  slices 
near  the  sides  of  the  ridges;  for  if  the  spe- 
cific number  of  furrow-slices  into  which 
the  whole  ridge  should  be  ploughed  are 
too  narrow,  the  last  slices  of  the  open  fur- 
row will  be  too  broad,  and  will  therefore 
lie  over  too  flat ;  and  should  this  too  broad 
space  be  divided  into  two  furrows,  each 
slice  will  be  too  narrow,  and  stand  too 
upright.  When  the  last  furrows  are  ill 
made,  the  open  furrow  cannot  be  pro- 
portionately ploughed  out ;  because,  if  the 
space  between  the  last  furrows  is  too 
wide,  the  open  furrow  must  be  made  too 
deep  to  fill  up  all  the  space;  and,  if  too 
narrow,  there  is  not  sufficient  mould  to 
make  the  open  furrow  of  the  proper  size. 
If  the  last  furrow-slices  are  laid  too  flat, 
the    open    furrow    will    throw   too    much 


mould  upon  the  edges  next  the  open  furrow, 
and  thus  make  them  too  high.  When  the 
la«t  furrows  of  adjoining  ridges  are  not 
ploughe<l  alike,  one  side  of  the  ojien  fur- 
row will  require  more  mould  than  the 
other. 

720.  The  usual  tpeed  of  horses  at  the 
plough  may  be  ascertained  in  this  way. 
A  ridge  of  5  yards  in  breadth  requires  a 
length  of  968  yards  to  contain  an  imperial 
acre;  to  plough  which  at  9  bouts,  (a  bout 
being  a  walk  along  a  ridge  and  back 
again,)  of  10-inch  breadth  of  furrow-slice, 
counting  no  stoppages,  will  make  the 
horses  walk  99  miles,  which  in  10  hours 
gives  a  speed  of  1742  yards  per  hour;  and 
at  10  bouts  of  9-inch  furrow-breadth,  gives 
11  miles  of  travel  to  the  horses,  or  1936 
yards  per  hour.  But  as  ridges  are  not 
made  of  968  yards  in  length,  and  as 
horses  cannot  draw  a  plough  that  dis- 
tance without  being  affected  in  their 
wind,  and  as  allowance  must  be  made 
for  time  lost  in  turning  at  the  ends  of 
the  ridges,  as  well  as  for  afl'ording  rest 
to  the  horses,  those,  speeds  will  have  to 
be  considerably  increased  to  do  that 
quantity  of  work  in  the  time.  By  an 
experiment,  which  is  related  by  Sir  John 
Sinclair  as  having  been  made  by  a  late 
Earl  of  Mar,  it  was  found,  that  1  hour  19 
minutes  out  of  8  hours  are  lost  by  turn- 
ings while  ploughing  an  acre  on  ridges  of 
274  yards  in  length,  with  an  8-inch 
furrow-slice.*  Hence,  in  ploughing  an 
acre  on  ridges  of  250  yards  in  length, 
which  is  the  length  of  ridge  I  consider 
the  best  for  horses  in  draught,  the  time 
lost  by  turnings,  in  ploughing  10  hours, 
with  a  10-inch  furrow-slice,  is  1  hour  22 
minutes.  I  presume  that  the  experiment 
alluded  to  does  not  include  the  necessary 
stoppages  at  times  for  rest  to  the  horses, 
but  which  should  be  included;  for  how- 
ever easy  the  length  of  ridge  may  be  for 
the  draught,  horses  cannot  go  on  walking 
in  the  plough  for  5  hours  together  (one 
yoking)  without  taking  occasional  rests. 
Xow  250  yards  of  length  of  ridge  give 
3-8  ridges  to  the  acre,  or  34  bouts  of  10- 
inch  furrows;  and  allowing  a  rest  of  one 
minute  in  every  other  bout,  1 7  minutes  will 
have  to  be  added  to  the  1  hour  22  minutes 
lost — that  is,  1  hour  39  minutes   lost   out 


•  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  p.  306,  fifth  edition. 


PLOUGHING. 


im^ 


of  every  10  hours,  for  turnings  and 
rest.  Thus  17,424  yards  will  be  ploughed 
in  less  than  8g  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of 
rather  more  than  Ig  mile  per  hour,  or 
nearly  13  miles  of  walking  in  ploughing  an 
acre  in  8g  hours.  These  results  ax-e  per- 
haps near  the  truth  in  ploughing  lea  in 
spring;  they  are  too  little  in  ploughing  red 
land  in  summer,  and  perhaps  too  much  in 
ploughing  stubble  land  in  winter;  but,  as 
lea-ploughing  is  the  criterion  by  which  all 
others  are  estimated,  they  may  be  taken 
as  an  approximation  to  the  truth. 

721.  Taking  farther  data  from  the  same 
experiment,  the  quantities  of  laud  ploughed 
in  different  speeds,  at  given  breadths  of 
furrow-slices,  will  be  as  under  :  — 

Speed.  !  Distance  walked  Breadths  of    la^^Hioughid 

iRj^teper      in  8J  hours.         f^^y^s        i„  gj^^.o^^  at 

Hour-  I  I  ploughed.  j^      ^ 


Miles.  \    Miles.  Yards. 


1 

14 

2 
3 


12 
12 
17 
16 
26 


1284 
440 
642 
220 
808 
880 
332 


24     1320 


1 
14 
21 


I     1     0     34 


3 

42 


722.  I  have  alluded  to  the  time  lost  in 
turnings  while  ploughing  land  of  any  de- 
scription. The  following  table  shows  the 
comparative  amount  of  time  lost  in 
turning  on  ploughing  long  and  short  ridges 
derived  from  the  same  experiment. 


1 
To„^i,  „f   Breadth  of 

Time  lost      '^'?^.f- 

in  turning.      ,^"'ed  to 

*    ploughing. 

I 

Hours  of 
work. 

Yards,     1    Inches. 

78                10 
149 

200               ,.. 
212 
274      !       ... 

B.     M. 
5    11 

2  44 
2     1 
1  56^ 
1  22 

B.     M. 

4  49 
7  16 

7  59 

8  3^ 
8  32 

B. 

10 

Thus  it  appears  that  a  ridge  of  no  more 
than  78  yards  in  length  requires  5  hours 
11  minutes  out  of  every  10  hours  for 
turnings  at  the  landings,  with  a  10- 
inch  furrow-slice ;  whereas  a  ridge  of 
274  yards  in  length  only  requires  1  hour 
22  minutes  for  turnings— making  a  differ- 
ence of  3  hours  49  minutes  in  favour  of 
the   long  ridge  as  regards  the  saving  of 


time.  Consequently,  iu  the  case  of  the 
shortest  ridge,  only  4  hours  49  minutes 
out  of  the  10  can  be  appropriated  to 
ploughing  ;  whereas,  in  that  of  the  long 
ridge,  8  hours  32  minutes  may  be  devoted 
to  that  purpose.  Hence  so  very  short 
ridges  involve  great  loss  of  time  to  plough, 
and  are  therefore  a  decided  loss  to  the 
farmer.  This  is  a  subject  worthy  of  agri- 
cultural students  to  experiment  on,  ia 
order  to  ascertain  the  exact  time  taken  in 
ploughing  and  turning  and  resting  on  ridges 
of  different  lengths,  in  the  different  sea- 
sons, and  iu  different  soils.  A  watch  with 
a  good  seconds-liand  will  be  required  to 
mark  the  time,  and  the  observations  should 
be  made,  unknown  to  the  ploughmen,  when 
at  their  usual  rate  of  work  ;  for  any  one 
constantly  in  the  presence  of  the  men,  will 
cause  more  work  than  usual  to  be  done,  less 
than  the  usual  rests  taken,  and  less  time  lost. 

723.  Experiments  on  this  subject  were 
undertaken  by  a  friend  of  mine  in  the 
spring  of  1847.  The  standard  of  plough- 
ing was  taken  at  4840  square  yards,  or  1 
acre  in  10  hours,  on  ridges  of  medium 
length,  including  the  time  consumed  in  the 
turnings.  In  comparing  the  ploughing  of 
lea  on  ridges  of  329  yards  in  length  with 
those  on  78  3'ards,  it  was  found  that  the 
distance  lost  in  ploughing  the  latter,  in  10 
hours  was  IGSO  yards,  the  equivalent  loss 
of  which,  in  time,  is  rather  more  tiian 
58  minutes.  But  as  329  yards  is  much 
longer  than  a  medium  length  of  250  yards, 
and  as  the  former  actually  incurred  iu 
ploughing  a  loss  in  time  of  58  minutes,  it 
follows  that  the  entire  loss  of  time  incurred 
in  ploughing  an  acre  of  ridges  of  78  yards 
in  length  was  1  hour  45  minutes  out  of  the 
10  hours.  This  is  a  very  different  result 
from  that  obtained  by  the  experiments  of 
the  Earl  of  Mar,  related  above. 

724.  In  other  fields  the  results  were 
these,  also  in  lea-ploughing  : — 


Ridges. 


T       .1,    r    Time  taken 


No.  1 
_  2 
-  3 
^  4 
_    5 


YDS. 

78 

87 

112 

118 

170 


11  53 

12  16 
10  35 

9  31 

10  15 


Loss  of 

Gain  of 

time. 

time. 

R.     M. 

B.     M. 

1  53 

0     0 

2  16 

0     0 

0  35 

0    0 

0     0 

0  29 

0  15 

0     0 

168 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


No.  1  ridges  were  on  a  etccp  hill,  with 
thin  clay  soil  resting  on  a  tilly  subsoil. 
The  ridges  on  Xos.  3  and  5  were  of  the 
same  clay  soil,  the  upper  part  resting  on 
till,  the  lower  part  on  a  light  gravel. 
The  results  are  too  variable  and  contra- 
dictory to  be  depended  on  ;  but  the 
■ubject  is  worthy  of  farther  investigation 
and  experiment,  on  ridges  of  various 
lengths,  and  on  soils  of  different  consistency. 

725.  When  horses  are  driven  in  the 
plough  heyond  their  step^  they  draw  very 
unequally  together,  and,  of  course,  the 
plough  is  held  unsteadily.  In  that  case, 
the  plough  has  a  tendency  to  take  too 
much  land ;  to  obviate  which  the  plough- 
man leans  the  plough  over  to  the  left,  in 
which  position  it  raises  a  thin  broad 
furrow-slice,  and  lays  it  over  at  too  low 
an  angle.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
ploughman  allows  the  horses  to  move  at 
too  slow  a  pace,  he  is  apt  to  forget  what 
he  is  about,  and  the  furrow-slices  will  then, 
most  probably,  be  made  too  narrow  and  too 
shallow ;  and  though  they  may  be  laid  over 
at  the  proper  angle,  and  the  work  appear 
cxterijally  well  enough  executed,  there 
will  be  a  deficiency  of  mould  in  the 
ploughed  soil. 

726.  There  is  another  circumstance 
which  greatly  affects  the  speed  of  horses 
at  work  on  some  farms,  I  mean  the  great 
tieepness  of  the  ground ;  and  it  is  not 
unusual  to  see  the  ridges  traversing  such 
steeps  straight  up  and  down.  Ridges  in 
such  a  position  are  laborious  to  plough,  to 
cart  upon,  to  manure,  anil  for  every  opera- 
tion connected  with  farming.  The  water 
runs  down  the  furrows  when  the  land  is 
under  the  plough,  and  carries  to  the  bottom 
of  the  declivity  the  finest  portion  of  the 
soil.  In  such  a  position  a  ridge  of  250 
yards  is  much  too  long  to  plough  without 
a  breathing  to  the  horses.  Although  the 
general  rule  of  making  the  ridges  run  N. 
and  S.  is  the  correct  one,  in  such  a 
situation  as  a  steep  acclivity,  they  should 
be  made  to  slope  along  the  face  of  the 
hill,  instead  of  running  up  and  down  the 
acclivity  ;  and  the  slope  will  not  only  be 
easier  to  labour  in  every  respect,  but  the 
soil  will  be  saved  being  washed  so  n'.uch 
away  in  the  fiirrow.s ;  but  the  direction  of 
the  slope  should  n<it  bo  made  at  random, 
it  should  fall  away  to  the  right  hand  in 


looking  up  the  acclivity,  because  then  the 
plough  will  lay  the  furrow- si  ice  down  the 
hill  when  it  is  in  the  act  of  climbing  the 
steep,  and  on  coming  down  the  hill  the 
horses  will  be  the  better  ;ible  to  lay  the  slice 
up  against  the  iuclinatii.n  of  the  ground. 
What  the  exact  length  of  the  ridges  on 
such  an  acclivity  ought  to  be,  even  with 
the  assistance  of  the  slope,  I  cannot  say, 
but  should  imagine  that  1 00  or  150  yards 
would  be  fculhcient  for  the  horses  ;  but, 
at  all  events,  there  is  no  doubt  it  would 
be  nuich  better  f<jr  the  labour  of  the 
farm,  as  well  as  the  soil,  to  have  2  fields 
100  yards  long  each,  one  higher  up  the 
slope  than  the  other,  than  the  whole 
ground  in  one  field  of  200  yards  in 
length. 

727.  Ploughing  matches. — This  seems 
to  me  a  fitting  place  to  say  a  few  words 
on  ploughing  matches.  I  believe  it  admits 
of  no  doubt  that,  since  the  institution  of 
jdoughing  matches  throughout  the  country, 
the  character  of  our  farm-servants,  as 
ploughmen,  has  risen  to  consideraMe  cele- 
brity; not  but  that  individual  phiULlnnen 
could  have  been  found  before  the  piactice 
of  matches  existed  as  dexterous  a?  any  of 
the  present  day,  but  the  general  existence 
of  good  ploughing  mu^t  be  obvious  to 
everv  one  who  is  in  the  habit  of  observ- 
ing the  arable  condition  of  the  country. 
This  inijirovement  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  institution  of  ploughing  matches  alone, 
because  superior  construction  of  imple- 
ments, be:ter  kept,  better  matched,  and 
a  superior  race  of  horses,  and  suj  erior 
judgment  and  taste  in  field  labour  in  the 
farmer  himself,  are  too  important  elements 
in  influencing  the  conduct  of  ploughmen, 
to  be  overlooked  in  the  consideration  of 
this  question. 

728.  But  be  the  primary  motive  for 
improvement  in  the  most  important  branch 
of  field  labour  ns  it  may,  doubtless  s 
projtcrly  regulated  emulation  amongst 
workmen  of  any  class,  proves  a  strong 
incentive  to  the  execution  of  superior 
workmanship ;  and  the  more  generally 
the  inducement  is  exten»led,  the  more 
generally  the  improvement  arising  from 
it  mnv  le  expected  to  be  diffused;  and 
on  this  account  the  plough  uieddh  of  the 
lligiilaiid  and  Agricultural  Society  of 
Scotland,  being  open   in  competition  to  all 


PLOUGHING-l^IATCHES. 


169 


parts  of  Scotland  every  year,  have  per- 
haps excited  a  spirit  of  emulation  among 
ploughmen,  as  a  reward  to  those  vrho 
excel,  beyond  any  thing  to  be  seen  in  any 
other  country.  Wherever  15  ploughs  can 
be  gathered  together  for  competition  at 
any  time  and  place,  there  the  ploughman 
who  obtains  the  first  premium  offered  by 
those  interested  in  the  exhibition,  is  en- 
titled to  receive,  over  and  above,  the 
Society's  silver  plough  medal,  bearing  a 
suitable  inscription,  with  the  gainer's 
name  engraved  upon  it.  About  60  appli- 
cations are  made  for  the  medals  every  year, 
so  that  at  least  900  ploughmen  annually 
compete  for  them ;  but  the  actual  number 
far  exceeds  that  number,  as,  in  many  in- 
stances, matches  comprehend  from  40  to  70 
ploughs,  instead  of  the  minimum  number  of 
15.  Besides  stated  competitions,  such 
matches  are  occasioned  by  the  welcome 
which  neighbours  are  desirous  of  giving  an 
incoming  tenant  to  his  farm,  and  its  hearti- 
ness is  shown  in  the  extent  of  the  plough- 
ing given  him  before  he  has  collected 
a  working  stock  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

729.  Ploughing-matches  are  generally 
very  fairly  conducted  in  Scotland.  They 
usually  take  place  on  lea  ground,  the 
plougliing  of  which  is  considered  the  best 
test  of  a  ploughman's  skill,  though  I  hold 
drilling  to  be  much  more  difficult  of  correct 
execution.  The  best  part  of  the  field  is 
usually  selected  for  the  purpose,  if  there 
be  such,  and  the  same  extent  of  ground, 
usually  from  2  to  4  ridges,  according  to 
the  length,  is  allotted  to  each  portion  of  the 
ground  to  be  ploughed.  X  pin,  bearing  a 
number,  is  pushed  into  the  ground  at  the 
end  of  each  lot,  of  which  as  many  are 
marked  off  as  ploughs  are  entered  in  com- 
petition. Numbers,  on  slips  of  paper  cor- 
responding to  those  on  the  pins,  are  drawn 
by  the  competing  ploughmen,  who  each 
takes  possession  of  the  lot  he  has  drawn. 
Ample  time  is  allowed  to  finish  the  plough- 
ing of  the  lot,  and  in  this  part  of  the 
arrangements,  I  think  too  much  time  is 
allowed,  to  the  wearisome  annoyance  of 
the  spectators.  Although  quickness  of  time 
in  executing  the  same  extent  of  work  is 
not  to  be  compared  to  excellency  of  exe- 
cution, it  should  enter  as  an  important 
element  in  deciding  the  question  of  skill. 
Every  competitor  is  obliged  to  feer  his  own 


lot,  guide  his  own  horses,  and  do  every 
other  thing  connected  with  the  work,  such 
as  assorting  his  horses  and  trimming  hia 
plough-irons,  without  any  assistance. 

730.  The  judges,  who  have  been  brought 
from  a  distance,  and  have  no  personal  in- 
terest in  the  exhibition,  are  requested  to 
inspect  the  ground  after  all  the  ploughs 
have  been  removed,  having  been  kept 
away  from  the  scene  during  the  time  the 
ploughs  were  engaged.  This  appears  to 
me  an  objectionable  part  of  the  arrange- 
ments, which  is  made  on  the  plea  that, 
were  the  judges  to  see  the  ploughs  at 
work,  some  particular  ones  might  be  re- 
cognised by  them  as  belonging  to  friends, 
and  their  minds  might  thereby  be  biased 
in  their  favour.  Such  a  plea  pays  a  poor 
compliment  to  the  integrity  of  a  judge ; 
and  any  farmer  who  accepts  that  respon- 
sible and  honoured  office,  and  would  allow 
himself  to  be  influenced  by  so  pitiful  a  con- 
sideration, would  deserve  not  only  to  be 
rejected  on  any  such  occasion,  but  scouted 
out  of  society.  One  consequence  of  the 
exaction  of  this  rule  is,  loss  of  patience 
by  the  spectators,  while  the  judges  are  occu- 
pying no  more  than  the  necessary  time 
for  deciding  the  ploughing  of,  it  may  be,  a 
large  extent  of  ground.  The  judges  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  present  all  the  time  of  the 
competition,  when  they  could  find  leisure 
calmly  and  minutely  to  ascertain  the  posi- 
tion and  depth  of  the  furrow-slices,  and 
mature  their  thoughts  on  points  which  may 
modify  first  impressions.  That  the  bare 
inspection  of  the  finished  surface  cannot 
furnish  satisfactory  information  as  to  the 
land  having  been  correctly  ploughed,  but 
which  must  be  obtained  by  comparing  the 
soles  of  the  furrows  while  the  landis  plough- 
ing, I  shall  endeavour  to  show. 

731.  It  has  been  seen  (702)  that  the 
East  Lothian  plough  lays  over  a  slice  of 
a  rectangular  form,  and  the  Lanarkshire 
one  of  a  trapezoidal  form,  and  that  the 
high-crest  form  of  slice,  and  serrated 
furrow-sole,  contain  one-seventh  less  earth 
than  the  other.  Now,  were  the  surface- 
work  only  to  be  judged  of,  which  must  be 
the  case  when  judges  are  prohibited  seeing 
the  work  done  in  the  course  of  execution, 
the  serrated  extent  of  the  furrow-sole  can- 
not so  well  be  ascertained  by  removing 
portions  of  the  ploughed  ground  here  and 


170 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


there,  as  by  constant  inspection.  As  equal 
ploughing  consist;3  in  turning  over  equal 
portions  of  soil  in  the  same  extent  of 
ground,  otlicr  things  being  equal,  a  com- 
parison of  the  qu;uiiity  «f  earth  turned  over 
by  the.^e  two  k;iiJ^  <.f  i>l()ughs  can  only  be 
made  in  this  way  :  In  a  space  of  I  square 
yaid  turned  ovjr  by  each,  taking  a  furrow- 
slice  in  both  ca-es  at  10  inches  in  breadth 
and  7  inches  in  depth,  and  taking  the 
specific  gravity  of  soil  at  1*48,  the  weight 
of  earth  turned  over  by  the  East  Lothian 
plough  would  be  34  st,  9  lbs.,  while  the 
Lanarkshire  plough  would  only  turn  over 
29  st.  10  lbs.,  making  a  difference  of  4st. 
13  lb.  in  the  small  area  of  1  square  yard. 
In  these  circumstances,  is  it  fair  to  say 
that  the  horses  yoked  to  the  East  Lothian 
plough  have  done  no  more  work  than 
those  yoked  to  the  Lanarkshire,  or  that 
the  crop  for  which  the  land  has  been 
ploughed  will  receive  the  same  quantity 
of  loosened  mould  to  grow  in  in  both 
such  cases?  The  prohibitory  rule  against 
the  judges  making  their  inspection  during 
the  ploughing  has  been  relaxed  in  several 
instances ;  but,  I  fear,  more  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  spectators  losing  their 
patience  while  waiting  for  the  decision, 
after  the  excitement  of  the  competition  is 
over,  than  from  regard  to  the  justness  of 
principle.  Thus  may  originate  these  and 
other  common -sense  remarks  on  the  usual 
mode  of  conducting  ploughing-matches; 
but  the  matter  which  follows  will  be  found 
more  important  as  affecting  the  character 
of  good  ploughing. 

732.  The  primary  objects  of  the  insti- 
tution of  ploughing-matches  must  have 
been  to  produce  the  best  examples  of 
ploughmanship — and  by  the  best,  must  be 
understood  that  kind  of  ploughing  which 
shall  not  only  seem  to  be  well  done,  but 
must  be  throughout  and  properly  done.  To 
be  particular,  the  award  should  be  given 
to  the  plough  that  produces  not  only  a 
proper  surface  finish,  but  exhibits,  along 
with  that,  the  power  to  cut  and  turn 
over  the  greatest  quantity  of  soil  in  the 
most  approved  manner.  That  this  com- 
bination of  (jualities  has  ceased  to  be  the 
criterion  of  merit,  is  now  sulliciently  appa- 
rent to  anyone  who  will  examine  for  him- 
self the  plougliing  which  has  boon  rewarded 
in  recent  ploughing-matches  ;  and  the 
causes  of  such  awards  is  this  : — 


733.  The  introduction  of  the  Lanark- 
shire plough  by  Wilkie,  gave  rise,  as  is  sup- 
posed, to  the  high-crested  furmw-olice,  fig, 
16.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  ploughs 
made  on  this  principle  produce  work  on 
lea  land  highly  satisfactory  to  the  eye  of  a 
ploughman,  or  to  that  of  any  person,  in- 
deed, who  appreciates  regularity  of  form; 
and  as  there  are  many  minds  who  dwell 
with  pleasure  on  beauty  of  form,  but  com- 
bine not  the  idea  with  usefulness,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  work  which  thus  jilcases  the 
mind,  and  satisfies  the  judgment  through 
the  sense  of  sight  only,  should  become  a 
favourite  one.  While  the  crested  system  of 
ploughing  kept  within  bounds  it  was  well 
enough,  but,  in  course  of  time,  the  taste 
for  the  practice  became  excessive  ;  and  at 
length,  losing  sight  of  the  useful,  a  depraved 
taste  sacrificed  utility  to  beauty,  in  as  far 
as  ploughing  is  concerned.  Thistaste  gradu- 
ally spread  itself  over  certain  districts, 
and  plough-makers  vied  with  each  other  in 
producing  ploughs  that  should  excel  in  that 
particular  quality.  A  keen  spirit  of  emula- 
tion amongst  ploughmen  ke])t  up  the  taste 
amongst  their  own  class,  and  fre(|ueutly 
the  sons  of  farmers  became  successful  com- 
petitors in  the  matches,  which  assisted  to 
give  the  taste  a  higher  tone.  Thus,  by  de- 
grees, the  taste  for  this  mode  of  ploughing 
spread  wider  and  wider,  until  in  certain 
districts  it  became  the  prevailing  method. 
At  ploughing-matches  in  thof-e  districts, 
the  criteri(m  of  good  ploughiug  was 
generally  taken  from  the  a))]iearanco  of 
the  surface;  furrow-slices  ])ossessing  the 
highest  degree  of  parallel i.sui,  exposing 
faces  of  unequal  breadth,  and,  above  all,  a 
high  crest,  carried  off  the  palm  of  victory. 
I  have  seen  a  quorum  of  ploughing  judges 
"plodding  their  weary  way"  for  two  hours 
together  overa field,  measuring  tlielueadths 
of  faces,  and  scanning  the  parallelism  of 
slices,  but  who  never  seemed  to  consider 
the  under-ground  work  of  any  imixirtance, 
ill  enabling  them  to  <lecide  correctly,  lender 
such  regulations,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
ploughmen  devote  their  abilities  to  produce 
work  to  satisfy  this  vitiated  taste,  ami  that 
plough-makers  find  it  their  interest  to 
encourage  the  desire,  by  exaggerating 
more  and  more  the  construction  of  those 
])arts  of  the  plough  which  produce  the 
desired  results.  Thus  have  viiluable 
institutions  of  ploughing-matches,  in  the 
districts  alluded  to,  been  unwittingly  made 


DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RIDGES. 


171 


to  engender  an  innoA'ation  wbicli,  though 
beautiful  enough,  and,  when  practised  with- 
in due  bounds,  ia  also  useful,  has  induced  a 
deterioration  in  really  useful  and  sound 
ploughing. 

734.  But  it  is  not  yet  too  late  to  retrieve 
what  has  been  lost.  Let  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  and  all 
local  agricultural  associations,  institute  a 
code  of  rules  to  guide  the  judges  of  plough- 
ing-niatches  in  delivering  their  awards. 
Let  these  rules  direct  the  land  to  be 
thoroughly  ploughed  to  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  as  well  as  satisfactorily  to  the  sight. 
When  such  rules  shall  be  promulgated  from 
competent  authority,  we  may  hope  to  see 
ploughing-raatches  exceed  their  pristine 
integrity — doing  good  to  every  one  con- 
cerned in  them,  and  restoring  the  confi- 
dence in  them  which  is  at  present  on  the 
wane,  but  distrust  in  which  has  only 
arisen  from  an  accidental  misdirection  of 
their  proper  object.  Let,  in  short,  Small's 
plough  (fig.  2)  be  the  only  one  patronised 
in  all  cases  of  ploughing  in  public  com- 
petition, and  individual  farmers  and  plough- 
makers  will  then  find  it  their  interest  to 
use  and  make  no  other. 


ON  PLOUGHING  DIFFERENT   FORMS  OF 
RIDGES. 

735.  One  might  imagine,  that  as  the 
plough  can  do  nothing  else  but  lay  over 
the  furrow-slice,  ploughing  would  not 
admit  of  any  variety;  but  a  short  course  of 
observation  will  show  any  student  the  many 
forms  in  which  land  may  he  ploughed. 

736.  The  several  modes  of  ploughing 
have  received  characteristic  appellations, 
such  as  gathering  up;  crovvn-and-furrow 
ploughing  ;  casting  or  yoking  or  coupling 
ridges  ;  casting  ridges  with  gore-furrows; 
cleaving  down  ridges;  cleaving  down  ridges 
with  gore-furrows ;  ploughing  two-out- 
and-two-in  ;  ploughing  in  breaks  ;  cross- 
furrowing  ;  angle-ploughing,  ribbing,  and 
drilling  ;  and  Uie  preparative  operations 
for  all  kinds  of  ploughing  is  termed  feering 
or  striking  the  ridges. 

737.  These  various  modes  of  ploughing 
have  been  contrived  to  suit  the  nature  of 
the  soil  and  the  season  of  the  year.     Clay 


soil  requires  more  caution  in  being  ploughed 
than  sandy  or  gravelly,  because  of  its 
being  more  easily  injured  by  rain  ;  and 
greater  caution  is  required  to  plough  all 
sorts  of  land  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
The  precautions  consist  in  providing  facili- 
ties for  surface-water  to  flow  away. 
Though  the  different  seasons  thus  demand 
their  respective  kinds  of  ploughing,  some 
modes  are  common  to  all  seasons  and  soils. 
Attention  to  the  various  methods  can  alone 
enable  the  agricultural  student  to  under- 
stand which  kind  is  most  suitable  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  soil,  and  the  peculiar 
states  of  the  season.  To  give  the  best 
idea  of  all  the  modes,  from  the  simplest  to 
the  most  complicated,  let  the  ground  be 
supposed  to  be  even  on  the  surface. 

738.  The  supposed  flat  ground,  after 
being  subjected  to  the  plough,  is  left  either 
in  ridges  or  drills,  each  of  which  occupy 
areas  of  similar  breadth.  Ridges  are  com- 
posed of  furrow-slices  (fig.  17)  laid  beside 
and  parallel  to  one  another,  by  the  going 
and  returning  of  the  plough  from  one  side 
of  the  field  to  the  other.  The  middle  part 
of  the  ridge  receives  the  name  of  the 
crown., — the  two  sides,  the  Jla7iks, — the 
divisions  between  the  ridges,  the  open 
furrows, — and  the  edges  of  the  furrow- 
slices  next  the  open  furrows,  the  fut^row- 
brows  ;  and  the  last  furrows  ploughed  in 
the  open  furrows  are  named  the  mould  or 
h  int-end  furrows. 

739.  The  ridges  are  usually  made  in 
the  direction  of  N.  and  S.,  that  the  crop 
growing  upon  both  their  sides  may  receive 
the  light  and  heat  of  the  solar  rays  in  an 
equal  degree  throughout  the  day;  but  they, 
nevertheless,  are  made  to  traverse  the 
slope  of  the  ground,  whatever  its  aspect 
may  be,  with  the  view  of  allowing  the  sur- 
face-water to  flow  most  easily  away. 

740.  Ridges  are  formed  of  different 
breadths,  of  10,  I'i,  15, 16,  and  18  feet,  in 
different  parts  of  Scotland  ;  and  in  England 
they  are  formed  as  narrow  as  8  and  6 
feet,  and  even  less.  These  various  breadths 
are  occasioned  partly  by  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  partly  by  local  custom.  As  regards 
the  soil,  clay  soil  is  formed  into  narrow 
ridges,  to  allow  the  rain  to  flow  off  very 
quickly  into  the  open  furrows,  and  in  many 
parts  of  England,  is  ridged  at   only    10 


172 


PRACTICE— WIXTER. 


and  12  feet  in  width,  and  in  some  localities 
are  reduced  to  riJglcts  of  5  or  6  feet. 
In  Scotland,  even  on  tlie  strongest  land, 
they  are  seldom  less  than  1 5  feet,  in  some 
localities  16,  and  on  light  soils  18  feet. 
In  Berwich-shire  and  lloxhiirt,'lishirc,  the 
ridges  have  for  a  long  period  been  15  feet 
on  all  classes  of  soils — being  considered 
the  most  convenient  width  for  the  ordinary 
manual  and  implemental  operations.  In 
other  districts  18  feet  are  most  common. 
More  than  half  a  century  ago  ridges  were 
made  very  broad,  from  24  to  36  feet,  high 
on  the  crown — from  an  idea  that  an  undu- 
lated surface  affords  a  larger  area  for  the 
crop  to  grow  on — and  crooked  like  the 
letter  S,  from  another  mistaken  notion 
that  a  crook  always  presents  some  part 
of  the  ridge  in  a  right  direction  to  the  sun  ; 
which,  although  it  did,  removed  other 
parts  as  far  from  it.  lu  the  Carse  of 
Gowrie  such  broad  crooked  ridges  may 
be  still  seen  ;  but  the  common  practice  is 
to  have  the  ridges  of  moderate  breadth, 
straight,  and  pointing  to  noonday.  In 
many  parts  of  Ireland  th.e  land  is  not 
ploughed  into  ridges  at  all,  being  made 
with  the  spade  into  narrow  stripes  called 
lazt/'hcds,  separated  by  deep  narrow 
trenches.      Where    the    plough    is    used, 

Fig. 


hr^wever,   narrow  ridges  of  12   feet  are 
mostly  formed.     For  uniformity  of  pj,^  jg 
description,   let   it   be   understood 
that  1  shall  only  .speak  of  a  ridge  of 
15  feet  in  width. 

T41.  The  first  process  in  the 
ridging  up  of  land  from  the  flat 
surface  is  ihc  fecr'wg  it,  which  is 
done  by  placing  H])right,  in  the 
direction  of  the  ridges,  three  or 
more  poles  (fig.  18)  8^  feet  in 
length,  graduated  into  feet  and 
half-feet,  and  each  ])ainted  at  the 
top  of  a  diirereut  colour,  such  as 
blue,  red,  white,  to  form  decided 
contrasts  with  one  another  when 
set  in  line,  and  they  should  not  be 
green,  to  be  confounded  with  trees 
and  hedges,  nor  brown,  to  be  mis-    „ 

A  PEER* 

taken  for  the  red  land.  i^g  pole. 

742.  To  make  the  important  preliminary 
process  of  feering  land  more  easily  under- 
stood, let  us  suppose  a  and  b,  fig,  1 9,  to  pre- 
sent the  S.  and  E.  fences  of  a  field,  of  which 
let  X  be  the  headncJfje  or  headland,  of  the 
same  width  as  the  ridges,  namely  15  feet. 
To  mark  off  the  width  of  the  headridge 
distinctly,   let    the  plough    pass   in   the 

19. 


c^x^,^^^^^:^^^::^^ 


<J 


MODS  OF  FKBRmO  RIBOKS. 


DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RIDGES. 


179 


direction  of  re",  with  the  furrow-slice  lying- 
towards  x.  Do  the  same  along  the  other 
headland,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  field. 
Then  take  a  pole  and  measure  off  the  width 
of  a  quarter  of  a  ridge,  viz.  3  feet  9  inches 
from  the  ditch  lip, a  toe,  and  plantapoleatc. 
With  another  pole  set  off  the  same  distance 
from  the  ditch,  a  to  <f,  and  plant  it  there. 
Then  measure  the  same  distance  from  the 
ditch,  at  6  to/,  and  at/  look  if  d  has  been 
placed  in  the  line  of/c;  if  not,shiftthe  poles, 
at  </ and/only,  a  little  until  they  are  ail  in  a 
line.  Make  a  mark  on  the  ground  with  the 
foot,  or  set  up  the  plough-staff,  fig.  5,  at/ 
Then  plant  tliepole  aty,  in  the  line  oifdc. 
Before  starting  to  feer,  measure  otf  1;^ 
ridge,  namely,  18  feet  9  inches,  from /to 
k^  and  plant  a  pole  at  k.  Then  start  with 
the  plough  from/  to  d,  where  stop  with 
the  pole  standing  between  the  horses' 
heads,  or  else  pushed  over  by  the  tying  of 
the  horses.  Then  measure  with  it,  at  right 
angles  to/c,  a  line  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
1^  ridge,  18  feet  9  inches,  towards  s,  in  the 
line  of  k  I,  where  plant  the  pole.  In  like 
manner  proceed  from  d  to  y,  where  again 
stop,  and  measure  off"  1^  ridge,  18  feet  9 
inches,  from  ^  towards  u,  still  in  the  line 
of  k  I,  and  plant  the  pole  there.  Proceed 
to  the  other  headridge  to  the  last  pole  c, 
and  measure  off  l;j  ridge,  18  feet  9  inches, 
from  c  to  I,  and  plant  the  pole  at  /.  From 
I  look  towards  k,  to  see  if  the  intermediate 
poles  are  in  the  line  of  those  at  I  and  k,  if 
not,  shift  them  till  they  are  so.  On  com- 
ing down  cf,  obviate  any  deviation  which 
the  plough  may  have  made  from  the 
straight  line.  In  the  line  of/f,  the  furrow- 
slices  of  the  feering  have  been  omitted,  to 
show  more  distinctlythe  setting  of  thepoles. 
The  furrow-slices  are  shown  at  m  and  n. 

743.  As  a  means  of  securing  perfect 
accuracy  in  measuring  ofl'  the  breadths  of 
ridges  at  right  angles  to  the  feerings,  lines 
at  right  angles  to/  c,  from  d  and  ff,  should 
be  set  otf  in  the  direction  of  d  t  and  (/  v, 
by  a  cross-table  and  poles,  aud  marked  by 
a  furrow  drawn  by  the  plough  in  each  of 
these  lines,  before  the  breadths  of  the 
feerings  are  measured  from  d  and  y,  along 
theni.  Most  people  do  not  take  the  trouble 
of  doing  this,  and  a  proficient  ploughman 
renders  it  the  less  necessary;  but  every 
careful  farmer  will  do  it,  even  at  a  little 
sacrifice  of  time  and  trouble,  to  ensure 
perfect  accuracy  of  work. 


744.  It  is  essential  to  the  correct  feer- 
ing of  the  whole  field  to  have  the  two  first 
feerings/ c  and  k  I,  drawn  correctly,  as  an 
error  committed  there  will  be  transmitted 
to  the  other  end  of  tlie  field  ;  and,  to  attain 
this  correctnes.^,  two  persons,  the  plough- 
man and  the  farm-steward,  or  farmer 
himself,  should  set  the  poles.  An  experi- 
enced ploughman,  and  a  steady  pair  of 
horses,  should  alone  be  entrusted  with  the 
feering  of  land.  Horses  accustomed  to 
feering  will  walk  up  of  their  own  accord  to 
the  pole  standing  before  them  within  sight. 

745.  Proceed  in  this  manner  to  feer  the 
line  k  I,  and  so  also  the  line  o  p  ;  but  in  all 
the  feerings  after  the  first,  from /to  k,  the 
poles,  of  course,  are  set  otf  to  the  exact 
breadth  of  the  ridge  determined  on — in  this 
case  15  feet,  as  from  k  to  o,  /  to  jt»,  s  to  ^, 
M  to  »,  jo  to  ?p,  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrows.     And  the  reason  for  setting  ofli"  c 

1  at  so  much  a  greater  distance  than  I  p  ot 
p  w  is,  that  the  half-ridge  a  h  may  be 
ploughed  first  and  without  delay,  and  that 
the  rest  of  the  ridges  may  be  ploughed 
by  half-ridges. 

746.  The  first  half-ridge  a  h  is,  however, 
ploughed  in  a  diflfereut  manner  from  tho 
other  half-ridges  ;  it  is  ploughed  by  going 
round  the  feering/ c  until  the  open  furrow 
comes  to  a  e  on  the  one  side  and  to  h  i  on 
the  other.  Were  the  feering  set  off  the 
breadth  of  a  half-ridge,  7i  feet,  in  the 
line  of  ik,  from  a  to  A,  instead  of  the  quar- 
ter ridge,  3  feet  9  inches,  from  a  to  f,  the 
half-ridge  a  /t,  would  be  ploughed  with  all 
the  furrow-slices  turned  towards  h  i,  and 
the  plough  would  have  to  return  back 
empty,  at  each  furrow-slice,  thus  losing 
half  its  time. 

747.  The  line  h  i  thus  becoming  the 
feering  along  with  k  I,  for  ploughing  the 

2  half-ridges  z  i  and  z  k,  the  open  furrow 
is  left  in  the  line;r  y,  corresponding  to  that 
in  the  line  e  a,  and  betAveen  these  open 
furrows  is  embraced  and  finished  the  full 
ridge  of  15  feet  e  z,  having  its  crown 
along  i  h. 

748.  As  the  plough  completes  each 
feering,  the  furrow-slices  are  laid  over  as 
at  m  and  n.  While  one  ploughman  pro- 
ceeds in  this  manner  to  feer  each  ridge 
across  the  field,  the  other  ploughmen  com- 


174 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


mence  the  ploufrliing  of  tlie  lanJ  into 
ridges ;  and  to  attbrd  a  nuuiljcr  of  them 
space  for  heginnin^  work  at  the  same 
time,  the  fecring-plougliinan  eliouhl  be 
set  to  work  more  tlian  half  a  day  in 
advance  of  tlie  rest.  In  commencing  tlie 
plonghing  of  the  ridges,  each  ploughman 
takes  two  feerings,  and  begins  by  laying 
tiie  farrow-slices,  in  and  n  together,  of 
both  the  feerings,  to  form  the  crowns  of 
two  future  ridges.  One  ploughman  thus 
lays  together  the  furrow  slices  of  /  c  and 
k  /,  whilst  another  is  doing  the  same  with 
those  of  0  p  and  r  ?r.  I  have  just  de- 
scribed how  the  half-ridge  a  A  is  ploughed, 
and  also  stated  that  the  rest  of  the  ridges 
are  ploughed  in  half-ridges.  The  advantage 
of  ploughing  by  half-ridgos  is,  that  the  open 
furrows  are  left  exactly  equidistant  from 
the  crowns,   whereas,   were    the    ridges 

Fig. 


ploughed  by  going  round  and  round  the 
crown  of  each  ridge,  one  ridge  might  be 
made  narrower  than  the  determinate 
breadth  of  15  feet,  and  another  broader. 

749.  After  laying  the  fecring  furrow- 
slices  80  as  to  make  the  crowns  of  the 
ridges,  at/f,  k  /,  op,  and  r  v,  the  mode 
of  ploughing  the  ridges  from  the  flat 
ground  is  to  hie  the  horses  towards  you, 
on  reaching  the  headridgcs,  until  all 
the  furrow -slices  between  each  feering 
are  laid  over  us  far  as  the  lines  y  r, 
which  become  the  open  furrows.  This 
method  of  jiloughing  is  called  gather- 
ing up,  the  disposition  of  the  furrows  in 
Avhich  is  shown  in  fig.  20,  where  a  a  a 
embrace  two  whole  ridges  and  three  open 
furrows,  on  the  right  sides  of  wliich  all  the 
furrow-slices  lie  one  way,  from  a  to  b,  read- 
20. 


FATHERING    IT    lUDU 

ing  from  the  right  to  the  left ;  and  on  the 
left  sides  they  all  lie  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, from  a  to  b,  reading  from  the  left  to 
the  right,  and  both  sets  of  furrow-slices 
meet  in  the  crowns  b  b  b.  Tiie  open  fur- 
rows a  a  a  are  finished  off  with  the  mould 
or  hint-end  furrows,  the  method  of  making 
which  is  described  in  the  next  figure. 

750.  Were  the  furrow-slices  counted  in 
fig.  20,  they  would  be  found  to  amount 
to  20  ;  whereas  10  inch  furrow-slices  across 
a  15  feet  ridge  would  only  count  18,  which 
would  be  the  number  turned  over  in  loose 


ES    FRU.M    THK    ILAT. 

mould ;  but  the  above  figure  is  supposed 
to  rej)resent  gathered-up  ridges  in  lea 
ground,  and  the  mould-furrows  are  shown 
a-s  correctly  formed  as  the  others — which 
they  ought  always  to  be ;  but  in  plough- 
ing lea,  or  grass,  the  slices  scarcely  ever 
meai-ure  10  inches  in  breadth,  and  most 
ploughmen  do  not  regard  the  mould-furrows 
as  forming  a  part  of  the  regular  ridge,  but 
only  a  finishing  to  it. 

751.  The  mould  or  hint-cud  furrow, is 
made  in  this  way :  When  the  last  two 
furrow-slices  of  the  ridges  a  a,  fig.  21,  are 
21. 


AN    OIEN    KLIIKUW    WITH    MOILD    Oil    HlNr-ENl)    FIUR0W-8LIC18. 


DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RmGES. 


175 


laid  over,  the  bottom  of  the  open  furrow  is  as 
wide  and  flat  as  represented  by  tlie  dotted 
line  c,  and  extending  above  from  a  to  a. 
The  plough  goes  along  this  wide  space  and 
first  lays  over  the  triangular  furrow-slice  b 
on  one  side,  and  another  of  the  same  form 
h  on  the  other  side,  up  against  and  cover- 
ing the  lowest  ends  of  the  furrow-slices  a 
a,  by  which  operation  the  ground  is  hol- 
lowed out  in  the  shape  represented  below  c 
by  the  sole  of  the  plough.  The  dotted 
line  d  shows  the  level  of  the  ground  in  the 
state  it  was  before  it  was  ridged  up,  and  the 
furrow-slices  a  a  show  the  elevation  at- 
tained by  the  land  above  its  former  level 
by  ploughing. 

752.  Crown-and-furroic  ploughing  can 
easily  be  performed  on  land  which  has 
been  gathered  up  from  the  flat.  No  feer- 
ing  is.  required,  the  open  furrows  answer- 
ing the  purpose.  Thus,  in  fig.  20,  let  the 
furrow-brow  slices  d  be  laid  over  into  the 
open  furrows  a,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
they  will  just  meet,  since  they  were  for- 
merly separated  by  the  same  means ;  and 
in  ploughing  the  ridges  in  half-ridges,  a 
will  become  the  crowns  of  the  ridges,  and 
h  the  open-  furrows, — hence  the  name  of 
this  mode  of  ploughing.  Its  effect  is  to 
preserve  the  ploughed  surface  of  the  ridges 
in  the  same  state  they  were  when  gathered 
up  from  the  flat. 

753.  When  no  surface-water  is  likely 
to  remain  on  the  land,  as  in  the  case 
of  light  soils,  both  these  are  simple 
modes  of  ploughing  land  ;  and  they  form 
an  excellent  foundation  for  drills  for 
turnips  on  stronger  soils,  and  are  much 
practised  in  ploughing  land  for  barley  after 
turnips.  But  when  the  land  for  barley  after 
turnips  is  to  be  twice  ploughed,  and  it  is 
inconvenient  to  cross-furrow  the  land, — 
which  it  will  be  when  sheep  on  turnips 
occupy  a  field  having  long  ridges,  or  the 
season  is  too  wet  to  leave  the  land  in  a 
cross-furrow, — then  the  land  should  be  so 
feered  as,  in  gathering  up  from  the  flat,  the 
crown-and-fiirrow  ploughing  may  after- 
wards complete  the  ridges. 

754.  On  looking  at  fig.  20,  where  the 
ridges  are  complete,  it  is  obvious  that, 
were  they  ploughed  into  crown-and-furrow, 
thereby  making  the  open  furrows  a  a  a 
the  future  crowns,  a  half-ridge  would  be 


left  at  each  side  of  the  field, — a  mode  of 
finialiing  off"  a  field  displaying  great  care- 
lessness and  want  of  forethought.  The 
feering,  therefore,  should  be  so  made  as 
the  gathering  up  from  the  flat  should  leave 
a  half-ridge  on  each  side  of  tlie  field,  and 
the  subsequent  crown-and-furrow  plough- 
ing will  convert  them  into  whole  ridges. 
Thus,  the  first  feering  should  be  made  at 
e«,  fig.  19,  instead  of/^,  and  every  other 
at  the  width  of  one  ridge,  15  feet.  On 
ploughing  these  feerings,  the  open  furrows 
will  be  left  at  i  k,  k  I,  o  /»,  and  r  w  ;  and 
these  will  form  the  feerings  of  the  subse- 
quent crown-and-furrow  ploughing. 

755.  Another  mode  of  ploughing  land 
from  the  flat  surface  is  casting  or  yoking 
or  coupling  the  ridges.  The  feering  for 
this  is  done  in  a  difl'erent  manner  from  the 
two  foregoing.  The  first  feering  is  made 
in  the  line  of  e  a,  fig.  19,  ch'se  to  the  ditch, 
and  every  other  is  measured  ofi"  of  the 
width  of  2  ridges,  oO  feet — as  at  y  z,  be- 
twixt k  I  and  o  ]),  and  again  at  half  a 
ridge  beyond  r  u\  Casting  is  begun  by 
laying  the  furrow-slices  of  the  feerings 
together,  and  then  laying  the  first  furrow- 
slice  towards  e  a,  on  going  uj),  and  towards 
y  z,  betwixt  I  and  p,  on  coming  down,  the 
bout ;  and  so  on,  furrow  after  furrow,  hie- 
ing the  horses  on  the  headridges  always 
towards  you,  until  the  open  furrow  is  left 
at  y  z,  betwixt  k  I  and  i  h.  The  eff'ect  of 
casting  is  to  lay  the  entire  number  of  fur- 
row-slices, 20  of  every  ridge,  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  in  opposite  directions  on  adjoining 
ridges.  The  proper  disposition  of  the 
furrow-slices  is  seen  in  perspective  in  fig. 
22,  which  exhibits  three  entire  ridges,  ab, 
be,  and  cJ,  two  of  which  are  cast  or  yoked 
together,  that  is,  the  furrow-slices  of  a  h 
meet  those  of  c  b  m  b,  which  forms  the 
crown  of  the  coupled  ridge,  and  those  of 
c  d  lie  in  the  opposite  direction  from  c  5, 
and  are  ready  to  he  met  by  those  of  the 
adjoining  ridge  beyond  d  at  </,  and  they 
leave  the  open  furrow  between  them  at  c : 
and  so  on,  an  open  furrow  between  every 
two  ridges.  Ridges  lying  thus  yoked  can 
easily  be  recast,  by  reversing  the  furrow- 
slices  oi  b  c  and  c  d  into  the  open  furrow 
c,  and  converting  c  into  the  crown  of  the 
yoked  ridge  b  d,  and  making  the  crowns 
b  and  d  open  furrows.  Casting  keeps  the 
land  in  a  level  state,  and  can  most  con- 
veniently be  formed  on  dry  soils.   It  forms 


176 


PRACTIC E— ^^  I NI EU. 


a  good  foundation  for  drillinfr,  and  makes 
an  excellent  seed -furrow  ou  dry  land. 
Lea  aud  seed-furrow  for  barley,  on  light 
land,  are  always  thus  ploughed.     It  is  an 


economical  mode  of  ploughing  land  in 
regard  to  time,  as  it  requires  but  few 
feerings;  the  furrow-slices  are  equal,  and 
the  horses  are  always  turned  inwards,  that 


Fig.  22. 


CASTING,   YOKING,    OR   COUPLING   BIDGi:>. 

It  is  best  performed  upon  furrow.  A  gore-furrow  is  a  space  formed 
to  prevent  the  mecUng  of  two  ridges,  and 
a  substitute  for  an  open  furrow  between 
them  ;  and  it  can  only  be  formed  where 
a  feering  or  an  ojjen  furrow  exists.  It  is 
made  as  shown  in  fig.  23.  Let  the  dotted 
furrow-slices  a  and  f,  and  the  dotted  line  i 
form  an  open  furrow,  of  which  c  is  a  point 

23. 


•  is,  towards  you. 

the  flat  surface,  and  should  the  land  be 
ploughed  again,  it  may  be  recast,  and  no 
half-ridges  left. 

756.  Casting  ridges  is  as  suitable 
ploughing  for  strong  as  light  land,  pro- 
vided the  ridges  are  separated  by  a  gore- 

Fig, 


MODB   OP  MAKING 

in  the  middle,  and  let  it  be  converted  into 
a  gore-furrow.  Make  the  plousrh  pass 
between  the  centre  of  the  open-furrow  c 
and  the  left-hand  dotted  furrow-slice  e^ 
and  throw  up  to  the  right  the  triangular- 
shaped  mouKl-furrow-slice  6,  with  the 
mould  seen  below  c.  Then  turn  the  horses 
sharp  from  vou  on  tlio  headridge,  and  lay 
the  dotted  furrow-slice  a  upon  ft,  which 
will  thus  become  the  furrow-slice  (/. 
Again  turning  the  horses  sharp  from  you 
on  the  headiiilge,  take  the  j)lough  lightly 
through  part  of  the  dotted  furrow-slice  <?, 
and  lay  it  of  a  triangular-shape  for  the 
mould-furrow-slice  /,  the  upper  end  of  c 
being  left  untouched:  but  a  portion  of/ 
will  trickle  down  towards  »',  and  so  will 
also  a  portion  of  d  when  it  was  ploughed. 
Turn  tlie  horses  on  the  off  he.idiidge  still 
from  you,  and  bring  the  plough  down 
behind  </,  and  lay  upon  it  the  ordinary 
furrow-slice^.     Turning  the  horses  again 


A   GORE-FITRROW. 

from  ycu  on  the  nigh  headriJge.  lay  ti.o 
ordinary  furrow-sliceA  upon  thetriangular- 
shaped  mould-furrow /,  by  destroying  the 
remainder  of  the  dotted  furrow-slice,  and 
some  more  earth  ;  and  then  turn  the  horses 
from  you  again  on  the  off  headridge  fiT 
the  last  time,  and  come  down  the  open 
furrow  t,  pushing  the  soil  up  with  tic 
mould-board  fn»m  i  against  /",  and  clearing 
the  furrow  of  iinv  loose  soil  in  it,  and  the 
gore-furrow  is  completed.  A  gore  furrow 
is  most  perfectly  formed  and  preserved  in 
clay-soil,  for  in  tender  soil  it  is  apt  to 
moulder  down  by  the  action  of  the  air  into 
the  open  furrow,  and  prevent  it  l»eing  a 
channel  for  running  water;  but,  indeed, 
gore-furrows  are  of  little  use,  aud  are  sel- 
dom formed  on  light  soils. 

757.  Casting  with  a  gore-furrow  upon 
a  gathered  ridge  always  makes  the  open 
furrow  barer  of  earth  than  the  gore-furrow; 


DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  PLOUGHING  RIDGES. 


177 


but  it  is  not  so  correct  to  say  that  this  is  an 
imperfection  unavoidable  in  casting  a  ridge, 
as  it  is  so  only  in  casting  after  gathering 
it  up  from  the  flat,  and  more  so,  of  course, 
after  two  gatherings  up.  Casting,  in 
my  opinion,  should  never  be  practised  on 
gathered  ridges,  to  remain  in  a  perma- 
nent form,  though  it  may  be  used  for  a 
temporary  purpose,  as  in  fallowing  to  stir 
the  soil  and  overcome  weeds ;  for,  observe 
its  necessary  consequences  :  Suppose  the 
two  gathered  ridges  between  a  a  a,  fig. 
20,  were  cast  together  towards  the  middle 
open  furrow  a,  the  effect  would  be  to  re- 
verse the  position  of  the  furrow  slices  from 
a  to  b,  on  either  side  of  a,  and  they  would 
remain  as  flat  as  formerly ;  but  what  would 
be  its  effect  on  the  furrow  slices  on  the 
other  halves  of  the  ridges  from  b  to  d? 
They  would  be  gathered  up  twice,  and  the 
coupled  ridge  would  have  two  high  fur- 
row-brows by  two  gatherings,  and  two  low 
flanks  by  one  gathering.  It  would,  in 
fact,  be  unevenly  ploughed,  and  the  open 
furrow  on  each  side  would,  of  course,  be 
much  bared  of  soil,  from  being  twice  ga- 
thered up.  No  doubt  the  distortion  might 
be  partially  obviated  by  making  the  fur- 
row-slices between  a  and  b  on  each  side  of 
the  middle  open  furrow  a  deeper  and 
larger  tlian  those  between  b  and  d,  and 
a  uniform  shape  to  the  coupled  ridge  might 
be  thus  preserved ;  but  it  would  be  done 
by  the  sacrifice  of  substantial  ploughing; 
and  it  is  much  better  to  confine  casting 
wltliin  its  own  sphere,  than  practise  it  in 
circumstances  unfavourable  to  the  proper 
ploughing  of  the  land. 

758.  The  open  furrow  in  casting  does 
not  necessarily  bare  the  earth  more  than  a 
gore-furrow.  It  is  broader,  certainly, 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  furrow-slices 
being  laid  away  from  each  other ;  but  its 
furrow-sole  is  not  actually  ploughed  deeper 
than  tlie  g  )re-fi.irrov.'.  I  would  also  ob- 
serve that  casting  is  almost  impracticable 
after  two  gatherings,  because  the  effect 
would  be  to  cleave  down  the  sides  c  o,  fig. 
20,  on  both  sides  of  a,  again  to  Ifie  level 
of  the  ground;  whilst  it  wouhl  gather  up 
the  two  sides  actually  corresponding  with 
d  b  three  times,  thereby  giving  very  un- 
equal heights  to  the  two  sides  of  each 
coupled  ridge,  or  making  the  furrow-slices 


on  the  same  ridge  of  very  unequal  size,  in 
order  to  preserve  their  level — practices 
both  to  be  deprecated.  An  author,  in 
speaking  of  casting,  and  showing  how- 
it  may  be  performed  by  ploughing  the 
furrow-slices  of  two  adjoining  ridges  in 
opposite  directions,  states  that  "the  inter- 
furrow,  which  lies  between  the  two  ridges, 
unavoidably  leaves  a  shoulder  or  hollow 
place,  of  more  or  less  width,  according  to 
the  expertness  of  the  ploughman,  in  th« 
centre  of  the  crown,  which  defect  can  only 
be  completely  relieved  by  reploughing  ;"* 
and  informs  us,  that  the  defect  may  bo 
partly  prevented  by  using  two  ploughs  of 
different  widths  of  mould-boards.  I  do 
not  see  why  ploughing  two  furrow-slice* 
into  the  open  furrow  in  casting  should  bo 
more  difficult  or  less  substantial  than  in 
any  other  mode  of  ploughing.  A  good 
ploughman  will  leave  in  the  future  crown 
of  the  ridge,  in  every  case,  neither  a  shoul- 
der nor  a  hollow  place. 

759.  Nearly  allied  to  casting  is  the 
ploughing  named  tico-out-and-two-in, 
which  may  also  be  executed  on  the  flat 
ground,  and  requires  a  particular  mode  of 
feering.  The  first  feering  should  be  mea- 
sured of  the  breadth  of  2  ridges,  or  30  feet, 
from  the  ditch  a  e,  fig.  J9;  and  every 
subsequent  feering  of  4  ridges  breadth,  or 
60  feet.  The  feeriiigs  are  thus  but  iewr. 
The  land  is  ploughed  in  this  manner :  Let 
a  b,  fig.  21,  be  the  side  of  the  field,  and 
let  c  d  be  the  first  feering  of  30  feet  from 
a  b  ;  and  also,  let  ef  be  the  next  feering 
of  60  feet.  After  returning  the  feering 
furrow-slices,  begin  ploughing  round  the 
feering  c  f/,  wliich  always  keep  on  the 
right  hand,  and  kupjnn^f  the  horses  from 
you,  on  both  the  head-ridges,  until  about 
the  breadth  of  a  ridge  is  ploughed  on 
each  side  of  c  d,  io  g  g  and  h  h.  While 
this  is  doing,  2  ridges  to  i  i  and  k  k  are 
ploughed  around  efhy  another  ploughman. 
At  this  juncture,  open  furrows  occur  at  h  k 
and  i  i,  embracing  between  them  2  ridge."?, 
or  30  feet,  from  k  to  i.  Then  let  the  plough- 
man who  has  ploughed  round  c  d  plough 
from  h  to  i,  laying  the  furrow-slices  first 
to  h  and  then  to  i,  by  hieing  the  horses 
towards  him,  on  both  headridges,  until 
the  ground  is  all  ploughed  to  I  I,  which 
becomes  the  permanent  open  furrow.     The 


Srltlsh  IIc.fLandry,  vol.  ii.  p.  46. 


178 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


next  pennanent  open  furrow  made  by  the  the  ridge  g  a  has  not  been  ploughed ; 
other  plou'^'liman,  will  be  at  m  m,  60  feet  it  is  so  along  with  the  headridges  m  a 
or  4  ridges  breadth  from  1 1.      But  as  yet     and  I  m,  after  all  the  ridges  of  the  field 

Fig.  24. 


FKERING  FOR  PLOUGHING  RIDGKS  TWO-OUT-AND-TWO-IN. 


have  been  ploughed,  laying  its  furrow- 
slices  towards  g  g,  and  making  the  open 
furrow  at  a  b.  The  effect  of  plough- 
ing two-out-and-two-in,  is  to  lay  all  the 
furrow-slices  across  two  ridges  in  one 
direction  from  a  to  r,  and  across  two  ridges 
in  the  opposite  direction,  from  ^  to  c,  both 
double  ridges  meeting  in  c  d,  which  be- 
comes the  crown  of  the  4  ridges  from  ^  to  a. 
In  like  manner  the  furrow-slices  over  the 
4  ridges  from  /  to  m,  meet  in  their  crown 

Fig. 


ef.  In  ploughing  this  mode,  every  plough- 
man takes  in  a  feering  of  4  ridges,  which 
he  completes  before  he  goes  to  another. 
The  reason,  I  suppose,  that  this  mode  of 
ploughing  has  received  its  peculiar  appel- 
lation is,  that  iico  ridges  are  ploughed  with 
the  horses  turning  oi/^wards,  and  two  by 
their  turning  inwards. 

760.  The  appearance  of  the  ground  on 
being  ploughed  two-out-and-two-in  is  seen 

25. 


rLOLGai.NG  Rir-UKS  TVVl>OUT-ANI>-TWO-m. 


in  fig.  25,  where  the  space  from  a  to  «  is 
60  feet,  comprehending  4  ridges,  between 
the  open  furrows  a  and  e,  two  of  which, 
a  b  and  b  c,  have  their  furrow-slices  lying 
to  the  right,  and  those  of  the  other  two,  e  d 
and  d  c,  lying  to  the  left,  meeting  the 
former  at  c,  which  becomes  the  crown  of 
the  whole  division  of  4  ridges. 

761.  This  method  of  ploughing  places  the 
land  in  large  flat  spaces,  and  as  it  dispenses 
with  many  open  furrows,  it  is  only  suitable 


for  light  soils — in  which  it  may  be  used  for 
seed  furrowing,  and  for  drilling  turnips  aud 
potatoes — or  for. any  well-drained  land. 

762.  The  gore-furrow,  described  in  fig. 
23,  might  be  applied  to  this  ploughing  on 
the  stronger  classes  of  soils ;  but  its  intro- 
duction would  change  the  character  of  the 
ridges  altogether,  inasmuch  as  the  crown 
<*,  fig.  25,  would  not  only  be  converted  into 
an  open  furrow,  but  its  actual  centre  trans- 
ferred from  c  to  by  and  <f,  where,  the  fur- 


DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  PLOUGHIXG  RIDGES. 


179 


row-slices  not  meeting  from  opposite  direc- 
tions, but  lying  across  it,  there  would  be 
no  true  crown.  Exactly  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, when  the  gore-furrow  is  introduced 
into  cast  ridges,  as  in  fig.  22,  the  crowns 
at  b  and  d  are  converted  into  open  furrows, 
and  transmuted  into  a  centre  e,  which,  the 
furrow-slices  lying  across  the  ridges, 
would  therefore  not  be  a  true  crown. 

763.  A  nearly  allied  ploughing  to  the 
last  is  that  oi ploughing  in  breaks  or  Jivi- 
sio7is.  It  consists  of  making  feerings  at 
indefinite  distances,  and  ploughing  large 
divisions  of  land  without  open  furrows. 
Some  farmers  plough  divisions  of  8  ridges 
or  40  yards ;  but  so  great  a  distance  incurs 
considerable  loss  of  time  in  travelling  from 
furrow  to  furrow  at  the  landings.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  the  breadth  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  ridges  being  chosen,  30  yards  are 
substituted ;  and  this  particular  breadth 
has  the  advantage  of  causing  deviations 

Fi, 


in  ploughing  from  that  of  the  ordinary 
ridges,  and  of  loosening  any  hard  land  that 
may  have  been  left  untouched  by  the 
plough  in  ploughing  the  ordinary  ridges. 
Land  is  ploughed  in  breaks  only  for  tem- 
porary purposes,  such  as  giving  it  a  tender 
surface  for  seed-furrowing  or  drilling  up 
immediately  thereafter.  The  time  lost  in 
ploughing  wide  breaks  might  be  easily 
estimated  in  figures  by  fig.  24,  where,  the 
feerings  c  d  and  e  f  being  supposed  to  be 
60  yards  asunder,  the  ploughs  have  to  go 
round  c  d  and  ^/ until  they  reach  h  and  i 
respectively,  thus  travelling  in  a  progres- 
sive increasing  distance  to  30  yards  for 
every  furrow -slice  of  10  inches  in  breadth 
laid  over. 

764.  Another  mode  of  ploughing  is 
ttcice-gathering-rip.  Its  eifect  may  be 
seen  in  fig.  26,  where  the  twice-gathered- 
up  furrow-slices  are  seen  to  rest  upon  the 
solid  ground.  It  may  be  practised  both  on 
26. 


»,-<te*» 


TWICE-GATHERING-UP  RIDGES. 


lea  and  red-land.  On  red-land  that  has 
been  already  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  it 
is  begun  by  making  feerings  in  the  crowns 
of  the  ridges,  as  at  b,  fig  20.  The  furrow- 
slices  of  the  feerings  are  laid  together, 
and  the  ridges  ploughed  by  half-ridges,  in 
the  manner  of  gathering  up  from  the  flat. 
The  half-ridge  left  by  the  feerings  at  the 
sides  of  the  field  must  be  ploughed  by 
themselves,  even  at  the  risk  of  losing  time, 
because  it  would  not  do  to  feer  the  first  ridge 
so  as  to  plough  the  half-ridge  as  directed 
to  be  done  in  the  first-gathering-up,  in  fig. 
19,  around  the  feering  of  the  quarter-ridge 
f  c,  because  the  furrows  betwixt  /"  and  i, 
when  ploughed  in  the  contrary  direction 
they  were  before,  would  again  lower  the 
ground;  whereas  the  furrow-slices  from 
e  to/ and  from  z  to  i,  being  ploughed  in 
the  same  direction  as  formerly,  the  ground 
would  be  raised  above  the  level  of  if,  and 


disfiijure  the  ploughing  of  the  entire  ridge 
z  e.  Gathering  up  from  the  flat  preserves 
the  flatness  of  the  ground ;  and  the  second 
gathering-up  would  preserve  the  laud  in 
the  same  degree  of  flatness,  though  more 
elevated,  were  there  depth  enough  of  soil, 
and  the  furrow-slices  made  in  their  proper 
form ;  but  a  roundness  is  usually  given  to 
a  ridge  which  has  been  gathered  up,  both 
by  harrowing  down  the  steep  furrow- 
brows,  and  by  plougliing  the  furrow-slices 
of  unequal  size,  from  want  of  soil  at  the 
furrow-brows  and  open  furrows. 

765.  In  gathering  up  lea  the  second 
time,  no  feering  is  required.  The  plough 
goes  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  crown  of 
the  ridge,  and  lays  upon  its  back  a  thin 
and  narrow  furrow-slice,  «,  fig.  26,  to 
serve  as  a  cushion  upon  which  to  rest  the 
future  crown   furrow-slices.      The  horses 


180 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


aro  tlien  hupped  sliarj>  round  from  you, 
and  tlio  furrow-slice  b  is  laid  so  as  to 
rest,  at  tlic  proper  angle  of  45%  upon  a. 
Hupping  the  horses  again  tiharp  round 
from  you,  the  furrow-slice  c  is  also  laid 
at  the  same  angle  upon  the  other  side 
of  «;  but  c  and  h  should  not  approach 
each  other  so  near  as  to  cover  a,  but  leave  a 
Hpace  of  about  3  or  4  inches  between  them, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  form  a  receptacle 
for  the  seed,  which,  were  c  and  h  to  make 
a  sharp  angle,  would  slide  down  wlien 
sown,  and  leave  the  crown,  the  best  part 
of  the  ridge,  bare  of  seed.  The  ridges  are 
ploughed  in  half-ridges  to  the  oj)eu  furrows 
.7,  which  are  finished  with  mould-furrow- 
slices,  but  these  are  obtained  with  some 
ditlicult}^  for  want  of  soil.  Twice-gather- 
ing-up  is  only  practised  in  strung  land 
and  its  object  is  to  lift  the  mould  above 
the  cold  and  wet  subsoil.  On  dry  land 
no  such  expedient  is  required,  nor  on 
strong  land  drained.  In  fig.  2G  the  dotted 
line  e  represents  the  configuration  of  the 
ground  before  the  second  gathering-up  was 
begun,  and  it  may  be  seen  that  the  open 
furrow  at  d  is  now  deeper  than  it  was  with 
once  gathering-up. 

Fig, 


766.  The  mode  of  ploughing  exactly 
opposite  to  twice  gatheiing-up  is  cleaviny 
or  throwing  down.  The  open  furrows  of 
twice-gathered-up  land  constitute  deep 
feerings,  which  are  filled  up  with  the 
slices  obtained  from  the  mould-furrows 
and  furrow-brows  of  the  adjoining  ridges; 
and  in  order  to  fill  them  fully,  the  plough 
takes  as  deep  a  hold  of  these  as  it  can. 
The  furrow-slices  are  ploughed  exactly 
the  reverse  way  of  twice-gathering-up, 
and  in  half-ridges.  The  eflfect  of  cleaving 
down  is  to  bring  the  ground  again  to  the 
level  from  which  it  hud  been  elevated  by 
the  twice-gathering-up.  The  open  furrows 
are  left  at  the  crowns,  at  a,  fig.  26,  the 
mould -furrows  being  seldom  ploughed, 
cleaving  down  being  usually  practised  to 
prepare  the  land  for  cross-ploughing  in 
the  spring. 

767.  But  when  clay  land  is  cleaved 
down  in  winter,  it  is  always  so  with  gore- 
furrows,  and  tliese,  with  the  open  furrows, 
aftord  a  convenient  channel,  at  every  half- 
ridge,  for  the  water  to  flow  oft"  to  the 
ditches;  and  as  twice-gathering-up  is  only 
practised  on  clay  soils,  and  cleaving  down 


CLEAVING  DOWN  RIDGES  WITIKU   I 


can  only  be  practised  after  twice-gather- 
ing-up, it  follows  that  cleaving  down  is 
only  suitable  to  clay  soils.  The  effect  of 
cleaving  down  ground  is  seen  in  fig.  27, 
which  represent^  it  without  gore-furrows 


at  h  and  mould-furrows  at  c;  but  in  fig. 
28,  the  gore-furrows  are  shown  at  o,  and 
the  open  and  mould-furrows  at  h.  The 
dotted  line  </,  fig.  27,  showing  the  sur- 
face of  the  former  state  of  the  ground,  as 


Fig.  28. 


CLEAVING  DOWN  RIDGF.s  ;\  iTll  (JURE- FURROWS. 


DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  PLOUGHING  RIDGES. 


181 


does  the  dotted  line  c,  in  fig.  28.  Below 
a  and  b,  fig.  27,  are  shown  the  former 
open  furrows  by  the  dotted  line,  as  also 
<loes  the  dotted  line  below  a,  in  fig.  28. 
In  fig.  28,  the  ground  upon  which  the  fur- 
row-slices rest  is  made  somewhat  rounded, 
to  show  the  effect  of  twice-gathering  it 
up.  In  strict  practice,  a  ridge  can  only 
be  cleaved  after  it  has  been  twice  gathered 
up,  because  it  is  scarcely  correct  to  say 
that  a  ridge  is  cleave<l  down  after  one 
gathering-up  from  the  fiat,  when  it  is,  in 
fact,  plouglied  crown-and-furrow.  With 
a  strong  furrow,  a  twice-gathered -up 
ridge  can  be  made  flat  by  one  cleaving 
down. 

768.  Wliat  is  called  cross-ploughing^  or 
the  cross-furrotc,  derives  its  name  from 
ploughing  right  across  the  furrow-slices  in 
the  ridges,  in  whatever  form  these  may 
have  been  formerly  ploughed.  Its  object 
is  to  cut  the  furrow-slices  into  small  pieces, 
so  that  the  land  may  be  easily  pulverised. 
It  is  commonly  executed  in  the  spring, 
and  should  never  be  attempted  in  winter ; 
because  the  position  of  the  furrow-slices 
would  retain  the  rain  or  melting  snow, 
and  render  the  land  wet.  But,  even  if 
cross-furrowing  were  executed  quickly  in 
winter,  and  the  weather  would  allow  the 
soil  to  be  safely  ridged  up,  the  soil  would 
become  so  consolidated  during  winter  that 
it  would  have  to  be  again  cross-furrowed 
in  the  spring  before  it  could  be  rendered 
friable.  The  object  of  cross -furrowing 
being  to  pulverise  land,  it  is  practised  on 
every  species  of  soil,  and  exactly  in  the 


same  manner.  It  is  ploughed  in  divisions, 
the  feerings  being  made  at  30  yards  asun- 
der, and  ploughed  in  the  same  manner  as 
two-out-aud-two-in,  fig.  24;  that  is,  by 
going  round  the  feerings,  hupping  the 
horses  constantly  from  you,  until  about  half 
the  division  is  ploughed,  and  then  hieing 
them  towards  you,  still  laying  the  furrow- 
slices  towards  the  feerings,  until  the  divi- 
sion is  ploughed.  In  cross-ploughing, 
however,  the  open  furrow  is  never  left 
open,  and  is  closed  with  two  or  three  of  the 
last  furrow-slices  being  returned,  and  all 
mark  of  a  furrow  obliterated  by  the  plough 
pushing  the  loose  soil  into  it  with  the 
mould-board,  which  is  purposely  laid  over 
and  retained  in  that  position  by  a  firm 
hold  of  the  large  stilt  only.  The  oblitera- 
tion should  be  complete,  otherwise  the 
hoUowness  at  these  furrows  would  be  shown 
across  the  future  ridges. 

769.  Another  mode,  having  a  similar 
object  to  cross-ploughing  in  pulverising  the 
furrow-slices  by  cutting  them  into  pieces, 
is  called  angle-ploughing^  and  is  so  named 
because  the  feerings  are  made  in  a  diagonal 
direction  across  the  ridges  of  the  field. 
The  ploughing  is  conducted  in  divisions  of 
30  yards  each,  and  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  cross-pkuighing,  with  the  same 
precautions  as  to  the  season,  and  the  obli- 
teration of  the  open  furrows.  It  is  never 
practised  but  after  cross-ploughing,  and 
not  always  then,  and  only  in  clay  soil, 
unless  the  cross-ploughing  has  failed  to 
produce  its  desired  effect  of  pulverisation 
on  the  soil. 


Fig.  29. 


EXAMPLE   OF   X   RIDGE  ILL   PLOUGHED. 


770-  These  are  all  instances  of  good 
substantial  ploughing  with  rectangular 
furrow-slices;  and  were  they  constantly 
practised,  there  would  be  no  instances  of 
bad  ploughing  as  in  fig  29,  no  high-crowned 
ridges  as  at  (7,  caused  by  bringing  the  two 


feering-slices  or  the  two  open  furrows  too 
close  together  from  opposite  directions ;  no 
lean  fianks,  as  at  i,  by  making  the  fur- 
row-slices broader  than  they  should  be, 
with  a  view  to  ploughing  the  ridge  fast,  and 
constituting  hollows  which  become  recep- 


182 


PRACTICE— WIN'TER. 


tacles  for  surface-water  to  sour  the  land. 
When  tlie  snil  is  strong,  lean  flanks  be- 
come so  consolidated,  that  they  are  almost 
sure  to  resist  the  action  of  the  harrows, 
when  passed  across  the  ridge ;  and  iu 
light  soil  they  are  filled  up  with  the 
loose  soil  by  the  harrows,  at  the  expense 
of  the  surrounding  heights.  No  proud 
furroic-hroics  as  at  c,  by  .•netting  up  the 
furrow-slices  more  upright  than  they 
should  be,  to  the  danger  of  being  drawn 
entirely  into  the  oi)en  furrows  on  the  har- 
rows catching  them  too  furoiblyon  leaving 
the  ridire  in  cross-harrowing.  And  no 
Mrtt-^MdZ-sided  open  furrows,  as  at  d^  by 
turning  over  one  mould-furrow  flatter  than 
the  other.  Not  to  extend  this  lengthened 
catalogue  of  evils  accompanying  bad 
ploughing,  I  will  only  mention  that  every 
sort  of  crop  grows  unecpially  on  an  ill- 
l)loughed  ridge,  because  they  grow  better 
on  the  spots  where  the  soil  is  most  kindly ; 
but  the  bad  effects  of  bad  ploughing  are 
not  confined  to  the  season  in  which  it  is 
performed,  as  it  renders  the  soil  unequal 
when  broken  up  again,  and  the  thinner 
and  harder  parts  do  not  yield  so  abuu- 
dantly  as  the  deeper  and  more  kindlj'. 
The  line  d  e,  fig.  29,  shows  the  position  of 
the  surface  before  the  land  was  ploughed, 
and  the  irregular  relation  of  the  furrow- 
slices  to  that  line,  show  the  unequal  man- 
ner in  which  the  ridge  had  been  ploughed. 

771.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  agricul- 
tural writers,*  that  land  when  ploughed 
receives  a  curvature  of  surface  j  whereas, 
correct  jdoughing — that  is,  making  the 
furrow-slices  on  the  same  ridge  all  alike — 
cannot  possibly  give  the  surface  any  other 
form  than  it  had  before  it  was  ploughed. 
If  the  former  surface  were  curved,  then 

Fis 


the  newly  ploughed  surface  would  also  be 
curved ;  and  if  it  were  flat,  the  new  sur- 
face will  be  flat  also.  In  gathering  up  a 
ridge  from  the  flat  ground,  the  earth  dis- 
placed by  the  plough  occupies  a  smaller 
area  than  it  did  by  the  extent  of  the  open 
furrows,  the  fcering-slices  being  only 
brought  again  tfigether  j  but  the  displace- 
ment only  elevates  the  soil  above  its  former 
level,  and  the  act  of  elevation  cannot  im- 
part a  curvature  to  it.  It  is  true  that 
ridges  on  being  harrowed  become  curved, 
because  the  harrows  draw  the  soil  into  the 
open  furrows,  where  the  least  resistance  is 
presented  to  them,  and  thereby  alter  the 
uniformity  of  the  surface  as  left  by  the 
plough ;  but  the  curvature  thus  acquired 
had  no  connexion  with  the  ploughing. 
Seeing  a  curvature  thus  produced  without 
knowing  its  cause,  most  ploughmen  endea- 
vour to  give  the  ridge  a  curvature,  and 
accomplish  it  by  bad  ploughing ;  that 
is,  they  give  a  slight  cresting  t«  the 
crown,  then  plough  the  flanks  with  nar- 
row and  rather  deep  slices  set  up  at  too 
high  an  angle,  for  about  four  bouts,  giving 
the  last  of  these  rather  less  depth  and 
height  than  the  rest,  and  tlie  remaining 
three  bouts  next  the  open  furrows  they 
plough  flatter,  and  finish  off"  the  desired 
curve  with  the  mould-furrow  slices.  This 
artful  device  produces  a  ridge  of  pleasing 
enough  curvature,  and  it  is  practised  by 
the  ploughmen  with  no  intention  to  de- 
ceive ;  for  they  conceive  they  are  thereby 
displaying  their  greatest  skill.  A  really 
good  ploughnuin,  liow-ever,  will  resort  to 
no  such  expedient. 

772.  There  is  a  kind  of  ploughing  prac- 
tised in  parts  of  the  country  in  autumn 
and  winter,  which  bears  the  name  of 
30. 


RIB-PLOUGHING  STUBBLE  LAND. 

BritiJi  Uuahandry,  vol.  ii.  p.  45. 


PLOUGHING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA. 


18S 


ribbing  in  Scotland  and  of  raftering  in 
England.  I  notice  it  only  to  condemn 
it.  It  consists  of  turning  the  furrow- 
slices  on  their  backs  upon  as  much  of  the 
firm  soil  as  they  will  cover,  as  in  fig  30, 
where  a  are  the  furrow-slices  turned  over 
upon  the  firm  soil  i,  and  c  are  the  plough- 
tracks.  The  figure  represents  the  work 
done  in  a  more  compact,  clean,  regular, 
and  straight  manner  than  is  usually  to  be 
found  in  practice;  for  the  ploughing  not 
unfrequently  causes  the  furrow-slices  to 
lap  over  the  firm  soil,  and  the  plough- 
tracks  are  seldom  straight.  The  land 
lies  in  this  state  all  winter,  and  dry 
enough ;  but  the  greatest  proportion  of  the 
soil  remaining  unpluughed,  can  be  no 
better  for  the  treatment.  This  ploughing 
can  be  done  quickly,  and  without  care,  and 
is  generally  taken  in  a  diagonal  direction 
across  the  ridges,  without  a  feeriiig.  It  is 
chiefly  practised  on  land  in  a  very  foul 
state,  with  the  view  of  destroying  the 
weeds ;  and  it  is  believed  their  destruction 
is  quickly  eflected  by  exposing  the  under 
surface  of  the  furrow-slices,  where  tlie  roots 
of  the  weeds  are  most  abundant,  to  the 
action  of  frost,  and  the  opinion  no  doubt  is 
correct;  but  if  the  exposed  part  of  the 
ground  is  thus  benefited,  it  is  evident 
the  unploughed  part  can  receive  none, 
since  it  is  not  exposed  at  all,  and  it  con- 
stitutes the  largest  proportion  of  the  land ; 
so  that  any  advantage  attending  the  prac- 
tice is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  its 
disadvantages.  It  is  practised  on  all  sorts 
of  soils,  and  whether  of  stubble  or  lea 
ground  ;  but  in  Scotland  is  confined  to  the 
north  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  where  it  is 
now  abandoned  on  the  large  farms,  and 
confined  to  the  fields  of  the  small  tenants  ; 
and  here  it  may  maintain  its  ascendency, 
for  certainly  no  where  are  weeds  more 
conspicuous. 

ON   PLOUGHING   STUBBLE    AND   LEA 
GROUND. 

773.  Although  we  have  entered  on  the 
consideration  of  the  winter  operations  of 
the  farm,  we  have  hitherto  confined  our 
observation  to  a  few  preliminary  subjects, 
the  nature  of  which  must  be  understood 
by  the  agricultural  student  at  the  outset 
of  his  career,  or  he  will  fail  to  appreciate 
what  is  to  follow.  The  time  is  now 
arrived,  however,   when   we   must  com- 


mence in  earnest  the  actual  work  of  the 
farm,  in  all  its  departments.  You  are 
now  quite  prepared  for  this.  You  have 
been  made  acquainted  with  the  plough,  its. 
mode  of  attachment  to  the  horses,  the 
difiereut  methods  in  which  the  land  is 
ploughed  into  ridges,  and  all  the  classes 
of  persons  required  to  execute  the  work 
of  a  farm  conducted  on  the  system  of 
mixed  husbandry. 

774.  As  agricultural  students,  take  an 
attentive  view  of  the  fields  immediately 
after  harvest,  when  the  crop  has  been 
gathered  into  the  stackyard,  and  you  will 
perceive  that  a  large  proportion  of  them 
are  in  stubble,  whilst  others  are  occupied 
by  grass,  turnips,  and  young  wheat.  On 
examining  the  stubbled  fields  particularly, 
you  will  observe  young  grass  amongst  the 
stubble  in  some  fields,  and  none  in  others. 
You  cannot,  of  yourself,  discover  at  once 
that  the  varied  states  of  those  fields  bear 
a  certain  proportion  to  one  another ;  and 
the  reason  why  they  bear  any  proportion 
is,  that  they  are  cultivated  under  a  "  re- 
gular rotation  of  crops,"  which  necessarily 
causes  every  field,  in  its  turn,  to  carry  the 
same  series  of  crops.  The  numbers  com- 
posing the  series  depend  on  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  and  it  shall  be  my  duty  to  make 
you  acquainted  with  the  relation  of  soil 
and  crop  in  due  time.  Meantime,  suffice 
it  to  intimate,  that  when  the  stubble  is  in 
the  state  you  find  it,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  agricultural  year,  the  parts  ^yhich  con- 
tain no  grass  must  undergo  an  immediate 
change,  to  prepare  them  to  receive  the 
crops  which  are  to  occupy  them,  in  their 
appointed  time.  The  immediate  change 
alluded  to  is  effected  by  the  plough,  not 
at  random,  but  by  those  fixed  rules  which 
determine  the  "  various  modes  of  plough- 
ing land  into  ridges,"  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  crop.  Of  the 
stubble-land,  the  part  which  is  to  bear  the 
earliest  crop  is  ploughed  first,  and  so  on 
progressively,  until  that  to  be  occupied 
by  the  latest.  For  this  reason,  the  land 
which  is  to  bear  the  bean-crop  is  ploughed 
first,  then  that  for  the  potatoes,  then  for 
the  turnips,  and,  last  of  all,  for  the  bare 
fallow.  Tiie  stubble  is  generally  all 
ploughed  before  the  older  grass  or  lea  is 
ploughed. 

775.  On  clat/  soil  you  will  find  the 


184 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


8tubble<l  ridges  of  a  roumlcd  form,  linving 
been  twice  iruthercd  up,  fig.  26  ;  and  the 
way  to  plougli  them  so  as  to  keep  tlietu 
dry  iluring  winter  is  to  cleave  tlieni  down 
without  citlior  a  gore- furrow,  fig  27,  or 
a  mould- furrow,  fig.  21,  when  on  a  con- 
siderable declivity;  or  with  gore-furrows, 
and  mould-furrows,  fig.  28,  when  the  land 
is  flat.  On  less  stronij  soil,  casting  with 
a  gore-furrow  will  preserve  the  land  dry 
whether  flat  or  on  a  declivity.  On  lii/Zit 
loams,  casting  without  gore-furrows,  fig. 
22,  will  serve  the  purpose.  And  on  sandy 
and  ffravellj/  soils,  crown-and -furrow  is  the 
most  appropriate  mode  of  ploughing  stub- 
ble. It  is  rare  that  stubble  land  is  sub- 
jected to  any  other  mode  of  j)loug]iing  in 
winter;  but  the  mode  of  plougliing  adopted 
in  the  j)articular  case  depends  on  the  mode 
in  which  the  land  had  been  previously 
ploughed  on  the  particular  class  of  soil. 
If  it  hvad  been  twice  gathered  up,  fig.  26, 
on  clay  soil,  it  should  now  be  closed  down 
with  gore-furrows,  fig.  28  ;  if  so  ploughed 
on  loam,  cleaving  down  without  gore-fur- 
rows, fig.  27,  answers  best.  If  it  had 
been  cast  on  strong  soil,  it  should  now  be 
recast  with  gore-furrows ;  but  if  it  had 
been  cast  on  loam,  recast  it  without  gore- 
furrows.  If  it  had  been  ploughed  two-out- 
and-two-in,  renew  the  furruw-slices,  with 
gore-furrows  between  every  two  ridges. 
And  if  it  had  boon  i)lnughed  crown  and 
furrow,  reverse  the  furnjw-slices.  A  good 
general  rule  for  all  winter-ploughing,  is 
to  reverse  the  former  furrow-slices  with 
gore- furrows  on  lieavy,and  without  theinon 
lighter  soils:  and  the  rule  should  he  ap- 
plied even  to  thorough-drained  land,  until 
the  ultimate  eH'ects  of  the  draining  have 
been  ascertained. 

776.  Strong  clay  soil  should  never  be 
ploughed  in  a  wet  state,  as  it  will  become 
very  hard  in  spring,  and  of  course  difficult 
to  work. 

777.  Snow  should  never  be  ploughed  in 
under  any  pretext,  nor  the  soil  f>loughed 
at  all,  when  in  a  frozen  state.  The  frost 
and  snow  thus  concealed  remain  a  long 
time  unaltered  under  the  soil,  and  the 
spring  maybe  far  advanced  ere  its  warmth 
will  reach  them  so  as  to  melt  it,  and 
relieve  the  soil  from  its  chilled  condition. 

778.  When  the  soil  is  tolerably  clean, 


and  dry,  either  by  thorough -draining  or 
a  natunilly  porous  subsoil,  it  is  some- 
times desirable  to  plough  the  stubble-land 
deep  with  three  horses  instead  of  two, 
in  winter,  especially  when  the  spring- 
work  may  be  anticii)ated  to  be  unusually 
pressing.  The  horses  arc  yoked  according 
to  the  arrangement  given  in  fig.  8.  The 
form  of  ploughing  may  either  be  crown- 
and-furrow,  if  the  soil  is  light,  or  cast  to- 
gether with  a  gore-furrow,  when  somewhat 
heavy.  One  ploughman  may  direct  the 
three  horses  well  enough  ;  but  the  assis- 
tance of  a  boy  to  turn  the  leading  horse 
at  the  land-ends,  and  keep  the  coulter 
clear  of  rubbish  with  the  plough-staff',  fig. 
5,  would  greatly  expedite  the  work. 
The  three  horses  may  easily  turn  over  a  fur- 
row-slice of  9  or  10  inches  in  depth,  which 
being  taken  of  proportionate  breadth,  but 
few  slices  across  an  ordinary  ridge  of  15 
feet  would  be  required. 

779.  In  every  variety  of  soil,  ploughed 
in  the  forms  just  dcf-cribcd  fur  winter, 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  plenty  of 
channels,  or  r/oics  or  (jrips,  as  they  are 
usually  termed  in  Scotland,  cut  in  the  hol- 
lowest  places,  so  as  the  surface-water  may 
find  them  at  every  point  by  which  to 
escape  into  the  nearest  open  ditch.  The 
gaws  are  first  drawn  by  the  plouL^h  laying 
them  open  like  a  feering,  taking,  in  all 
cases,  tiie  Imllowest  parts  of  the  ground, 
whether  these  happen  to  cross  the  ridges 
or  go  along  the  open  furrows ;  and  they 
are  immediately  cleared  out  by  the 
hedger  with  the  spade  of  the  loose  earth, 
which  is  sjiread  over  the  surface.  The 
fall  in  the  gaws  should  tend  towards  a 
jioint,  or  j)()ints,  best  adapted  to  carry 
off  the  surface- v.ater  bv  the  shortest  route, 
and  do  the  least  injury  to  the  soil.  The 
ends  of  the  open  furrows  which  terminate 
at  the  open  furrow  along  the  side  of  the 
lowest  headridge,  as  well  as  this  furrow 
itself,  should  be  cleared  out  with  the  spade, 
and  cuts  formed  across  the  hollowest 
places  of  the  headridge  into  the  ditch. 
The  precaution  of  gaw-cutting  should 
never  be  neglected  in  winter  in  any  kind 
of  soil,  the  stnmger,  no  doubt,  requiring 
more  gaws  than  the  lighter;  but  as  no 
foresight  can  anticipate  the  injuries  con- 
sequent on  a  single  deluge  of  rain,  it  should 
never  be  neglected,  and  never  is  by  the 
provident    farmer,    though    many    small 


PLOUGHING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA. 


185 


farmers  pay  little  heed  to  its  observance, 
and,  of  course,  to  their  own  loss. 

780.  The  most  common  form  of  plough- 
ing lea  ground  in  strong  soil  is  to  cast  it 
with  a  gore-furrow,  fig.  22,  and  on  less 
strong  soil  the  same  form  of  ploughing 
without  a  gore-furrow ;  whilst  on  the 
lightest  soils  the  crown  and  furrow  is  most 
suitable.  Gathering  up  is  a  rare  form  of 
ploughing  lea,  though  it  is  occasionally 
practised  on  strong  soil  on  gathered-up 
or  cast  ridges,  when  it  is  rather  difficult 
to  plough  the  furrow-brows  and  open  fur- 
rows as  they  should  be.  The  oldest  lea  is 
first  ploughed,  that  the  tough  slices  may 
have  time  to  mellow  by  exposure  to  the 
winter  air,  and  for  the  same  reason  the 
strongest  land  should  be  ploughed  before 
the  light.  Lea  should  never  be  ploughed 
as  long  as  it  is  at  all  affected  by  frost  or 
snow,  or  when  rime  is  on  the  grass,  or 
when  the  ground  is  soft  with  rain.  Ice 
or  rime  ploughed  down  chills  the  ground 
to  a  very  late  period  of  the  season,  and 
when  the  rain  softens  the  ground  much, 
the  horses  cut  the  turf  with  their  feet,  and 
the  furrow-slice  will  be  squeezed  into  an 
improper  shape  by  the  mould-board.  Nor 
should  lea  be  ploughed  when  hard  with 
drought,  as  the  plough  will  take  too  shallow 
a  furrow,  and  raise  the  ground  in  broad  thin 
slabs.  A  semi-moist  state  of  ground  in 
fresh  weather  is  the  best  for  ploughing  lea. 

781.  Gaws  should  never  be  neglected  to 
be  cut  after  lea-ploughing,  especially  in  the 
first  ploughed  fields,  and  in  strong  land, 
whether  early  or  late  ploughed. 

782.  It  is  a  slovenly  practice  to  allow 
the  headridges  to  remain  unploughed  for 
a  considerable  time  after  the  rest  of  the 
field,  and  the  neglect  is  most  frequent  on 
.-(tabblc  ground.  The  reason  in  support 
of  the  neglect  is,  that  as  all  the  ploughs 
cannot  be  employed  on  the  headridges,  it 
is  inexpedient  to  neglect  another  entire 
field  for  them ;  and  the  reason  would  be 
a  good  one  were  there  little  chance  of  bad 
weather  occurring ;  but  in  winter  it  should 
be  remembered  that  gaws  cannot  be  cut 
until  the  headridges  are  ploughed.  To 
leave  a  ploughed  field  to  be  injured  by 
wet  weather,  shows  little  regard  to  future 
consequences,  which  may  turn  out  to  be 
serious.      No  doubt,  on  thorough-drained 


land,  less  dread  of  ill  consequences  from 
the  neglect  of  gaw-cutting  may  be  felt; 
but  even  in  the  best  drained  land,  I  think 
it  imprudent  to  leave  isolated  hollows  in 
fields  in  winter  without  a  ready  means  of 
getting  rid  of  every  torrent  of  surface- 
water  that  may  fall  unexpectedly.  Let, 
therefore,  as  many  i)loughs  remain  in  the 
field  as  will  plough  the  headridges  in  a 
projjer  manner,  with  the  assurance  that 
the  ground  which  lies  dry  all  winter  may  be 
worked  a  w^eek,  ore  ven  two,  earlier  in  spring. 

783.  The  ploughing  of  headridges  for 
the  winter  requires  some  consideration. 
In  stubble,  should  the  former  ploughing 
have  been  casting  with  or  without  a  gore- 
furrow,  reversing  it  will  leave  a  ridge  on 
each  side  of  the  field,  which  will  be  most 
conveniently  ploughed  along  with  the  head- 
ridges by  the  plough  going  round  parallel 
to  all  the  fences  of  the  field,  and  laying 
the  furrow-slices  towards  them.  The 
same  plan  might  be  adopted  in  ploughing 
lea  in  the  same  circumstances.  Should  the 
ploughing  in  stubble  have  been  a  cleaving 
down  with  or  without  gore-furrows,  the 
headridges  should  be  cloven  down  v/ith' a 
gore-furrow  along  the  ends  of  the  ridges, 
and  mould-furrowed  in  the  crowns.  On 
the  ridges  being  ploughed  crown-and-fur- 
row,  the  headridges  may  be  gathered  up 
in  early  and  late  lea-ploughing,  and  in 
stubble,  cloven  dov/u  without  a  gore-fur- 
row along  the  ends  of  the  ridges.  The 
half- ridge  on  each  side  of  the  field  may  be 
ploughed  by  going  the  half  of  every  bout 
empty;  but  a  better  plnn  would  be,  if  the 
ridges  icere  short,  to  plough  half  of  each" 
headridge  towards  the  ends  of  the  ridges, 
going  the  round  of  the  field,  and  passing 
up  and  down  the  half-ridges  at  the  sides 
empty,  and  then  to  plough  the  half-ridges 
with  the  other  half  of  the  headridges  in 
a  circuit,  laying  the  furrow-slice  still  to- 
wards the  ridges,  and  which  would  have 
the  effect  of  casting  the  headridges  to- 
wards the  ends  of  the  ridges,  and  of  draw- 
ing the  soil  from  the  ditches  or  fences  to- 
wards the  ridges.  When  the  ridges  have 
been  ploughed  in  a  completed  form  in  lea, 
the  headridges  of  clay  soils  should  be 
gathered  up,  by  making  an  open  feering 
along  the  crowns. 

784.  A  difference  of  opinion  is  enter- 
tained   by    agricultural    writers,    of    the 


186 


PRACTICE— ^VINTER. 


manner  in  which  a  species  of  headriJgc 
should  be  formed,  whose  site  is  where,  by 
reason  of  irregularities  in  the  feuccs  or 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  length  of  the 
ridges,  the  ridges  from  other  directions 
than  one  meet  in  a  common  line.  The 
question  is,  whether  those  ridges  should 
meet  in  an  imaginary  line  or  at  a  com- 
mon headridge?  It  is  the  opinion  of 
some  that  the  part  Mhere  the  opposite  sets 
of  furrows  meet,  may  be  made  an  open 
furrow,  or  a  raised  up  ridge  or  headland, 
as  circumstances  may  require.  When 
ridges  meet  from  opposite  directions,  it  is 
clear  they  cannot  be  ploughed  at  the  same 
time  without  the  risk  of  the  horses  en- 
countering one  another  upon  a  common 
headridge  ;  and  where  no  headridge 
exists,  should  one  set  of  ridges  be  ploughed 
before  the  other,  in  the  ploughing  of  the 
second  set,  the  end  of  the  ploughed  land 
of  the  first  will  be  completely  trampled 
upon.  There  should,  therefore,  be  one 
headridge  at  least  between  two  sets  of 
ridges,  that  one  set  may  be  ploughed  be- 
fore the  other.  But  the  most  independent 
way,  in  all  respects,  with  such  an  arrange- 
ment of  ridges,  is  to  treat  each  set  as  if  it 
belonged  to  a  separate  field,  and  give  each 
a  headridge  of  its  own. 

785.  Whatever  mode  of  ploughing  the 
land  is  subjected  to,  you  should  take  care, 
when  ploughed  for  a  winter-furrow,  that 
the  furrow-slice  is  of  the  requisite  depth, 
whether  of  5  inches  on  the  oldest  lea,  or 
7  inches  on  the  most  friable  ground ;  and 
also  of  the  requisite  breadth  of  9  inches  in 
the  former  and  10  in  the  latter;  but  as 
ploughmen  incline  to  hold  a  shallow  and 
broad  furrow,  to  make  the  labour  easier 
to  themselves,  and  to  go  over  the  ground 
quickly,  there  is  no  likelihood  of  their  mak- 
ing too  narrow  a  furrow.  A  furrow-slice  in 
red  land  should  never  be  less  than  9 
inches  in  breadth  and  6  inches  in  depth 
on  the  strongest  soil,  and  10  inches  in 
breadth  and  7  inches  in  depth  on  lighter 
soils.  On  clay  soil,  that  has  lain  long  in 
grass,  9  inches  in  breadth  and  5  inches  in 
depth  is  as  large  a  furrow-slice  as  may  be 
obtained;  but  on  lighter  soil,  with  younger 
grass,  one  of  10  incliesby  6,  and  even  7,  is 
easily  turned  over.  At  all  seasons,  espe- 
cially in  a  winter-furrow,  you  should  esta- 
blish for  yourself  a  character  of  a  deep  and 
correct  plougher. 


786.  I  have  sufficiently  evinced  my 
preference  for  the  rectangular  furrow-slice, 
and  this  I  do  on  the  broad  principle  that 
deep-ploughing  ought  to  be  the  rule,  and 
any  other  jtractice  the  exception.  Ac- 
cording to  the  rule  of  some  farmers,  the 
exception  may  be  practised  in  many  -cases. 

787.  Shallow  ploughing  is  considered 
admissible  in  the  case  of  a  field  that  has 
been  depastured  by  sheep,  and  is  simply  to 
be  ploughed  for  the  seed-furrow.  The 
reason  usually  assigned  for  this  is,  that 
the  droppings  of  the  sheep,  forming  only  a 
top-dressing,  would  be  buried  so  deep 
that,  as  a  manure,  they  would  be  placed 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  plants  composing 
the  crop  that  had  been  sown  upon  the  field. 
While  I  allow  that  a  shallow  furrow  is  ad- 
missible in  such  a  case,  the  reasons  assigned 
for  it  by  practical  men,  though  seemingly 
plausible,  may  be  called  in  question.  Thus, 
it  is  well  known  that  the  roots  of  vege- 
tables in  general  push  themselves  out  in 
pursuit  of  their  nutriment,  and  with  an 
instinctive  perseverance  will  pass  over 
or  through  media  which  aflbrd  little 
or  no  nutriment,  in  order  to  reach  a 
medium  in  which  they  can  luxuriate  at 
will.  With  the  largest  vegetable  produc- 
tions this  is  remarkably  the  case;  and 
though,  amongst  those  plants  which  the 
farmer  cultivates,  the  necessity  of  hunt- 
ing, as  it  were,  for  food  cannot  occur  to  a 
great  extent,  yet  we  are  aware  that  the 
roots  of  the  cereal  grasses  extend  from  6 
to  12  or  more  inches;  and  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  their  length  depends 
upon  the  depth  of  the  penetrable  soil,  and 
that  the  luxuriance  of  growth  in  the 
plant  will  in  general  be  in  proportion  to 
that  depth,  soil  and  climate  being  the 
same. 

788.  Another  plea  of  exception  to  deep 
ploughing,  is  in  some  parts  of  fallow 
ploughing,  where  a  deep  furrow  might  be 
injurious;  and  these  occur  in  the  later 
part  of  the  process. 

789.  A  third  is  for  a  seed-furrow,  though 
in  many  cases  this  is  doubtfully  beneficial. 

790.  A  fourth  exception  is  when  the 
soil  is  naturally  thin,  and  the  subsoil  in- 
ferior. A  shallow  seed-i\iTxovf  is  allowable 
in  such  a  case. 


OCCUPATION  OF  THE  STEADING  IN  WINTEK. 


187 


791.  In  some  of  the  clay  districts,  a 
system  of  shallow  and  narrow  ploughing 
is  practised,  under  the  impression  that  the 
exposure  of  the  soil,  thus  cut  up  m  thm 
slices,  tends  more  to  its  amelioration  than 
when  cut  deep  and  broad.     The  impres- 
sion may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  correct, 
as  a  certain  portion  of  the  soil  thus  treated 
will  doubtless  undergo  a  stage  of  improve- 
ment; but,  allowing  that  it  does   so,  the 
improvement  is  but  a  half  measure,     boils 
of  this   kind   are  frequently   deep,   and, 
though  apparently  poor,   they  afford  the 
stamina  out  of  which  may  be  formed  the 
best  artificial  soils— the  clay  loam— which 
may  be  brought  about  by  the  due  appli- 
cation of  manure,    and   a    proper,   well- 
directed,  and  continued  system  of  plough- 
ing.    On  lands  of  this  kind,  deep  plough- 
ing will  always  be  attended  with  beneficial 
effects;  and  instead  of  the  apparently  thm 
and  hungry  soil  which  the  shallow  system 
is  sure  to  perpetuate,  the  result  might  be  a 
deep  and  strong  clay  loam.    To  effect  this, 
however,  no  expense  or  labour  should  be 
spared ;   the  draining  should  be  efficient, 
and    the   manure,   especially    those  sub- 
stances which  tend  to  sharpen  and  render 
clay  porous,  should    be  abundantly  sup- 
plied. 

792.  The  most  extensive  departure  from 
the  rule  of  deep  ploughing  is  admissible 
in  those  lands  where  a  naturally  thm 
soil  rests  on  a  subsoil  of  sand  or  gravel 
variously  impregnated  with  oxides  of  iron. 
To  plough  deep  at  o^ice  in  such  situations 
might  run  the  risk  of  injury  to  the  scanty 
quantity  of  soil  naturally  existing.  But 
it  is  to  "be  observed  of  soils  of  this  kind, 
that  the  subsoil  has  always  a  tendency  to 
pan  ;  and  if  such  does  exist,  deep  ploughing 
alone,  in  the  form  of  subsoil  ploughing, 
will  destroy  the  pan,— the  frequent  cause 
of  sterility  in^oils  of  this  kind,— by  break- 
ing it  up  and  exposing  it  to  the  air,  a  way 
of°ameliorating  both  soil  and  subsoil. 

793.  There  appears,  in  short,  every  rea- 
son for  inculcating  deep  ploughing,  not 
only  where  existing  circumstances  admit  of 
its  adoption,  but  w'here  its  ultimate  effects 
are  likely  to  induce  a  gradual  improve- 
ment of  the  soil  and  all  its  products,  admit- 
ting always  that  a  variation  in  depth  is 
proper  and  necessary  under  the  varying 
circumstances  of  crops  and  seasons. 


ON  THE  OCCUPATION   OF  THE  STEADING  IN 
WINTER. 

794.  Long  before  the  ploughing  of  the 
stubble-land  has  been  finished,  the  grass 
will  have  failed  to  support  the  live-stock, 
and  accommodation  must  be  afforded  them 
in  the  steading,  where  they  require  con- 
stant attention  and  care. 

795.  As  a  farm  of  mixed   husbandry 
comprises  every  variety  of  culture,  so  its 
steading  should  be  constructed  to  aford 
accommodation  for  every  variety  of  pro- 
duce.    The  grain  and  its  straw,  being  im- 
portant and  bulky  articles,  should  be  ac- 
commodated with   room  as  well  after  ai3 
before  they  are  separated   by  thrashing. 
Room  should  also  be  provided  for  every 
kind  of  food  for  animals,  such  as  hay  and 
turnips.     Of  the  animals  themselves,  tho 
horses  being  constantly  in  hand  at  work, 
and  receiving  their  food  daily  at  regular 
intervals   of  time,  should  have   a  stabhh 
which  will  not  only  afford  them  lodging, 
but    facilities   for    consuming  their   food. 
Similar    accommodation    is    required   for 
cows,    the    breeding    portion    of    cattle. 
Young  cattle,  when  small  of  size  and  of 
immature  age,  are  usually  reared  in  en- 
closed open  spaces,  called  courts,  having 
sheds  for  shelter  and  troughs  for  food  and 
water.    Those  fattening  for  sale  are  either 
put  into  small  courts  with  troughs,  called 
hammels,  or  fastened  to  stakes  in  byres  or 
feedins-houses,    like    the    cows.     Young 
horses" are  reared  either  by  themselves  in 
courts   with   sheds  and   mangers,  or  get 
leave   to    herd    with    the    young    cattle. 
Youne    pigs   usually   roam   about   every 
where",  and  generally  lodge  amongst  the 
litter  of  the    young   cattle;  whilst    sows 
with  sucking  pigs  are  provided  with  small 
enclosures,  fitted  up  with  a  littered  apart- 
ment at  one  end,  and  troughs  for  food  at 
the  other.   The  smaller  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, when  not  in  use,  are  put  into  a 
suitable  apartment;  whilst  the  carts  are 
provided  with  a  shed,  into  which  some  of 
the   larger    implements,    which    are   only 
occasionally  used,  are  stored  by.    Wool  is 
put  into  a  cool  clean  room.     An  apart- 
ment containing  a  furnace  and  boiler,  to 
heat  water  and  prepare  food  when  required 
for  any  of  the  animals,  should  never  be 
wanting  in  any  steading.     These  are  the 
principal  accommodations   required  in  a 


188 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


steading  where  live-stock  arc  housed;  and 
even  in  tlie  most  convenient  arrangement 
of  the  apartments,  the  entire  building 
will  cover  a  considerable  space  of 
ground. 

79fi.  Tlic  leading  principle  on  which 
these  arrangements  is  determined  is  very 
simple,  and  it  is  tiiis— and  it  may  be  easily 
understood  by  placing  before  you  Plate  II., 
containing  the  ground-plan  of  a  steading 
suited  to  a  farm  of  500  acres,  occupied  in 
the  i)ractice  of  the  mixed  husbandry,  with 
the  names  of  the  several  apartments 
written  in  them: — Straw  being  the 
bulkiest  article  on  the  farm,  heavy  and 
nnwieldy,  in  daily  use  by  every  kind  of 
live-stock,  and  having  to  be  carried  and 
distributetl  in  small  quantities  by  bodily 
labour,  should  be  centrical ly  placed,  and 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  apartments 
of  the  stock.  Its  receptacle,  the  stratc- 
barn,  should  thus  occupy  the  central 
point  of  the  steading ;  and  the  several 
apartments  of  the  live-stock  be  placed 
equidistant  from  it. 

797.  That  so  bulky  and  heavy  an 
article  as  straw  should  in  all  circumstances 
be  moved  to  short  distances,  and  not  at 
all,  if  possible,  from  any  other  apartment 
but  the  straw-barn,  the  thrashing-inachinc^ 
which  supplies  the  straw  from  the  grain, 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  throw  the  straw 
into  the  straw-barn. 

798.  The  stack-yard,  containing  the 
unthrashed  straw  with  its  corn,  should  be 
placed  contiguous  to  the  thrashing- 
machine. 

799.  The  pas.^nge  of  straw  from  the 
stack-yard  to  the  strav.--bar:i  ilirough  the 
thrashing-machine  beinir  'liioctly  pro- 
gressive, the  stack-yard,  t'i;i:'shing-mill, 
and  straw-barn  should  l>o  j  lace<l  in  a 
line,  and  in  the  order  jjist  mtMitioned. 

800.  Different  classes  of  stock  require 
different  quantities  of  straw,  to  maintain 
them  in  the  same  degree  of  cleanliness 
and  condition.  Those  retjuiring  the  most 
should  therefore  be  placed  nearest  the 
straw-barn.  The  younger  stock  requiring 
most  straw,  the  courts  they  occupy  should 
be  contiguous  to  the  straw-barn,  and  most 
conveniently  one  on  each  side  of  it. 


801.  The  older  or  fattening  cattle  re- 
quiring the  next  largest  quantity  of  straw, 
the  hammels  they  occupy  should  be  placed 
next  to  these  courts  in  nearness  to  the 
straw-barn. 

802.  Horses  in  the  stable.",  and  cows  in 
the  byres,  requiring  the  smallest  quantity 
of  straw,  the  stables  and  byres  may  be 
placed  next  farthest  in  distance  to  the 
hammels  from  the  straw-barn.  The  rela- 
tive positions  of  all  these  apartments  are 
thus  determined  by  the  comparative  u.se 
made  of  the  straw  by  their  occupants. 

803.  There  are  two  apartments  whcso 
positions  are  nece.ssarily  determined  by 
that  of  the  thrashing-machine,  the  one  the 
U])per,  or  thrashing-barn,  which  contains 
the  unthrashed  corn  received  from  the 
stack-yard,  and  ready  for  thrashing  by 
the  mill ;  and  the  other  the  corn-barn, 
below  the  mill,  which  receives  the  corn 
immediately  after  its  separation  from  the 
straw  by  the  mill  to  be  cleaned  for  market. 

804.  It  is  a  great  convenience  for  the 
granaries  to  be  in  direct  comnmnication 
with  the  corn-barn,  to  save  the  labour  of 
carrying  the  clean  corn  to  a  distance  when 
laid  uj)  for  future  use.  To  confine  the 
extent  of  ground  occupied  by  the  steading 
in  as  small  a  space  as  practicable,  and  at 
the  same  time  secure  the  good  condition 
of  the  grain,  the  granaries  should  be  ele- 
A-ated  above  the  ground,  and  their  floors 
form  convenient  roofs  fur  cattle  or  cart- 
slieds. 

S0.j.  The  elevation  which  the  granaries 
thus  give  to  a  j)art  of  the  buildings 
should  cause  this  part  to  shelter  the  cattle- 
courts  from  the  N.  wind  in  winter;  and, 
to  secure  a  still  greater  degree  (.f  Avarmth 
fur  the  cattle,  their  courts  should  be  open 
to  the  sun.  The  courts  being  open  to  the 
S.,  and  the  granaries  forming  a  screen 
from  the  N.,  it  follows  that  the  ::ranaries 
should  stand  E.  and  W.  on  the  N .  side  of 
the  courts;  and  as  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  cattle-courts  should  be  placoil  one  on 
each  side  of  the  straw-barn,  it  al.<o  follows 
that  the  straw- barn  should  stand  N.  and  S., 
that  is,  at  right  angles  to  the  S.  of  the 
granaries.  The  fixing  of  the  straw-barn 
thus  to  the  S.  of  the  granaries  and  the 
thrashing-machine,    the    stack-yard    is 


PULLING  OF  TUKNIPS. 


189 


necessarily  fixed  to  the  N.  of  both  ;  and  its 
northern  aspect  is  highly  favourable  to  the 
preservation  of  the  corn  in  the  stacks. 

806.  Many  existing  steadings  have  a 
very  different  arrangement  from  this;  buti 
may  safely  assert,  that  tlie  greater  the  devia- 
tion from  the  princij^lcs  above  inculcated, 
the  less  suitable  are  they  as  habitations 
for  live-stock  in  winter.  It  seems  unne- 
cessary to  refer  farther  to  the  steading 
for  the  present.  I  shall  describe  the  par- 
ticulars of  its  construction  as  they  occur 
in  the  course  of  observation. 

807.  When  the  CA'enings  become  cold 
before  the  grass  is  entirely  consumed  in 
the  fields,  the  cattle  are  housed  in  the 
steading  for  the  night,  and  let  out  into 
the  fields  during  the  day.  Cows,  giving 
milk,  are  housed  at  night  as  soon  as  the 
evenings  feel  cool,  as  a  low  tempera- 
ture is  injurious  to  the  functions  of  the 
secretory  organs,  exposed  as  these  are  to 
so  large  an  extent  in  the  udder  of  the  cow  ; 
while  the  same  temperature  would  not 
affect  the  other  classes  of  cattle,  though 
the  younger  cattle  are  commonly  allowed 
to  remain  too  long  in  the  field  after  the 
grass  has  failed. 


ON  PULLING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS,  MAN- 
GOLD-WURTZEL,CARROTS,  PARSNIPS,  AND 
CABBAGE  FOR  CONSUMPTION  IN  WINTER. 

808.  As  soon  as  the  grass  has  failed, 
and  it  is  found  necessary  to  keep  any 
portion  of  the  cattle  constantly  in  the 
steading,  turnips  should  be  provided  for 
them  in  requisite  quantities,  and  the 
method  of  supply  should  be  gone  about  in 
a  systematic  manner. 

SO!).  When  diff'ereut  sorts  of  live-stock 
are  supported  on  the  same  farm,  as  is  tlie 
case  ill  the  mixed  husbandry,  the  sheep 
are  provided  with  the  turnips  they  consume 
upon  the  ground  on  which  they  grow. 
This  saves  the  trouble  of  carrying  off  a 
large  proportion  of  the  crop,  so  the  labour 
of  removing  it  is  confined  to  the  propor- 
tion consumed  in  the  steading  by  the  cattle. 
The  proportion  thus  carried  off"  is  not 
taken  from  the  ground  at  random,  but 
according  to  a  systematic  method,  pre- 
viously determined  on,  and  which  requires 
jour  attention  to  understand. 


810.  One  object  in  leaving  turnips  on 
the  ground  for  sheep  is,  to  afford  a  greater 
qihintity  of  manure  to  the  soil  than  it 
received  in  its  preparation  for  the  turnip 
crop ;  and  as  sheep  can  withstand  winter 
weather  in  the  fields,  and  they  are  not  too 
heavy  for  the  ground,  they  are  selected  to 
consume  them  on  it ;  and  it  is  a  convenient 
method  of  feeding  sheep,  aff'ording  them 
ample  accommodation,  giving  them  their 
food  on  the  spot,  and  returning  it  again  to 
the  land  in  the  form  of  manure. 

811.  It  has  been  found,  by  experience, 
that  more  than  half  of  a  fair  crop  of  turnips 
consumed  on  the  ground  by  sheep  leaves 
more  manure  than  is  proper  for  the  ground 
to  receive  at  one  time  for  the  succeeding 
grain  crop ;  and  the  too  great  effect  is 
evinced  by  the  crop  being  laid  to  the  ground 
for  want  of  strength  in  the  straw,  and 
the  ears  not  being  filled  with  sound  grain ; 
but  the  proportion  removed  is  entirely 
regulated  by  the  state  of  the  soil  and 
crop,  as  may  be  seen  by  this  statement. 
The  usual  proportion  pulled  of  a  good  crop 
is  one-half,  but  should  the  soil  be  in  low 
condition,  a  third  only  is  removed,  and  if 
in  fine  condition,  two-thirds  or  even  three- 
fourths  may  be  pulled;  but  the  quantities 
thus  jjulled  depend  upon  the  bulk  of  the 
crop.  If  the  crop  is  very  large,  and  the 
ground  in  fine  condition,  two-thirds  may 
be  pulled ;  but  it  is  rarely  the  case  that 
the  soil  is  so  rich,  and  the  crop  so  large, 
as  to  make  a  half  too  large  a  proportion  to 
be  left  on  the  ground.  If  the  crop  is  poor, 
one-third  only  should  be  pulled,  and  a 
very  poor  crop  should  be  wholly  eaten 
on,  whatever  condition  the  soil  may  be  in. 
Another  consideration,  materially  aff"ectiug 
the  quantity  to  be  left  on  the  ground, 
is,  the  occurrence  of  a  poor  crop  of  turnips 
over  the  whole  farm.  Hitherto  I  have 
only  been  speaking  of  that  part  of  the 
cropof  turnips  to  be  usedbj''  the  sheep,  but 
when  the  entire  crojj  is  so  bad  as  to  be  in- 
sufficient to  maintain  all  the  stock  fully, 
the  proportion  to  be  consumed  by  the 
sheep  and  cattle  respectively  should  be 
determined  on  at  once,  and  maintained 
throughout  the  season.  In  such  a  case, 
neither  the  sheep  nor  cattle  can  be  fattened 
on  turnips  ;  and  other  expedients  must  be 
resorted  to  to  do  so,  if  desired;  and,  if 
not  desired,  the  stock  must  be  left  in  a 
lean  state.  The  economical  plan  is,  to 
allow  the  sheep  to  get  as  many  turnips  aa 


190 


PRACTICE— AVTNTER. 


Avill  feed  llicm,  and  to  fccfl  tlie  cattle  on 
the  roniaindcr  of  the  crop,  alon^  with  oil- 
cake or  corn,  because  oil-cake  can  bo 
more  easily  carried  to  the  steading  than 
turnips.  Thus,  considerations  are  re- 
quired to  determine  the  jiroportion  of  the 
turnip  crop  to  be  pulled  ;  but  the  standard 
proportion    is    one -half,   and    when    that 

Fig 


(piantity  is  deviated  from,  it  sliould  be 
from  such  urgent  circumstances  as  those 
mentioned. 

812.  Fig.  31  shows  how  turnips  are 
stripped  oft'  the  ground  in  the  various  pro- 
portions enumerated  above.  The  half  can 
be  pulled  in  various  ways,  but  not  all 
31. 


THE  METHODS  OF  STRirPING  THE  GROUN 

alike  beneficial  to  the  land :  for  example, 
it  can  be  done  by  leaving  2  drills  a  and 
taking  away  2  drills  b  ;  or  by  taking  away 
3  drills  e  and  leaving  3  drills  /;  or  by 
taking  away  6  drills  i  and  leaving  6  drills 
h  ;  or  by  taking  away  1  drill  /  and  leaving 
1  drill  k.  Though  the  same  result  is  at- 
tained in  all  these  difl'erent  w'ays,  in  as 
far  as  the  turnips  are  concerned,  there  are 
cogent  reasons  against  them  all  except 
the  one  which  leaves  2  drills  a  and  takes 
away  2  drills  b ;  because,  when  one  drill 
only  is  left,  as  a*^i  /,  the  sheep  have 
not  room  to  stand  while  eating,  nor  lie 
down  with  ease  between  k  and  m,  and 
because  sufficient  room  is  not  left  for  a 
horse  and  cart  to  ])ass  along  I,  without 
injuring  the  turnips  on  either  side  with 
the  horses'  feet  or  the  cart  wheels  ;  Avhcre- 
as,  when  2  or  more  drills  are  pulled,  as  at 
e,  and  only  2  left,  as  at  a,  the  sheep  have 
room  to  stand  and  eat  on  either  side  of  the 
turnips,  and  tlie  cart  passes  easily  along 
6  or  c  without  injuring  the  turnips,  as  the 
horse  walks  up  the  centre  unoccupied 
hollow  of  the  drills,  and  the  wheels 
occupy  an  unoccupied  hollow  on  each  side. 


*•♦*•*    X    -a 
»  *  f  «    s  * 
ar  ic  k   r   *   * 
a  T  *i  *  *  * 
*  *■  I  :k  X  * 

If   »^    X   .«    X    * 

Xt  X   *-  %-  * 

*  •»£.  it  «    * 
.**:*«'? 

^  id   *.  X.  ^ 

t*  *  *L  ii 

.*  *  :t  *  * 
-*.  i*  ,*  * 

*,i*  *>« 

-*-  **:\*.\ 

D  OF  TCRNIPS  IN  ANY  GIVEN  PROPORTIONS. 

Again,  when  3  drills  are  left,  as  at/,  the 
sheep  injure  the  turnips  of  the  two  outside 
rows  to  reach  the  middle  one;  and  they 
will  commit  much  more  injury  to  turnips 
left  in  6  drills,  as  at  //.  Tiiis  latter  mode, 
when  practised  on  light  soils,  is  observed 
to  aftect  the  succeeding  grain  crop,  which 
is  never  so  good  on  the  ground  occu{)icd 
by  the  turnips.  When  other  proportions 
are  determined  on,  one-third  m.ay  be 
easily  left,  by  pulling  2  drills,  as  at  b,  and 
leaving  1,  as  at  r ;  and  one-fourth  may  be 
left,  by  pulling  3  drills,  as  at  e,  and  leaving 
1,  as  at  f ;  and  three-fifths  may  be  left, 
by  pulling  2  as  at  cf,  and  leaving  3,  as  at/. 
Whatever  j)ro]tortion  may  be  removed,  the 
rule  of  having  2  em])ty  drills  for  the 
horses  and  carts  to  pass  along  when  taking 
away  the  pulled  turni{)S,  without  injury  to 
the  turnips,  should  never  be  violate<l. 

8 1 3.  The  perfect  convenience  of  the  plan 
of  leaving  2  and  taking  2  drills,  when  the 
half  of  the  crop  is  to  be  eaten  on,  will  be 
best  shown  in  fig.  32,  where  the  <lrill8 
are  represented  on  a  larger  scale  than  in 
this  fiirure.       One  field- worker  clears  2 


PULLING  OF  TUKNIPS. 


191 


drills  at  a,  and  another  simultaneously  as  at  c  and  d,  amongst  the  standing  turnips 
other  2  at  5;  and  in  doing  so,  the  turnips  of  the  2  drills  e  and  /,  on  the  right  hand 
are  placed  m  heaps  at  regular  distances,     of  one  worker,  and  on  the  left  of  the  other; 

Fig.  32. 


THK  METHOD  OP  PULLING  TURNIPS  IN  PREPARATION  FOR  STORING. 


and  thus  every  alternate  2  drills  left  un 
pulled  become  the  receptacle  of  the  tur- 
nips pulled  by  every  2  workers.  The  cart 
then  passes  along  a  or  h,  without  touching 
the  turnips  in  e  and  g,  or  in  /  and  A,  and 
clears  away  the  heaps  in  the  line  of  c  d. 
In  the  figure  the  turnips  are  represented 
much  thinner  on  the  ground  than  they 
usually  grow,  in  order  to  make  the  parti- 
culars more  conspicuous ;  but  the  size  of 
the  bulb  in  proportion  to  the  wdth  of  the 
drills  is  preserved  both  in  the  drills  and 
the  heaps.  The  seats  of  the  pulled  turnips 
are  shown  upon  the  bared  drills. 

814.  The  most  common  state  in  which 
turnips  are  placed  in  the  temporary  heaps, c 
and  d,  is  with  their  tops  on,  and  the  tails  or 
roots  cut  aw^y.  The  cleanest  state  for  the 
turnips  themselves,  and  the  most  nutri- 
tious for  cattle,  is  to  take  away  both  the 
tops  and  tails.  Many  farmers  have  the 
idea,  that  turnip- tops  make  good  feeding  for 
young  beasts  or  calves  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season, — not  from  the  knowledge 
that  the  tops  contain  a  larger  proportion 
of  bone-producing  matter  than  the  bulbs, 
as  chemical  analysis  informs  us,  but  from 
a  desire  to  keep  the  turnips  for  the  larger 
beasts,   and  to   rear  the  young  ones  in 


any  way;^  but  the  notion  is  a  mistaken 
one,  as  might  easily  be  proved  by  giving 
one  lot  of  calves  turnip-tops  and  another 
bulbs  without  tops,  when  the  latter  will 
present  a  superiority  in  a  short  time,  both 
in  bone  and  flesli.  No  doubt  the  large  quan- 
tity of  watery  juice  the  tops  contain  at 
this  season  makes  the  young  cattle  devour 
them  with  eagerness  on  coming  off  a  bare 
pasture,  and   indeed   any  cattle  will  eat 
the  tops  before  the  turnijis,  when  both  are 
presented  together ;   but  observation  and 
experience  confirm  me  in  the  opinion  that 
the  time  of  cattle  in  consuming  turnip-tops 
is  worse  than  thrown  away ;  inasmuch  as 
tops,  in  their  cleanest  state,  are  apt  to  pro- 
duce looseness  in  the  bowels,  partly,  per- 
haps, from  the  sudden  change  of  food  from 
grass  to  a  very  succulent  vegetable,  and 
partly  from  the  dirty,  wetted,  or  frosty 
state  in  which  tops  are  usually  given  to 
beasts.     This  looseness  never  fails  to  brino- 
down  the  condition  of  cattle  in  so  consi- 
derable a  degree,  that  part  of  the  winter 
passes  away  before  they  entirely  recover 
form  the  shock  their  system  has  received. 
Like  my  neighbours,  I  was  impressed  with 
the  economic    idea   of  using  turnip-tops, 
but  their  weakening  eflfects  upon  young 
cattle  caused  me  to  desist  from  their  use ; 


192 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  fortunate  was  the  result,  as  ever  after 
their  abandonment  the  calves  throve  apace. 
A  few  tops  inav  be  given  to  young  cattle 
•with  impunity  along  witli  straw,  but  that 
few  will  starve,  not  feed  or  rear,  young 
cattle.  The  tops  are  not  thrown  away, 
when  sj>read  upon  the  ground,  as  they 
serve  to  manure  it.  I  have  no  hesitation 
in  recommending  the  tops  and  tails  to  be 
left  in  the  field.  Sheep  are  not  so  easily 
injured  by  them  as  cattle,  on  account, 
perhaps,  of  their  costive  habit ;  and  j>cr- 
liaps  in  spring,  when  turnips  are  naturally 
le-^s  juicy,  tops  might  be  of  service  as  a 
gentle  aperient,  but  at  that  season,  when 
they  niiglit  be  most  useful,  they  arc  the 
most  scanty  and  fibrous. 

815.  The  tops  aud  tails  of  turnips  are 
easily  removed  by  means  of  very  simple 
instruments.  Figs.  33  and  34  represent 
these      instru-         p;    33  p.    ^ 

ments  m  their 
simplest  form, 
fig.  33  being  an 
old  scythe reap- 
ing hook,  with 
the  point  brok- 
en off.  This 
makes  a  light 
instruraent,and 
answers  the 
purpose  pretty 
weU;  but  fig. 
34  is  better. 
It  is   made  of '^■•'^*^*'^^^  ^""^  another  in- 

.  TOPPING      AND  RTRUMENT 

ttie  point  of  a  tailing  tlr-  for  the 
wornoutpatent     >''ip»-  same  plr- 

scythe,  the  very  ''°^*- 

point  being  broken  off,  and  the  iron  back 
to  which  the  blade  is  riveted  driven 
into  a  helve  protected  by  a  fcfule.  This 
is  ratlier  heavier  than  the  other,  and  on 
that  account  removes  the  top  more  easily. 

81G.  A  gujieriur  instrument  to  either 
has  lately  been  contrived  by  Mr  James 
Kinninmonth,  at  Invtrteil  in  Fife,  and  its 
form  is  seen  in  fig.  3  j,  under  the  name  of 
the  "Turnip  trimming-knife."  The  ne- 
cessity for  another  instrument  of  the  kind 
arises  from  the  fact,  that  when  the  top  of 
a  turnip  has  dwindled  into  a  comparatively 
small  size,  it  affords  but  an  inadequate 
hold  for  pulling  the  turnip  from  the 
ground ;  and  when  the  attempt  is  felt  by 


Fie.  35. 


TURNIP  trimming-knife. 


the  worker  likely 
to  fail,  she  natu- 
rally striked  the 
point  of  the  in- 
strument into  the 
bulb  to  assist  her, 
and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that 
a  deep  gash  is 
made  in  the  tur- 
nip, which,  being 
stored  for  months, 
generally  suffers 
in  its  useful  quali- 
ties, by  producing 
premature  decay 
in  the  wounded 
part.  In  fig.  3.3, 
a  is  the  handle,  b 
the  cutting  edge, 
steeled  and  pro- 
perly tempered,  aud  c  an  appendage 
welded  to  the  extremity  of  the  back, 
in  the  form  of  a  narrow  edge  or  hoe.  If 
the  turnip  requires  any  effort  to  draw  it, 
the  front  of  the  hoe  c  is  inserted  gently 
under  the  bulb,  and  the  operation  of  lifting 
it  is  effected  with  the  greatest  ea.^e  and  cer- 
tainty. Tiie  price  of  this  knife,  when  made 
on  purpose,  is  Is.  6d.,  but,  were  it  brought 
out  as  a  regular  article  of  manufacture,  it» 
price  might  be  considerably  le:>s.* 

817.  The  mode  of  using  these  instru- 
ments in  the  removal  of  the  tops  and  tails 
of  turnips  is  this  :  The  field-worker  moves 
along  between  the  two  drills  of  turnips 
to  be  drawn,  at  a,  fig.  32,  and  pulling  a 
turnip  with  the  left  hand  by  the  top  from 
either  drill,  holds  the  bulb  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  as  iu  fig.  36,  over  and  between 
Fig.  35. 


MODE  OF  TOPPING  AND  TAILING  TURNIPS. 


'  TransactloHi  oftht  Uijhland  and  AgnaUtural  SoeUt]/  for  July  1844,  p.  286. 


PULLING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS. 


193 


the  drills  e  and/,  fig.  32,  and  with  the  hook 
or  knife  described,  first  takes  off  the  root 
at  h  with  a  small  stroke,  and  then  cuts  off 
the  top  at  a,  between  the  turnip  and  the 
hand,  with  a  sharper  one,  on  which  the 
turnip  falls  down  into  the  heap  c  or  c?, 
whic»Lever  is  forming  at  the  time.  Thus, 
pulling  one  or  two  turnips  from  one  drill, 
and  then  as  many  from  the  other,  the  two 
drills  may  be  cleared.  Another  field- 
worker  acts  as  a  companion  to  this  one,  by 
going  up  6,  pulling  the  turnips  from  the 
drills  on  eithei  side  of  her,  and  dropping 
them,  topped  and  tailed,  into  the  same 
heaps  as  her  companion.  The  tops  are 
scattered  upon  the  cleared  ground.  A  left 
and  a  right-handed  field-worker  get  on  best 
together  at  this  work. 

8i6.  Due  care  is  requisite,  on  removing 
the  tops  and  tails,  that  none  of  the  bulb  be 
cut  by  the  instrument,  as  the  juice  of  the 
turnip  will  exude  through  the  incision. 
When  turnips  are  to  be  consumed  imme- 
diately, an  incision  does  no  harm ;  but 
the  slicing  off  a  portion,  and  hacking  the 
skin  of  the  bulb,  indicates  carelessness, 
and,  if  persevered  in,  will  confirm  into  a 
habit. 

817.  When  two-thirds  of  the  turnips 
are  drawn  at  h,  and  one-third  left,  c,  the 
field-worker  goes  up  h,  fig.  31,  and,  pall- 
ing the  2  drills  there,  drops  the  prepared 
turnips  between  c  and  d.  When  three- 
fourths  are  pulled,  as  at  e,  and  one-fourth 
left,  as  at  c,  the  turnips  may  still  be  dropped 
in  the  same  place  between  c  and  </,  the  field- 
worker  pulling  all  the  3  drills  herself,  and 
the  horse  walking  alonge  when  taking  them 
away.  When  3  drills  are  pulled,  as  at  e, 
and  3  left,  as  at  /,  the  same  field-worker 
pulls  all  the  3  drills,  and  drops  the  turnips 
along  the  outside  row  next  herself  of  those 
that  are  left  in  /.  When  three-fifths  are 
left,  as  at/,  and  two-fifths  pulled,  as  at  </, 
the  field-worker  pulls  the  2  drills  at  y,  and 
drops  the  turnips  between  the  two  rows 
next  her  of/.  When  six  drills  are  pulled, 
as  at  i,  3  women  work  abreast,  each  pull- 
ing 2  drills,  and  all  three  drop  the  turnips 
into  the  same  heap,  in  front  of  the  woman 
in  the  middle.  This  plan  has  the  sole 
advantage  of  collecting  a  large  quantity 
of  turnips  in  one  place,  and  causing  little 
carting  upon  the  land.  When  the  field  is 
intended  to  be  entirely  cleared  of  turnips, 

VOL.   I. 


the  clearance  is  begun  at  the  side  nearest 
the  gate,  and  carried  regularly  on  from 
top  to  bottom  of  the  field — the  nearest  part 
of  the  crop  being  cleared  when  the  weather 
is  least  favourable,  and  the  fartl.tst  when 
most  so.    The  workers  are  all  abreast. 

818.  When  a  field  is  begun  to  be  stripped 
for  sheep,  that  part  should  be  first  chosen 
which  will  afford  them  shelter  whenever 
the  weather  becomes  coarse.  A  planta- 
tion, a  good  hedge,  a  bank  sloping  to  the 
south,  or  one  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that 
from  which  high  winds  prevail  in  the  loca- 
lity, or  a  marked  inequality  in  the  form  of 
the  ground,  will  all  afford  shelter  to  sheep 
in  case  of  necessity.  On  the  sheep  clear- 
ing the  turnips  from  this  part  first,  it  will 
always  be  ready  for  a  place  of  refuge 
against  a  storm,  when  required. 

819.  On  removing  prepared  turnips  from 
the  ground,  the  carts  should  be  filled  by 
the  field-workers,  as  many  being  employed 
as  will  keep  them  a-going — that  is,  to  have 
one  cart  filled  by  the  time  another  ap- 
proaches the  place  of  work  in  the  field. 
If  there  are  more  field- workers  than  will 
be  required  to  do  this,  the  remainder  should 
be  employed  in  topping  and  tailing.  The 
topped  and  tailed  turnips  should  be  thrown 
into  the  cart  by  the  hand,  and  not  with 
forks  or  graips ;  the  cart  should  be  placed 
alongside  the  drill  near  two  or  more  heaps  ; 
and  the  carter  should  manage  the  horses 
and  assist  in  the  filling,  until  the  turnips 
rise  as  high  in  the  cart  as  to  require  a  little 
adjustment  from  him  in  heaping,  to  pre- 
vent their  falling  off  in  the  journey. 

820.  As  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  there 
will  be  as  many  fiehl-workers  as  to  top 
and  tail  the  turnips,  and  assist  in  filling 
the  cart  at  the  same  time,  so  as  to  keep 
even  two  carts  at  work,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  them  to  begin  the  pulling  so  much 
sooner, — whether  one  yoking,  or  a  whole 
day,  or  two  days, — but  so  much  sooner, 
according  to  the  quantity  to  be  carried 
away,  as  to  keep  the  carts  a-going  when 
they  begin  to  drive  away  the  turnips;  for 
it  imi)lies  bad  management  at  all  times  to 
let  horses  wait  longer  in  the  field  than  the 
time  occupied  in  filling  a  cart.  And  yet 
how  common  it  is  to  see  horses  waiting 
until  the  turnips  are  pulled,  and  tailed,  and 
thrown  into  the  cart,  by,  perhaps,  only  two 

N 


194 


rRACTICE— AVIXTER. 


women,  the  carter  buiUiug  tbem  up  not 
as  fast  as  he  can  get  tlieni,  but  as  slow  as 
he  can  induce  the  women  to  give  them. 
The  driving  away  shouhl  not  commence  at 
all  until  a  sufficient  quantity  of  turnips  is 
prepared  to  employ  at  least  two  carts,  one 
yoking;  nor  more  turnips  than  will 
employ  that  number  of  carts  for  that 
time,  should  be  allowed  to  lie  upon  the 
ground  before  being  carried  away,  in  case 
frost  or  rain  should  prevent  the  carts 
entering  the  field  for  a  time. 

821.  Dry  weather  should  be  chosen  for 
the  pulling  of  turnips,  not  merely  for  the 
sake  of  keeping  the  turnips  clean,  but  for 
that  of  the  land,  which  ought  not  to  be 
cut  up  and  poached  by  the  cart-wheels  and 
horses'  feet ;  because,  when  so  cut,  the 
sheep  have  a  very  uncomfortable  laii",  and 
the  ruts  form  receptacles  for  water,  not 
soon  emptied  ;  for  let  the  land  be  ever  so 
•Nvell  drained,  its  nature  cannot  be  entirely 
changed — clay  will  always  have  a  ten- 
dency to  retain  water  on  its  surface,  and 
soil  every  thing  that  touches  it,  and  deep 
loam  and  black  mould  will  still  be  pene- 
trated by  horses'  hoofs,  and  rise  in  large 
masses,  with  the  wheels,  immediately 
after  rain.  No  turnijis  should  therefore 
be  led  off  fields  during,  or  immediately 
after  severe  rain ;  nor  should  they  be 
pulled  at  all,  until  the  ground  has  again 
become  consolidated  ;  and  as  they  cannot 
be  pulled  in  frost,  and  if  they  are  urgently 
required  from  the  field  in  any  of  these 
states  of  weather,  a  want  of  foresight  is 
evidently  manifested  by  the  farmer  and 
his  manager. 

822.  In  commencing  the  pulling  of 
turnips,  one  of  the  fields  to  be  occupied 
by  the  sheep  should  first  be  stripped  to 
provide  a  break  for  them  whilst  on  pasture, 
to  be  ready  to  be  taken  possession  of  be- 
fore tlHj  pasture  becomes  bare. 

■823.  On  the  weather  proving  unfavour- 
able at  the  commencement  of  the  operation, 
that  is,  too  wet  or  too  frosty,  or  an  im- 
portant operation  intervening — such  as  the 
wheat-seed,  no  more  turnips  should  be 
pulled  and  carried  off  than  will  sufiice  for 
the  daily  consumption  of  the  cattle  in  the 
steading  ;  but,  whenever  the  ground  is  dry 
at  top  and  firm,  and  the  air  fresh,  no  op- 
portunity should  be  neglected  of  storing 


as  large  a  quantity  as  possible.  This 
is  a  very  importaut  point  of  management, 
and,  as  I  conceive,  too  much  neglected  by 
most  farmers,  who  frequently  ])rovide  no 
more  than  the  quantity  of  food  daily  re- 
quired. Some  employ  one  or  two  carts  an 
afternoon's  yoking,  to  bring  in  as  n*ny 
turnips  as  will  serve  the  cattle  for  two 
or  three  days  at  most,  and  these  are  brought 
in  with  the  tops  on,  after  much  time  has 
been  spent  in  the  field  in  waiting  for  their 
pulling  and  tailing.  This  is  a  slovenly 
mode  of  providing  provender  for  cattle. 
To  provide  turnips  in  the  best  state,  iude- 
jicndent  of  the  states  of  the  weather,  should 
be  regarded  a  work  of  the  first  importance 
in  winter;  and  it  can  only  be  done  by 
storing  a  considerable  quantity  in  good 
weather,  to  be  used  when  bad  weather 
comes.  When  a  store  is  prepared,  the 
mind  remains  easy  as  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  and  having  a  store  does  not  pre- 
vent you  taking  supplies  from  the  field  as 
long  as  the  weather  permits  the  ground  to 
be  carted  upon  with  impunity,  to  be  im- 
mediately consumed  or  to  augment  the 
store.  I  believe  no  farmer  would  dissent 
from  this  truth  ;  and  yet  many  violate  it 
in  their  practice  !  Tlic  excuse  most  ready 
to  be  offered  is  the  want  of  time  to  store 
turnips  when  the  potato-land  should  be 
ploughed  and  sown  with  wheat ;  or  when 
the  beasts  are  doing  well  enough  yet  upon 
the  pasture  ;  or  when  the  turnips  still  con- 
tinue to  grow.  The  potato-land  should  be 
sown  ;  and,  after  a  late  harvest,  it  may  be 
so  after  the  pasture  has  failed ;  but  the 
other  excuses,  founded  on  the  growing 
state  of  the  turnips  and  rough  state  of  the 
pastures,  are  of  no  force  when  adduced 
against  the  risk  of  reducing  the  condition 
of  the  stock.  Rather  than  incur  such  a 
risk,  give  up  the  rough  pasture  to  the 
sheep.     The  ewes  may  require  it. 

824.  The  storing  of  turnips  is  well  done 
in  this  manner.  Choose  a  piece  of  lea 
ground,  convenient  of  access  to  carts,  near 
the  steading,  for  the  site  of  the  store,  and, 
if  possible,  in  an  adjoining  field,  on  a  15- 
feet  ridge,  running  N.  and  S.  Fig.  37 
gives  the  form  of  the  turnip-store.  The 
cart  with  the  topped  and  tailed  tu  *iips  is 
backed  to  the  spot  of  the  ridge  chosen  to 
begin  the  store,  and  there  emptied  of  its 
contents.  The  ridge  being  15  feet  wide, 
the  store  should  not  exceed    10   feet  iu 


PULLING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS. 


195 


width  at  the  bottom,  to  allow  a  space  of 
at  least  2i  feet  on  each  side  towards  the 


open  furrow  of  the  ridge,  for  the  convey- 
ance of  water.     The  turnips  may  be  piled 


Fig.  37. 


THE  TRIANGULAR  TURNIP-STORE. 


up  to  the  height  of  4  feet ;  but  will  not 
pile  to  5  feet  on  that  width  of  base.  The 
store  may  thus  be  formed  of  any  length  ; 
but  it  is  more  desirable  to  make  two  or 
three  stores  on  adjoining  ridges,  than  a 
very  long  one  on  the  same  ridge,  as  its 
farthest  end  may  be  too  far  off  to  use  a 
wheel-barrow  to  remove  the  stored  turnips. 
Straw  drawn  out  lengthwise  is  put  from  4 
to  6  inches  thick  above  the  turnips  for 
thatch,  and  kept  down  by  means  of  straw 
ropes  arranged  lozenge-shaped,  and  fas- 
tened to  pegs  driven  in  a  slanting  direction 
in  the  ground,  along  the  base  of  the  straw, 
as  may  be  distinctly  seen  in  the  figure. 
Or  a  spading  of  earth,  taken  from  the  fur- 
row, may  be  placed  upon  the  ends  of  the 
ropes  to  keep  them  down.  The  straw  is 
not  intended  to  keep  out  either  rain  or 
air — for  both  are  requisite  to  preserve  the 
turnips  fresh — but  to  protect  them  from 
frost,  which  causes  rottenness,  and  from 
drought,  which  shrivels  turnips.  To 
avoid  frost,  the  end,  and  not  the  side, 
of  the  store  should  be  presented  to  the 
N.,  from  whence  frost  may  be  expected 
most  to  come.  If  the  ground  is  so  flat,  and 
the  open  furrows  so  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  ridges,  as  that  a  fall  of  rain  might 
overflow  the  bottom  of  the  store,  a  furrow- 
slice,  in  that  case,  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  open  furrows  by  the  plough,  a  gaw- 
cut  made  with  the  spade,  and  the  earth 
used  to  keep  down  the  ropes. 

825.  When  the  turnips  are  to  be  used 
from  the  store  in  hard  frost,  the  straw  on 
the  S.  end  is  removed,  as  seen  in  fig.  37, 
and  a  cart,  or  the  cattle-man's  capacious 
light  wheel-barrow,   backed  to  it ;   and, 


after  the  requisite  quantity  for  the  day 
has  been  removed,  it  is  replaced  over  the 
turnips. 

8  26.  Some  people  evince  a  desire  to 
place  a  turnip-store  in  the  stack-yard,  on 
account,  perhaps,  of  protection  from  frost 
by  the  stacks,  but  a  stack-yard  has  not 
sufficient  room  in  the  beginning  of  winter 
for  the  turning  of  carts.  I  have  seen  tur- 
nips stored  up  between  two  stacks  in  the 
early  part  of  the  season,  only  as  a  tem- 
porary expedient  until  straw  was  thrashed 
out. 

827.  There  are  other  forms  of  store 
which  will  preserve  turnips  fresh  and  good 
for  a  considerable  time.  I  have  seen 
turnips  heaped  about  3  feet  in  height, 
quite  flat  on  the  top,  upon  the  ground,  and 
covered  with  loose  straw,  and  though  rain 
passed  through  them  readily,  they  kept 
very  well. 

828.  A  plan  has  been  tried  to  pull  them 
from  the  field  in  which  they  have  grown, 
and  set  them  upright  with  their  tops  on  in 
another  field,  in  a  furrow  made  with  the 
plough,  and  then  to  cover  the  bulbs  with 
the  next  furrow-slice. 

829.  Another  is,  to  pull  the  turnips,  as 
in  the  former  case,  and  carry  them  to  a 
bare  or  lea  field,  and  set  them  upright 
beside  one  another,  as  close  as  they  can 
stand,  with  their  tops  and  roots  on. 

830.  No  doubt,  both  these  plans  will 
keep  turnips  fresh  enough,  and  an  area  of 
I  acre  will  thus  contain  the  growth  of  4 


196 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


or  5  acres  of  the  field  ;  but  turnips  cannot 
be  60  secure  from  frost  in  those  positions 
as  in  a  store ;  and  after  the  trouble  of 
lifting  and  carrying  them  has  been  in- 
curred, it  is  much  easier  to  take  them 
to  a  store  at  once,  where  they  would 
always  be  at  hand,  than  take  them  first 
to,  and  bring  them  again  from,  another 
field ;  and  even  if  they  were  so  set  in  a 
field  adjoining  the  steading,  they  would 
occupy  a  much  larger  space  than  any 
store. 

831.  Objectionable  as  these  plans  are, 
compared  to  triangular  or  flat-topped 
stores,  they  are  better  than  storing  turnips 
in  houses,  where  they  engender  heat  and 
sprout  on  the  toji,  and  never  fail  to  be- 
come rotten  at  the  bottom  of  the  bin. 
Piling  them  against  a  high  wall,  and 
thatching  them  like  a  to-fall,  preserves 
them  very  little  better  than  in  an  outhouse. 

832.  Turnips  put  into  pits  dug  in  the 
ground,  and  covered  with  earth,  have 
failed  to  be  preserved. 

833.  A  plan  has  been  recommended  to 
drive  stakes  2^  feet  high  into  the  ground, 
and  wattle  them  together  with  brushwood, 
making  an  enclosure  of  three  sides,  in  the 
interior  of  which  the  turnips  are  packed, 
and  piled  up  to  a  point  and  thatched,  like 
the  store  in  fig.  37  ;  and  the  turnips  are 
represented  as  keeping  fresh  in  such  a 
structure  until  June  ;  and  one  advantage 
attending  the  plan  is  said  to  be,  that 
"where  room  is  rather  limited  in  the  rick- 
yard,  one  pile  of  this  description  will  con- 
tain 3  times  as  much  as  one  of  those  placed 
on  the  ground  of  a  triangular  shape;  and 
the  saving  of  thatch  is  also  considerable." 
But,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the  providing  of 
stakes  and  tiie  trouble  of  wattling  to  form 
an  enclosure,  will  far  more  than  counter- 
balance any  advantage  of  space  or  saving 
of  straw  for  thatch,  comjuired  with  the 
simple  mode  I  have  described  in  fig.  37  ; 
but  no  necessity  exists  for  having  a  turnip- 
store  in  a  rick -yard. 

834.  In  pulling  mangold-wurtzcl,  care 
should  be  taken  to  do  as  little  injury  to 
the  roots  as  possible.  Cleansing  with  the 
knife  should  on  no  account  be  permitted; 
and  rather  leave  some  of  the  leaf  on  than 
injure  the  crown  of  the  root  in  any  way. 
The  drier  the  weather  is  the  better  for 


storing  the  crop,  though  the  roots  will  not 
be  injured  in  the  store  by  a  little  earth 
adhering  to  them  in  wet  weather.  The 
roots  are  best  prejiarcd  for  the  store  by 
twisting  ofi'  the  top  with  the  hand, 
as  a  mode  of  preventing  every  risk  of 
injuring  the  root.  Mangold-wurtzel  not 
being  able  to  withstand  frost,  the  croj> 
must  be  entirely  cleared  from  the  field 
before  its  aj)peanxnce;  and  the  best  way 
of  pulling  them  is  in  the  order  indicated 
in  fig  32,  at  a,  where  two  drills  are  pulled 
by  one  Avorker,  and  the  adjoining  two  drills 
by  another;  and  the  trimmed  roots  placed 
in  heaps  in  the  hollow  intermediate  to  the 
four  drills,  the  leaves  being  also  thrown 
into  heaps  between  the  roots.  "  The 
leaves,  thus  treated,  when  intended  to  be 
fed  either  by  sheep  folded  on  land,  or 
carted  ofi'  and  thrown  on  pastures  for 
cattle  or  sheep,  are  always  clean  and  fit 
food  for  stock,  which  they  are  not  when 
thrown  over  the  land  and  trampled  on. 
Besides  this,  the  beet  which  has  been 
palled,  and  not  carted  during  the  day, 
should  always  be  covered  the  last  thing 
before  leaving  for  the  night,  and  the  leaves, 
being  laid  conveniently  in  heaps,  are  used 
for  that  purpose.  Mangold-wurtzel  stand- 
ing on  the  ground,  and  protected  by  the 
broad  leaves,  will  stand  a  frost  (if  not 
very  severe)  witiiout  injury,  but  a  very 
slight  frost  will  damage  those  roots  which 
are  pulled ;  therefore  it  is  a  wise  precau- 
tion to  cover  up  the  roots  that  are  left  at 
night."  If  the  leaves  are  not  desired  to 
be  used  as  food,  they  may  be  scattered  over 
the  ground. 

S35.  On  removing  any  roots,  the  cart 
goes  up  between  two  rows  of  pulled  roots, 
and  thereby  clears  a  space  at  once  of  the 
breadth  of  eight  ilrills.  In  this  manner 
the  work  proceeds  expeditiously,  and  with 
as  little  injury  to  the  land  by  trampling 
as  possible.  To  save  the  land  still  fartiier, 
the  carts  should  always  be  driven  up  an<l 
down  the  drills  and  not  across  them, 
whether  going  Avith  a  load  or  returning 
emj)ty.  The  pulling  and  driving  a  good 
crop  of  20  tons  of  mangold-wurtzel  is  stated 
to  cost  from  !)d.tols.  per  ton, and  a  bad  crop 
will  cost  considerably  more.  "  In  a  wet 
season,  the  removal  of  a  croj)  of  beet  from 
a  retentive  soil  is  frequently  injurious,  by 
the  necessary  treading  in  carrying  the 
crop:  in  extreme  cases  this  may  be  en- 
tirely obviated  by  removing  the  crop  by 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


197 


manual  labour;  and  though  tlie  soil  be 
not  of  that  reteutive  nature,  yet  those 
who  farm  wet  land  have  occasionally 
recourse  to  the  carrying  the  crop  to  heaps 
at  the  side  of  the  field,  in  baskets,  or 
wheeling  in  barrows  ;  and  find  that  the 
cost  does  not  greatly  exceetl  the  carrying 
the  crop  in  carts.  Planks  to  wheel  upon 
would  facilitate  the  operation." 

836.  The  storing  of  mangold-wurtzel 
may  be  effected  in  various  ways,  but  in 
every  case  the  roots  must  be  secured 
against  frost,  and  a  thick  covering  of 
straw  will  eflect  the  purpose.  One  plan 
is  to  build  up  the  roots  against  a  wall,  and 
line  the  outside  of  the  lieap  with  hurdles 
and  straw,  and  cover  it  with  straw  one 
foot  thick  as  a  thatch.*  Another  plan  is 
to  pile  the  roots,  like  a  pit  of  potatoes,  6 
feet  in  width  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet 
high,  to  the  point  of  the  triangular  taper, 
cover  them  with  straw,  and  place  a  stra- 
tum of  earth  over  it,  taken  from  each  side 
of  the  heap,  and  leaving  the  crest  of  the 
triangular  heap  uncovered  with  earth,  to 
act  as  a  ventilator  from  the  roots,  through 
the  straw.t 

837.  Carrots  are  also  taken  up  before 
the  frost  appears,  and  stored  for  winter 
use.  They  are  best  taken  out  of  the  ground 
with  a  three-pronged  fork,  when  sovrn  on 
the  flat  ground,  but  on  drills  the  plough, 
without  the  coulter,  answers  tlie  purpose 
nearly  as  well,  and  executes  the  work  much 
more  expeditiously,  though  the  extremities 
of  the  largest  can-ots  are  broken  oflT.  On 
being  taken  up  in  either  way  the  tops  are 
wrenched  off  by  the  hand,  and  may  be 
given  to  the  cattle,  or  strewn  over  the 
ground  to  be  ploughed  in. 

838.  Carrots  not  being  so  easily  affected 
byfrostasmangold-wurtzel,maybe  stored  in 
an  outhouse  mixed  with  dry  sand,  or  in  a 
triangular  heap,  and  covered  with  straw 
only,  or  with  straw  and  earth. 


arfe  apt  to  inflame  the  udder.  The  leaves 
come  in  as  a  convenient  auxiliary  to  grass 
at  this  period ;  and,  if  given  moderately, 
a  good  armful  per  day  to  each  cow  will 
impart  as  much  richness  to  the  milk  as  the 
parsnip  itself."  + 

840.  The  ]iarsnip  m:iy  be  taken  up  from 
the  flat  or  the  drill  and  stowed  in  precisely 
the  same  manner  as  carrots,  not  being 
much  aff'ected  by  frost,  and  will  keep  fresh 
in  the  store  until  April.  Care,  however, 
should  be  taken  that  none  of  the  leaves 
remain  attached  to  the  roots. 

841.  Callages  should  be  pulled  up  by 
the  roots ;  for  when  the  stem  is  cut  over, 
and  left  in  the  ground,  it  will  sprout  out 
again,  and  the  aftergrowth  will  much  ex- 
haust the  soil. 

842.  In  storing  cabbages  they  may  be 
shoughed  into  the  soil,  or,  what  is  better, 
hung  up  by  the  stems  with  the  head  down- 
wards, in  a  shed,  where  they  will  keep 
fresh  for  a  long  time. 


ON     THE 


VARIETIES    OP 
CULTIVATED. 


8S9.  "  In  October,  the  leaves  of  the 
parsnip,  as  they  he</in  to  decay,  should 
be  cut  oflf  and  given,  when  dry,  to  the 
cows :  it  is  important  to  see  that  they  be 
dry,  as,  when  moist  from  rain  or  dew,  they 

*  Journal  of  tie  JgriciiUural  Society  of  En jJ and,  vol.  ii.  p 

t  /6iW,  vol.  viii.  p.  218-221. 

+  Lawson's  Agriculturists''  Manual,  p.  237,  and  Supplement,  p.  49 


843.  There  are  a  great  many  more 
varieties  of  turnips  cultivated  in  the  coun- 
try than  seems  necessary.  Mr  Lawson 
enumerates  and  describes  no  fewer  than 
46  varieties  cultivated  in  the  field;  namely 
11  of  swedes,  17  of  yellow,  and  18  of 
white,§  the  names  being  derived  as  much 
from  the  colour  of  the  flesh  as  the  skin. 
One  kind  from  each  of  these  classes  seems 
requisite  to  be  cultivated  on  every  farm, 
although  the  yellow  is  omitted  in  some  dis- 
tricts, and  the  swede  in  others.  Where  the 
swede  is  omitted,  it  has  never  been  culti- 
vated, and  where  the  yellow  is  the  favou- 
rite, the  swede  is  unknown  ;  for  where  it 
is  known,  its  culture  is  never  relinquished, 
and  its  extension  is  nearly  overspreading 
the  yellow,  and  even  curtailing  the  boun- 
dary of  the  white.  Tlie  white  varieties 
come  earliest  into  use,  and  will  always  be 
esteemed  on  account  of  their  rapid  growth 
and   early   maturity,    though    unable    to 

300. 


§  lUd. 


198 


PRACTICE— TVINTER. 


withstand  severe  frost.  Being  ready  for 
use  as  soon  as  the  pasture  fails,  they  atibrd 
the  earliest  support  to  both  cattlo  and 
sheep;  and  only  such  a  quantity  should 
be  stored  of  them  as  will  last  to  the  end 
of  the  year.  The  yellows  then  follow,  and 
last  for  about  2  mouths,  to  the  end  of 
February  or  thereabouts ;  and  the  same 
rule  of  storing  them,  for  a  specified  time,  is 
follo\\-ed  as  with  the  whites.  The  swedes 
finish  the  course,  and  should  last  until  the 
grass  is  able  to  sujiport  the  young  cattle, 

Fig. 


to  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June, 
to  which  period  they  will  continue  fresh  in 
store,  if  stored  in  the  proper  time  and 
manner  as  recommended  above ;  and  the 
most  prt)j)er  time  for  storing  them  is  be- 
ft)re  vegetation  makes  any  appearance, 
in  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April. 

844.  Of  all  the  18  varieties  of  white 
turnips,  I  should  say  that  the  white  globe 
(Brassica  rapa,  depi'essa,  alba,  of  De 
CandoUe)  a,  fig.  38,  is  the  best  for  early 
38. 


THK  WHITE  GLOBE  TURNIP. 


THE  PURPLE  TOP  SWEDISH 
TURNIP. 


THE  ABERDEENSHIRE  YELLOW 
BULLOCK  TURNIP. 


maturity,  sweetness,  juiciness,  size  of  root,  845.  I  suspect  that  our  crops  of  white- 
weight  of  crop,  and  elegance  of  form.  Its  globe  turnip  ordinarily  consist  of  middle- 
form  is  nearly  globular,  as  its  name  indi-     sized  bulbs,  or  they  contain  many  blanks, 


Gates;  skin  smooth,  somewhat  oily,  fine, 
and  j)erfectly  white ;  neck  of  the  top  and 
tap-root  small ;  leaves  long,  (frequently  1 8 
inches,)  upright,  and  luxuriant.  Though 
the  root  does  not  feel  particularly  heavy 
in  the  hand,  it  does  not  emit  a  hollow 
sound  when  struck,  as  the  tankard  turnip 
does;  its  flesh  is  somewhat  firm,  fine- 
grained, though  distinctly  exhibiting  fibres 
radiating  from  the  centre  ;  the  juice  easily 
exudes,  and  the  rind  is  thin.  Its  specific 
gravity  was  determined  by  Dr  Skene  Keith 
at  0*840;  and  its  nutritive  properties  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  at  42  parts  in  1000; 
of  which  were,  of  mucilage  7,  of  sugar  34, 
and  of  albumen  or  gluten  1.'''  Mr  Sinclair 
mentions  this  remarkable  fact  in  retrard  to 


as  the  following  statement  will  show. 
Taking  the  distance  between  the  turnips 
at  9  inches  —  being  that  at  which  white 
turnips  are  usually  thinned  out  —  and  the 
usual  distance  between  the  drills  at  27 
inches,  an  area  of  243  square  inches  of 
ground  is  allowed  for  each  turnip.  Hence 
there  should  be  25,813  turnips  per  im- 
perial acre ;  and  taking  20  tons  per  acre 
as  a  fair  crop,  each  turnip  thouhl  only 
weigh  1  lb.  .5  oz. !  Now,  a  size  of  0' 
inches  in  diameter  overhead  may  be  as- 
sumed ;  and  having  the  specific  gravity 
at  0'840,  each  turnip  should  weigh  6  lb., 
and  the  crop  69  tons  2  cwt.,  instead  of 
30  tons  per  acre.  The  inevitable  conclu- 
sion is,  either  that  blanks   occur  to  the 


the  white  turnip,  that  '"  the  quantity  of     enormous    extent    of  only   9445   turnips 


nutritive  matter  contained  in  difi'erent 
roots  of  the  same  variety  varies  according 
to  the  size  and  texture  of  their  substances. 
Thus,  a  root  of  the  white-loaf  turnip, 
measuring  7  inches  in  diameter,  afforded 
only  72;^-  grains;  while  the  same  quantity 
of  a  root  which  measured  oidy  4  inches, 
afforded  80  grains;"  and  he  makes  this 
important  conclusion,  that  "  the  middle- 
sized  roots  of  the  common  turnip  are  there- 
fore the  most  nutritious."  t 


insteail  of  25,813  ;  or  the  average  distance 
between  the  turnips  must  be  20  inches 
instead  of  9.  When  actual  results  fall  so 
very  far  short  of  expectation,  the  inquiry 
is,  Whether  the  great  deficiency  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  death  of  plants  after  the 
singling  process  has  been  completed?  or 
the  average  size  and  weight  of  each  turnip 
are  much  less  than  we  imagine;  or  the 
distance  left  by  the  singling  is  greater 
than  we  desire  ? — or  from  all  these  causes 


*  Davy's  Aijr'icuUural  Chemistry,  p.  135,  edition  of  1839. 

t  Sinclair's  Hortus  Gramineus  Woburnensis,  p.  406-407,  edition  of  1824. 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


199 


combined  ?  From  whichever  cause,  singly 
or  combined,  it  is  worthy  of  serious  in- 
vestigation by  the  farmer,  whether  or  not 
the  fate  of  the  crop  really  depends  more 
on  these  occult  circumstances  than  on  the 
mode  of  culture  ?  Let  us  examiue  this  a 
little: — 

846.  Weights  and  sizes  of  white  turnips 
have  been  ascertained  with  sufficient  ac- 
curacy. The  white  globes  exhibited  at 
the  show  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  at  Inverness  in  October  1839, 
gave  a  girth  varying  from  28 1  to  34  inches, 
and  a  weight  varying  still  more — from  8 
lb.  to  15;!  lb.  each  root ;  and  3  roots  of  the 
same  girth  of  30|^  inches,  varied  in  weight 
respectively  8  lb.,  9f  lb.,  and  lU  lb.* 
After  such  a  statement,  our  surprise  at  re- 
sults may  be  moderated,  it  being  evident 
that  crops  of  tlie  same  bulk  weigh  difl'e- 
rently;  and  turnips  from  the  same  field 
exhibit  different  fattening  proj^erties ; 
and  different  localities  produce  turnips  of 
different  bulk.  Whence  arise  so  various 
results?  The  above  weights  are  not 
the  utmost  to  which  this  turnip  attains, 
examples  occurring  from  18  lb.  to  23  lb.  ;t 
and  I  have  pulled  one  from  amongst 
swedes,  weighing  29  lbs.,  including  the 
top.:}:  And  yet  from  30  to  40  tons  per 
imperial  acre  are  regarded  a  good  crop  of 
this  kind  of  turnip. 

847.  Of  the  yellow  turnip,  Mr  Lawson 
has  described  17  varieties,  of  which  per- 
haps the  greatest  favourite  is  the  green- 
top  Aberdeen  Yellow  Bullock  (Brassica 
rapa,  depressa,  Jlavescens^  of  De  Candolle.) 
This  is  a  good  turnip,  of  the  form  of  an 
oblate  spheroid,  c,  fig.  38  ;  the  colour  of  the 
skin  below  the  ground,  as  well  as  of  the 
flesh,  being  a  deep  yellow  orange,  and 
that  of  the  top  bright  green.  The  leaves 
are  about  1  foot  long,  dark  green,  rather 
soft,  spreading  over  the  bulb,  and  collected 
into  a  small  girth  at  the  top  of  the  turnip  ; 
the  tap-root  is  small.  Its  specific  gravity, 
as  determined  by  Dr  Keith,  is  0.940 ;  and 
its  nutritive  property,  according  to  Sin- 
clair, is  44  in  1000  parts,  of  which  4|  are 
of  mucilage,  37f  of  sugar,  and  1^  of  bitter 
extract  or  saline  matters.     This  root  feels 


firm  and  heavy  in  the  hand,  with  a  smooth 
fine  skin,  the  flesh  crisp,  but  not  so  juicy, 
nor  the  rind  so  thin  as  the  globe. 

848.  Selected  specimens  exhibit  a  cir- 
cumference of  from  27  to'  30  inches,  with 
a  weight  varying  from  6  lb.  to  8^  lb.,  but 
specimens  may  be  found  weighing  from  9 
lb.  to  11  lb.  with  the  same  diameter,  show- 
ing a  difference  of  2  lb.  in  weight.  Yel- 
low turnips  seldom  yield  so  heavy  a  crop 
as  either  the  globe  or  swede,  30  tons  the 
imperial  acre  being  a  good  crop  ;  but  their 
nutritive  property  is  greater  than  white 
turnips.  In  the  northern  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  v*'here  light  soils  predominate, 
they  are  grown  in  preference  to  the  swede; 
but,  from  my  own  experience  in  raising 
the  swede  on  the  driest  gravelly  soil,  I 
believe  if  it  receives  the  sort  of  culture  it 
requires,  it  would  exceed  the  yellow  in 
weight  and  nutrition  in  every  soil. 

849.  Of  the  18  varieties  of  the  Swedish 
turnip  described  by  Mr  Lawson,  the  Pur- 
ple-top (Brassica  canipestfis,  napo-hras- 
sica,  rutabaga^  of  De  Candolle,)  has  long 
obtained  the  preference;  and  certainly  if 
weight  of  crop,  nutritious  property,  and 
durability  of  substance  are  valuable  proper- 
ties in  a  turnip,  none  can  exceed  this.  It 
is  of  an  oblong  form,  h,  fig,  38,  having  the 
colour  under  ground  and  of  the  flesh  a 
deep  yellow  orange,  and  the  part  above 
the  ground  a  dusky  purple.  The  leaves 
are  about  1  foot  long,  standing  nearly  up- 
right, of  a  bluish  green  colour,  and  growing 
out  of  a  firm  conical  crown,  which  forms 
the  neck  of  the  bulb.  The  skin  is  some- 
what rough,  the  rind  thicker  than  either 
the  white  or  yellow  turnip,  and  the  flesh 
very  crisp.  This  turnip  feels  heavy  and 
hard  in  the  hand.  According  to  Dr 
Keith,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  orange 
swede  is  1.035,  and  of  the  white  1.022, 
and  Sir  Humphry  Davy  estimates  its 
nutritive  property  at  64  in  1000  parts,  of 
which  9  are  starch,  51  sugar,  2  gluten, 
and  2  extract.  Dr  Keith  found  the 
Swedish  turnip  heaviest  in  April,  at  the 
shooting  out  of  the  new  leaves,  and  after 
its  flower  stem  was  fairly  shot  in  June, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  root  decreased 

*  Q^uarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  x.  p.  456.      +  Lawson's  Agriculturists'  Manual,  p.  253-254. 

+  The  Norwich  Mercury  of  July  1841,  makes  mention  of  a  turnip, — a  white  one,  we  presume, — 
exhibited  at  Fakenham  market,  and  sent  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  strong  brine,  which  weighed 
84  lb.,  having  a  girth  of  5  feet  2  inches.     It  is  said  to  have  weighed  92  lb.,  when  pulled. 


900 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


to  0.94,  that  of  the  yellow  turnip.  This 
differential  fact  indic'at<>s  the  comparative 
ralaea  of  those  turnips,  and  also  the  time 
for  storing  the  swede.  As  Sir  Humphry 
experimented  on  Swedish  turnips  grown 
in  the  neiirhbourhood  of  London,  where 
they  are  confessedly  inferior  to  those  in 
the  northern  counties,  his  results  as  to 
their  nutritive  properties  may  be  consi- 
dered below  the  true  mark,  especially  as 
the  cases  given  by  Professor  Johnston 
show  the  proportion  of  nutriment  as  74^ 
in  the  1000. 

850.  Picked  specimens  have  exhibited 
a  girth  of  from  25  to  28  inches,  varying 
in  weight  from  7  lb.  to  i)^  lb.,  but  the 
weight  varies  in  a  diflfereut  proportion  to 
the  bulk,  as  one  of  25  inches  gave  9^  lb., 
whilst  another  of  26  inches  only  weighed 
7  lb.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see 
swedes  from  8  lb.  to  IO5  lb.  A  crop  of 
16  or  20  tons  maybe  obtained  by  crdi- 
nary  culture,  but  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
large  towns,  such  as  Edinburgh,  28  or  34 
tons  are  obtained  on  the  imperial  acre.  I 
have  heard  of  50  or  60  tons  boasted  of, 
but  suspect  that  the  calculations  had  been 
made  from  limited  iind  select,  d  spots ; 
nevertheless,  a  large  and  equal  crop  will 
sometimes  be  obtained,  under  favourable 
circumstances,  such  as  I  remember  seeing 
of  50  acres  withia  the  policy  of  Wedder- 
bum,  Berwickshire,  in  1815,  when  farmed 
by  Mr  Joseph  Tod,  Whitelaw,  on  walking 
over  which  I  could  nut  detect  a  single 
turnip  of  less  apparent  size  than  a  man's 
head.  The  crop  was  not  weighed,  and 
was  let  to  be  consumed  by  cattle  and  sheep, 
the  wethers  to  pay  6d.  a-head  per  week, 
and  it  realised  £21  per  imperial  acre! 
Taking  a  man's  head  at  7  inches  in  dia- 
meter, and  the  specific  gravity  of  a  Swedish 
turnip  at  1.035,  the  weight  of  each  turnip 
should  be  6  lb.  11  oz.,  and  allowing  19,360 
turnijis  per  acre,  at  1 2  inches  apart  in  the 
drill,  and  27  inches  between  the  drills,  the 
crop  should  weigh  58  tons  1  cwt.  Take 
the  calculation  in  another  form,  and  see 
the  result  of  £21  at  6d.  a-head  per  week, 
which  implies  the  support  of  32  sheep  to 
the  acre  ;  and  take  Mr  Curwen's  estimate 
of  a  sheep  eating  24  lb.  a-day,  for  180 


days,  or  26  weeks,t  the  crop  should  have 
weighed  61  tons  12  cwt.  This  must  be 
the  correct  weight,  so  the  above  estimated 
one  by  sight  comes  very  near  the  truth. 
The  quantity  of  turnips  eaten  by  sheep  is, 
however,  variously  stated.  Sir  John 
Sinclair  gives  a  consumption  of  21  acres  of 
44  tons  each,  by  300  sheep  in  180  days, 
or  nearly  38  lb.  a-day  for  each  sheep.* 
If  we  take  the  usual  allowance  of  16  young 
sheep  to  an  ordinary  acre  of  30  tons,  which 
is  23?i  lb.  a-day  to  each,  or  ten  old  sheep, 
which  is  373  lb.  to  each,  both  respectively 
are  near  the  results  given  by  Mr  Curwen 
and  Sir  John  Sinclair,  the  difference  be- 
tween them  being  exactly  that  consumed 
by  old  and  young  sheep.  Whether  we 
take  24  lb  or  38  lb.  as  the  daily  consump- 
tion of  turnips  by  sheep,  there  is  no  doubt 
whatever  of  the  £21  per  acre  having  been 
received  for  their  keep ;  but  the  exact 
consumption  of  food  by  live-stock  is  un- 
known, although  a  subject  worthy  of  expe- 
rimental investigation. 

851.  The  proportion  the  top  bears  in 
weight  to  the  root  is  little  in  the  Swedish 
turnip,  as  evinced  in  the  experiments  oi 
Mr  Isaac  Everett,  South  Creake,  Norfolk, 
on  a  crop  of  17  tons  9  cwt.,  grown  at  18 
inches  apart,  and  27  inches  between  the 
drills,  gave  3  tons  3  cwt.  of  tops,  on  the 
15th  December,  after  which  they  were 
not  worth  weighing  ;  and,  what  is  remark- 
able, the  tops  are  lighter  in  a  crop  raised 
on  drills  than  on  the  flat  surface ;  that  is, 
whilst  28  tons  8  cwt.  of  toppe<l  and  tailed 
turnips  afforded  only  5  tons  10  cwt.  of 
tops  from  drilled  land,  a  crop  of  28  tons 
16  cwt.  from  the  flat  surface  yielded  6  tons 
16  cwt.  of  tops.§ 

852.  The  yellow  turnip  will  continue 
fresh  ia  the  store  until  late  in  spring,  but 
the  swe  le  has  a  superiority  in  this  respect 
to  all  others.  The  most  remarkable  in- 
stance I  remember  of  the  swede  keeping 
in  the  store,  in  a  fresh  state,  was  in  Ber- 
wickshire, on  the  farm  of  Whitsome  Hill, 
when  in  the  possession  of  Mr  George 
Brown,  where  a  field  of  25  acres  waa 
pulled,  rooted,  and  topped,  and  stored  in 
the  manner  already  described,  in  fine  dry 


•  Johnston's  Lecturet  on  Agricultural  Chemistr'i,  2 J  edition,  p.  928. 

t  Carwen's  Agricultural  Hints,  p.  39. 

%  Sinclair's  Account  0/  the  HutbanHry  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii.  Appendix,  p.  47. 

§  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Sodety  of  England,  vol.  iL  p.  270. 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


201 


■nreather  in  N'ovember,  to  have  the  field 
sown  with  wheat.  Tije  store  was  opened 
in  February,  and  the  cattle  continued  on 
them  until  the  middle  of  June,  when  thej 
were  sold  fat,  the  turnips  being  then  only 
a  little  sprouted,  and  somewhat  shrivelled, 
but  exceedingly  sweet  to  the  taste.  One 
property  possessed  by  the  Swedish  turnip 
stamps  a  great  value  upon  it  for  feeding 
stock,  the  larger  it  grows  the  greater 
quantity  of  nutritive  matter  it  contains. 
According  to  Sinclair,  1728  grains  of 
large-sized  Swedes  contained  110  grains 
of  nutritive  matter,  whereas  small-sized 
ones  only  yielded  99  grains,*  affording  a 
sufficient  stimulus  to  the  farmer  to  raise  this 
valuable  root,  to  the  largest  size  attainable. 


,853.  This  is  a  comjiarative  view  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  turnips  and  roots 
just  referred  to  : — • 

Specific  gravity  of  orange  Swedish  turnip 
in  December,  ....         1*035 

It  is  heaviest   in    April,   about   the 
shooting  of  the  new  leaves  ;  and  in 
June,  after  the  development  of  the 
flower  stalk,  it  is     .         .         .         0-940 
Specific  gravity  of  white  Swedish  turnip,  1-0-22 

—  —         yellow  bullock,      .         0940 

—  —         white  globe,  .         0-840 

—  —         carrot,  .         .         0-810t 

854.  The  composition  of  turnips  and  the 
other  roots  spoken  of  is  thus  given  by  Pro- 
fessor Johnston : — 


Water,      . 
Sugar, 
Gum, 
Albumen, 
Pectic    and  1 
meta-pectic  > 
acids,            ) 
Oil,      .      . 
Cellular  fibre, 
Saline  matter, 
Casein,  (so    ) 
called,)     .    \ 
Fibre  and     j 
pectic  acid, ) 
Starch  and   1 
fibre,      .      ) 

Johnston. 

Johnston. 

Hermb- 

STADT. 

Crome. 

Turnips. 

Mangold  Wurtzel. 

Grown  on  different  soils  near 
Tranent,  East  Lothian. 

Long  Red. 

Short  Red. 

Orange       Common 
Globe.          Carrot. 

Parsnip. 

89-30 
5-61 
0-11 
0-72 

1-76 

0-19 
1-63 
0-54 

89-42 
6-21 
Oil 
0-47 

1-33 

0-22 
1-75 
0-49 

89-00 
6-54 
0-16 
0-36 

1-51 

0-18 
1-59 
0-59 

85-18 
9-79 
0-67 
0-09 

0-39 
3-08 

84-68 

11-97 

0-50 

0-18 

0-26 
3-31 

86-52 

10--24 

0-13 

0-03 

0-33 

2-45 

80-00 
7-80 
1-75 
1-10 

0-35 
9-00 

79-40 
5-50 
6  10 
210 

6-90 

99-86 

100- 

99-93 

99-20 

100-89 

99-70 

100- 

100- 

Professor  Johnston  remarks,  that  the  above 
analyses  of  the  common  carrot  and  parsnip 
are  very  imperfect,  and  require  to  be  re- 
peated. 

855.  He  adds—"  I  regret  to  say  that 
our  present  knowledge  of  the  valuable 
esculent,  the  cabbage,  is  almost  nothing. 
In  my  laboratory  the  proportion  of  water 
in  the  leaves  of  several  varieties  of  cab- 
bage has  been  found  to  average  92  per 
cent,  and  in  the  stalk  84  per  cent.  The 
dry  solid  matter  of  the  leaf  contains  from 


7  to  20  per  cent  of  inorganic  or  mineral 
matter,  in  which  there  is  mucli  sulphuric 
and  phosphoric  acids.  The  dry  matter  of 
the  cabbage  is  unquestionably  nutritive, 
though  the  proportion  of  protein,  or  sup- 
posed muscle-forming  constituents,  has  not 
as  yet  been  determined.  The  flower  of 
the  cabbage,  however,  (cauliflower,)  in  the 
dry  state,  has  been  found  to  contain  as 
much  as  64  per  cent  of  those  compounds, 
gluten,  albumen,  &c.,  or  more  than  any 
other  cultivated  vegetable.  The  common 
mushroom  in  the  dry  state    is  the  only 


*  ?>mc\ai,\T's  Hortas  Gramineus  Woburnensis,-p.  407. 
+  Keith's  Agricultural  Report  of  Aberdeenshire,  p.  302 


202 


PRACTICE— '\^^NTER. 


vegetable,  as  yet  known,  which  approaches 
to  this  proportion.  Were  it  possible  to 
dry  cabbai^e,  therefore,  it  would  form  a 
very  concentrated  food."  * 

856.  A  summary  of  the  foregoing  re- 
sults will  be  useful  for  reference  : — The 
three  kinds  of  turnips  described,  the  purjde- 
topped  swede,  the  Aberdeenshire  yellow 
bullock,  and  the  white  globe,  possess  all 
the  properties  for  feeding  stock,  and  re- 
main fresh  during  the  feeding  season, 
which  is  all  that  can  be  desiderated  by  the 
farmer :  therefore  it  seems  unnecessary  to 
cultivate  any  other  variety  where  these  can 
be  procured  pure  of  their  kinds.     But  as — 

857.  The  white  stone  turnip  comes 
quicker  to  maturity  than  the  white  globe  ; 
and  in  case  the  grass  should  fail  in  autumn 
more  quickly  than  expected,  it  may  bo 
advisable  to  sow  a  few  of  the  white  stone 
variety  for  early  use,  and  though  not  re- 
quired, it  will  be  found  useful  for  sheep  to 
begin  the  season  with.     And  as — 

858.  Laing^s  sicede  is  found  to  resist 
the  influence  of  vegetation  longer  in  spring 
than  the  purple-topped ;  a  few  may  be 
sown  to  be  used  in  the  latest  part  of  the 
feeding  season,  and  need  not  be  stored 
until  the  end  of  April. 

859.  A  "white  globe  turnip  of  7  inches 
in  diameter  affords  72^  grains,  whereas 
one  of  4  inches  diameter  affords  80  grains 
of  nutritive  matter,  the  smaller  being  the 
more  nutritive. 

800.  A  large  swede  contains  110  grains, 
and  a  small  one  only  .99  grains  of  nutritive 
matter,  the  larger  swede  being  the  more 
nutritive. 

8fil.  The  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
in  the  same  variety  of  the  turnip  varies 
—  in  M'hite  turnips  from  8  to  13  per 
cent,  and  in  the  yellow  turnip  from  ll^ 
to  17  percent;  so  that  20  tons  of  one  crop 
may  bo  as  feeding  as  30  tons  of  another, 
which    is    an    important    fact,    and    may 

ccount  for  the  discrepancies  experienced 

y  farmers  in  feeding  stock- 


weighs  from  30  to  35  tons  per  imperial 
acre. 

863.  A  good  crop  of  yellow  turnips 
weighs  from  30  to  32  tons  per  imperial 
acre. 

864.  A  good  crop  of  white  globe  turnips 
weighs  from  30  to  40  tons  per  imperial 
acre. 

8G5.  A  bushel  of  turnips  weighs  from 
42  lbs.  to  45  lbs. 

866.  The  nutritive  matter  contained  in 
an  imperial  acre  of  turnips  is  great.  In  a 
crop  of  20  tons,  or  45,000  lbs.,  there  are 
900  lbs.  of  thick  or  woody  fibre,  4000 
lbs.  of  starch,  sugar,  gum,  670  lbs.  of 
gluten,  130  lbs.  of  fat  or  oil,  and  300 
lbs.  of  saline  matter.  Turnips,  it  may  be 
observed,  in  the  table  of  analysis,  contain 
a  very  large  proj^ortion  of  water,  and  this 
enhancing  the  cost  of  transport,  makes  it 
almost  necessary  to  have  them  consumed 
on  the  spot  where  they  are  grown.t 

8G7.  A  young  Leicester  sheep  may  be 
supposed  to  eat  23  lbs.,  and  an  older  one 
38  lbs.  of  turnips  per  day,  during  the 
winter  half-year,  or  180  days,  and  a  young 
black-faced  sheep  18  lbs.,  and  an  old  one 
28  lbs.  per  day,  in  the  same  time. 

868.  The  usual  allowance  to  eat  a  crop 
of  30  tons  of  turnips  in  the  winter  half- 
year,  or  180  days,  is  16  young  and  8  old 
Leicester  sheep,  and  20  young  and  10  old 
black-faced  sheep  per  acre.  In  making 
this  last  estimate  the  state  of  the  crop 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  ;  a  close 
crop  of  small  yellow  or  white  turnij>s  takes 
longer  time  to  consume  than  a  bulkier 
crop  of  larger  turnii)S  ;  but  a  croj)  of  large 
swedes,  though  thin  on  the  ground,  will 
take  a  longer  time  to  consume  than  a 
closer  crop  of  smaller  roots. 

809.  An  ox  will  cat  about  a  ton  of  tur- 
nips every  week.  A  two-year-old  short- 
horn ox  will  consume  26  tons,  and  a  three- 
year-old  30  tons  of  turnips  in  180  days. 
The  smaller  breeds  of  cattle  consume  less. 


862.    A  good  crop    of   swede  turnips         870.  Implicit  reliance  cannot  be  placed 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  911-14. 


t  Ibid.  p.  928. 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


203 


in  any  of  these  data,  as  they  have  not  been 
derived  from  sufficiently  accurate  experi- 
ments, but  they  may  enable  you  to  make 
an  aj^proximation  in  apportioning  turnips 
to  sheep  and  cattle. 

871.  The  price  of  turnips  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  demand  of  the  lo- 
cality. In  the  neighbourhood  of  towns 
they  are  always  high-priced,  where  an  ordi- 
nary crop  of  white  will  fetch  £lO,  of  yel- 
low £12,  and  of  swedes  £l6  an  imperial 
acre.  They  are  chiefly  purchased  by  milk- 
men, or  cowfeeders,  as  they  are  usually 
called  in  Scotland.  In  the  country,  about 
£.5,  10s.  for  white,  and  £S  for  Swedish 
turnip,  to  be  carried  off  the  land,  are  given  ; 
and  for  white,  when  consumed  on  the 
ground  by  sheep,  £3  to  £5  an  acre  is 
considered  a  fair  price ;  and  on  the  premises 
by  cattle  £5,  and  from  £5  to  £7  per  acre 
for  swedes,  with  straw.  A  fairer  plan  for 
both  the  raiser  and  consumer  of  turnips  is 
to  let  them  by  week  at  so  much  a  head  of 
stock.  At  the  usual  price  of  Sd.  per  head 
per  week  for  young  sheep,  for  the  ordinary 
period  of  26  weeks,  makes  a  cost  for  keep 
of  6s.  6d. ;  and  if  it  take  16  sheep  to  con- 
sume an  acre,  the  turnips  will  realise  about 
£5,  5s.  per  acre.  For  old  sheep,  double 
or  6d.  per  head  per  week  is  given,  at  a 
cost  of  13s.,  which,  for  8  sheep,  will 
realise  the  same  sum  per  acre.  For 
cattle  5s.  per  head  per  week  is  given, 
"with  straw ;  and  if  an  ox  take  26  weeks 
to  eat  an  acre,  the  turnips  and  straw  will 
realise  £G,  10s,  In  years  of  plenty,  2d., 
and  of  scarcity  4d.  per  head  is  given  for 
young  sheep,  and  for  older  stock  double 
those  prices. 

872.  There  are  two  hybrids  of  turnips 
■worth  mentioning,  as  they  were  pro- 
duced by  art — the  Dale  hybrid,  by  Mr 
Dale,  Liberton,  near  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Lawtown  hybrid,  by  Mr  Wright  of  Law- 
town,  near  Coupar-Angus.  It  is  probable 
that  most  of  the  varieties  in  use  are 
natural  hybrids.  Dale's  hybrid  is  a  cross 
betwixt  the  green-topped  swede  and  the 
globe ;  but  whether  the  white  or  green- 
topped  globe  I  do  not  know.  It  possesses 
more  of  the  ap])earance  and  properties  of 
the  yellow  turnip  than  of  either  of  its  pro- 
genitors ;  and  has  the  advantage  of  arriv- 


ing'sooner  at  maturity,  and  may  therefore 
be  sown  later  than  the  ordinary  yellow 
turnip. 

873.  The  Lawtown  hybrid  is  a  cross 
between  the  green-topped  swede  and  the 
green-topped  globe,  the  result  of  which  is  a 
heart-shaped,  white-fleshed,  green-topped 
turnip,  considerably  heavier  and  hardier 
than  the  globe,  wnth  its  leaves  set  on  like 
those  of  the  swede.  The  obvious  results 
of  these  two  crosses  are — a  yellow  turnip, 
Dale's,  which  arrives  sooner  at  maturity 
than  the  older  varieties;  and  a  white  globe, 
the  Lawtown,  which  is  more  hardy  than 
any  other  variety  of  white. 

874.  The  crop  afibrded  by  these  hybrids, 
in  an  experiment  made  in  1835,  by  Mr 
John  Gow,  Fettercairn,  Kincardineshire, 
was,  by  the  Dale,  28  inches  in  girth,  23 
tons,  and  by  the  Lawton,  32  inches  in 
girth,  27  tons  the  imperial  acre.* 

875.  Although  storing  is  the  proper 
method  of  securing  turnips  for  use  during 
a  storm  of  rain  or  snow,  when  the  turnip- 
field  should  not  be  entered  by  a  cart,  yet, 
as  a  storm  may  overtake  you,  you  should 
be  provided  with  food  for  the  cattle.  Rain, 
snow,  and  frost,  exhibit  prognostics  of  their 
approach  ;  and  when  any  of  them  indicates 
a  determined  result,  send  all  the  field- 
workers  and  ploughmen  to  the  turnip-field, 
and  pull  the  turnips  in  the  manner  described 
above,  fig.  32,  removing  only  the  tails, 
and  throw  the  turnips  with  their  tops  into 
heaps  of  from  3  to  6  cart-loads  each,  ac- 
cording to  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  taking 
care  to  finish  each  heap,  by  placing  the 
tops  of  the  uppermost  turnips  all  around 
the  outside,  to  protect  the  bulbs  from  the 
frost,  should  it  come  suddenly  unaccom- 
panied with  snow.  To  such  heaps  rain  or 
snow  will  do  no  harm,  and  they  serve  to 
point  out  where  they  are,  should  snow 
cover  the  ground  thickly.  As  the  turnips 
gathered  in  frost  or  snow  should  be  imme- 
diately consumed  and  not  stored,  they 
may  be  thrown  from  the  heaps  into  the 
cart  with  a  fork  or  graip,  and  the  tops 
removed  at  the  steading,  where  thej^rocess 
may  be  done  in  the  severest  weather,  when 
women  could  not  stand  out  in  the  field  to 
do  it. 


Lawson 


son's  Agriculturist'' s  Manual,  pp.  241,  245,  and  257. 


204 


PRACTICE —WINTER, 


876.  I  give  a  in  fig.  39  to  show  you 
Fig.  39. 


AN  ILL-SHAPKD  TURNIP.  THE  TANKARD  TCRMP. 

what  I  conceive  to  be  an  ill-formed  tur- 
nip, as  also  one,  b,  which  stands  so  much 
out  of  the  ground  represented  by  the 
dotted  line  as  to  be  liable  to  injury  from 
frost.  The  turnip  a  is  ill-formed,  inasmuch 
as  the  U2)per  part  of  it  around  the  top 
is  hollow,  where  rain,  snow,  or  rime 
may  lodge,  and  find  their  way  into  the 
heart,  and  corrupt  it,  as  is  actually  found 
to  take  place.  All  white  turnips,  when 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  after  they 
have  attained  maturity,  become  soft  and 
spongy,  of  inferior  quality  in  the  heart, 
and  susceptible  of  rapid  putrefaction, 
which  frequently  overtakes  them  in  sudden 
changes  from  frost  to  thaw,  and  reduces 
them  to  a  saponaceous  pulp.  This  fact 
affords  a  good  motive  to  store  white  tur- 
nips after  they  come  to  maturity,  which 
state  is  indicated  by  the  leaves  losing  their 
green  colour  and  becoming  flaccid.  There 
are  some  sorts  of  white  turnips  always 
spongy  in  the  heart,  and  among  these  I 
would  class  the  tankard-shaped,  repre- 
sented by  b,  fig.  3.9  ;  as  also  a  flat-shaped 
red- topped  white,  and  a  small  flat  white 
turnip,  both  cultivated  by  small  farmers, 
because,  being  small,  they  require  little 
manure  to  bring  them  to  maturity,  and 
this  class  of  tenants  spread  the  manure 
on  the  land  as  thin  as  jiossible  to  make 
it  go  the  farther,  I  need  scarcely  tell 
you  that  economy  is  only  to  be  found 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  best  varieties  of 
turnip, 

877.  I  think  it  useful  to  give  you  a 
tabular  view  of  the  number  of  turnips 
there  should  be  on  an  imperial  acre,  at 
given  distances  between  the  drills,  and 
between  the  plants  in  the  drills,  and  of  the 


weight  of  the  crop  at  specified  weights  of 
each  turnip,  that  you  may  compare  actual 
receipts  with  defined  data,  and  endeavour 
to  ascertain  whether  diflfercuces  in  the  crop 
arise  from  deficiency  of  weight  in  the 
turnip  itself,  or  in  the  plants  being  too  much 
thinned  out.  The  distance  between  the 
drills  is  the  usual  27  inches,  the  distance 
between  tlie  plants  is  what  is  allowed  to 
the  different  sorts  of  turnips.  As  the 
imperial  acre  contains  6,272,640  square 
inches,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  what  the  crop 
should  be  at  wider  and  narrower  intervals 
between  the  drills. 


oS 

li 

^ 

ii 

»  2 

1  =■ 

"5  - 

-1 

n 

< 

I       Iff 

Inches 

iDche*. 

Square  inches. 

rb.  |Ton«.Cwt. 

(I 

11    lOi 

2 

23     1 

3 

34  llA 

27 

9 

between  the 

243 

25,813 

4 
5 

46    2 
57  r2A 

pUnt*  of  white 

6 

69    3 

tuniipt. 

7 
^8 

(\ 
2 
3 

80  13A 
92    4 

10    7 
20  14 
31     1 

27 

10 

between  the 

270 

23,232 

■t 

41     8 
51  15 

;)lant9  of  yellow 

6 

62    2 

turnipt. 

7 

u 

fl 

2 
3 

72    9 
82  16 

9    8 
18  172 
28     5, 

27 

11 

297 

21,120 

4 

5 

6 

7 

18 

ri 

2 
3 

37  14^ 
47     2 

56  in 

65  19' 
75.8^i 

8  121 
17 
25  ]8i 

27 

12 

between  the 

324 

19,360 

4 

5 

34  11 
43    3j 

plant*  of 

6 

51   Ifi.i 
flO     9} 

■wed**. 

7 

u 

69    2 

878.  On  comparing  a  common  crop  of 
20  tons  of  swedes  with  these  data,  and 
keeping  in  view  the  distance  of  12  inches 
between  the  plants,  the  inevitable  conclu- 
sion is,  that  the  average  weight  of  turnips 
must  be  less  than  3  lb.,  or  the  distance 
between  them  greater  than  1 2  inches.    In 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


205 


the  one  case  your  skill  in  raising  a  crop 
is  almost  rendered  nugatory,  and  in  the 
other  yuur  negligence  in  wasting  s^aee  in 
the  thinning  out  appears  conspicuous.  An 
amendment  in  both  particulars  is  therefore 
requisite,  and  fortunately  attainable  ;  for, 
aa  a  slight  difference  in  either  makes  a 
great  difference  in  the  weight  of  a  crop, 
your  endeavour  should  be  both  to  make 
the  turnip  heavy,  and  the  desired  distance 
between  them  invariable.  For  example, 
5  lb.  turnips,  at  9  inches  asunder,  give  a 
crop  of  57  tons  12^  cwt. ;  whereas  the 
same  weight  of  turnip  at  1 1  inches  apart, 
gives  only  a  little  more  than  47  tons. 
Now,  how  easy  is  it  for  careless  people  to 
thin  out  the  plants  to  11  instead  of  9 
inches,  and  yet,  by  so  doing,  no  less  than 
IO5  tons  of  turnips  are  sacrificed.  Again, 
a  difference  of  only  1  lb.  on  the  turnip — 
from  5  lb.  to  4  lb. — at  9  inches  asunder, 
makes  a  difference  of  11^  tons  per  acre. 
So  that  a  difference  of  only  1  lb.  in  each 
turnip,  and  2  inches  in  the  distance  between 
them,  makes  the  united  sacrifice  of  21  tons 
per  acre  !  Who  will  deny,  after  this,  that 
minutiae  require  the  most  careful  attention 
in  farming  ? 

879.  One  occasionally  sees  in  the 
newspapers  statements  of  great  crops  of 
turnips ;  but  when  all  particulars  are  not 
known,  it  is  tpiite  possible  for  great  errors 
to  be  committed  in  making  returns  from 
any  other  mode  of  ascertaining  the  amount 
of  a  crop  of  turnips  than  by  topping  and 
tailing  a  whole  field,  and  weighing  every 
cart-load  separately.  For  example.  Sup- 
pose 1  yard  is  measured  from  a  turnip 
along  a  drill,  one  yard  will  embrace  5 
turnips  of  white  and  4  of  swedes  :  and, 
if  the  measurement  is  begun  between  two 
turnips,  one  yard  will  only  embrace  4 
turnips  of  white  and  3  of  Swedes,  making, 
in  the  white  a  difference  of  1  turnip  in 
every  5,  and  in  the  swedes  1  in  every  4 ; 
and  if  the  weight  of  an  acre  is  calculated 
on  such  data,  the  crop,  in  the  case  of  the 
white,  will  be  i,  and  in  that  of  the  swedes 
\  beyond  the  truth.  Again,  if  the  yard 
be  placed  across  two  drills,  their  produce 
will  be  included  within  the  yard,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  drills  being  only  27 
inches ;  but  if  the  yard  be  placed  across 
one  drill  only,  then  its  produce  alone  will 
be  included,  as  the  yard  will  not  reach  to 
the  drill  on  either  side,  and  if  the  produce 


of  sthe  whole  field  is  calculated  on  such 
data,  the  result,  in  the  latter  mode  of 
measurement,  will  just  give  half  the 
amount  of  the  other.  These  ways  of 
weighing  a  crop,  when  thus  plainly  stated, 
appear  ridiculous  ;  but  they  are  the  causes 
of  error  into  which  country  people,  who 
are  not  aware  of  the  effects  of  the  powers 
of  numbers  when  squared,  are  very  liable 
to  fall.  The  part,  too,  of  the  field  measured, 
may  give  a  very  different  result  from  the 
whole,  or  another  part,  for  even  on  tur- 
nip-soil, how  different  are  the  size  and 
number  of  turnips  on  a  rising  knoll  and 
a  hollow  !  The  difference  is  not  so  ob- 
vious on  looking  upon  the  tops  alone,  as 
after  the  sheep  have  eateu  off  the  leaves, 
and  exposed  the  bulbs.  The  plan,  also,  of 
filling  one  cart-load  or  so  and  weighing  it, 
and  filling  the  other  cart-loads  to  a  similar 
extent,  without  weighing  them,  is  a  falla- 
cious one,  when  the  fact  is  known,  a3 
shown  above,  of  turnips  grown  on  tho 
same  field  differing  much  in  weight,  and 
therefore  a  few  more  or  less  in  a  small 
cart-load,  will  make  a  considerable  diffe- 
rence in  the  amount  over  a  whole  field.  I 
question  much  whether  any  person  ever 
weighed  every  cart-load  of  turnips  as 
they  were  brought  from  a  field,  or  eveu 
measured  many  places  of  the  same 
field,  to  ascertain  the  number  and  weight 
of  turnips  in  them  ;  and  unless  some  plan 
approaching  to  either  be  adopted,  the  re- 
sults obtained  will  never  prove  satisfac- 
tory. 

880.  When  tlie  trouble  of  weigliing 
every  care-load  is  wished  to  be  avoided, 
the  smallest  and  the  largest  and  the 
middle-sized  turnips  should  be  pulled, 
topped,  and  tailed,  and  chosen  from  every 
part  of  the  field  where  a  difference  of  size 
and  number  is  found  to  occur — such  as 
in  hollows,  on  knolls,  on  sloping  and  level 
ground,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  field — 
and  each  turnip  weighed,  and  the  tops 
weighed  too,  separately  if  desired,  and 
then  the  average  weight  of  the  turnip  may 
be  relied  on.  A  convenient  machine  for 
such  a  purpose  is  one  of  Salter's  spring 
steel-yards,  with  a  tin  basin  suspended 
from  it  by  chains,  in  which  a  turnip  may 
be  placed  and  weighed  with  ease  and 
celerity.  Besides  doing  this,  the  distance 
from  centre  to  centre  of  the  tops  of  the 
turnips  before  they  are  pulled  should  be 


206 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


measured,  and  noted  down,  and  the  aver- 
a;re  distance  from  turnip  to  turnip  would 
then  be  ascertained.  Having  thus  obtained 
correct  data  of  the  weight  and  number  of 
turnips  within  the  given  limits  of  a  field, 
the  amount  of  the  crop  would  be  confi- 
dently ascertained.  The  average  girth  of 
turnips,  though  ascertained,  is  not  an  essen- 
tial element  in  determining  the  weight  of 
the  crop.  But  the  truest  method  is  to 
weigh  all  the  turnips  in  the  field. 

881.  The  history  of  the  turnip,  like  that  of 
other  cultivated  plants,  is  obscure.  According  to 
the  name  given  to  the  swede  in  this  country,  it 
is  a  native  of  Sweden  ;  the  Italian  name  JVa- 
roni  /ie  Loponia  intimates  an  origin  in  Lapland, 
and  the  French  names  Chou  de  Lapone,  Chou 
d<  Suedf,  indicate  an  uncertain  origin.  Sir 
John  Sinclair  says,  "  I  am  informed  that  the 
swedes  were  first  introduced  into  Scotland  anno 
1781-2,  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr  Knox,  a 
native  of  East  Lothian,  who  had  settled  at 
Gottenburg,  whence  he  sent  some  of  the  seeds 
to  Dr  Hamilton."*  There  is  no  doubt  the  plant 
was  first  introduced  into  Scotland  from  Sweden, 
but  1  believe  their  introduction  was  prior  to  the 
date  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Sinclair.  The  late 
Mr  Airth,  Mains  of  Dunn,  Forfarshire,  informed 
me  that  his  father  was  the  first  farmer  who  cul- 
tivated swedes  in  Scotland,  from  seeds  sent  him 
by  his  eldest  son,  settled  in  Gottenburg,  when 
my  informant,  the  youngest  son  of  a  large  family, 
was  a  boy  of  about  10  years  of  age.  Whatever 
may  be  the  date  of  its  introduction,  Mr  Airth 
cultivated  them  in  1777;  and  the  date  is  cor- 
roborated by  the  silence  preserved  by  Mr  Wight 
regarding  its  culture  by  Mr  Airth's  father  when 
he  undertook  the  survey  of  the  state  of  hus- 
bandry in  Scotland,  in  1773,  at  the  request  of 
the  Commissioners  of  the  Annexed  Estates,  and 
he  would  not  have  failed  to  report  so  remarkable 
a  circumstance  as  the  culture  of  so  useful  a  plant, 
60  that  it  was  unknown  prior  to  1773.  Mr  Airth 
sowed  the  first  portion  of  seed  he  received  in 
beds  in  the  garden,  and  transplanted  the  plants 
in  rows  in  the  field,  and  succeeded  in  raising 
good  crops  for  some  years,  before  sowing  the 
seed  directly  in  the  fields. 

882.  I  have  not  been  able  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  yellow  turnip  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  it 
originated,  as  supposed  by  Professor  Low,  in  a 
cross  between  a  white  and  the  swede  rt"  and,  as 
its  name  implies,  the  cross  may  have  been  efiected 
in  Aberdeenshire.  Its  origin  must,  therefore, 
have  been  subsequent  to  the  introduction  of  the 
swede. 

883.  All  the  white  varieties  of  field  turnips 


obtained  at  first  the  name  of  the  "  Norfolk 
whites,"  from  the  circumstance  of  their  having 
been  first  cultivated  in  that  county,  to  any  ex- 
tent, by  Lord  Townshend,  who,  on  coming  home 
from  being  ambassador  to  the  States-general,  in 
1730,  paid  great  attention  to  their  culture,  and 
for  which  good  service  he  obtained  the  appella- 
tion of  ''  Turnip  Townshend." 

884.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  no  turnips 
should  have  been  raised  in  this  country  in  the 
fields  until  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  when  it 
was  lauded  as  a  field-root  as  long  ago  as  Colu- 
mella, and  in  his  time  even  the  Gauls  fed  their 
cattle  on  them  in  winter.  The  Romans  were 
so  well  acquainted  with  turnips,  that  Pliny  men- 
tions having  raised  them  40  lb.  weight.^  Tur- 
nips were  cultivated  in  the  gardens  in  England 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.§ 

885.  Dale's  hybrid  originated  in  a  few  ounces 
of  a  hybridal  seed  being  sent,  in  1822  or  1823, 
by  the  late  Mr  Sherriff  of  Bastleridpe,  Berwick- 
shire, to  Mr  Robert  Dale,  Liberton  West  Mains, 
near  Edinburgh,  who,  by  repeated  selection  and 
impregnation,  brought  it  to  what  it  is,  a  good 
yellow  turnip,  and  now  pretty  extensively  cul- 
tivated. 

886.  The  Lawton  hybrid  originated  about  12 
years  ago  by  Captain  Wright  of  Lawtown,  in 
Forfarshire,  crossing  the  green-topped  white 
with  the  green-topped  swede,  to  harden  the 
white,  which  object  proved  successful;  but  its 
culture  has  not  been  pushed.  By  sowing  the 
swede  beside  the  white  Lawtown,  the  latter  has 
been  converted  into  a  yellow  tnmip,  possessing 
the  properties  of  the  swede  ;  and  were  the  cross 
still  farther  prosecuted,  I  have  no  doubt  that  a 
distinct  variety  of  the  swede  would  be  ob- 
tained. 

887.  A  variety  of  swedes  was  brought  into 
notice,  aboiit  8  years  ago,  by  Mr  Laing,  Dnddo, 
Northumberland,  who  found  it  amongst  his  ordi- 
nary swedes,  and  observed  it  by  its  remarkably 
elegant  form  of  leaf,  which  is  much  notched  near 
its  base.  It  is  now  in  use,  and  possesses  the 
valuable  property  of  resisting  the  influence  of 
vegetation  for  at  least  a  fortnight  longer  than 
the  common  varieties,  as  I  had  a  favourable 
opportunity  of  observing  in  Berwickshire  late  in 
spring  1841,  and  on  this  account  may  be  stored 
and  kept  in  a  fresh  state  to  a  very  late  period  o . 
the  season. 

888.  Like  all  plants,  the  tumip,when  consumed 
by  fire,  leaves  an  ash  containing  a  variety  of  in- 
organic substances.  The  composition  of  the 
ash  of  the  bulb  is  thus  afibrded  by  Boussingault 
and  Muspratt  : — 


•  Sinclair's  Account  of  the  Jlutbandry  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  278,  note. 
+  Low's  Elftnrntf  of  Prartiral  Aijr'icvlturf,  p.  2?0. 

*  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancient*, \o\.  ii.  p.  250-4. 

§  Phillips'  Hiitory  of  Caltirated  Vegetables,  vol.  ii.  p.  3C5. 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS. 


207 


Boussingault. 

Muspratt. 

Potash 

41-9f> 

37-69 

Soda 

5-09 

16-6.2 

Lime 

13-6-0 

11-91 

Magnesia 

5-34 

4-02 

Oxide  of  iron,  alumina, 

&c.    1-28 

0-50 

Phosphoric  acid    . 

7-58 

5-80 

Sulphuric  acid 

13-60 

1-2-70 

Chlorine 

3-60 

3-79 

Silica 

7-95 

6-15 

100-00 

99-18 

Per-centage  of   ash  in 

the  dry  state 

7-60 

5-66 

889.  The  proportion  of  ash  left  by  the  tops  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  bulbs,  the  dry 
tops  leaving  from  14  to  20  per  cent.  Of  these 
proportions  a  much  larger  amount  consists  of 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  tops  than  in  the  bulbs^ 
and  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  ash  consists 
of  earthy  phosphates,  as  thus  shown  in  an  ana- 
lysis by  Johnston  : — 

Potash,  soda,  and  carbonic  acid 

Sulphuric  acid    .... 

Chloride  of  sodium    . 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia 

Carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia 

Silica 


25-95 
12-62 
14-02 
36-40 
10-01 
1-00 

100-00* 


890.  In  the  beginning  of  1848,  it  was  proposed 
by  some  farmer  in  the  county  of  Wigtown,  to 
convert  the  Swedish  turnip  into  a  sort  of  meal, 
not  so  much  for  the  use  of  man  as  food  for  stock. 
If  it  were  possible  to  convert  the  bulb  into  a 
meal  that  could  be  preserved  over  years,  the 
superfluity  of  one  year  might  assist  the  deficiency 
of  another  ;  which  would  constitute  desirable 
economy,  as  the  turnip  crop  varies  in  weight  to 
the  extent  of  50  per  cent,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  season. 

891.  The  turnips  would  be  converted  into 
meal  by  being  washed,  and  their  juice  then 
squeezed  out  by  means  of  rollers  ;  and  on  the 
squeezed  fibre  being  dried  in  a  kiln,  would  be 
easily  ground  by  millstones  into  meal.  The 
liquid  portion  could  be  evaporated,  and  its  solid 
matter  mixed  with  the  meal. 

892.  A  portion  of  turnip  meal,  thus  prepared, 
was  sent  by  Mr  James  Caird,  Baldoon,  to  Pro- 
fessor Johnston  for  analysis,  and  was  found  to 
contain  22"82  per  cent  of  water,  and  when 
burned,  aflforded  5-53  per  cent  of  ash.  When 
burned  for  nitrogen,  it  gave  13-68  per  cent  of 
protein  compounds  in  the  undried,  or  17'72  per 
cent  in  the  dried  state.  Its  composition  was 
this  : — 


Natural  state. 

Dried  at  212" 

Protein  compounds 

13-68 

17-72 

Gum 

4-14 

5-36 

Sugar 

48-72 

59.23 

Oil      .        .        . 

Ml 

1-44 

Fibre  and  pectin 

8-10 

10-49 

Water         .        . 

22.82 

Ash     . 

4-27 

5-53 

It  contains  too  much  water  to  keep  a  length  of 
lime,  a  very  large  proportion  of  sugar,  and  the 
protein  compounds  are  equally  great.  It  is,  there- 
fore, quite  suited  for  feeding  stock.f 

893.  The  cabbage  is  considered  good  food  for 
cows  giving  milk.  The  varieties  of  cabbage  most 
suited  for  field  culture  are  the  Drum-head  {Bras- 
sica  oleracea,  capitata  depressa,)  and  the  great 
round  Scotch  or  white  Strasburg,  from  which 
the  German  sour-krout  is  chiefly  made  {Brassica 
oleracea,  capitata  spherica  alba  of  De  Candolle.) 
Of  these  two  the  drum-head  is  the  most  produc- 
tive, and  the  Scotch  stands  the  winter  best. 
The  taste  of  milk  is  less  tainted  by  the  cabbage 
than  turnips,  and  I  believe  more  milk  may  be 
derived  from  it  ;  though  a  decayed  leaf  or  two 
in  a  head  of  cabbage  will  impart  both  to  butter 
and  milk  a  strong  disagreeable  taste.  "  This," 
says  Sinclair,  "  I  have  long  had  an  opportunity 
of  proving."  If  planted  in  such  drills  as  are 
commonly  made  for  turnips,  cabbages  require 
good  soil,  and  placed  18  inches  asunder  at  least, 
which  will  give  12,907  plants  to  the  acre,  and, 
at  24  inches  9,680  plants ;  and  if  they  at  all  attain 
to  the  weight  that  cabbages  sometimes  do,  that 
is  from  18  lb.  to  23  lb.  each,  the  lowest  number, 
18,  will  give  a  crop  of  78  tons  ;  but  the  usual 
crop  is  from  35  to  40  tons  per  acre.  Their  uses 
are  to  feed  milk  cows,  to  fatten  oxen,  and  sheep 
are  very  fond  of  them.  It  is  questionable  how 
far  their  culture  should  be  preferred  to  turnips, 
excepting  on  soil  too  strong  for  these,  and  as 
they  require  a  large  quantity  of  manure,  they  are 
not  an  economical  crop  in  Scotland.  I  have  no 
personal  experience  of  the  cabbage  as  a  food  for 
milk  cows  or  feeding  cattle,  but  know  them  to 
be  much  relished  by  ewes  at  the  season  of  lamb- 
ing. 

894.  The  fresh  leaves  of  the  cabbage  contain 
from  90  to  92  per  cent  of  water.  The  dry  leaf, 
when  burned,  leaves  from  18  to  26  per  cent  of 
ash ;  so  that  a  crop  of  20  tons  of  cabbage,  carry 
off  from  the  soil  more  than  one-half  more  of 
mineral  matter  than  20  tons  of  turnips— the 
quantity  being  900  lb.  These  900  lb.  consist 
of— 


Potash 
Soda 
Lime 

Magnesia     . 
Oxide  of  iron 
Phosphoric  acid 
Sulphuric  acid 
Chlorine 
Silica 


1051b. 

184,, 

189,, 

54  „ 

5,. 

112,, 

192,, 

52  „ 

7„ 

900 1 


10-2-84 


99-77 


895.  Since  the  failure  of  the  potato,  a  number 
of  varieties  of  cabbage  have  been  recommended  to 
be  cultivated  in  the  fields,  among  which  is  the 
turnip-stemmed  cabbage  or  khol-rabi  {Brassica 
oleracea,  caulo-rapa,  alba  of  De  Candolle.)  The 
varieties  of  this  plant  are  numerous,  but  the  best 
suited  for  field-culture  are  the  large  red  and 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  384-5. 

+  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  March,  1848,  p.  238. 

J  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  389. 


208 


rRACTICE— WINTER. 


green  sorts.  It  is  a  native  of  Germanv,  wiiere 
it-iamuth  iuiUivateii,as  also  in  tlie  Low  Countries 
and  the  north  of  Franco,  vvlicre  it  is  cliiefiy  given 
to  milk  cow.-,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted,  on 
account  of  its  possessing  little  of  that  acridity 
found  in  the  turnip  to  affect  butter  and  milk. 
It  is  taken  up  before  the  frost  sets  in,  and  stored, 
like  potatoes  or  turnips,  for  winter  use.  Its 
habits  and  produce  are  similar  to  the  Swedish 
turnip,  resembling  it  in  the  swollen  bulb  at  the 
top  of  the  stem  wiien  divested  of  leaves.  Hares 
are  so  fond  of  it,  that,  on  farms  where  they 
abound,  its  culture  is  found  to  be  impracticable. 
Sir  Thomas  Tyrwhitt  first  introduced  it  into 
England  from  Germany.*  It  was  successfully 
raised  on  tlie  poor  soil  of  Bagshot  Heath,  by  Mr 
Hewitt  Davis,  in  tlie  dry  summer  of  1847,  with- 
out purchased  manure.  He  gave  it  to  cows  in 
milk,  and  ewes  nursing  early  lamb,  and  both 
kinds  of  stock  throve  well  upon  it.  Its  solid 
matter  varies  from  1 2  to  2"2  per  cent,  and  con- 
tains nearly  3  per  cent  of  nutritive  matter, 

896.  Although  the  parsnip  {Pastinacex  sativa 
edulis  of  De  Gaudolle)  is  too  tender  a  root  for 
general  cultivation  in  this  country,  it  deserves 
notice  on  account  of  its  fattening  properties,  as 
well  as  the  good  milk  it  yields.  According  to 
Colonel  Le  Couteurthe  weight  of  a  good  crop  varies 
from  13  to  27  tons  per  acre  ;  the  latter  quantity 
bein:,'  sufficient  to  support  12  Jersey  cuws  for  six 
raunths,  witli  a  mixture  of  mangold  wurtzel 
or  turnips.  The  parsnip  yields  a  heavier  crop 
in  Jersey  than  the  Altriiigliam  carrot  in  the  ratio 
of  840  :  261  ;  but  the  white  Belgian  carrot  was 
lieavier  than  the  parsnip  in  the  ratio  of  524  : 
318.  As  parsnips  contain  G  per  cent  more  of 
mucilage  than  carrots,  the  Colonel  conceives  that 
the  difference  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
superior  fattening  as  well  as  butyraceous  quality 
of  the  parsnip. t  "  In  the  fattening  of  cattle," 
says  Don,  "  the  parsnip  is  found  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  carrot,  performing  the  business 
with  as  much  expedition,  and  affording  meat  of 
exquisite  flavour,  and  a  highly  juicy  quality. 
The  animals  eat  it  with  much  greediness.  It  is 
Reckoned  that  30  perches,  where  the  crop  is  good, 
will  be  sufficient  to  fatten  an  ox  3  or  4  years  old, 
when  perfectly  lean,  in  the  course  of  3  months. 
They  are  given  in  the  proportion  of  about  30  lb. 
weight  morning,  noon,  and  night,  the  large  ones 
being  split  in  3  or  4  pieces,  and  a  little  hay 
supplied  in  the  intervals  of  those  periods.  And 
when  given  to  milk  cows  with  a  little  hay,  in 
the  winter  season,  the  butter  is  found  to  be  of  as 
fine  a  colour  and  excellent  a  flavour,  as  when 
feeding  in  the  best  pastures.  Indeed,  the  result 
of  ex|)eriment  has  shown,  that  not  only  in  neat 
cattle,  but  in  the  fattening  of  hogs  and  poultry, 
the  animals  become  fat  much  sooner,  and  are 
more  healthy,  than  when  fjd  with  any  other  root 
or  vegetable  ;  and  that,  besides,  the  meat  is  more 


sweet  and  delicious.  Tlie  parsnip-leaves  being 
more  bulky  than  those  of  carrots,  may  be  mown 
off  before  taking  up  the  roots,  and  given  to  cows, 
oxen,  or  horses,  by  whom  they  will  be  greedily 
eateu.'":J: 

897.  The  carrot  is  raised  in  the  field  in  several 
parts  of  the  country,  especially  since  the  failure 
of  the  potato  ;  and  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of 
the  carrot,  the  white  Belgian  bids  fair  to  supersede 
all  Qthers  in  the  field.  In  a  comparative  experiment 
made  by  Mr  Annesley,  Fern  Hill,  Tockington, 
in  1842,  between  the  white  Belgian  and  Altring- 
ham  carrots,  he  obtained  from  25  tons  to  29  tons 
8  cwt.  of  the  former,  to  from  19  tons  to  21  tons 
8  cwt.  of  the  latter,  with  the  same  kinds  and  quan- 
tities of  manure  ;  while  in  the  weight  of  the  tops 
the  difference  was  not  nearly  so  great,  the  top  of 
the  Altringhani  being  from  7  tons  10  cwt.  to  8 
tons  4  cwt.  and  of  the  Belgian  from  8  tons  1 1 
cwt.  to  9  tons  14  cwt  per  acre.  Both  these 
crops  had  an  excellent  chance  to  be  good,  the 
land  in  1840  having  been  in  potatoes,  and  in  1841 
in  beans.  The  seed  was  laid  in  on  the  9th  April 
at  the  rate  of  8  lb.  per  acre  ;  and  the  white 
carrots  were  pulled  on  the  4th  November,  the 
red  on  the  21st.  The  soil  for  both  was  a  clayey 
loam,  one  foot  ia  depth,  resting  on  a  stiff  clay.§ 

898.  The  nutritive  matter  contained  in  a  crop 
of  25  tons,  or  56,000  lb.  per  acre  of  carrots,  con- 
sist of  husk  or  woody  fibre  1680  lb.;  of  starch, 
sugar,  &c.  5600  lb.;  of  gluten,  &c.  840.;  of  oil 
or  fat,  200  lb.;  and  of  saline  matter,  800  lb.|| 

899.  Sir  Charles  Burrell  mentions  that,  in 
consequence  of  giving  his  horses  and  cattle  white 
carrots,  the  great  saving  in  the  use  of  hay  is 
remarkable  ;  having  formerly  50  loads  of  hay  in 
reserve  at  the  end  of  the  season,  he  has  now  400 
loads.  Less  hay  may  therefore  be  made  ia  future, 
or  more  sold.H 

900.  The  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  afforded 
by  a  crop  of  mangold  wurtzel  of  20  tons,  or 
45,000  lb.  per  acre,  consists  of  900  lb.  of  husk  or 
woody  fibre  ;  4950  lb.  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.;  900 
lb.  of  gluten,  &c.;  and  of  saline  matter  450  lb. 
No  oil  or  fat  has  yet  been  detected  in  an  appre- 
ciable quantity.** 


ON 


THE    FEEDING   OF    SHEEP    ON  TURNIPS 
IN  WINTER. 


001.  Eooni  having  been  prciJared  on 
the  turnip  land  for  the  sheep  to  be  fattened 
upon  turnips,  by  removing  the  half  of  the 
crop  in  the  manner  described  above,  fig.  31, 
and  having  selected  that  part  of  the  field 

*  Sinclair's //■|jr/«.s-  Grimiiifius  Wubuniensis,  p.  411;  and  L^Lvrson'a  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  187. 

t  Journal  uf  the  EiKjlish  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  1.  p.  422  ;  and  vol.  ii.  p.  41. 

J  Don's  (ieneral  Dictioiiari/  of  Botany  and  Gardening, \o\.\.  p.  229. 

§  Jiiurnnl  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  iv.  p.  270. 

11  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  928. 

H  Journal  of  the  Agricultund  Society  of  England,  vol.  v.  p.  281. 

**  Johnston's  Lectures  oh  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  928. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


209 


to  be  first  occupied,  which  will  afford  the 
sheep  shelter  in  case  of  need,  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  carry  the  articles  on 
carts  to  the  field  required  to  construct  a 
temporary  enclosure  to  confine  them  with- 
in a  given  space.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
shepherd  to  erect  these  temporary  enclo- 


sures, and  he  requires  but  little  assistance 
from  other  labourers. 

902.  There  are  two  ways  of  enclosing 
sheep  upon  turnips,  by  hurdles  made  of 
wood,  and  nets  made  of  twine.  Fig.  40 
represents  2  hurdles  set  as  they  should  be. 


Fig.  40, 


HURDLES  OR  FLAKES  SET  FOR  CONFINING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


nnd  the  mode  of  setting  them  is  this  :  The 
sliepherd  requires  the  assistance  of  another 
person  for  this  purpose.  The  hurdles  are 
set  down  in  the  line  of  the  intended  fence. 
The  first  hurdle  is  raised  by  its  upper  rail, 
and  the  ends  of  its  stakes  are  sunk  a  little 
into  the  ground  with  a  spade,  to  give  them 
a  firm  hold._  The  second  hurdle  is  let  into 
the  ground  In  tlie  same  manner,  both  being 
held  in  that  position  by  the  assistant. 
One  end  of  a  stay/ is  then  placed  between 
the  hurdles  near  the  tops  of  their  stakes, 
and  the  stay  and  hurdles  are  fastened 
together  by  the  peg  }i  passing  through 
holes  in  both.  Another  peg  i  is  passed 
through  a  lower  part  of  the  stakes.  The 
hurdles  are  then  inclined  away  from  the 
ground  fenced,  until  their  upper  rail  shall 
stand  3  feet  i)  inches  above  the  ground. 
A  short  stake  e  is  driven  into  the  ground 
by  the  wooden  mallet,  fig.  41,  at  a  point 

Fig.  41. 


THE  shepherd's  WOOD  MALLET. 

where  the  stay  /  gives  the  hurdles  the 
above  inclination,  and  a  peg  fastens  the 
stake  and  stay  together,  as  seen  at  g. 
After  the  first  two  hurdles  are  thus  set, 
the  operation  is  easier  for  the  next,  as 
one  hurdle  is  raised   after  another,   and 

VOL.  I. 


fastened  to  the  last,  until  the  entire  line 
is  completed. 

903.  Objections  may  be  urged  against 
the  use  of  hurdles,  such  as  the  inconve- 
nience of  carrying  them  from  one  part 
of  a  field  to  another  in  carts, — their  lia- 
bility to  be  broken  in  consequence, — the 
shepherd  being  unable  to  set  them  without 
assistance, — the  time  they  require  to  be  set, 
— being  easih' upset  by  a  high  wind  blowing 
from  behind  them  ;  and  the  constant  repair 
they  require  in  replacing  pegs,  stays,  and 
short  stakes.  When  carefully  laid  past  at 
the  end  of  the  season,  they  will  last  several 
years. 

904.  Nets,  made  of  twine  of  the  requisite 
strength,  form  a  superior  enclosure  for 
sheep ;  and,  to  constitute  tliem  into  a  fence, 
they  are  supported  by  stakes  driven  into 
the  ground. 

905.  The  stakes  are  best  formed  of  thin- 
nings of  ash-trees  which  have  been  planted 
thick  together,  and  grown  tall  and 
small,  3  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  9 
inches  long — allowing  9  inches  of  a  hold 
in  the  ground,  3  inches  between  the  ground 
and  the  bottom  of  the  net,  and  3  inches 
from  the  top  of  the  net  to  the  top  of  the 
stake;  or  they  may  be  made  of  larch 
weedings,  4  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet 
9  inches  long;  but  every  kind  of  wood 
they  are  made  of  should  be  seasoned  with 
the  bark  on  before  being  cut  into  stakes. 
They  are  pointed  at  one  end  with  the  axe, 
and  that  end  should  be  the  lowest  one 


tio 


TRACTICE— WINTER. 


Fiff.  4J 


THE  SHEPHERD  S    KNOT,  BV 

WHXH    A  NET  IS  FASTENED 

TO  A  STAKE. 


when  growing  as  a  tree,  as  the  bark  is  of  the  net  parallel  with  the  general  ear- 
then in  the  most  natural  position  for  re-  face  of  the  ground  throughout  ita  entire 
pelling  rain.  length. 

906.  A  net  is  set  in  this  manner  :  If  the 
grounJ  is  in  its  usual  soft  state,  the  stakes 
niavi«im]>lv  be  driven  into  tl)e ground  with 
the'  hardwood  mallet,   fig.  41,   in  the  line 
fixed  on  for  setting  tlie  net,  at  distances  of 
3  jiaces  asunder.     The  wood  of  the  apple- 
tree  makes  the  best  mallet,  as  not  being 
apt  to  split.      Should  the  soil  be  thin  and 
the  subsoil  moderately  hard,  a  hole  suffi- 
ciently large  for  a  stake  may  be  made  in 
the  subsoil  with  the  tramp-pick  used  in 
draiiiing  ;    but  should  it    be  so 
very  hard  and  a  larger  hole  re- 
quired than  can  be  easily  formed 
by  the  tramp-pick,  or  should  tbe 
ground  be  so  dry  and  hard  as  to 
require  the  use  of  any  instrument 
at  all,  the  most  efficient  one  for 
the  purpose    is  calletl  a  drirer, 
fig.    42,    formed    of  a   piece  of 
pointed  hard- wood,  strongly  shod 
with  iron,    with  its  upjier   end 
protected  by  a  strong  ferrule  of 
iron   to  prevent  its  splitting  by 
the  strokes  of  the  mallet.     The 
stakes  are  driven  that  their  tops        ''""^ 

II  1  .    r  1-1  DR1\  ER. 

may  not  be  less  than  4  leet  high, 

along  as  many  sides  of  the  enclosure  as  are 

required  at  the  place  to  form  a  complete 

fence. 

907.  The  net  is  set  in  this  manner: 
Being  in  a  bundle,  having  been  rolled  up, 
when  no  longer  required,  on  the  arms  and 
/astened  together  by  the  spare  ends  of  the 
top  and  bottom  ropes,  these  are  unloosened 
and  tied  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  a  stake 
driven  close  to  tbe  fence,  and  run  out 
loose  in  hand  towards  the  right  as  far  as 
it  will  extend  on  the  side  of  tlie  s^takes 
•next  the  turnips.  On  coming  to  the  second 
Btakefrom  the  fence,  with  your  face  to  the 
turnips,  the  bottom  rope  first  gets  a  turn 
to  the  left  round  the  stake,  then  the  top 
rope  a  similar  turn  round  the  same  stake, 
Boas  to  keep  the  meshes  of  tlie  net  straight. 
The  bottom  rope  is  then  fastened  with  the 
shepherd's  knot  to  this  stake,  3  inches  from 
the  ground,  and  the  top  rope  with  a  similar 
knot  near  the  top  of  the«take,  drawing  the 
Bet  even  along  and  upwards  ;  and  so  on, 
one  stake  after  another,  until  the  whole  net 
K-tet  up^  care  being  taken  to  liave  the  top 


908.  The  shepherd's  knot  is  made  in 
this  way  :  Let  a,  fig.  43,  be  the  continua- 
tion of  "the  rope  fastened  to  the  first  stake, 
then   press  the 

second      stake  Fig.  4."'.. 

with  the  left 
hand  towards  a 
or  the  fastened 
end,  standing 
at  the  opposite 
sideof  tbestake 
from  the  net, 
and  at  the  same 
time  tighten 
the  turn  of  the 
rope  round  the 
stake  with  the 

right  hand  by  taking  a  hold  of  the 
loose  end  of  tlie  rope  </,  and  putting  it 
between  a  and  the  stake  at  e,  pull  it  tight 
round  the  stake  till  it  comes  to  i,  where 
it,s  elastic  force  will  secure  it  tight  when 
the  stake  is  let  go.  The  bottom  rope 
is  fastened  first,  to  keep  the  net  at  the 
proper  distance  from  the  ground,  and  then 
the  top  rope  is  fastened  to  the  same  stake 
in  the  same  manner  at  the  proper  height; 
and  so  on  at  stake  after  stake.  A  net 
may  be  set  up  either  towards  the  right 
or  the  left  as  the  starting-point  may  be 
situate,  but  in  proceeding  in  either  direc- 
tion, the  top  and  bottom  ropes  should  be 
wound  round  the  stakes,  so  as  the  rope 
should  always  be  uppermost  towards  the 
direction  in  which  the  net  is  to  be  set  up. 
Thus,  in  fig.  43,  the  end  of  the  rope  d  is 
above  <7,  and  continues  uppermost  until 
it  reach  the  next  stake  to  the  left.  If 
both  the  cord  and  stake  are  dry,  the 
knot  may  slip  as  soon  as  made,  but  if 
the  part  of  the  stake  at  h  where  the 
knot  is  fastened  is  wetted  a  little,  it  will 
make  the  rope  keep  its  hold  until  tbe  cord 
has  acquired  the  set  of  the  knot.  It  is 
difficult  to  make  a  new  greasy  rope  retain 
its  hold  on  a  smooth  stake  even  with  the 
assistance  of  water,  but  a  little  earth 
rubbed  on  it  will  counteract  the  greasy 
effect. 

9i09.  Some  precautions  are  required  in 
setting  a  net  besides  this  of  the  ropes.  If 
tbe  net  is  new,  it  may  be  set  as  tight  as 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


211 


you  please,  because  all  the  cords  will 
stretch  considerably  ;  but  if  old,  the  least 
damp  or  rain  afterwards  will  tighten  them 
so  as  to  cause  them  to  break.  If  the  net 
is  at  all  damp,  it  should  be  set  tight,  be- 
cause rain  cannot  make  it  tighter,  and  if  not 
then  set  tight,  the  first  dry  weather  will 
loosen  all  the  knots,  and  cause  the  cords  to 
slip  down  the  stakes;  but  although  it  should 
not  be  slackened  to  that  degree,  it  will 
shake  about  with  the  wind,  and  bag  down 
and  touch  the  ground.  Such  an  occurrence 
will  cause  the  shepherd  to  reset  the  whole 
net,  which  is  a  just  punishment  to  him  for 
either  not  having  the  nets  dry,  or  not  set- 
ting them  with  judgment  when  damp.  In 
wet   weather   shepherds  take  the   oppor- 


tunity of  a  dry  moment  of  setting  a  dry 
net  in  anticipation  along  a  new  break  of 
turnips,  and  they  also  hang  up  wet  nets  to 
dry  on  the  stakes  drawn  along  another 
break.  Nets  should  never  be  wound  up 
in  a  wet  state,  even  for  a  short  time,  as 
they  will  soon  mould  and  rot. 

910.  On  connecting  the  setting  of  one 
net  to  another,  its  top  and  bottom  ropes 
are  fastened  to  those  of  the  last  net,  and 
the  ends  of  the  nets  themselves  are  brought 
together  by  lacing  the  meshes  of  both 
with  a  part  of  the  twine  left  there  for  the 
purpose,  as  at  a,  fig.  44.  Here  the  knots 
in  the  top  and  bottom  ropes  are  seen,  and 
the  twine  a  b  lacing  the  meshes  are  made 


THE  NET  SET  FOK  CONFINING  SHEEP  UN  TIRNIPS. 


to  appear  strong,  to  let  it  be  perceived. 
One  net  is  set  after  another,  until  the 
whole  area  is  enclosed.  "Where  there  is  a 
turn  in  the  line  of  nets  in  going  from  one 
side  of  the  enclosure  to  another,  as  seen  on 
the  right  side  of  fig.  51,  if  a  large  piece  of 
the  net  is  still  left  at  the  turn,  it  should  be 
brought  down  the  next  side  ;  and  tlie 
stake  at  the  corner  should  be  driven  very 
securely  down,  to  resist  the  strain  upon  it 
by  the  nets  pulling  from  diflJ'erent  direc- 
tions, and  such  a  strain  will  be  the  most 
powerful  in  damp  weather.  But  the  safer 
plan  is  to  take  a  fresh  net  at  the  turn,  and 
fasten  it  to  another  stake,  and  coil  up  the 
end  of  the  first  net  along  the  tops  of  the 
stakes.  AH  surplus  ends  of  nets,  when 
wet,  should  be  hung  upon  the  back  of  the 
stakes  to  dry.  Part  of  the  nets  will  cross 
ridges,  and  part  run  along  them.  Where 
they  cross  ridges  but  once  gathered-up,  or 
crown-and-furrow,  the  bottom  of  the  nets 
will  be  nearly  close  to  the  open  furrows, 
but  where  they  cross  a  deep  gaw-cut,  a 
stake   or  two   may  be   placed  upon   the 


bottom  rope  to  keep  it  down,  for  some 
sheep  acquire  a  habit  of  creeping  under  the 
net,  where  they  find  an  opening.  Where 
nets  cross  twice-gathered-up  ridges  a  stake 
should  be  driven  at  the  side  of  the  open 
furrows,  and  another  at  the  crown  of  the 
ridge,  and  the  bottom  rope  tightened 
parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

911.  In  setting  nets,  each  side  of  the 
enclosure  should  be  a  straight  line,  and  the 
surface  of  the  netsperpeudicular  :  and  the 
diflferent  sides  should  meet  at  right  angles, 
so  that  every  break  of  turnips  should  either 
be  a  rectangle  or  a  square ;  the  strain  will 
thus  be  equalised  over  the  entire  cords  and 
stakes  of  each  side,  and  no  undue  pressure 
exerted  on  any  one  stake.  A  shepherd 
who  pays  attention  to  these  particulars, 
will  preserve  the  nets  and  stakes  much 
longer  in  a  serviceable  state  than  one 
ignorant  or  careless  of  them. 

912.  The  shepherd  should  always  be 
provided  with  net-twiueto  mend  any  holes 


SIS 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


that  may  break  out  in  the  nets  ;  but  where 
nets  hajipon  to  be  s^et  across  liare-roads,  the 
hares  will  certainly  keep  their  runs  open  ; 
and  it  is  better  to  allow  their  h<»les  to  re- 
main open  than,  by  filling  them  up,  have 
them  cut  daily. 

913.  After  the  hurdles  or  nets  have 
been  set  round  the  first  break,  the  ground 
may  be  considered  ready  for  the  reception 
of  the  sheep  ;  and  the  ground  should  be 
made  ready  before  the  grass  fails,  that 
the  fattening  sheep  may  not  in  any  degree 
lose  the  condition  they  have  acquired  on 
the  grass  ;  for  you  should  ahvays  bear  in 
mind  that  it  is  much  easier  for  you,  and 
much  better  for  the  animals  themselves,  to 
improve  the  condition  of  lean  sheep,  than 
to  regain  lost  condition.  Much  rather 
leave  pastures  a  little  rough  than  risk  the 
loss  of  condition  of  the  sheep  for  want  of 
turnips.  The  rough  pasture  will  be  ser- 
viceable in  the  winter  to  the  ewes  in  lamb, 
and  to  aged  tups.  Sheep  therefore,  to  be 
fattened,  should  be  put  on  turnips  as  early 
as  will  maintain  the  condition  they  have 
acquired  on  the  grass. 

914.  A  break  of  turnips  is  that  part  of 
the  field  occupied  by  the  sheep. 

915.  As  the  tops  of  white  turnij)s  are 
luxuriant  at  the  commencement  of  the  sea- 
son, the  first  break  should  be  smaller 
than  the  succeeding  ones,  that  the  sheep 
may  not  have  too  many  tops  to  eat  at  first, 
on  a  change  of  food  from  grass  to  turnips, 
and  they  eat  them  greedily  on  account 
of  their  freshness  and  juiciness  ;  Let  the 
sheep  always  fill  themselves  with  turnips 
before  taking  them  from  one  break  to  an- 
other. The  second  break  may  be  a  little 
larger  than  the  first,  and  the  third  may  be 
of  the  proper  size  to  contain  a  week's  food 
for  the  number  of  sheep.  These  arrange- 
ments cause  the  shepherd  some  trouble  for 
two  or  three  weeks  in  the  beginning  of  the 
season  ;  but  they  are  trifling  compared 
with  the  advantage  derived  by  the  sheep. 
Rather  let  him  have  the  assistance  of  a 
field-worker  to  shift  the  nets  than  neglect 
them.  When  the  tops  wither  in  the 
course  of  the  season,  and  a  night  of  sharp 
frost  will  effect  this,  or  after  the  sheep 
have  become  accustomed  to  the  turnip,  all 
danger  is  over.  The  danger  to  be  ai)prc- 
hended  is  diarrhoea,  an  unnatural  state  for 


sheep,  and  which  soon  emaciates  tliem  and 
causes  them  to  sink  under  it,  antl  none 
recover  from  so  great  a  relaxation  of  the 
system  until  after  a  considerable  lapse  of 
time. 

91().  Another  precaution  is,  to  avoid 
putting  shee{>  on  turnips  for  the  first  time 
in  the  early  part  of  the  day  when  they  are 
hungry.  Danger  may  be  apprehended  from 
luxuriant  tops  at  all  times,  but  when  they 
are  wetted  by  rain,  snow,  or  half-melted 
rime,  they  are  sure  to  do  harm.  The 
afternoon,  when  the  sheep  are  full  of  grasa, 
should  be  chosen  to  put  them  first  od 
turnips,  and  although  they  will  imme- 
diately commence  eating  the  tops,  they  will 
not  have  time  to  hurt  themselves.  Should 
the  weather  prove  wet  at  first,  and  the 
ground  be  cloggy  or  soft,  rather  than  allow 
the  sheep  so  uncomfortable  a  lair,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  put  them  in  an  adjoin- 
ing grass  field  until  the  ground  becomes 
dry. 

917.  Sheep  for  turnips  are  selected  for 
the  purpose.  Ewes  being  at  this  season 
with  young,  are  never,  in  Scotland,  put  on 
turnips  in  the  early  part  of  winter,  but  con- 
tinue to  occuj)y  the  pastures,  part  of  which 
should  be  left  on  purpose  for  them  in  a 
rough  state,  to  support  them  as  long 
as  the  ground  is  free  of  snow.  The  reason 
whvewes  in  lamb  are  never  put  on  turnips 
is  tiieir  becoming  too  fat,  and  producing 
small  lambs,  and  being  attacked  by  in- 
flammation at  the  lambing  time. 

918.  Aged  tups  are  most  frequently  put 
on  turnij)s,  and  young  tups  always,  but 
never  in  the  same  part  of  the  field  as  the 
feeding  sheep,  having  a  snug  corner  to 
themselves,  or  the  turnips  led  for  them  to 
a  sheltered  part  of  a  grass  field. 

919.  Young  sheep,  lambs  of  the  same 
year,  hoggs,  are  always  put  on  turnips, 
whether  with  the  view  of  fattening  them 
at  once,  or  enlarging  the  size  of  their 
bone. 

920.  Every  year  a  certain  number  of 
old  ewes,  unfit  for  farther  breeding,  from 
want  of  teeth,  or  a  supply  of  milk,  arc 
drafted  out  of  the  flock  to  make  room  for 
the  same  number  of  3'oung  female?,  and 
arc  fattened  upon  turnips. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  OX  TURNIPS. 


213 


921.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  cas- 
trated male  lambs  of  last  year,  instead  of 
being  sold,  have  been  grazed  during  the 
summer,  and  are  fattened  the  second  sea- 
son on  turnips. 

922.  All  these  classes  of  sheep,  of  diffe- 
rent ages,  may  be  mixed  together  and  oc- 
cupy tbe  same  break  of  turnips.  It  is 
seldom  that  the  lambs  of  last  year  are 
kept  on  to  the  second  year,  but  the  draft 
ewes  are  always  fed  along  with  the  young 
sheep,  and  prove  useful  in  breaking  the 
turnips  and  eating  the  picked  shells.  A 
mixture  of  old  and  young  sheep  are  less 
useful  to  one  another  when  turnips  are  cut 
by  machines. 

923.  As  sheep  are  best  known  by  tech- 
nical names  given  them  according  to  age 
and  sex,  I  shall  enumerate  them  now,  and 
employ  them  in  future.  A  new-born 
sheep  is  called  a  lamb,  and  retains  the 
name  until  weaned  from  its  mother  and  is 
able  to  support  itself.  The  generic  name 
is  altered  according  to  the  sex  and  state 
of  the  animal ;  when  a  female  it  is  a  ezce- 
larnb,  when  a  male  a  tujhlamh,  and  this 
last  is  changed  to  hogg-lamb  when  it 
undergoes  emasculation. 

924.  After  a  Limb  has  been  weaned, 
until  the  first  fleece  is  shorn  from  its  back, 
it  receives  the  name  oihogg,  which  is  also 
modified  according  to  the  sex  and  state 
of  the  animal,  a  female  being  a  nce- 
hogg,  a  male  a  tup-hogg,  and  a  castrated 
male  a  icether-hogg.  After  the  first  fleece 
has  been  shorn,  another  change  is  made  in 
the  nomenclature  ;  the  ewe-hogg  then 
becomes  a  gitnmer,  the  tup-hogg  a  shear- 
ling-tup, and  the  wether-hogg  adinmonf, 
and  these  names  are  retained  until  the 
fleece  is  shorn  the  second  time. 

925.  After  the  second  shearing  another 
change  is  effected  in  all  the  names ;  the 
gimmer  is  then  a  ewe  if  she  is  in  lamb, 
but  if  not,  a  barren  gimmer,  and  if  never 
put  to  the  ram  a  eild  giinmer.  The  shear- 
ling tup  is  then  a  2-shear  tup,  and  the 
dinmont  is  a  tcet/ier,  but  more  correctly 
a  2-shear  icether. 

926.  A  ewe  three  times  shorn  is  a 
twinter  exce,  (^tico-tr inter  ewe  ;)  a  tuj)  is  a 
3-shear  tup;  and  a  wether  still  a  ?c^^/<^r. 


•or  more  correctly  a  3-shear  icether — which 
is  an  uncommon  name  among  Leicester 
sheep,  as  the  castrated  sheep  of  that  breed 
are  rarely  kept  to  that  age. 

927.  A  ewe  four  times  shorn  is  a  three 
winter  etce,  or  aged  ewe  ;  a  tup,  an  aged 
tup,  a  name  he  retains  ever  after,  what- 
ever his  age,  but  the}'  are  seldom  kept 
beyond  this  age ;  and  the  wether  is  now 
a  wether  properly  so  called. 

928.  A  tuj)  and  ram  are  synonymous 
terms. 

929.  A  ewe  that  has  borne  a  lamb, 
when  it  fails  to  be  with  lamb  again  is  a  tuj)- 
eill  or  barren  ewe.  After  a  ewe  has  ceased 
to  give  milk  she  is  a  geld-ewe. 

930.  A  ewe  when  removed  from  the 
breeding  flock  is  a  draft  ewe,  whatever 
her  age  may  be ;  gimmers  put  aside  as 
unfit  for  breeding  are  draft  gimmers,  and 
the  lambs,  dinmonts  or  wethers,  drafted 
out  of  the  fat  or  young  stock  are  sheddittgSy 
tails,  or  drafts. 

931.  In  Enirland  a  somewhat  different 
nonieuclature  prevails.  Sheep  bear  the 
name  of  la?7ib  until  8  months  old,  after 
which  they  are  ewe  and  icether  teggs  until 
once  clipped.  Gimmers  are  theaves  unlal 
theybear  the  first  lamb,  v,-hen  they  are  etces 
of  \-tecth,  next  year  ewes  of  6-teeth,  and 
the  year  after  full-mouthed  ewes.  Din- 
monts are  called  .^Z/^ar  //or/^;s  until  shorn  of 
the  fleece,  when  they  are  2-shear  tccthers, 
and  ever  after  are  wethers. 

932.  When  sheep  are  on  turnips  they 
are  always  supplied  with  dry  fddder,  hay 
or  straw;  hay  is  the  most  nutritious  though 
expensive  ;  but  sweet  fresh  oat-straw 
answers  the  purpose  very  well.  The 
fodder  is  supplied  to  them  in  racks. 
There  are  various  forms  of  straw-racks 
for  sheep ;  some  are  placed  so  high  that 
sheep  can  with  difficulty  reach  the  fodiier; 
and  others  are  mounted  hi^h  on  wheels. 
The  form  in  fig.  45  I  have  found  a 
verv  convenient  one,  containing  plenty  of 
straw  at  a  time,  admitting  the  straw  easily 
into  it,  being  easily  moved  about,  of  easy 
access  to  the  sheep,  and  being  so  near  the 
ground  as  to  form  an  excellent  shelter.  It 
is  made  of  wood,  9  feet  in  length,  4^  feet 


214 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


in  height,  and  3  feet  in  width,  having  a 
double  sparre.l  rack,  covered  with  an 
anf'led  roof  of  boards  to  throw  off  the  rain. 


The  rack  is  supported  on  2  triangular- 
bhaped  tressels  b,  shod  with  iron  at  the 
pointSjWhicharepushed  into  thcground,  and 


Fig.  45. 


THE  SHEKP  STRAW  OR  BAT  RACK. 


act  as  stays  against  the  wind  from  either 
side.  The  billet  c,  fixed  on  the  acute 
edge  of  the  rack,  rests  upon  the 
ground,  and  supports  it  from  bending 
down  in  the  middle.  The  lid  a  is  opened 
on  hinges  when  the  fodder  is  put  into  the 
rack.  There  should  be  at  least  2  such 
racks  in  use ;  and  when  set  together  at  an 
angle  against  the  weather  point,  the  space 
comprehended  between  them  affords  suf- 
ficient shelter  to  a  considerable  number  of 
sheep,  as  seen  at  r,  fig.  51.  Such  racks  are 
easily  moved  about  by  2  persons,  and  their 
position  should  be  changed  with  a  change 
of  wind. 

933.  It  is  the  shepherd's  duty  to  fill  these 
racks  with  fodder,  and  one  or  all  may 
require  replenishment  daily;  and  this  he 
does  easily  by  carrying  a  small  bundle  of 
fodder  every  time  he  visits  the  sheep. 
When  carts  are  removing  turnips  direct 
from  the  field,  thev  carry  out  the  bundles; 
it  being  the  shepherd's  duty  to  have  the 
bundles  ready  for  the  carters  in  the  straw- 
bam  or  hay-house.  Though  for  nothing 
but  shelter  the  racks  should  be  kept  full  of 
fodder.  Fodder  is  required  more  at  one 
time  than  another,  in  keen  sharp  weather 
the  sheep  eat  it  greedily,  and  when  tur- 
nips are  frozen  they  will  often  have 
recourse  to  it,  and  it  is  useful  along  with 
succulent  tops.  In  rainy,  or  s«ft  muggy 
weather,  sheep  eat  fodder  with  little  relish; 
but  it  has  been  observed  that  they  eat  it 
steadily  and  late,  and  seek  shelter  near 
the  racks,  prior  to  a  storm  of  wind  and 
rain  or  snow  ;  and  in  fine  weather  they 
select  a  lair  in  the  more  exposed  part  of 
the  break.     With  a  sloping  rack  of  this 


form,  when  hay  is  employed  as  fodder,  the 
hay  should  be  well  shaken  free  of  seeds,  as 
these  are  apt  to  get  among  the  wool. 
With  straw  fodder  no  such  annoyance  is 
experienced. 

934.  Until  of  late  years  sheep  were 
allowed  to  help  themselves  to  turnips, 
and  when  the  bulbs  were  scooped  out  as 
far  as  the  ground  would  permit,  their 
shtl's,  as  their  bottoms  fast  in  the  ground 
are  called,  were  picked  out  with  a  turnip- 
pici'cr,  the  mode  of  using  which  may  be 
seen  in  fig.  46.  Its  handle  «  is  4  feet  long, 
and  blade  A  1 0  inches,  including  the  eye  for 


Fig.  46. 


THK  BEST  FORM  OP  TURNIP-PICKER  IN  USE. 

the  handle.  By  its  mode  of  action,  you 
will  observe  that  the  tap-root  of  the  tur- 
nip is  cut  through  and  the  shell  separated 
from  the  ground  at  one  stroke.  A  com- 
mon form  of  these  pickers  is  with  the 
mouth  cleft  in  two,  fig.  47,  between  which 
Fig.  47. 


OBJECTIONABLE  FORM  OF  TURNIP- PICKER. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


215 


the  tap-root  is  lield,  and  the  shell  and  root 
pulled  up  together.  It  is  found,  however, 
that  tlie  tap-root  contains  an  acrid  juice 
detrimental  to  the,'stomach  of  sheep,  so  that 
the  better  plan  is  to  cut  it  off  and  leave  it 
in  the  ground  to  rot,  as  is  done  by  the 
best  form  of  blade,  5,  fig.  46.  Notwith- 
standing the  very  general  use  now  of 
turnip-slicers,  wliich  have  dispensed  with 
the  turnip-pickers,  I  still  give  the  figures 
of  these,  as  on  many  farms  too  few  turnips 
are  raised  to  require  the  services  of  the 
largest  class  of  turnip-slicer. 

935.  Only  half  the  ground  occupied  by 
the  shells  should  be  picked  up  at  once— 
every  alternate  double  row — to  make  the 
sheep  occupy  a  larger  space  of  ground 
while  consuming  them.  When  the  ground 
is  dry,  the  shells  should  be  nearly  eaten 
up  before  a  new  break  of  turnips  is  given; 
but  on  a  few  shells  being  left,  the  sheep 
will  come  over  the  ground  again  and  eat 
them,  especially  in  frost;  and  though  then 
in  a  shrivelled  state,  shells  are  sweeter  and 
softer  than  turnips. 


936.    But    the    mode     more     recently 


adopted  of  serving  turnips  to  sheep,  cut 
into  small  pieces  with  a  turnip-slicer  in 
troughs  conveniently  placed,  should  be  in 
general  use,  while  the  sheep  have  still 
liberty  to  eat  the  turnips  from  the 
ground. 

937.  The  most  convenient,  and  a  simple 
form  of  turnip-slicer,  is  the  lever  turnip- 
slicer  for  sheep.  It  is  easily  moved  from 
place  to  place,  on  two  small  wheels,  drawn 
along  by  means  of  two  handles.  It  is  suf- 
ficiently effective  to  supply  sliced  turnips 
to  a  small  flock  of  sheep,  and  is  peculiarly 
convenient  for  use  where  a  few  sheep  are 
placed  by  themselves,  such  as  tups  in  the 
corner  of  a  grass  field,  or  ewes  in  a  pad- 
dock at  the  period  of  lambing.  The  view 
of  the  instrument  is  seen  in  perspective  in 
fig.  48,  which  consists  of  a  wooden  frame 
supporting  a  trough,  together  with  the 
cutting  apparatus.  The  frame  is  formed 
of  four  posts,  a  a  a  a,  spreading  a  little 
below  Each  pair  is  connected  by  cross- 
rails,  b  b,  and  they  are  connected  longitu- 
dinally by  the  bars,  d  d.  which  form  also 
the  handles  of  the  wheel-barrow,  being 
bolted  to  the  posts  at  a  suitable  height  for 


Fig.  48. 


THE  LEVER  TURNIP-SLICER  FOR  SHEEP. 


that  purpose.  A  pair  of  wheels,  c  c,  of  veniency  of  a  wheel-barrow.  The  trough 
cast-iron,  fitted  to  an  iron  axle,  which  is  «,  into  which  the  turnips  are  laid  for  cut- 
bolted  to  the  front  posts,  gives  it  the  con-     ting,  has  a  sloping  continuation  in  front 


4? 


216 


rRACTICE— WINTER. 


of  the  cutters,  for  tlin)wiug  (»ff  the  sliced 
turnips.  Tlie  cutting  apparatus  consists  of 
a  groove<l  frame  of  iron,/,  in  which  the 
comjKtund  cutter  moves  up  and  down  bj 
means  of  the  lever  handle,  g.  A  forked 
support,  h,  is  bolted  by  a  palm  to  the  fur- 
ther side  of  the  wooden  frame,  and  at  the 
extremity,  «',  of  the  fork  a  swing  link  is 
jointed.  The  lower  end  of  the  link  is 
jointed  to  the  extremity  of  the  lever,  which 
is  likewise  forked,  forming  its  fulcrum  ; 
and  the  gridiron-cutter,  k  /,  is  also  jointed 
by  its  top-bar  to  the  lever  at  /.  While 
the  point  /,  therefore,  of  the  cutter  moves 
in  a  parallel  line  by  its  confinement  in  the 
grooves  of  the  frame  /,  the  fulcrum  is 
allowed  to  vibrate  on  the  joint  t  of  the 


swing  link  —  thus  allowing  an  easy  verti- 
cal motion  to  the  cutter  tlirough  the  full 
range  of  its  stroke  I  have  known  one 
field-worker  supply  220  sheep  with  sliced 
turnips  by  the  aid  of  an  instrument  such 
as  this.  It  is  worked  by  moving  the 
handle,  ^,  with  the  right  hand,  while  the 
left  pushes  forward  each  turnip  succes- 
sively to  be  sliced  by  the  gridiron- 
cutter. 

938.  A  more  efficient  machine  is  to  be 
found  in  the  wheel  tutnip-slicer  for  sheep, 
fig.  49,  which  is  a  perspective  view  of  it. 
The  wooden  frame,  spreading  a  little  wider 
below,  is  formed  with  four  posts,  a  a  a  a, 
one  of  which  is  only  partially  seen  in  the 


Fig.  49. 


THE  WHEKL-BARROW  TURNIP-SLICER  FOR  SHEEP. 


figure.  The  posts  are  connected  on  the 
sides  by  top-rails,  h  b,  and  two  brace-rails, 
c  c,  below,  one  of  which  serves  to  support 
the  spout,  d,  which  discharges  the  sliced 
turnips.  The  sides  of  the  frame  thus 
formed  are  connected  by  cross-rails  above 
and  below,  e  e  e,  and  is  there  furnished 
witli  the  handle-bars,//,  bolted  to  the 
posts,  and  projecting  a  convenient  length 
beyond  them  at  one  end.  The  barrow- 
wheels,  ffp,  are  fitted  to   an   iron   axle. 


which  is  bolted  to  the  posts  in  front.  The 
hopper,  h.  is  fixed  upon  the  top-rail  by 
means  of  a  cast-iron  sole  bolted  upon  the 
rail,  and  is  further  supported  by  a  wooden 
bracket  at  each  side,  as  seen  at  /,  and  by 
the  iron  .«tay  /:.  The  slicing- wheel  /,  is  a 
disc  of  ca>t-iron,  carrying  throe  sets  of 
cutter*.  Tlie  di.sc  is  mounted  on  :im  axle 
passing  through  its  centre,  where  it  is 
fixed,  and  which  is  supported  on  bearings 
placed  on  the  top-rails,  and,  when  worked, 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


217 


it  is  turned  by  the  winch-handle  m,  fixed 
upon  this  axle.  This  machine  is  now 
generally  made  of  the  disc  of  cast-iron, 
carrying  the  cutters,  mounted  on  a  wooden 
frame,  which  is  most  conveniently  mounted 
on  wheels  like  a  wheel -barrow.  It  was 
at  one  time  made  entirely  of  iron,  but  was 
found  inconvenient  to  move  about. 


8  feet,  and  it  should  be  acute  at  tie  bottom, 
for  the  more  easy  seizure  of  the  pieces  of 
turnip  by  tlie  months  of  the  sheep,  and  it 
is  so  made  by  nailing  two  boards,  of  9 
inches  in  breadth,  upon  the  two  triangular- 
shaped  ends,  and  in  the  niches  formed  in 
tlie  two  billets  of  wood  to  serve  for  feet. 
Tlie  troughs  are  set  in  a  line  along  the 
outside  of  the  2  rows  of  ti 


uinips  about  to 
939.  Fig.  50  is  a  simple  and  convenient  be  pulled  for  slicing.  The  turnip  slicer,  fio-. 
""  "    "^  '  '      '  49,  is  wheeled  to  each  trough  successively 

by  one  field  worker,  who  works  the  handle, 
and  the  hopper  is  filled  by  another  worker 
who  tops  and  tails  the  turnips.  The  sheep 
range  themsleves  on  either  side  of  each 
troujrh. 


form  of  trough  for  containing  the  turnips 

Fig.  50. 


THE    TURMP-TROUGH    FOR   SHEEP- FEEDI.NG. 

as  they  fall  sliced  from  any  of  the  above 
machines.     Its  most  convenient  length  is 


940.    I    have   constructed    fig.    51     to 
give    you  a  bird's-eye  view  of  a   break 
of  turnips  in  a  turnip-field  occupied  by 
Fig.  51. 

-X    X  It      if  t  %-%  X   n   t  * 

*  If  ^  if  *  t  ^  X 
*  *  ■%  "X  -i  Tt  -« 

t  •%  -b  -i   i 
■*■  *  'e  f  *^  ^ 

■r  *  *  *  It 

t^  *  *  if 
*  *  * 


THE   MODE   OP   OCCUPYING  TURNIP-LAND   WITH   SHEEP. 

the  sheep.  There  are  the  turnips  a,  half  the  place  where  their  food  is  preparing  for 
of  which  have  been  pulled.  The  ground  them,  whilst  others  </  are  still  lying  rest- 
is  represented  bared  beyond  the  turnip-  ing  regardle.<s  of  food.  Some,  //,  are 
sheer  b  in  its  advance  across  one  side  of  standing,  as  if  meditating  what  next  to 
the  break  to  the  other.  The  turnip- slicer  do,  and  others  /,  examining  matters  about 
b  IS  proceeding  up  beside  the  two  drills  the  nets.  Some  nibble  at  the  dry  fodder 
c,  and  depositing  the  sliced  turnips  into  in  the  racks  r,  whilst  a  group  k,  l"ie  under 
one  of  the  small  troughs  d,  out  of  another  their  shelter.  Such  are  the  usual  occupa- 
of  which  some  of  the  sheep  are  eating,  tions  of  sheep  when  they  have  abundance 
whilst  others  are  eating  the  turnips  in  the  of  food  at  their  command.  The  field- 
drills  c.  The  sheep  are  scattered  over  the  worker  I  is  slicing  the  turnips  with  the 
ground  as  they  are  usually  seen,  some  machine.  The  nets  m  are  represented 
following  one  another  iv  a  string/  towards  enclosing  two  sides  of  the  break,  the  other 


<*'' 


218 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


two  sides  being  supposed  to  be  the  fences 
of  the  field.  Tbe  remainder  of  the  net 
along  the  upper  part  of  the  break  is  coiled 
round  the  top  of  a  stake  at  />,  and  there 
also  the  mallet  and  driver  await  their  use. 

941.  The  turnips  h,  fig.  50,  to  the  right 
of  the  nets,  apj)ear  undrawn,  while  those, 
0,  above  the  nets  are  stripped,  indicating 
tliat  the  progress  of  the  break  at  this 
time  is  upwards  towards  the  top  (if  the 
field,  in  a  line  with  the  drills  and  the 
ridges  ;  and  this  part  of  the  arrangement 
is  uot  a  matter  of  chance,  because  the 
breadth  of  each  break  should  succeed  one 
another  across  the  field,  that  the  land, 
when  cleared  of  turnips,  may  be  ploughed 
into  ridges.  A  large  field,  that  engages 
the  sheep  for  a  cousiderable  part  of  the 
season,  is  ploughed  as  each  stretch  of 
breaks  is  cleared,  to  preserve  the  manure. 
In  ploughing,  however,  with  this  intent, 
the  sheep  should  not  be  deprived  of  any 
natural  shelter,  which  should  be  secured 
to  them  as  long  as  practicable,  by  arrang- 
ing the  breaks  so  as  to  make  one  first  at 
the  most  sheltered  part  of  the  field,  that 
the  sheep  might  resort  to  the  bottom  of 
the  break  they  are  occupying,  after  the 
first  breadth  of  breaks  had  been  given  up 
and  ploughed  from  the  bottom  to  the  top 
of  the  field.  Such  an  arrangement  re- 
quires some  consideration  at  first,  as  its 
oversight  may  create  much  inconvenience 
to  sheep  for  want  of  shelter,  or  delay  the 
ploughing.  Shelter  to  sheep  on  turnips 
does  not  merely  imply  protection  from  a 
blast  for  a  night  or  two,  but  also  the  pre- 
servation of  the  fleece,  and  the  comfort  to 
the  flock  through  the  winter. 

942.  I  have  already  stated,  that  tups 
or  rams  are  fed  on  turnips  in  a  separate 
division  from  the  feeding  sheep.  Some 
apportion  them  in  a  space  in  the  same, 
whilst  others  give  them  a  break  in  another 
field  ;  but  I  prefer  giving  tups  turnips  in 
a  small  grass  paddock,  an<l  slicing  them 
with  the  lever  turnip-slicer,  fig.  48.  Where 
tups  form  a  large  lot  of  40  or  50,  it  may 
cause  more  trouble  to  fetch  their  turnips 
than  to  enclose  them  on  the  ground  ;  but 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  in  regard  to 
tups,  that  whenever  a  tup  and  ewe  in 
season  become  aware  of  the  presence  of 
each  other  in  the  same  field,  or  in  con- 
tiguous fields,  neither  will   rest  to  feed. 


The  air  will  carry  the  scent  from  their 
bodies  reciprocally.  Tups  in  a  separate 
field  cause  as  much  trouble  to  the  sheplierd 
in  visiting  them  as  a  larger  flock  ;  whereas, 
were  they  near  home  in  a  grass  paddock, 
he  could  visit  them  frequently  in  going  to 
and  coming  from  his  house. 

943.  Shecj)  while  on  turnips  are  fed 
with  other  substances,  such  as  «iil-cake  or 
corn.  Either  of  these  is  served  in  a 
covered  trough,  fig.  52,  to  protect  it  from 
the  weather.  Its  construction  requires  no 
explanation. 

Fig.  52. 


THE  OIL-CAKE   OR   CORN  BOX  FOR  FEEDING  SHEEI'. 

944.  I  have  had  no  experience  of  feed- 
ing sheep  on  oil-cake  or  corn,  having 
farmed  turnip-land,  upon  which  sheep 
never  failed  to  become  abundantly  fat 
without  adventitious  aid.  On  deaf  and 
clay  soils,  however,  oil-cake  proves  bene- 
ficial ;  and  it  may  also  be  served  in  these 
troughs  to  sheep  on  grass  in  winter  as 
their  entire  food.  Oil-cake  has  the  efiect 
of  keeping  the  dung  of  sheep  in  a  moist 
state.  It  is  given  them  in  a  bruised  form, 
partly  in  powder,  and  partly  in  pieces,  as 
it  falls  from  the  oil-cake  breaker,  a  con- 
venient machine  on  every  farm.  There  is 
no  use  measuring  the  quantity  of  oil-cake 
to  sheep  when  on  turnips,  as  they  will  eat 
it  when  inclined,  and  some  sheep  eat  it 
more  heartily  than  others,  but  1  lb.  to 
each  sheep  a  day  is  the  usual  allowance. 

945.  Fig  52  gives  a  perspective  view  of 
an  oil-cuke  breaker,  wherein  a  a  a  n  are 
the  four  posts  of  a  wooden  frame  on  which 
the  n)achincry  is  supported :  b  b  are  two 
top-rails.  The  posts  are  supportoil  to- 
wards the  botti.m  by  the  four  stay-rails 
c  c  c ;  and  the  top-rails  are  hold  in 
position  by  cross-rails  </,  one  only  nf  '.vhich 
is  seen  in  the  figure.  Of  the  machinery, 
the  acting  parts  consist  of  2  rollers,  studded 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


219 


all  over  with  pyramidal  knobs  or  teeth,     roller;  and  having  a  smooth  space  or  zone 
These  are  arranged  in  zones   upon  each     between  each  of  the  knobbed  zones;  the 

Fi-.  53. 


THE  OIL-CAKB   BREAKER. 


knobs  of  one  roller  corresponding  to  the 
smooth  space  in  the  other.  In  this  figure, 
g  g  &re  two  pinching  screws,  which  serve 
to  regulate  the  distance  at  which  the 
rollers  are  to  work,  and,  consequently, 
the  degree  of  coarseness  to  which  the 
cake  is  to  be  broken.  The  wheel  h  is 
placed  upon  the  shaft  of  the  roller  e,  and 
the  pinion  i,  with  its  shaft,  and  the  winch- 
handle  k,  act  upon  the  wheel  h,  giving  a 
very  considerable  mechanical  advantage 
to  the  power  which  is  applied  to  the  ma- 
chine. The  fly-wheel  I  is  likewise  placed 
upon  the  shaft  of  the  pinion  i,  and  is 
requisite  in  this  machine  to  enable  the 
power  to  overcome  the  unequal  resistance 
of  the  work.  A  feeding-hopper  n  is 
placed  over  the  line  of  division  of  the  two 


rollers.  The  hopper  is  here  represented 
in  section,  the  near  portion  of  it  being 
supposed  entirely  removed,  in  order  to 
exhibit  more  distinctly  the  construction  of 
the  rollers. 

946.  Salt  is  frequently  given  to  sheep 
on  turnips;  but  with  what  result,  as  re- 
gards their  fattening,  I  have  never  learned. 
I  have  given  them  it,  and  the  eairerness 
with  which  they  at  first  followed  the  shep- 
herd when  he  laid  down  a  small  quantity, 
here  and  there,  upon  flat  stones,  and  the 
relish  they  manifested,  was  very  remark- 
able ;  but  the  relish  lasted  a  very  short 
time,  and  then  every  day  they  tocjk  so 
little,  as  if  they  were  trifling  with  it. 
Perhaps  the  cultivator  who  advocated  the 


220 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


use  of  salt  to  animals  most  pcrseveringly 
was  tlu>  late  Mr  C'urwcn,  of  Workingtou 
Hall,  C'uinbcrlaiiJ,  who  gave  from  2  to 
4  ounces  per  week  to  each  sheep,  when  on 
ilry  pastures  ;  and  on  turnips  or  raj)e,  it  was 
supplied  without  stint. 

947-  "It  is,  in  fact,  inclisputally  prored,'' 
says  Mr  Ciithbert  W.  Johnson,  "  that  if 
sheep  are  allowed  free  access  to  salt,  they 
irill  never  be  subject  to  the  disease  called 
the  rot.  Is  not  this  a  fact  worthy  of  a 
farmer's  earliest,  most  zealous  attention  ? 
Some  recent  experiments  also  lead  me 
even  to  hope  that  I  shall  one  day  or  other 
be  able  to  prove  it  to  be  a  cure  for  this 
devastating  disease.  I  have  room  but  for 
one  fact :  Mr  Rusher,  of  Stanley,  in  Glou- 
cestershire, in  the  autumn  of  1828,  pur- 
chased, for  a  mere  trifle,  20  sheep,  decidedly 
rotten^  and  gave  each  of  them,  for  some 
weeks,  1  ounce  of  salt  every  morning; 
two  only  died  during  the  winter  ;  the  sur- 
viving 18  were  cured,  and  have  now,  says 
my  informant,  lambs  by  their  sides."* 

948.  There  are  certain  inconveniences 
attending  the  feeding  of  sheep  on  turnips 
in  winter,  v,-liich  you  should  be  made 
aware  of.  A  lieavy  rain  falling  some 
days,  will  render  the  ground  soft  and 
poachy,  th<;ugh  thorough  drained,  or  even 
naturally  dry.  When  the  cause  soon  dis- 
appears, the  removal  of  the  sheep  for  a 
uight  and  day  to  an  old  grass  field  will 
give  the  land  sufficient  time  to  resume  its 
firmness;  and  a  little  oil-cake  will  support 
the  sheep  all  the  time  they  will  be  there. 
A  very  heavy  rain  may  fall  in  a  day, 
and  inundate  the  lower  etid  (»f  the  field 
with  water,  whicli  may  take  some  days  to 
subside.  The  best  way  of  keeping  the 
sheep  from  the  wetted  part  is  to  fence  it 
off  with  a  net. 

949.  A  fall  of  snow,  driven  by  the 
wind,  may  cover  the  sheltered  part  of  the 
field,  and  leave  the  turnips  bare  only  in 
the  most  exposed.  In  this  case,  the  sheep 
must  feed  in  the  exposed  part,  and  the 
racks  should  be  so  placed  there  as  to  afTord 
shelter.  But  the  snow  may  fall  heavily, 
and  lie  deep  over  the  whole  field,  and 
cover  every  turnip  out  of  reach.  Two 
expedients    only    present    themselves    in 


such  a  case ;  one  is  to  cast  tho  snow  from 
the  drills  containing  the  turnips,  and  pile  it 
upon  those  which  have  been  stripped. 
This  cannot  be  done  by  the  shepherd  him- 
self, or  by  female  field-workers.  The 
ploughmen  must  clear  away  the  snow ;  in 
doing  so  in  severe  frost,  as  many  turnips 
only  should  be  exposed  as  will  serve  the 
sheep  for  the  day.  The  advantage  of  thus 
clearing  away  the  snow  is,  the  immediate 
access  to  the  turnips ;  but  when  the  snow 
lies  a  considerable  time,  all  the  manure 
will  be  left  by  the  sheep  in  the  channels 
cut  through  the  snow,  and,  of  course,  the 
parts  upon  which  the  snow  was  piled  will 
receive  none.  The  best  plan  to  pursue  at 
first,  under  such  circumstances,  is  the 
other  expedient,  to  give  the  sheep  oil-cake 
in  their  troughs,  in  a  sheltered  place  of 
the  field  for  a  time,  until  it  is  seen  whether 
the  snow  is  likely  soon  to  disappear;  and 
should  it  remain  long,  the  snow  may  be 
cleared  away,  and  its  disadvantages  sub- 
mitted to.  In  the  great  fall  of  spring 
1823,  my  turnip-field  was  covered  with 
snow  4  feet  deep.  Having  no  oil-cake, 
and  finding  it  impossible  to  remove  the 
sheep,  the  snow  was  cut  into  trenches,  in 
which  the  sheep  soon  learned  to  accom- 
modate one  another,  and  throve  apace. 
A  fresh  fall  of  snow  came  a  hv,-  days  after 
from  the  opposite  quarter,  and  filled  up 
the  trenches,  which  had  to  be  cleared  out 
again.  The  snow  continued  upon  the 
ground  until  the  end  of  April,  and  as  there 
was  then  no  time  to  manure  the  land  which 
hrid  been  covered  with  the  snow, —  and, 
indeed,  its  soft  state  would  have  rendered 
carting  upon  it  impracticable, — the  suc- 
ceedinir  crop  of  barley  grew  in  strips  cor- 
responding to  the  trenches.  Even  a  supply 
of  oil-cake  would  not,  in  this  case,  have 
superseded  the  trenching  of  the  snow,  to 
have  had  the  turnips  eaten  in  time  for 
the  barley-seed. 

0.50.  Whilst  the  young  sheep  and  tups 
are  thus  provided  with  tuniips  in  winter, 
the  ewes  in  lamb  find  food  on  the  older 
grass,  which,  for  their  sakes,  should  not 
be  eaten  too  bare  in  autumn.  When  pas- 
tures are  very  bare,  or  snow  covers  the 
ground,  they  should  have  turnips  sliced  in 
troughs,  or,  what  is  better,  clover-hay  in 
a  sheltered  spot.     The  best  hay  for  sheep 


*  Johnson's  Obserrations  on  the  Employnent  of  Salt,  p.  12 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


221 


is  the  red  clover,  and  next,  meadow-Lay; 
but  much  rather  give  them  turnips  than 
hay  in  a  wet  or  moulded  state,  as  either 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  engender  diseases 
in  sheep,  generally  such  as  consumption 
of  the  lungs  and  rot  of  the  liver ;  and  as 
regards  ewes  in  lamb,  in  particular,  it  is 
apt  to  produce  abortion.  If  turnips  cannot 
be  had,  and  the  hay  bad,  give  them 
sheaves  of  oats,  or  oats  in  troughs,  or  oil- 
cake ;  but  whatever  extraneous  food 
is  given,  do  not  supply  it  in  such  quantity 
as  to  fatten  the  ewes,  but  only  to  keep 
them  in  fair  condition  with  hay.  In  the 
severe  snow-storm  of  1823,  I  put  my  ewes 
into  an  old  Scots-fir  plantation,  into  which 
only  a  small  quantity  of  snow  had  pene- 
trated, and  supplied  them  there  with  hay 
upon  the  snow  round  the  roots  of  the 
trees.  A  precaution  is  requisite  in  using 
a  Scots-fir  j)Iantatinn  in  snow  for  sheep; 
its  ever-i:reen  branches  intercepting  the 
snow  are  apt  to  be  broken  by  its  weight, 
and  fall  upon  the  sheep  and  kill  them  ; 
and  in  my  case,  a  ewe  was  killed  on  the 
spot  by  this  cause  the  first  night.  Much 
loaded  branches  should  therefore  be  cleared 
partly  of  their  snow  where  the  slieep  are 
to  lodge.  In  driving  ewes,  heavy  with 
lanii>,  through  deep  snow  to  a  place  of 
shelter,  plenty  of  time  should  be  given 
them  to  wade  through  it,  in  case  they 
overreach  themselves,  and  bring  ou 
abortion. 

951.  In  the  south  of  Scotland,  and 
more  generally  in  England,  rape  is  grown 
for  slice}).  The  rape  (Brassica  rapa 
oleij'era  of  De  Candolle,)  cultivated  in  this 
country,  is  distinguished  from  the  colsat 
of  the  Continent  by  the  smoothness  of  its 
leaves.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  the 
fattening  of  sheep  in  winter  from  time  im- 
memorial. The  green  leaves,  as  food  for 
sheep,  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  other 
vegetable,  in  so  far  as  re.s])ects  its  nutri- 
tious properties;  but  in  quantity  it  is  in- 
ferior both  to  turnips  and  cabbages.  Its 
haulm  may  be  used  as  hay  with  nearly 
as  much  avidity  as  cut  straw.*  The  con- 
sumption of  rape  by  sheep  is  conducted 
by  breaks  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
that  of  turnips  ;  but  it  is  never  stripped  or 
pulled,  the  entire  crop  being  consumed 
on  the  ground.      In    England,  the   rape 


intended  for  sheep  is  sown  broadcast  and 
very  thick,  in  which  state  it  grows  very 
suitable  for  them.  In  Scotland,  it  is  raised 
in  drills  like  turnips ;  and  although  not  so 
conveniently  placed  for  sheep  as  the  broad- 
cast, the  to}}  leaves  being  somewhat  beyond 
their  reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  drill, 
yet  the  form  permits  the  land  being  well 
cleaned  in  summer,  which  renders  the  rape 
an  ameliorating  crop  for  the  land.  It  is 
acknowledged  on  all  hands,  that,  for  oil, 
the  drill  form  of  culture  is  far  the  best. 

952.  Every  kind  of  sheep  kept  in  the  low 
country  should  be  treated  in  winter  in  the  way 
described  above,  though  the  remarks  are  meant 
to  apply  to  the  management  of  the  Leicester, 
which  is  the  breed  cultivated  where  sheep  form 
an  integral  part  of  the  mixed  husbandry.  Where 
a  Leicester  flock  is  so  kept,  the  ewes  are  re- 
garded as  a  standing  jlock — ^that  is,  they  have 
themselves  been  bred  and  produce  lambs  upon 
the  farm  untilthey  become  unprofitable,  when  they 
are  fed  off.  But  on  lowland  farms,  in  certain 
districts,  no  flock  of  ewes  is  kept  for  breeding, 
and  sheep  ti>  be  fattened  on  turnips  are  bought 
in.  For  this  purpose  some  farmers  purchase 
wethers,  others  old  ewes,  dinmonts,  or  lambs. 
When  wethers  are  selected,  the  Cheviot  and 
black-faced  breeds  are  obtained  from  the  moun- 
tains. Sheep  are  thus  easily  obtained  for  tur- 
nips at  fairs  in  autumn  ;  but  where  certain 
mountain  stocks  have  acquired  a  good  name, 
purchasers  go  to  the  spot,  and  buy  them  direct 
from  the  breeders. 

953.  Sheep  on  turnips  have  little  shelter  but 
what  the  fences  of  the  field  afford,  or  planta- 
tions. In  some  cases  this  is  quite  sufficient ;  but 
in  others  it  is  inadequate.  Of  late  years,  the 
subject  of  shelter  has  attracted  much  attention, 
and  artificial  means  have  been  suggested,  con- 
sisting of  various  devices,  involving  different 
degrees  of  cost,  to  afford  shelter,  not  merely 
against  sudden  outbreaks  of  weather,  but  with 
the  view  of  gradually  improving  the  conditiou 
of  sheep,  both  in  carcass  and  wool.  It  is  a 
natural  expectation,  that  a  fat  carcass  should 
produce  the  most  wool,  and  constant  shelter 
preserve  its  quality. 

954.  Ewes  in  lamb  are  very  apt  to  catch  cold, 
and  when  exposed  to  wet  and  cold  weather,  or 
kept  in  a  wet  lair,  will  pick  lamb,  that  is,  suffer 
abortion,  and  perhapsbecome  rotten. 

955.  Mr  Hunter  of  Tynefield,  in  East  Lothian, 
tried  in  1809  the  littering  of  the  break,  occupied 
by  the  sheep,  with  straw,  and  supplied  them  with 
turnips  upon  it.  He  littered  300  sheep  upon  25 
acres  of  turnips,  which  afforded  36  tons  of  ma- 
nure the  acre,  with  the  straw  of  60  acres  of 
wheat,  or  60  tons  of  straw.  The  sheep  thus 
treated  for  5  months, fetched  23,  a-head  more  than 


*  Don's  General  Dictionary  of  Botany  and  Gardening,  yol.  i.  p.  245. 


222 


PRACTIC  E— WINTER. 


those  treated  in  the  usual  manner.  This  increase 
of  price  is  small,  and  not  at  all  commensurate  to 
the  trouble  of  carting,  at  intervals,  60  tons  of 
straw  to  the  field  — of  carting  the  same,  as  ma- 
nure, from  that  field  to  another,  and  of  carry- 
ing the  turnips  from  the  drills  to  the  fold.  When 
turnips  are  laid  upon  straw,  >hee;>  cannot  bite 
them  easily,  from  their  rolling  aw.-\y  ;  and  this 
is  an  objection  to  layi-ig  wlule  turnips  on  grass, 
instead  of  cutting  thcin  with  a  turiiip->licer. 
Amongst  damp  litter  she-.-p  invariaMy  contract 
foot  rot — of  which  seven  of  Mr  Hunter's  flock 
died,  the  value  of  which  should  be  deducted 
from  the  profits  otherwise  obtained.* 

956.  Sheep  have  been  recommended  to  be  fed 
in  sheds,  and  these  are  proposed  to  be  movable 
or  stationary.  The  perspective  view  of  a  mov- 
able shed  is  seen  in  fig.  54.  It  is  15  feet  long,  7 
feet  wide,  with  an  opening  of  |  of  an  inch 
Fig.  54. 


A  MOVABLE  SHED  FOR  SHEEP  ON  TL'RMPS. 

between  the  floor  deals.  The  floor  rests  on  2  axle  s 
of  iron  supported  on  4  iron  wheels,  1  foot  dia- 
meter, which  raise  the  shed  6  inches  above  the 
ground.  The  roof  is  made  pavilion-wise,  with 
deals  overlapping  each  other,  and  elevated  5  feet 
above  the  floor.  One  side  and  both  ends,  when 
the  shed  is  in  use,  could  be  boarded  in  the 
quarter  from  which  the  wind  comes  ;  and  if  the 
boards  are  fastened  dead,  the  shed  shonld  be 
wheeled  round  to  suit  the  wind  ;  but  if  boarding 
be  considered  too  expensive  for  fitting  up  such 
sheds,  hurdles  clad  with  thin  slabs,  or  wattled 
with  straw  or  willow,  might  be  placed  against 
one  side  and  the  ends,  and  answer  the  purpose. 
A  horse  is  required  to  wheel  such  a  shed  to  any 
distance.  A  shed  of  the  above  dimensions  may 
accommodate  about  20  sheep,  and  its  cost  is  said 
to  be  £4.  But  should  this  construction  be  con- 
sidered too  unwieldy,  the  shed  could  be  made  of 
two  pieces  of  half  the  size,  which  would  easily 
be  moved  about  by  people,  and,  when  placed 
together  on  end,  would  form  an  entire  shed  of 
the  proper  dimensions.  The  cost  of  two  half- 
sheds  will  of  course  be  greater  than  an  entire 
one.  Whether  any  one  will  ever  incur  the  cost 
of  sheltering  sheep  on  turnips  in  such  sheds  i.«, 
I  conceive,  questionable  ;  and  some  time  will 
elapse  ere  the  sheep  become  so  familiarised  to 
them  as  to  enter  them  freely.f 


957.  Stationary  sheds  have  been  erected  at 
the  steading,  the  courts  attached  to  them  littered 
with  straw,  and  the  sheep  daily  supplied  with 
sliced  turnips.  Many  years  ago  the  late  Mr 
Webster  of  Balruddery,  in  Forfarshire, attempted 
to  fatten  sheep  in  this  manner,  and  I  had  oppor- 
tunities of  witnessing  his  experiments,  which 
were  not  succes-sful,  inasmuqii  as  he  employed 
black-faced  sheep,  and  they  became  severely 
af^icted  with  the  foot-rot. 

958.  Mr  Childers,  M.P.  for  Mai  ton,  fed  40 
Leicester  wether-hoggs  on  turnips,  20  in  the  field 
and  20  in  a  shed.  The  shed  consisted  of  » 
thatched  erection  of  roujfh  deals,  having  a  floor 
of  slabs  raised  18  inches  above  the  ground,  with  a 
small  court  attached  to  it.  The  boarded  floor  was 
swept  every  day.  and  fresh  straw  put  over  the 
court  after  every  shower  of  rain.  The  sheep 
were  divided  into  as  equal  lots  as  could  be 
drawn,  the  score  to  be  fed  in  the  shed  weighing 
183  stones  3  lb.,  and  those  in  the  field  184 
stones  4  lb.  Each  lot  got  as  many  sliced  tur- 
nips as  they  could  eat,  which  amounted  to  27 
stones  every  day  ;  10  lb  of  linseed-cake,  or  ^  lb. 
to  each  sheep,  per  day  ;  {  pint  of  barley  to  each 
sheep  ;  and  a  little  hay,  and  a  constant  supjdy 
of  salt.  They  were  fed  from  1st  J.muary  to  1st 
April  ;  and,  on  the  fourth  week,  the  liojrgs  in 
the  shed  eat  3  stones  fewer  turnips  eviry  day  ; 
in  the  ninth  week,  2  stones  still  fewer,  and  of 
linseed-cake  3  lb.  less  per  day.  The  ret'Uits 
were  these  :  — 


»  arM 


January  1  . 

February  1  .  , 

I  .March  1  .  , 

j  April  1      .  .  . 

Total  increase  . 


hogg.. 

locreue.  [ 

1 

St.  lb. 

1^3  3 
2f5  0 
215  10 
23a    9 

St.  n>.  1 

21  11  ' 
10  10 

23  13  1 

5S  6  { 

et.  tb.  I 
1K4  4  I 
199  S  ' 
20S    2  : 

220  12 


1$  4 
S  « 
12  iO 

33    8 


"  Consequently,"  says  Mr  Childers,  "  the  s^hcep 
in  the  shed,  though  they  consumed  nearly  J  le.^a 
food,  have  made  4  greater  progress."^  Tims, i;i 
4  months,  the  thed-fed  hoggs  gained  about  { 
stone  a-head  more  than  thote  in  th.e  field,  aii/l 
were  worth  3s.  a-head  more.  This  experiment 
of  shed-feeding  corroborates  the  ordinary,  expe- 
rience in  the  progress  of  fattening  sheep  ;  namely, 
that  the  greatest  progress  is  made  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  season.  In  the  beginning, 
the  fat  is  laid  on  in  the  inside,  to  fill  up  ;  and  at 
the  end,  it  is  laid  on  on  the  outside,  after  the 
acquirement  of  muscle  in  the  intermediate 
period. 

959.  Similar  experiments  have  been  made  in 
Scotland  with  success.  Mr  Wilkin,  Tinwald 
Downs,  Dumfriesshire,  fed  20  cross-lred  Cheviot 
and  Leicester  hoggs  in  courts  and  sheds,  on 
turnips,  grass,  and  oil-cake,  and  their  increased 
value  over  others  in  the  field  was  estimated  at 
from  22s.  to  25s. 


•  Sinclair's  Jccount  of  the  Hu^ndry  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii.  Appendix,  p.  47. 

+  Qwjrtcrli/  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xi.  p.  27-30. 

X  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  i.  p.  169. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


223 


560.  Mr  John  M'Bryde,  Belkar,  fed  both 
Leicester  and  Cheviot  wethers  in  stalls  on  tur- 
nips, rice,  sago,  sugar,  and  linseed-oil,  and  rea- 
lised 7s.  ahead  more  llian  from  those  fed  in  the 
field.*  But  in  estimating  the  advantages  derived 
from  shed-feeding,  the  trouhle  occasioned  in 
bringing  the  turnips  from,  and  taking  the  manure 
to  the  held,  j^hould  always  be  borne  in  mind. 
But  should  the  plan  leave  no  profit,  yet,  if  it 
improve  the  quality  of  the  wool  in  its  most  essen- 
tial particulars,  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  iu 
many  cases. 

961.  A  very  recent  instance  of  feeding  sheep 
in  sheds  is  that  related  by  the  Rev.  A.  Huxtable, 
rector  of  Sutton  Waldron,  in  Dorsetshire.  His 
sheds  vrere  50  feet  long,  IS  feet  wide,  and 
thatched  with  straw  within  3  feet  of  the  ground, 
before  and  behind,  and  behind  a  turf  wall  reaches 
the  thatch,  while  in  front  hurdles  are  used  to  keep 
in  the  sheep.  Each  shed  contains  about  50  sheep, 
and  costs,  without  thestraw, 41s.  Within  the  sheds 
the  ground  was  excavated  8  or  9  inches,  puddled 
and  made  water-tight,  and  covered  with  6  inches 
of  sawdust,  burnt  clay,  and  good  dry  mould. 
This  compost  received  and  absorbed  the  manure 
thatfell,  which  was  swept  into  it  twice  every  day. 
Over  the  compost  was  erected  a  perfectly  level 
flooring  of  movable  boards  for  the  sheep  to  lie 
upon,  at  a  cost  of  Is.  4d.  per  head  of  sheep.  The 
boards,  after  sweeping,  are  watered  with  a  solu- 
tion of  3  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  iron,  which  instantly 
removes  the  odour  not  only  of  the  ammonia,  but 
the  more  offensive  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The 
sheep  are  fed  under  the  sheds.  Mr  Huxtable 
having  observed  sheep  prefer  the  most  beaten 
roads  on  the  downs  for  their  bed,  he  gives  them 
the  bare  boards  to  lie  upon  ;  and  in  order  that 
the  courts  attached  to  the  sheds  should  also  be 
hard,  he  floored  them  with  a  sort  of  asphalt 
made  of  chalk  beaten  small,  covered  with  gas 
tar  and  sand.  The  sheep  occupy  the  courts 
while  the  sheds  are  being  swept  clean.  The 
food  consists  of  turnips,  the  last  fortnight  only  of 
swedes,  half  a  pint  per  day,  (never  more)  of 
oats  or  peas,  with  straw  cut  into  chaff,  over 
■which  ground  linseed  has  been  poured  mixed 
with  boiling  water.  The  increase  of  weight 
attained  by  the  sheep  was  not  accurately  ascer- 
tained, but  the  results  of  the  arrangement  have 
been  most  successful,  both  in  the  health  and 
well-doing  of  the  sheep,  there  never  having  been 
Been  one  instance  of  lameness,  even  in  the 
slightest  degree,  in  a  confinement  of  5  months. 
The  general  issue  may  be  allowed  to  be  satis- 
factory, as  in  12  weeks  they  realised  a  profit  of 
13s.  a-head.f 

962.  In  situations  where  the  ground  is  rather 
high  and  smooth,  and  the  climate  indifferent, 
sheds,  with  yards  attached  to  them,  are 
recommended  for  the  accommodation  of  Lei- 
cester and  half-bred  hoggs  in  winter  on  tur- 
nips. "  From  the  experience  I  have  had,"  says 
Mr  Purves,  "  I  do  not  see  that  sheep  are  better 


off"  iuvsheds  than  in  the  open  air  where  the  climate 
is  fine,  the  situation  dry  and  well  sheltered,  ex- 
cept in  a  snow-storm  or  iu  very  wet  weather ; 
but,  taking  average  situations  into  account,  mure 
especially  in  such  districts  as  Caithness,  where 
the  climate  is  variable  and  the  soil  damp,  and 
where  there  is  no  natural  or  artificial  shelter, 
there  is  no  doubt  of  the  advantage  of  the  plan  ; 
and  its  general  introduction  and  uniform  success 
in  that  county  are  its  best  recommendation.  This 
system,  also,  in  a  great  measure  dispenses  with 
the  necessity  of  keeping  a  large  number  of  cattle 
to  trample  down  the  straw  in  arable  farms,  [this 
remark  applies  only  to  farms  where  cattle  are 
bought  every  year,  not  bred  ;]  and  as  sheep  are 
decidedly  a  more  profitable  stock  than  cattle, 
and  managed  at  less  expense,  their  number  can 
be,  in  this  way,  considerably  increased,  especially 
if  bone  manure  or  guano  be  used  and  thorough- 
draining  persevered  in.  The  expense  of  keeping 
in  this  way  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  fields. 
There  is,  however,  less  loss  of  turnips,  and  the 
manure  is  better  jireserved  ;  and  its  value  will 
more  than  compensate  for  the  carting  of  it  to  the 
land.  When  oil-cake  or  oats  are  given,  the 
difference  of  expense  will  be  amply  repaid  in  the 
superior  quality  of  the  wool  and  mutton,  and  in 
getting  the  sheep  early  to  market,  and  in  saving 
the  grain  for  other  stock. 

963.  "  A  shed  of  100  feet  in  length  and  14  feet 
in  width, — having  a  back  wall  of  6  feet  high  of  dry 
stone  harled  with  lime,  and  pillars  in  front  of 
stone  and  lime,  with  small  trees  laid  across  the 
shed  for  joists,  covered  with  branches  and 
thatched  with  straw,  together  with  a  court 
fronting  S.  of  100  feet  square,  fenced  on  the  E. 
and  W.  sides  with  a  dry  stone-wall  6  feet  high, 
and  in  front  with  a  4  feet  wall,  and  all  coped 
with  turf — will  contain  300  lioggs.  A  turnip- 
house  of  40  feet  in  length,  and  14  feet  in  width, 
should  be  constructed  at  one  end  of  the  shed, 
stretching  along  one  of  the  side-walls  of  the 
court;  and  an  apartment  for  the  shepherd  should 
be  made  at  the  end  of  the  house,  12  feet  long 
by  14  feet  wide."  J        -, 

964.  But  the  modes  of  feeding  sheep  in  sheds 
have  been  modified  to  confining  them  always  with- 
in the  shed  ;  which  particular  mode  of  feeding 
has  obtained  the  appellation  of  box-feeding.  If 
shelter  is  the  one  thing  desirable,  sheep  will  cer- 
tainly experience  it  to  the  greatest  degree  in  box- 
feeding.  No  farther  description  of  this  mode 
seems  necessary,  as  it  must  be  well  understood 
from  the  foregoing  descriptions  of  shed-feeding. 

965.  Boxing-feeding  has  been  refined  into 
stall-feeding,  in  which  the  sheep  are  not  only 
confined  within  a  shed,  but  are  each  tied  with  a, 
leather  strap  by  the  neck,  to  a  stake  in  a  stall 
under  the  shed.  It  is  related  that  "  the  intel- 
ligent and  able  steward  of  a  gentleman  had  two 
lots  of  sheep  feeding  in  a  shed,  the  one  lot  tied 
up  each  to  its  own  stall,  the  other  remaining 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xi.  p.  128. 

i"  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  vi.  p.  242. 

t  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  January  1845,  p.  399. 


224 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


loose  in  another  part  of  the  same  shed.  Though 
treatol,  in  other  respects,  similarly,  the  pro- 
gress of  tliose  tie<l  up  «us  much  more  rapiJ 
and  profitable  than  that  of  tho>e  which  were 
loosti.  The  effect  was  very  evident— the  cause 
not  so.  However,  one  evening  going  round  the 
cattle-sheds,  at  a  late  liour,  he  observed,  upon 
opening  the  door  of  the  sheep-house,  that  the 
loose  sheep  were  on  their  feet,  alert  and  restless, 
and  as  he  entered  they  were  constantly  on  the 
move  ;  their  food  was  unfinished.  Those,  on  the 
contrary,  that  were  tied  up  were  reposing  with 
full  stomachs  and  empty  troughs.  Each  having 
eaten,  uninterrupted,  all  it  could  get,  was  mak- 
ing itself  ready  fur  the  next  supply.  Nothing 
was  wasted.  The  difference  in  their  progress  was 
thus  accounted  for." 

966.  The  shed  is  IC  feet  wide,  affjrding  room 
for  a  double  row  of  stalls,  and  a  passage  between 
them.  The  floor  of  the  stalls  upon  which  the 
pheep  stand  consists  of  boards  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  apart,  supported  over  tanks  into  which 
the  dung  and  urine  of  the  sheep  drop.  Each 
stall  is  fitted  up  with  a  trough  and  stake,  and 
the  sheep  are  fastened  to  the  stake  by  means 
of  a  leather  strap  round  the  neck,  with  a  chain 
7  to  9  inches,  enough  to  allow  the  sheep  to 
lie  down  with  its  head  clear  of  the  trough. 
Within,  6  inches  of  their  height  the  sides  of  the 
shed  are  formed  of  a  bank  of  earth,  which  admits 
air  and  light  above  it,  but  the  opening  can  be 
filled  up  with  straw  when  desired.* 

967.  The  reSection  arising  on  hearing  of 
sheep  being  confined  within  and  fattened  in 
sheds  is,  that  it  may  perhaps  be  a  profitable 
enough  amusement  for  those  who  liave  but  a 
Tery  few  sheep  to  feed,— but  where  is  accommo- 
dation to  be  found  for  the  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  sheep  fed  on  turnips  every  winter !  I  have 
known  a  farmer  feed  as  many  as  5000  sheep  in 
a  winter, — and  where  is  he  to  procure  the  mate- 
rials to  erect  sheds  for  that  number  without 
immense  trouble  and  expense  ?  I  wish  not  to 
be  misunderstood.  I  neither  corroborate  nor 
deny  the  statements  that  have  been  made  in 
regard  to  the  profits  derived  from  this  mode  of 
feeding  sheep;  but  I  consider  all  the  plans  I 
have  seen  recommended  as  impracticable  on  a 
large  scale,  and  therefore  inapplicable  to  the 
country  in  general.  Another  reflection  such 
methods  call  forth  is,  the  counteraction  given  to 
the  natural  habits  of  the  sheep.  I  advocate 
shelter  for  sheep  as  earnestly  as  any  man  can 
do,  but  would  aJlow  them  as  much  liberty  as 
not  to  interfere  with  their  entire  personal  move- 
ments. This  I  plead  for  all  other  animals  as 
well  as  sheep. 

968.  But  shed-feeding  is  not  invariably  at- 
tended with  success.  Mr  T.  E.  Pawlett,  Bur- 
ton, Bedfordshire,  put  up  8  lambs  in  a  yard  of 
hurdles  and  straw,  and  8  in  the  open  field  ;  and 
the  former  gained  in  weight,  in  9  weeks  and 
3  days,  from  7th  December  to  11th  February,  19^ 


lt>.  and  the  latter  20J  ft.  each.  In  another  ex- 
periment, the  year  foilowini:,  8  lambs  iu  the  yard 
gained  each  ;V2  lb.  in  1*2  week?,  and  8  in  the 
open  field  28  tt>.  each,  giving  the  advantage  of 
4  ft.  to  those  iu  the  yard. 

969.  "  Tliis  difference,"  observes  Mr  Pawlett, 
"  is  very  trifling,  and  not  in  the  least  sufficienf  to 
compensate  any  one  for  the  extra  trouble  and 
expense  which  must  necessarily  be  incurred  by 
making  yards,  building  sheils,  taking  the  straw 
to  a  part  of  the  farm  where,  perhaps,  the  inanure 
is  not  wanted,  and  by  the  heavy  cartage  of 
the  turnips,  which,  even  for  a  short  di-tance, 
is  costly.  And  if  the  sheep  fed  in  yard',  dur- 
ing the  winter,  are  not  made  fat  tnou^li  for  the 
butcher  iu  the  spring,  and  have  to  be  turned 
again  to  pasture,  they  will  suffer  much  more 
from  the  cold  winds,  having  been  confined  and 
kept  warm  in  the  winter,  than  tho?e  s-heep  win- 
tered in  the  usual  manner  in  the  fields.  It  is 
my  opinion,  also,"'  adds  Mr  Pawlett, '"  bnt  I  con- 
fess I  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  fact  by 
way  of  experiment,  that  the  wool  may  be  injured 
by  yard-feeding  ;  for  'he  lambs  kept  in  that  way 
have  a  more  unfavourable  and  unheuuhy  appear- 
ance than  those  fed  in  the  commuu  manner. 
After  these  trials,  and  finding  no  adequate  ad- 
vantage in  the  practice,  I  have  given  up  the 
system  of  feeding  sheep  iu  yards." 

970.  "The  advocates  of  yard-feeding  sheep 
allege  that  they  eat  less  food,  if  kept  in  that  way, 
than  others  do  which  are  fed  in  the  open  field. 
During  the  trial  of  these  experiments,  no  diffe- 
rence w.TS  observed  as  to  the  quantity  of  food 
consumed  by  each  lot, — they  ate  as  much  alike  as 
possible,  tlie  food  being  carried  to  them  in 
scuttles.  If  one  lot  of  sheep  eat  less  than  an- 
other, it  is  a  proof  with  me  that  tlie>  thrive  in  a 
less  degree — of  course  I  allude  to  sheep  of  the 
same  size  and  breed  —  as  I  find  by  weighing  my 
sheep  monthly,  which  are  kept  in  small  lots,  that 
those  which  eat  less  food,  (and  this  is  often  the 
case,  without  any  apparent  cause,  as  they  are 
kept  in  the  same  way.)  generally  gain  less  iu 
weight  than  the  other  lots  which  feed  well." 

071.  Although  Mr  Pusey  recommended  shed- 
feeding,  "  I  am  bound  to  state,"  he  observes, 
"  that,  in  an  experiment  like  Mr  Pawlett's,  I 
kept  10  Down  lambs  in  a  shed  and  10  out  of 
doors,  weighing  each  lot  rej:nlarly  ;  but  that  I 
found  tlie  gain  i>f  weight  rather  on  the  side  of 
the  lambs  fed  out  of  doors.'"  t 

97"2.  One  or  two  curious  and  interesting  facts 
were  elicited  by  some  experiments  made  by 
Mr  Pawlett,  in  feeding  slieep  on  different  kinds 
of  turnips.  A  lot  of  lambs  were  put  on  white  tur- 
nips, in  October,  and  another  lot  on  swedes,  and  in 
the  course  of  the  month  the  lot  on  »vhite  turnips 
had  gained  each  10 J  ft.,  while  that  on  swedes 
only  gained  4'  ft  each,  showing  a  gain  of  6  ft, 
in  the  month.  Other  experiments  for  the  same 
purpose  produced  similar  results.     '*  Since  these 


•  Gardenert'  Chronicle  and  Agricultural  Gazette,  for  March  4^,  1848. 
t  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  vi.  p.  371-2. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


225 


experiments,"  observes  Mr  Pawlett,  "  I  have 
invariably  used  wliite  turnips  for'lanibs  in  the 
autumn,  and  find  they  are  excellent  food  if 
not  sown  too  early  in  the  season,  and  are  not  too 
old  at  the  time  ;  and  preferable  to  swedes  during 
the  months  of  September  and  October,  equal  to 
them  in  November,  or  until  the  latter  part  of 
that  month,  and  very  inferior  to  them  in  De- 
cember, or  when  the  weather  becomes  cold  and 
frosty.  Lambs  are  not  naturally  fond  of  white 
turnips,  and  will  take  to  swedes  much  sooner.  " 
A  turnip-cutter  will  bring  them  to  like  any  tur- 
nip sooifer  than  any  other  expedient. 

973.  Cabbages  are  much  relished  by  lambs 
early  in  the  season ;  but  they  do  not  thrive  well 
on  carrots  in  any  season. 

974.  A  curious  and  unexpected  result  was 
brought  to  light  by  Mr  Pawlett,  and  thus,  in  his 
own  words, — "  Being  aware  that  it  was  the 
custom  of  some  sheep-breeders  to  wash  the  food, 
— such  as  turnips,  carrots,  and  other  roots, — for 
their  sheep,  I  was  induced  also  to  try  the  system; 
and  as  I  usually  act  cautiously  in  adopting  any 
new  scheme,  generally  bringing  it  down  to  the 
true  standard  of  experience,  I  selected  for  the 
trial  two  lots  of  lambs, — one  lot  was  fed,  in  the 
usual  manner,  on  carrots  and  swedes  unleashed; 
the  other  lot  was  fed  exactly  on  the  same  kinds 
of  food,  but  the  carrots  and  swedes  were  washed 
very  clean  every  day;  they  were  weighed  before 
trial,  on  the  2d  December,  and  again  on  the  30th 
December,  1335.  The  lambs  fed  with  the  un- 
washed food  gained  each  7i  ft-,  and  those  on 
the  washed  gained  4|  ft.  each ;  which  shows 
that  those  lambs  which  were  fed  in  the  usual 
way,  without  having  their  food  washed,  gained 
the  most  weight  in  a  month  by  2|  ft.  each  lamb. 
There  appears  to  me  no  advantage  in  this 
method  of  management — indeed  animals  are  fond 
of  licking  the  earth,  particularly  if  fresh  turned 
up ;  and  a  little  of  it  taken  icto  the  stomach 
with  the  food  must  be  conducive  to  their  health, 
or  nature  would  not  lead  them  to  take  it."* 

975.  I  cannot  conclude  the  subject  of  feeding 
sheep  in  confinement  without  bearing  in  mind 
that  constant  confinement  is  ungenial  to  the 
nature  of  sheep,- — that  sheep  so  confined  cannot 
again  have  liberty  in  the  open  field  without  loss 
of  condition  in  flesh  and  deterioration  of  the  wool, 
— that,  were  the  plan  universally  adopted,  there 
would  not  be  found  room  around  steadings  for 
many  flocks,  consisting  of  thousands,  which  are 
fed  on  turnips  in  winter, — that  the  trouble  at- 
tendant on  the  plan  would  be  very  great  in 
bringing  food  to,  and  taking  away  the  manure 
from,  the  sheds  —  that  the  additional  trouble 
thus  imposed  would  greatly  reduce  the  amount 
of  profit, — and  that,  were  sheep  fed  with  a  variety 
of  food  on  the  land,  and  greater  means  used  to 
promote  their  comfort  thereon,  larger  profits 
might  be  received  by  feeding  sheep  than  have  yet 
been  realised  ;  and  I  shall  now  adduce  some  in- 
stances to  that  efiect. 


976.  To  test  the  value  of  Unseed  cake  as  a 
fattening  food  for  sheep,  Mr  James  Bruce, 
Waughton,  East  Lothian,  took  two  lots  of  sheep 
of  60  each  from  two  flocks.  A  part  of  two  fields 
of  Swedish  turnips,  vrhich  presented  a  uniformity 
of  soil  and  crop,  was  carefully  divided  into 
equal  portions,  each  of  which  was  occupied  by 
20  sheep. 

977.  One  lot  of  60  consisted  of  half  bred  din- 
monts  of  good  quality,  20  of  which  a  were  put 
on  turnips  alone,  20  b  on  home  cake,  and  20  c 
on  foreign  cake.  On  the  1st  January  1844,  a 
weighed  2803  lbs.,  6  2768  lbs.,  and  c  2739  lbs.  On 
the  7th  February,  a  having  consumed  its  portion 
of  turnips,  was  reweighed,  and  found  to  be  2880 
lbs.  ;  and  on  the  1st  of  March,  having  also  con- 
sumed theirs,  b  weighed  3054  lbs.,  and  c  2966  lbs. 
The  quantity  of  cake  consumed  by  each  division 
was  1182  lbs.,  being  nearly  16  oz.  each  day  per 
sheep. 

978.  The  other  lot  of  60  consisted  of  cheviot 
dinmonts  of  inferior  quality,  20  of  which  d  were 
put  on  turnips  alone,  20  e  on  home  cake,  and  20 
/  on  foreign  cake.  On  the  9th  January,  the 
weight  of  d  was  2031  lbs.,  of  e  2082  lbs.,  and  of/ 
2001  lbs.  On  the  15th  of  February,  d  having 
finished  their  turnips  were  reweighed  and  gave 
2097  lbs.;  and  on  the  2d  of  March,  having  also 
finished  theirs,  c  weighed  2315  lb.,  and  /  2274 
lbs.;  e  and  /  on  the  cake  consuming  the  same 
quantity  of  turnips.  The  management  of  thia 
lot  was  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  other,  de- 
scribed above  ;  but  the  sheep  would  take  no 
more  than  13  oz.  each  of  cake  each  day. 

979.  The  results  of  both  these  experiments 
are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 


Lots  of 
Sheep. 


Live  Live 
weight  weight 
at  first,  at  last. 


(  20  a 

i^  20  6 

(•20  c 

(20  d 

|60-  20  e\ 

I      (20  fi 


lb. 

2S(13 
27(58 
2739 
21131 
20.-<2 
2001 


Incr. 
from 
caltc. 


Of  cake' 

to    pro-i 

duce    i 

1  lb.    I 

mutton.! 


lb. 

2S80 
30')4 
29{!S  i 
2097  I 
2315  I 
2274  1 


77 
286 
227 

6(> 
233 
273 


2U9 
150 


107 

207 


11K2 
1182 


880 

880 


lb.     oz.' 


5    3 
7  14 


5    4 

4    4 


980.  The  remarks  whicli  the  perusal  of  this 
table  suggest  are — that  as  regards  the  increase 
of  live  weight,  the  offal  of  the  sheep  remaining 
comparatively  the  same,  whatever  weight  is 
gained  is  of  intrinsic  value  ;  that  the  improve- 
ment on  the  turnips  alone  is  below  the  average — 
and  this  might  have  been  anticipated  upon  all 
the  sheep,  since  they  were  much  confined  to  a 
particular  spot,  but  as  all  the  lots  experienced 
the  same  inconvenience,  no  one  lot  was  pecu- 
liarly circumstanced  ;  that  the  improvement  ex- 
perienced by  b  and  e  on  the  home  cake,  in  the 
one  field,  was  reversed  by  c  and /on  the  foreign 
in  the  other  field,^a  circumstance  quite  unac- 
countable. The  average  quantity  of  cake  to  pro- 
duce 1  lb.  of  mutton  was  5  lb.  10  oz. 


*  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  vi.  p.  368-370. 


VOL.  I. 


226 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


981.  In  another  experiment  Mr  Bruce  put  15 
sheep  a  upon  linseed,  20  6  upon  linseed  cake,  20 
c  upon  a  mixture  of  beans  and  linseed  for  three 
weeks,  and  afterwards  upon  poppy  cake,  20  d 


upon  bean?,  and  20  e  upon  a  mixture  of  beans 
and  linseed.  The  results  will  be  understood  by 
the  conteuts  of  this  table  : — 


Lots 
of 
sheep 
or2() 
each. 

.11 
lb. 

lb. 

Incr. 

lb. 

a 

1839 

2008 

169 

b 

2401 

2603 

202 

e 

2382 

2479 

97 

~ 

2479 

2657 

178 

d 

2404 

2557 

153 

e 

2417 

2736 

319 

Eaten  by  each  sheep  per 
week. 


lb.    oz. 

3     8^  Linseed 

A\  Beans 
7     li  Linseed  cake 

5  15;  Beans  &  linseed 

9  13^  Poppy  cake 
7     li  Beans 

6  4  Beans  &linseed 


Quantity  of  irpredients  to 
produce  1  lb.  mutton. 


Total  consumption. 


lb,    oz. 

2  14^  Linseed 

6     5    Linseed  cake 

4  11    Beans  &  linseed 


4 
2 

7  3  [6  10    Poppy  cake 
13i  8     b\  Beans 


1     124  3     8i  Beans  &  linseed 


lb. 

477  Linseed 

36  Beans 
1275  Linseed  cake 

310  Beans 
48  Linseed 
1 1 80  Poppy  cake 
1275  Beans 

702  Beans 

422  Linseed 


An  explanation  is  requisite  for  the  presence  of 
beans  with  the  linseed  given  to  the  sheep  in  a  ; 
the  linseed,  lying  in  a  ground  state, had  acquired 
a  musty  smell,  and  the  beans  were  added  to  in- 
duce the  sheep  to  eat  it. 

982.  In  order  to  ascertain  which  of  those  sub- 
stances would  economise  the  consumption  of 
turnips  the  most,  Mr  Bruce  put  all  the  above 
lots  of  sheep  on  a  full  allowance  of  white  turnips. 


without  tops  and  roots,  in  a  grass  field,  together 
with  abundance  of  the  materials  just  enumerated, 
in  the  order  given  above,  and  another  lot  e  of  20 
sheep  were  supported  solely  on  turnips.  The 
remains  of  all  the  turnips  left  were  collected  and 
weighed,  and  deducted  from  the  gross  weight  to 
show  the  actual  consumption.  The  results,  which 
are  interesting,  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
table  :— 


Lots  of 
slieep  of 
20  each. 

Turnips 
consumed 

Other  ingredients 
consumed. 

Consumption  by  Sheep  each  day. 

Saving  of 
Turnips. 

Percentage 
of  saving. 

Turnips. 

Other  ingredients. 

a 

b 
c 
d 

e 
f 

lb. 

1782 

1781 
2402 
2312 

2699 

3522 

lb. 
52  I  Linseed 
3 \  Beans 
200  Linseed  cake 
280  Poppy  cake 
200  Beans 
100)  Beans 
60  i  Linseed 

lb. 
14| 

Hi 

15 

14i 

162 

22 

lb.   oz. 

0    7    )  Linseed 

0  \  \  Beans 

1  4  Linseed  cake 
1  12  Poppy  cake 
1    4  Beans 

0  10  )  Beans 
0    6  \  Linseed 

lb. 

859 

1741 
1120 
1210 

823 

lb. 

324 

491 
31? 
341 

23i 

983.  The  remarks  suggested  by  the  results  of 
this  table  are — that  the  saving  of  turnips  effected 
by  the  linseed  cake  is  very  great,  and  secures  a 
larger  proportion  than  the  cake  used  in  the  for- 
mer experiment  realised  ;  but  much  of  such  re- 
results  as  these  must  depend  on  the  size  and  con- 
dition of  the  sheep,  as  the  lower  the  condition 
the  greater  quantity  of  food  will  be  consumed. 
It  may  be  safely  held,  says  Mr  Bruce,  that  an 
allowance  of  1  lb.  of  good  linseed  cake  to  a  sheep 
of  9  stones'  weight  imperial,  every  day,  will  effect 
a  saving  in  the  consumption  of  turnips  of  33  per 
cent,  and  at  the  same  time  so  improve  the  health 
of  the  sheep  as  to  diminish  the  chances  of  death 
by  upwards  of  50  per  cent. 

984.  Whether  or  not  the  use  of  these  extra- 
neous ingredients  increases  the  tallow  in  sheep  is 
a  reasonable  inquiry,  and  Mr  Bruce  made  experi- 
ments to  ascertain  this  point  also,  by  taking  5 
average  ewes  from  each  division  of  the  experi- 


ment (981,)  first  weighing  them,  and  in  two  days 
afterwards  killing  them  after  being  driven  23 
miles.     The  results  are  detailed  in  the  following 

table  :— 


I-oU  of 

Shwp 

Lire 

Weight  01 

Weight 

"'■r 

of  5 

Fed  upon. 

«eisht. 

carcass. 

ot 

eiuh. 

Dec.  23. 

Dec.  35. 

tallow. 

■kin. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb- 

a 

Linseed  and  be.ins 

666 

344 

55 

62 

b 

Linseed  cake     . 

647 

333 

67 

67 

C 

IJeaiis  and  linseed 

and  poppy  cake 

654 

a-js 

67 

57 

d 

Henns    .... 

&il 

327 

49 

52 

t 

Beans  and  linseed 

688 

347 

61 

60 

985.  The  conclusion  which  Mr  Bruce  draws 
from  these  experiments  is,  that  "  they  clearly 
establish  the  fact,  that  mutton  can  be  produced 
at  a  lower  rate  per  lb.  upon  a  liberal  use  of  such 
ingredients  along  with  turnips  than  upon  turnips 
alone,  taking  of  course  the  increased  value  of  the 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


227 


manure  into  account  ;  and  that  of  the  articles 
used  linseed  is  the  most  valuable,  and  beans  the 
least  so,  but  that  a  mixture  of  the  two  forms  a 
useful  and  nutritious  article  of  food." 

986.  I  would  wish  to  point  out,  in  the  results 
of  the  last  table,  the  curious  relationship  there 
seems  to  exist  between  the  weight  of  the  tallow 
and  the  skin  of  the  sheep.  One  can  scarcely 
imagine  such  a  relation  to  exist,  as  the  weight  of 
the  skin  of  a  lean  and  of  a  fat  sheep  cannot  be 
very  different,  and  a  skin  must  weigh  more  when 
the  wool  is  fully  grown  upon  it  than  when  new 
dipt.  The  skins  above  referred  to  would  be 
pretty  full  of  wool  in  December,  when  the  ewes 
■were  slaughtered.  Still  the  coincidence  of  the 
figures,  indicating  the  weight  of  the  tallow  and 
skin  respectively  is  certainly  remarkable.* 

987.  Experiments  were  made  in  1844-5  on  the 
Earl  of  Radnor's  farm  at  Coleshill,  on  the  com- 
parative fattening  properties  of  different  breeds 
of  sheep  under  the  same  treatment.  The  sheep 
consisted  of  Leicesters,  South-downs,  half-breds, 
■ — a  cross  between  the  Gotswold  and  South-down 
— and  Cotswolds.  The  sheep,  being  then  lambs, 
were  divided  into  lots  of  3  each  of  each  breed, 
and  were  grazed  4  months,  from  29th  August 
1844  to  4th  January  1845,  when  they  were 
put  on  hay  and  swedes  for  3  months,  from  4th 
January  to  the  31st  of  March  following.  While 
on  grass,  the  different  breeds  gained  in  weight  as 
follows : — 


lb. 

The  Leicesters  being  46  each, 

South-downs       47 

Half-breds  44^ 

Cotswolds  56  J 


lb. 

im  each, 

W 

1-2 


greater  money  return  than  the  other  ;  whilst  the 
breeders  of  the  Sussex  South-downs  reply,  that 
more  of  their  smaller  sheep  can  be  kept  on  the 
same  farm.  There  being  this  difference  of  opinion, 
it  is  of  consequence  to  know  which  pays  best  in 
the  same  circumstances.  This  point  has  been 
proved,  in  as  far  as  a  single  trial  can  go,  by  an 
experiment  made  by  Mr  George  Shackel,  Read- 
ing, Berkshire,  on  the  large  and  small  varieties, 
both  bred  in  Hampshire,  and  they  were  lambs. 
He  says, — "  I  give  an.  account  of  the  cost  of  each 
lot,  as  well  as  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  when  they 
were  fat.  The  two  lots  were  fed  in  the  same 
time,  on  the  same  food,  and  penned  on  the  same 
ground,  but  were  kept  separate  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  experiment.  I  allowed  each 
lot  when  on  turnips,  these  not  being  sliced  only 
the  swedes,  the  same  sized  piece  per  day  ;  and 
and  when  on  swedes,  from  Christmas  33  bushels 
sliced  per  day,  and  18  bushels  of  excellent  clover 
chaff  to  each  lot ;  and  on  the  20th  February  1847, 
we  gave  them  1  lb.  each  sheep  of  oil-cake  a-day, 
on  the  average,  until  they  were  sold  out." 

Cost  of  100  very  large  lambs  per  head  in  Oct. 

1846  .....     41s. 

Cost  of  100  very  much  smaller,  weighing  about 

1 .3  st.  less,  but  in  better  condition     .  .     35s. 

Difference  in  price  per  head      .  .       6s. 

Received  per  head  for  the  100  lambs, 
from"  March  to  May  1847-,  which  cost 
4ls.  each  .  .  .  £3     1     3 

Received  per  head  for  the  100  lambs, 
from  March  to  May  1847,  which  cost 
3,5s.  each  .  .  .  2     9     0 

la  favour  of  the  large  lambs  per  head    0  12     3 


988.  While  on  swedes  and  hay  they  gained  as 
fallows  : — 

Gained  each.       Consumed  eadi. 


Hay 

Swedes. 

Leicesters 

15  1b. 

255  lb. 

4027  lb. 

South-downs 

14 

252 

4110 

Half-breds 

17^ 

261 

4255 

Cotswolds 

17 

276 

4862 

Calculating  the  hay  at  76s.  per  ton,  the  swedes 
at  10s.  per  ton,  and  the  mutton  at  7d.  per  lb. 
the  results  of  the  experiment  are  first  in  favour  of 
the  Leicesters,  then  of  the  half-breds,  then  of  the 
South-downs,  and  lastly  of  the  Cotswolds.  The 
experimenter,  Mr  E.  W.  Moore,  observes, 
"  I  have  lately  seen  the  account  of  an  experi- 
ment between  half-bred  sheep  and  the  Leicesters, 
which  confirms  the  opinion  I  entertain,  that  up 
to  a  certain  point  there  is  no  breed  of  sheep  that 
v?ill  make  mutton  so  rapidly  as  the  Leicesters  in 
proportion  to  the  food  consumed." + 

989.  There  are  two  varieties  of  the  South-down 
breed  of  sheep,  one  a  large  plain  sheep,  the  other 
a  small  compact  neat  sheep.  The  defenders  of 
the  large  plain  Hampshire  South-downs  say  that 
this  breed  comes  to  greater  weight,  and  makes  a 


It  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  the  markets  were 
in  favour  of  the  large  lambs  about  2s.  per  head, 
so  that  the  actual  difference  is  10s.  3d.;  and  if  we 
deduct  the  original  difference  of  price  of  6s.  in 
favour  of  the  small  breed,  there  are  still  4s.  3d. 
per  head  in  favour  of  the  large  breed.  It  would 
be  highly  interesting  to  ascertain  the  difference 
between  100  of  the  best  Sussex  and  100  of  the 
best  Hampshire  South-downs,  kept  on  the  same 
land,  on  the  same  food,  and  tested  out  of 
doors.J 

990.  The  efficacy  of  Warnes'  compound  for 
feeding  sheep,  I  will  defer  taking  notice  of  until 
we  come  to  consider  the  nature  of  its  composi- 
tion, and  the  mode  of  making  it  in  the  feeding  of 
cattle. 

991.  Sheep  are  not  fed  on  turnips  on  every 
kind  of  farm.  Carse-farms  are  unsuited  to  this 
kind  of  stock,  and  where  turnips  are  raised 
on  them,  cattle  would  be  more  conveniently 
fed.  There  being,  however,  abundance  of  straw 
on  clay-farms,  sheep  might  be  fattened  for  sale 
in  small  courts  and  sheds  at  the  steading  on  oil- 
cake, and  hay  and  other  succedanea  for  turnips, 
more  easily  than  on  other  farms. 


*  Transactions  of  the  HigMand  and  Agricultural  Society  for  July  1846,  p.  376-81. 

+  Journal  0/  the  Agrlcuftural  Society  of  England,  vol.  vii.  p.  296.  J  Ibid.  vol.  viii.  p.  487. 


228 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


992.  On  farms  in  the  nciglibonrhooil  of  lar>;e 
towns,  wlieiicc  a  supply  of  luanure  is  obtained  at 
all  times,  turnips  are  not  eaten  off  with  sheep  ; 
but  near  small  towns,  they  are  so  fattened  to 
manure  the  land.  They  are  boujjht  in  for  the 
purpose,  and  consist  of  Clieviot  or  Black-faced 
wethers,  Leicester  hoggs.or  draft  ewes — the  latter 
of  which,  if  young,  feed  more  quickly  thaa 
wethers  of  the  same  age. 

993.  On  dairy  farms  there  is  as  little  use  for 
sheep  as  near  towns,  except  a  few  wethers  to  eat 
off  part  of  the  turnips  raised  with  bone-dust  or 
guano,  in  place  of,  or  in  conjunction  with,  farm- 
yard dung. 

994.  On  pastoral  farms,  sheep  are  not  fattened 
on  turnips  ;  but  their  treatment  in  winter  pos- 
sesses exciting  interest.  There  are  tico  torts  of 
jia$tural  farms  for  sheep,  and  I  shall  make  a  few 
remarks  on  their  constitution,  and  of  their  fitness 
for  rearing  sheep. 

99.5.  Tlie  first  thing  that  ? trikes  any  one  on  ex- 
amining a  pastoral  country  is  the  entire  vant  of 
shelter.  After  being  accustomed  to  see  the  en- 
closed and  protected  fields  of  arable  land,  the  wind- 
ing valleys  and  round-backed  hills  of  a  pastoral 
country  appear  naked  and  bleak.  One  is  not  sur- 
prised to  find  bare  mountain-tops,  and  exposed 
slopes,  iu  an  alpine  country,  because  it  is  scarcely 
practicable  for  man  to  enclose  and  shelter  elerated 
and  peaked  mountains  ;  but  amongst  green  hills 
and  narrow  glens,  where  no  natural  obstacles  to 
the  formation  of  shelter  seem  to  exist,  but  whose 
beautiful  outlines  rather  indicate  them  as  sites 
for  plantations  that  would  delight  the  eye  of 
the  beholder,  one  would  expect  to  see  at  least 
ordinary  means  used  for  procuring  shelter  and 
comfort;  and,  should  these  even  be  deemed  too 
great  for  the  sake  of  the  farm  itself,  the  farm- 
house might  surely  receive  protection  from 
trees. 

996.  The  chief  difficulty  of  forming  shelter 
by  planting  on  a  large  scale  is  the  dreaded  ex- 
pense of  enclosing  it — for  it  is  wisely  concluded 
there  is  no  use  of  planting  trees  unless  they  can 
be  protected  from  injury,  and  few  animals  injure 
young  trees  so  severely  as  sheep,  by  nibbling 
with  their  teeth  as  well  as  rubbing  against  them 
with  their  fleece,  and  yet  in  a  mountainous 
country  there  is  no  want  of  rock  for  building 
rough  but  substantial  stone  fences  ;  labour  is 
but  required  to  remove  and  put  them  together, 
and  it  is  surprising  what  a  quantity  of  stones  a 
couple  of  men  will  quarry  from  a  hill  face,  and 
a  couple  of  single-horse  carts  will  convey,  in  the 
course  of  a  summer.  The  carriage  could  always 
be  made  downhill,  fresh  rock  being  accessible  at 
a  higher  elevation  as  the  building  proceeds  up- 
wards. Or,  failing  rock,  turf,  even  peaty  turf, 
makes  a  very  good  turf  wall. 

997.  Suppose  a  hill-farm  containing  4  square 
miles,  or  2560  acres,  were  enclosed  with  a  ring- 
fence  of  plantation  of  at  least  60  yards  in  width, 


the  ground  occupied  by  it  would  amount  to  174 
acres.  A  6-feet  stone  wall  round  the  inside  of 
the  planting  will  extend  to  13,600  yards,  which  at 
Is.  6d.  per  running  yard,  will  cost  £1020.  But  the 
sheltered  2386  acres  will  be  worth  more  to  the 
tenant,  and  of  course  to  the  landlord,  than  the  en- 
tire 2560acre5  unsheltered  would  ever  be;  and  the 
fence  will  enhance  the  growth  of  the  trees  by  10 
years  at  least,  whilst  the  proprietor  will  have 
the  value  of  the  wood  for  the  cost  of  fencing. 
Besides,  planting  one  farm  with  a  ring-fence  shel- 
ters one  side  of  4  adjoining  farms  of  the  same  size. 
Were  neighbouring  proprietors  to  undertake 
simultaneously  the  sheltering  of  their  farms  by 
large  plantations,  on  a  systematic  plan,  not  only 
would  warmth  be  imparted  over  a  wide  extent 
of  country,  but  the  planting  and  fencing  would 
be  accomplished  along  the  march-fences  at  less 
cost  to  each  proprietor. 

998.  Low  pastoral  farms  are  usually  stocked 
with  Cheviot,  and  high  ones  with  the  more  hardy 
Black-faced  breed  ;  and  although  the  general 
treatment  of  both  is  nearly  alike,  yet  the 
respective  farms  are  laid  out  in  a  somewhat 
different  manner. 

999.  A  low  sheep-farm  contains  from  500  to 
2000  sheep — one  that  maintains  from  500  to 
1000  is  perhaps  the  highest  rented,  being  within 
the  capital  of  many  farmers ;  and  one  that 
maintains  from  1000  to  2000,  if  it  have  arable 
land  attached  to  it,  is  perhaps  the  most  pleasant 
to  possess,  as  it  affords  employment  to  the 
farmer,  while  he  could  easily  manage  the  con- 
cerns of  6000  sheep  without  arable  land,  with 
good  shepherds  under  him.  A  shepherd  to  every 
600  sheep  is  considered  a  fair  allowance,  where 
the  ground  is  not  very  difficult  to  traverse, 
and  it  may  be  held  as  a  fair  stent  to  put  1000 
sheep  on  every  1200  acres  imperial.* 

1 000.  Every  sheep-farm  should  have  as  much 
arable  land  to  cultivate  as  to  supply  turnips 
and  hay  to  the  stock,  and  provisions  to  the  people 
who  inhabit  it.  It  is  true,  the  necessaries  and 
luxuries  of  life  may  be  purchased ;  but  every 
dweller  in  the  country  would  prefer  to  raise  the 
necessaries  of  life  to  purchasing  them  in  any  town 
or  village.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  pro- 
portion which  the  arable  land  should  bear  to  the 
pastoral,  to  supply  all  the  necessaries  ;  but  per- 
haps 2  acres  arable  to  every  20  breeding  ewes 
may  suffice.  Taking  this  ratio  as  a  basis  of  cal- 
culation, a  pastoral  farm  maintaining  1000  ewes 
should  have  100  acres  arable,  which  would  re- 
quire 2  pair  of  horses  to  labour  jn  a  4-course 
shift ;  the  pasture  supplying  the  place  of  two- 
years-old  lea.  The  rotation  would  be  divided 
into  25  acres  of  green  crops,  25  acres  of  corn 
after  them,  25  acres  of  sown  grasses,  and  25 
acres  of  oats  after  the  grasses.  Manure  will  be 
required  for  25  acres  of  green  crop,  which  would 
partly  be  supplied  by  the  50  acres  of  straw, 
by  bone-dust  or  guano,  and  by  sheep  on  the 
turnips.  To  make  the  straw  into  manure  there 
are  4  horses,  the  cows  of  the  farmer,  the  shep- 


little's  Practical  Oburration*  on  MouHtain  Skeep,  p.  10. 


FEEDIXG  SHEEP  OX  TUKN^IPS. 


229 


herd,  and  ploughmen  ;  with  a  young  heifer  or 
two,  the  offspring  of  the  cows.  The  arable  land 
should  be  enclosed  within  a  ring-fence  of  thorn, 
if  the  situation  will  admit  of  its  growth,  or  of 
stone. 

1001.  A  steading  suitable  for  the  arable  por- 
tion of  such  a  sheep-farm  should  have  all  the 
accommodation  afforded  in  the  plan,  fig.  55,  where 
the  north  range  of  building,  standing  E.  and  W., 


Fig.  55. 


.,„„,^ 


<^ 


STEADING  FOR  THE  ARABLE  PART  OF  A 
SHEEP- FARM. 

is  18  feet  in  width,  comprehending  a  cart-shed, 
a,  18  feet  square,  gig-house,  b,  10  feet  by  18  feet, 
corn-barn,  c,  32  feet  by  1 8  feet  with  chaff-house, 
<^,  straw-barn,  e,  40  feet  by  18  feet  on  the  ground, 
with  granary  above  the  implement-house,  cart- 
shed,  and  gig-house,  and  upper-barn  over  the 
corn-barn,  with  a  door,  for  taking  in  the  grain  in 
sheaf,  by  the  side  of  the  horse  course,  p,  which  is 
26  feet  in  diameter.  The  E.  wing  is  18  feet  in 
width,  and  contains  the  cart  stable,  32  feet  by  18 
feet,  fitted  up  with  a  loose  box,  /,  and  4  stalls,  ,j, 
6  feet  wide,  a  hay-house,/),  10  feet  by  18  feet, 
riding-stable,  i,  12  feet  by  18  feet,  and  boiler- 
house,  0,  15  feet  by  18  feet,  with  a  boiler  and  fur- 
nace in  the  gable.  The  W.  wing  is  also  18  feet 
in  width,  and  contains  an  implement-house,  k,  18 
feet  square,  a  cow-byre,  /,  25  feet  by  18  feet, 
having  5  stalls  of  5  feet  each ;  an  out-house,  n, 
12  feet  by  18  feet,  for  weighing  the  wool  in  and 
doing  any  thing  to  the  sheep,  and  a  wool-room, 
IB,  34  feet  by  18  feet.  The  apartments  may  be 
made  larger  or  smaller  to  suit  the  extent  of  the 
farm  :  r  is  the  pump-well ;  s  granary  stair  :  the 
partition  walls  are  1  foot  thick. 

1002.  The  pasture  division  of  the  farm  should 


bfe  subdivided  into  different  lots.  Hoggs  are  best 
adapted  for  soft  rough  grass,  springing  from  a 
damp  deep  soil,  and  ewes  for  the  short  and  bare, 
upon  a  dry  soil  and  subsoil.  Hoggs  attain  large 
bone  on  soft  rough  pasture,  where  ewes  would 
rot,  and  these  thrive  better  on  dry  soil  where 
hoggs  would  be  stinted.  That  farm  is  best 
which  contains  both  kinds  of  pasture,  and  main- 
tains both  breeding  and  rearing  stock. 

1003.  In  subdividing  a  farm  into  lots,  each 
should  contain  within  itself  the  same  quality  of 
pasture,  whether  rough  or  short  ;  for  if  fine  and 
coarse  grass  be  within  the  same  lot,  the  stock 
will  remain  almost  constantly  upon  the  fine.  To 
the  extent  of  one-fifth  of  coarse  to  fine  may  be 
permitted  within  the  same  lot.  Should  a  large 
space  of  upper  and  inferior  soil  lie  contiguous  to 
what  is  much  better,  it  should  be  divided  by  a 
fence;  and,  if  requisite,  a  different  breed  of  sheep 
reared  upon  it.  By  such  arrangements,  not  only 
a  greater  number  of  sheep  might  be  maintained 
upon  a  farm,  but  the  larger  number  would  always 
be  in  better  condition.* 

1004.  The  drainage  of  pastoral  farms  should 
never  be  neglected.  The  best  mode  of  doing  it 
will  be  fully  explained  to  you  when  we  come  to 
treat  of  the  subject  of  draining  in  general. 
Meanwhile  you  should  know,  in  reference  to 
pastoral  farms,  that  one  means  of  keeping  part  of 
the  surface  dry  is  to  scour  the  channel  of  every 
rivulet,  however  tiny,  that  runs  through  the 
farm,  every  year— especially  in  those  parts  where 
accumulated  gravel  causes  the  water  to  overflow 
its  banks  in  rainy  weather,  or  at  the  breaking  up 
of  a  storm.  The  overflowed  water,  acting  as  a 
sort  of  irrigation,  sets  up  a  fresh  vegetation, 
which  is  eagerly  devoured  by  sheep  in  spring,  to 
the  risk  of  their  health  ;  and  the  sand  carried 
by  it  is  left  on  the  grass  on  the  subsidence  of  the 
water,  much  to  the  injury  of  the  teeth  and 
stomachs  of  the  sheep.  The  confinement  of 
water  within  its  channels  also  prevents  it  wet- 
ting the  land. 

1005.  In  recommending  a  connexion  of  arable 
with  a  pasture-farm,  my  object  is  simply  to 
secure  an  abundant  supply  of  food  for  sheep  in 
winter.  Were  our  winters  as  mild  as  to  allow 
the  sheep  to  range  over  the  hills  in  plenty  and 
safety,  there  would  be  little  use  for  arable  land, 
for  the  provisions  of  its  inhabitants  could  easily 
be  obtained  from  a  market.  But  when  storms 
at  times  almost  overwhelm  a  whole  flock,  and 
protracted  snow  and  frost  debar  the  use  of  the 
ground  for  weeks  togetlier,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  provide  food  for  slock  upon  the 
farm.  I  am  aware  of  the  folly  of  trusting  to 
corn  in  a  high  district  to  pay  rent  with, — the 
stock  must  provide  for  that ;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
more  food  and  shelter  are  provided  in  icinter  for 
stock,  the  less  loss  will  be  incurred  during  the 
most  inclement  season.  Let  one  instance,  out  of 
many,  suffice  to  show  the  comparative  immunity 
from   loss   in   providing   food   and    shelter  for 


*  A  Lammertnuir  Farmer's  Treatise  on  Sheep  in  High  Districts,^.  51.    The  Lammermuir  Farmer 
was  the  late  Mr  John  Fairbairn,  Hallyburton,  Berwickshire. 


330 


PRACTICf::— WINTER. 


sheep  in  winter.  In  the  wet  and  cold  winters  of 
1816  and  1818,  the  more  tlian  usual  loss  of  sheep 
and  lambs  on  the  farm  of  Crosscleuch,  Selkirk- 
shire, was  as  follows  : — 

lu  I8I& 
200  lambs  at  8s.  each       .      £80     0    0 
4Uoldshecp,  afJOs.  each       40     0     9 

£120    0    0 

In  1818. 
200  lambs,  at  8s.  each     .      £80     0     0 
30  old  sheep,  at  20s.  each      30    0    0 


Value  of  total  ejira  loss. 


110     0     0 
£230    0    0 


whereas  on  the  farm  of  Bowerhope,  belonging  to 
the  same  farmer,  and  on  whicli  one-third  more 
sheep  are  kept,  the  e-rtra  loss  in  those  years  was 
as  follows  : — 
In  1816. 
70  lambs,  at  8s.  each       .      £28     0     0 
10  old  sheep,  at  203.  each         10     0     0 

£38    0    0 

In  1818. 

50  lambs,  at  8s.  each       .     £20    0    0 
8  old  sheep,  at  20s.  each  8    0     0 

28    0    0 


Valne  of  total  ejIra  loss 
Deduct  loss  on  Crosscleuch, 


£6()     0    0 
230    0    0 


Value  saved  on  farm  of  Bowerhope  £164     0    0* 

lOOG.  Food  and  shelter  being  thus  both  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  treatment  of  sheep  in  winter, 
the  means  of  supplying  them  demand  the  most 
serious  attention  of  the  store-farmer.  In  winter, 
sheep  occupy  the  lower  part  of  the  farm.  Hoggs 
are  netted  on  turnips  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  and  ewes  and  other  sheep  subsist  on  the 
grass  as  long  as  it  is  green.  The  division 
allotted  to  green  crop  in  the  arable  part  of  the 
farm  contains  25  acres,  and  allowing  3  acres  for 
potatoes  for  the  use  of  the  farmer  and  his 
people,  there  remain  22  acres  for  turnips  ;  and 
as  land  among  the  hills  is  generally  dry,  turnips 
grow  well  there  ;  so  that  30  double-horse  cart- 
loads to  the  acre,  of  1 5  cwt.  each,  may  be  cal- 
culated on  as  a  return  from  the  crop.  It  is  thus 
judiciously  recommended  by  Mr  Fairbairn  to 
strip  and  carry  off,  about  the  end  of  October  or 
beginning  of  November,  if  the  weather  is  fresh, 
before  the  grass  fails,  J  of  the  turnips,  and  store 
them  in  heaps  ;  and  allow  the  eice-hoij<js  to  eat 
the  remaining  ^  on  the  ground,  with  the  small 
turnips  left  when  tlie  others  were  pulled.  In  strip- 
ping the  land  in  this  proportion,  1  drill  should  be 
left  and  4  carried  otf.  This  is  an  e.xcelleut  sug- 
gestion for  adoption  on  every  hill-farm,  as  it 
secures  the  turnips  from  frost,  and  gives  the 
entire  command  of  them  whenever  required  in 
a  storm. 

1007.  It  is  found  that  Ao././s  fall  ofif  in  condition 
on  turnips  in  spring,  in  a  "high  district,  if  con- 
fined upon  the  turnip-land  —  not  for  want  of 
food,  but  of  shelter  and  of  teeth.  They  are 
always  removed  from  the   turnips  in  the  after- 


noon to  the  pasture,  where  they  remain  all  night, 
and  are  brought  bade  to  the  turnips  in  the 
following  morning.  Tliis  treatment,  it  is  obvi- 
ous, deprives  the  land  of  much  of  the  manure 
derivable  from  the  turnips  ;  and  hence,  farm- 
dung  should  be  put  on  the  land  instead,  where 
the  turnips  were  raised  with  bone-dust  or  guano, 
before  the  grain  is  sown.  The  turnips  thus  con- 
sumed occupying  4j  acres,  may  last  the  17  score 
of  ewe  hoggs — the  number  kept  for  refresliing 
the  ewe-stock — about  6  or  7  weeks.  After  the 
turnips  are  consumed,  the  hoggs  should  be  sup- 
plied from  tl>e  store  sliced  on  their  pasture,  with 
1  double  cart-load  to  every  8  score,  which  will 
be  consumed  in  about  4  hours,  after  which  they 
depend  on  the  grass  for  the  remainder  of  the 
day.  Hoggs  are  treated  in  this  manner  until 
March,  or  longer,  if  the  weather  is  bleak  ;  when 
they  maintain  their  Condition,  and  become  proof 
against  the  manj^diseases  which  poverty  engen- 
ders, and  their  fleece  weighs  J  lb.  more.  The 
cost  of  the  8  acres  of  turnips  given  to  the  hoggs, 
valued  at  £3  an  acre,  in  a  high  district,  is  17d, 
on  each,  which  is  so  far  reimbursed  by  the 
additional  pound  of  wool  worth  lOd.  oris.  The 
balance  of  5d.  to  7d.  a  head,  the  true  cost  of  the 
keep  of  the  sheep  on  turnips,  is  a  trifle  compared 
to  the  advantage  of  wintering  them  in  a  healthy 
state  and  fair  condition. 

1008.  As  to  the  older  sheep,  they  must  partly 
depend,  in  storm,  upon  the  14  acres  of  turnips 
yet  in  store,  and  hay.  The  hay  is  obtained  from 
the  20  acres  of  new  grass,  and  allowing  5  acres 
for  cutting-grass  for  suppers  to  horses  and  cows, 
15  acres,  at  120  hay-stones  (of  22  lbs.)  per  acre, 
gi>e  2400  hay,  or  3771  imperial  stones.  The 
1000  ewes  will  eat  Ij  lb.  each  every  day,  be- 
sides the  two  cart-loads  of  turnips  amongst 
them,  and  the  hoggs  ^  lb.  of  hay.  At  this  rate 
the  hay  will  last  31  days,  a  shorter  time  than 
many  storms  continue.  The  ground  would  yield 
more  hay  were  it  top-dressed  with  a  special 
manure;  and,  besides  this,  the  rule  should  be  to 
begin  with  a  full  hand  of  liay  at  the  commence- 
ment of  farming,  and  preserve  what  may  be 
left  over  in  a  favourable  season,  to  mi.x  with 
the  new  of  the  following  one,  with  a  little  salt, 
and  be  thus  prepared  for  any  unusual  coutiuu- 
ance  of  storm. 

1009.  But  in  a  storm,  provender  eannot  be 
given  to  sheep  upon  snow,  safely  and  conve- 
niently, as  ground  drift  may  blow  and  cover  up 
both  ;  so  no  place  is  so  suitable  for  preserving  sheep 
and  provender  safe  from  drift  as  a  stell.  There 
are  ,  still  many  store-farmers  sceptical  of  the 
utility  of  stellS,  if  we  may  judge  from  their 
practice  ;  but  many  repetitions  of  a  storm  are 
not  required  to  convince  any  one,  that  stock  are 
much  more  comfortably  lodged  within  a  high 
enclosure  than  on  an  open  heath.  A  stell  may  be 
formed  of  plantations  or  high  .^tone-wall.  Either 
will  afibrd  shelter  ;  but  the  plantation  requires 
to  be  fenced  by  a  stone-wall.  Of  the  planta- 
tion stells,  I  conceive  the  form  of  fig.  5G  a  good 


•  Napier's  Treatise  on  Practical  Store-Farming,  p.  126. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  OX  TURXIPS. 


231 


one,  and  may  be  characterised  an  outside  stell. 
It  has  been  erected  by  Dr  Howison,  of  Cross- 
Fig.  56. 


THE  OUTSIDE  STELL  SHELTERED  BY  PLANTATION, 
ON  EVERY  QUARTER. 

burn  House,  Lanarkshire,  and  proved  for  30 
years.  The  circumscribing  stone-wall  is  6  feet 
high,  the  ground  within  it  is  planted  with  trees. 
Its  4  rounded  projections  shelter  a  corresponding 
number  of  recesses  embraced  between  them;  so 
that,  let  the  wind  blow  from  whatever  quarter  it 
may,  two  of  the  recesses  will  always  be  sheltered 
from  the  storm.  The  size  of  this  stell  is  regu- 
lated by  the  number  of  the  sheep  kept  ;  but  this 
rule  may  be  remembered  in  regard  to  its  power 
for  accommodating  stock — that  each  recess  occu- 
pies about  i  part  of  the  space  comprehended  be- 
tween the  extremities  of  the  4  projections;  so  that, 
in  a  stell  covering  4  acres— which  is  perhaps  as 
small  as  it  should  be— each  recess  will  contain  .'; 
an  acre.  "  But,  indeed,"  as  Dr  Howison  observes, 
"  were  it  not  from  motives  of  economy,  I  know 
no  other  circumstance  that  should  set  bounds  to 
the  size  of  the  stells  ;  as  a  small  addition  of 
walls  adds  so  greatly  to  the  number  of  the  trees, 
that  they  become  the  more  valuable  as  a  plan- 
tation ;  and  the  droppings  of  the  sheep  or 
cattle  increase  the  value  of  the  pasture  to  a 
considerable  distance  around  in  a  tenfold  de- 
gree."* 

1010.  In  making  stells  of  plantation,  it  would 
be  desirable  to  plant  the  outside  row  of  trees  as 
far  in  as  their  branches  shall  not  drop  water  upon 
the  sheep  in  their  lair,  as  such  dropping  never 
fails  to  chill  them  with  cold,  or  entangle  their 
wool  with  icicles.  The  spruce,  by  its  pyramidal 
form,  has  no  projecting  branches  at  top,  and 
affords  excellent  shelter  by  its  evergreen  leaves 
and  closeness  of  sprays,  descending  to  the  very 
ground.  The  Scots  fir  would  fill  up  the  intervals 
behind  between  the  spruce  ;  but  every  soil  does 
not  suit  the  spruce,  so  it  may  be  impossible  to 
plant  it  every  where.  Larches  grow  best  amongst 
the  debris  of  rocks  and  gn  the  sides  of  ravines; 


Scbts  fir  on  thin  dry  soils,  however  near  the  rock 
may  be  ;  and  the  spruce  in  deep  moist  soils. 

1011.  The  late  Lord  Napier  recommended  the 
establishment  of  what  he  called  a  "  system  of 
stells,"  which  would  place  one  in  the  "  particular 
haunt"  of  every  division  of  the  flock  ;  and  he 
considered  that  24  stells  would  be  required  on  a 
farm  maintaining  1000  sheep— that  is,  1  to  little 
more  than  every  40  sheep.f  However  desirable 
it  is  to  afford  protection  and  shelter  to  stock,  it 
is  possible  to  incur  more  trouble  and  expense 
than  necessary  in  accomplishing  the  object.  On 
a  farm  where  the  practice  is  for  the  whole  hirsel 
to  graze  together,  it  would  almost  be  impracti- 
cable to  divide  them  into  lots  of  40,  one  lot  for 
each  stell  ;  and  the  division  could  not  be  accom- 
plished without  great  waste  of  time,  much  bodily 
fatigue  to  the  shepherd  and  his  dog,  and  con- 
siderable heating  to  the  sheep.  I  rather  agree 
in  opinion  with  the  late  Mr  William  Hogg,  shep- 
herd, Stobohope,  that  stells  should  be  as  large  as 
to  contain  200  or  even  ."00  sheep  on  an  emer- 
gency ;  and  even  in  the  bustle  necessarily  occa- 
sioned by  the  dread  of  a  coming  storm,  200 
could  be  easily  shed  off  from  the  rest,  and 
accommodated  in  the  sheltered  recesses  of  a  stell 
like  fig.  56,  which  is  accessible  from  all  quar- 
ters ;  and  5  such  stells  would  accommodate  the 
whole  hirsel  of  1000  sheep. 

1012.  Suppose,  then,  that  5  .such  stells  were 
erected  at  convenient  places — not  near  any  natu- 
ral means  of  shelter,  such  as  a  crag,  ravine,  or 
deep  hollow,  but  on  an  open  rising  plain,  over 
which  the  drift  sweeps  unobstructed,  and  on- 
which,  of  course,  it  remains  in  less  qmntity  than 
on  any  other  place— with  a  stack  of  hay  inside, 
and  a  store  of  turnips  oiitsiile,  food  would  be 
provided  fur  an  emergency.  On  a  sudden  blast 
arriving,  tlie  whole  hivsel  might  be  safely  lodged 
for  the  night  in  the  leeward  outside  recesses  of 
even  one  or  two  of  these  stells,  and,  should 
prognostics  threaten  a  /i/hu/  storm,  next  day,  all 
the  stells  could  be  inhabited  in  a  short  time. 
Lord  Napier  recommends  a  stack  of  hay  to  be 
placed  close  to  the  outside  of  every  small  circu- 
lar stell  ;  but  it,  so  placed,  would,  I  conceive,  be 
a  means  of  arresting  the  drift  which  would 
otherwise  pass  on. 

1013.  Instead  of  the  small  circular  stell,  Mr 
Fairbairn  recommends  a  form  without  planta- 
tion, having  4  concave  sides,  and  a  wall  running 
out  from  each  projecting  angle,  as  in  fig.  57 — eacli 
stell  to  enclose  i  an  acre  of  ground,  to  be  fenced 
with  a  stone-wall  6  feet  high,  if  done  by  the 
landlord  ;  but  if  by  the  tenant,  3  feet  of  the 
wall  to  be  built  of  stone,  and  the  other  3 
feet  built  of  turf  ;  which  last  construction,  if  done 
by  contract,  would  not  cost  more  than  2s.  per 
rood  of  6  yards.  An  objection  to  this  form  of 
stell,  without  a  plantation,  maybe  seen  when  the 
wind  rushes  into  any  of  the  recesses  :  it  strikes 
against  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  wall, 
from  which,  being  reflected  upwards,   it  throws 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Ilhjhland  and  AgricuUural  Society,  \o\.  xii.  p.  3c 
+  Napier's  Treatise  on  Practical  Store-Farming,  p.  122. " 


34. 


S82 


PRACTICE— WLNTER. 


down  the  enow  immediately  beyond  the  wall, 
where  the  drift  is  deposited  in  the  inside  of  the 

Fig.  57. 


A  FORM  OF  OUTSIDE  STKLL  WITHOUT 
PLANTATION. 

stell  ;  a«d  hence  it  is,  I  presume,  that  Mr  Fair- 
bairn  objects  to  sheep  being  lodged  in  the  inside 
of  a  BteU.* 


1014.  Tills  form,  though  affording  more  shelter, 
i^  open  to  the  same  objections  as  were  the  ancient 
stells,  a,  b,  or  c,  fig.  58,  the  remains  of  n^any  of 
which  may  Le  observed  amongst  the  hills,  and 
might  yet  screen  sLeep  from  a  boisterous  blast 
in  summer. 

1015.  Much  diversity  of  opinion  exi?ts  regard- 
ing the  utility  of  theepcoti  on  a  store-farm. 
These  are  rudely  formed  houses,  in  which  sheep 
are  put  under  cover  in  wet  weaiher,  especially 
at  lambii;^'  time.  Lord  Isapier  recommended, 
one  to  be  erected  beside  every  stell,  to  contain 
the  hay  in  winter  if  necessary,  and  Mr  Little 
advises  them  to  be  bnilt  to  coutain  the  whole 
hirsel  of  sheep  in  wet  weather.  It  seems  a  chi- 
merical project  to  house  a  large  flock  of  sheep 
for  days,  and  perhaps  weeks  ;  and,  if  practicable, 
could  not  be  done  but  at  great  cost.  I  agree 
with  those  who  object  to  sheep-cots  on    high 


Fig.  58. 


FORMS  OF  ANCIENT  STELLS. 


farms,  because,  when  inhabited  in  winter,  even 
for  one  night,  by  as  many  sheep  as  would  fill 
them,  an  unnatural  height  of  temperature  is 
occasioned.  Cots  may  be  serviceable  at  night 
when  a  ewe  or  two  becomes  sick  at  lambing,  or 
when  a  lamb  has  to  be  mothered  upon  a  ewe 
that  has  lost  her  own  lamb,  and  such  ca^es  being 
few  at  a  time,  the  cot  never  becomes  overheated. 

1016.  In  an  unsheltered  store-farm  it  is  found 
requisite  to  have  '2  paddocks,  nnd  the  number  is 
sufficient  to  contain  all  the  invalid  sheep,  tups, 
and  twin  lambs,  uutil  strung  enough  to  join  the 
hirsel. 

1017.  Hay  should  be  stacked  within,  and  the 
turnips  stored  around  the  outside  walls,  or  in 
the  plantation  of  stells. 

1018.  Tups  may  gra«e  with  the  hirsel  ia  the 
early  part  of  the  summer  ;  but  as  no  ordinary 
wall  will  confine  then  in  autumn,  they  should 
be  penned  in  one  of  the  stells,  on  hay  or  turnips, 
until  put  to  the  ewes. 

1019.  Where  a  rivulet  passes  through  an  im- 
portant part  of  a  farm,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
throw  hridijeM  across  it  at  convenient  places  for 
sheep  to  pass  easily  along,  to  better  pasture  or 
better  Shelter  on  the  opposite  bank.  Bridges 
are  best  constructed  of  stone,  and  though  rough. 


if  put  together  on  correct  principles,  will  be 
strongest  ;  but  if  stone  cannot  be  found  fit  for 
arches,  they  may  do  for  the  buttresses,  and  trees 
laid  close  together  across  the  opening,  held  firm 
"by  transverse  pieces,  and  then  covered  with 
tough  turf,  will  form  a  safe  roadway. 

1020.  For  some  time,  the  South-down  sheep 
lave  been  triedfn  thesame  pastoral  districts  as  the 
Cheviot  have  occupied  for  many  years,  and  since 
then  have  shown  an  equal  aptitude  with  the  Che- 
viot for  the  Scottish  lowland  pastoral  climate  ; 
and  as  their  mutton  is  the  favourite  in  the  Lon- 
don market,  I  think  it  not  improbable  they  may, 
ere  many  years  pass,  supersede  the  Cheviot  in 
many  of  oar  pastoral  farms,  as  they  have  already 
trenched  upon  their  ground  in  many  localities  in 
the  low  country. 

1021.  Tlie  highest  hill  farms  for  sheep  in  Scot- 
land occupy  an  altitude  ranging  from  1500  to 
3000  feet  and  upwards  above  the  sea,  and  indeed 
some  of  them  extend  to  the  highest  points  of  our 
mountain  ranges. 

1022.  At  such  elevations,  the  pasture  must 
necessarily  be  both  coarse  and  scanty,  consisting 
entirely  of  alpine  plants.  A  considerable  extent 
of  such  herbage  is  required  to  support  a  single 
sheep  during  a  summer,  and  consequently  the 
farms  are  of  very  great  extent,  many  of  them 


*  A  Lammermuir  Farmer's  Treatise  on  Sheep  in  Hi^h  Districts,  p.  58. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


23? 


extending  miles  in  length,  and  embracing  many 
thousands  of  acres. 

,023.  The  Black-faced,  or  mountain  or  heath 
sheep,  as  it  is  called,  because  it  thrives  upon 
heath  as  a  food,  is  a  breed  of  sheep  admirably  well 
suited  for  occupying  the  highest  range  of  farms, 
— having  not  or.ly  a  bold  and  daring  disposition, 
capable  of  enduring  much  fatigue  in  search  of 
food,  but  a  hardy  constitution,  and  yielding  a  con- 
siderable quantum  of  the  most  delicious  mutton. 

1024.  The  circumstance  of  elevation  and  seclu- 
sion from  roads  imposes  in  the  treatment  of  this 
breed  a  difference  from  that  pursued  in  the 
lower  country.  The  store-farmers  of  the  lovsrer 
country  who  breed  Black-faced  sheep  sell  what 
lambs  they  can  spare  after  retaining  as  many 
as  will  keep  their  ewe-stock  fresh.  They  thus 
dispose  of  all  their  wether-hoggs,  the  smaller 
ewe-hoggs,  and  draft- ewes.  Suppose  1000  ewes 
wean  1000  lambs,  500  of  these  will  be  wether 
and  500  ewe  hoggs,  of  which  latter  17  score,  or 
340,  will  be  retained,  to  replace  one-sixth  of  the 
ewes  drafted  every  year,  and  the  remaining  160, 
together  with  the  500  wether-lambs,  will  be  dis- 
posed of.  The  high  hill  store-farmer  purchases 
those  lambs,  rears  them  until  fit,  as  wethers,  to 
go  to  the  low  country  to  be  fed  fat  on  turnips  ; 
and,  acting  thus,  he  never  keeps  breeding  ewes. 

1025.  The  state  of  the  hill-pastures  modify  the 
mode  of  management  on  the  hill-farms.  The 
hill-pasture  does  hot  rise  quickly  in  spring, 
nor  until  early  summer  ;  and  when  it  does  be- 
gin to  vegetate,  it  grows  rapidly  into  herbage, 
affording  a  full  bite.  It  is  found  that  this 
young  and  succulent  herbage  is  not  congenial  to 
the  ewe  —it;  is  apt  to  superinduce  in  her  the 
liver-rot ;  but  -It  is  well  adapted  for  forwarding 
the  condition  and  increasing  the  size  of  bone  of 
young,  sheep.  It  is,  therefore,  safer  for  the  hill- 
farmers  to  purchase  lambs  from  the  south  coun- 
try pastoral  farmers,  who  breed  Black-faced 
sheep  largely,  as  well  as  the  Cheviot,  than  tg, 
keep  standing  flocks  of  ewes  of  their  own.  Tlf^ 
winter  half-year,  too,  on  the  hills,  is  a 'long 
period  to  be  obliged  to  sustain  a  flock  of  ewes  on 
extraneous  food, 

1026.  It  seems- impracticable  to  have  arable 
land  on  a  hill-farm,  at  least  hill-farmers  are  un- 
willing to  admit  that  turnips  are  the  best  food 
for  their  stock  in  winter.  Whatever  may  prompt 
them  to  object  to  arable  culture  on  their  farms,  the 
reasons  would  be  very  strong  that  would  prove 
that  Black-faced  sheep  would  not  thrive  on  tur- 
nips in  the  hills,  if  these  were  raised  for  them 
on  the  spot.  Doubtless  on  many  farms,  far  re- 
moved from  the  great  roads,  it  would  be  diflicult 
to  bring  even  a  favoured  piece  of  ground  into 
culture,  and  especially  to  raise  green  crops  upon 
it  as  they  should  be  ;  but  there  are  many  glens 
among  the  hills,  not  far  removed  from  tolerable 
roads,  in  which  the  soil  might  be  cultivated  to 
great  advantage,and  the  gieen  crop  and  hay  from 
which  would  maintain  the   flock  well  through 


a  stormy  period  extending  from  6  weeks  to  2 
months. 

1027.  As  a  corroborative  proof  of  the  utility 
of  cultivated  land  to  hill-farms,  is  the  practice 
of  hill-farmers  taking  turnips  or  rough  grazings 
for  their  stock  in  the  lower  part  of  the  country, 
as  nearly  adjacent  to  their  own  homes  as  food 
can  be  procured  ;  and  of  the  lowland  farmers, 
wlio  possess  hill-fanns,  bringing  tlieir  sheep  to 
the  low  country  in  winter,  and  putting  them  on 
turnips.  If  turnips  and  rough  pasture  will  repay 
to  be  so  taken,  much  more  would  they  repay 
if  raised  at  home  ;  and  if  the  stock  might  be 
thus  brought  through  the  dreary  part  of  winter 
tolerably  well,  they  would  experience  the  con- 
veniences of  home  when  the  snow  fell  deep,  and 
covered  the  ground  for  weeks  together.  Stores 
of  turnips  and  stacks  of  hay  would  then  be  as 
useful  at  home  as  abroad  ;  and,  when  these  failed, 
whins  and  bushes  would  afiord  as  good  food  at 
home  as  at  a  distance.  Hence  the  utility  of 
raising  turnips  at  home,  and  of  storing  a  large 
proportion  to  be  used  in  emergencies.  Where  a 
Scots-fir  plantation  is  near  a  haunt  of  sheep  these 
need  not  starve,  for  a  daily  supply  of  branches, 
fresh  cut  from  the  trees,  will  nut  only  support 
them,  but  make  them  thrive  as  heartily  as  upon 
hay  alone  ;  and  if  a  small  quantity  of  hay  is  giveu 
along  with  the  fir-leaves,  they  will  thrive  better 
than  on  hay  alone.* 

1028.  The  want  of  adequate  shelter  at  home 
may  induce  some  hill-farraers  to  send  their 
stock  to  a  lower  country  in  winter.  Their  hills 
are  bare  of  wood,  the  few  trees  being  confined 
to  the  glens  ;  and  of  course  sheep  can  find  no 
shelter  in  tlieir  usual  grounds  ;  and  it  is  sur- 
prising how  susceptible  of  cold  even  Black-faced 
sheep  are  when  the  atmosphere  is  becoming 
moist.  They  will  cower  down,  creep  into  corners 
and  beside  the  smallest  bushes  for  shelter,  or 
stand  hanging  their  heads  and  grinding  their 
teeth,  having  no  appetite  for  food.    If  a  piercing 

y, blast  of  wind  follows  such  a  cold  day,  the  chances 
"are  that  not  a  few  of  them  perish  in  the  nigh.t, 
and  if  thick  snow-drift  comes  on,  they  drive  be- 
fore it,  apparently  regardless  of  consequences, 
and  descend  into  the  first  hollow,  where  they  are 
overwhelmed.  Thus  the  utility  of  stells  becomes 
apparent,  and  many  hearty  wishes  are  no  doubt 
expressed  for  them  by  the  farmer  and  his  shep- 
herd, when  they  have  them  not  in  the  hour  of  peril. 

102!).  Sketching  pictures  of  melancholy  efiects 
of  storms  is  no  substitute  for  the  necessity,  the 
utility,  the  humanity  of  cultivating  such  an  extent 
of  ground,  in  favoured  spots,  as  would  raise  food 
to  support,  beyond  a  doubt  or  a  dread,  the  whole 
flock  through  the  protracted  period  of  the  longest 
storm.  Such  effects  of  storms  are  the  strongest 
incentives  to  form  extensive  plantations,  for  shel- 
ter, on  all  our  mountain  ranges.  Though  some 
of  the  trees  would  fail  to  grow  here  and  there, 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  most  would  not  grow 
quite  well  to  afford  invaluable  shelter  in  the 
bleakest  period  of  the  year.    And  such  catas- 


Little's  Practical  Observations  on  Mountain  Sheep,  p.  44 


234 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


trophcs  urge  the  more  strongly  upon  hill  farmers 
the  coii.-^truftion  of  eoinmodious  stells  in  the 
most  exposed  situations  of  the  farm.  Opinion  is 
not  agreed  as  to  the  be.st  form  of  stell  for  liigh 
pastures,  where  wood  is  seldom  found.  At  such 
ahei<'ht  the  spruce  will  not  thrive;  and  the  larch, 
bein"  a  deciduous  tree,  affords  but  little  shelter 
with  its  spear-pointed  top.  There  is  nothing  left 
but  the  evergreen  Scots  fir  for  the  purpose,  and, 
when  surrounding  a  circular  stell,  such  as 
fig.  51),  it  would  afford  very  acceptable  shelter 
to  a  large  number  of  sheep.  This  form  of 
stell   consists  of   2   concentric   circles   of  wall, 

Fig.  59. 


AN  INSIDE  sti;ll  sheltered  by  plantation. 

enclosing  a  plantation  of  Scots  fir,  having  a  circu- 
lar space  a,  in  the  centre  fur  slieep,  as  large  as 
to  contain  any  number.  This  may  be  denomi- 
nated an  inside  stell,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
outside  one  in  fig.  5G,  and  lias  been  proved 
eflficient  by  the  experience  of  Dr  Howison.  Its 
entrance,  however,  is  erroneously  made  wider 
at  the  mouth  than  at  the  end  next  the  interior 
circle,  a,  which  produces  the  double  injury  of 
increasing  the  velocity  of  the  wind  towards  the 
circle,  or  of  squeezing  the  sheep  the  more  the 
nearer  they  reach  the  inner  end  of  the  passage. 
The  walls  of  the  passage  should  be  parallel  and 
winding,  to  break  the  force  of  tlie  wind. 

Fig. 


lO-'iO.  But  where  trees  cannot  be  planted  with 
a  prospect  of  success,  stells  may  be  formed  with- 
out them,  and  indeed  usually  are  ;  and  of  all 
the  forms  that  have  been  tried,  the  circular  ha? 
obtained  the  preference  on  hill-farms ;  but  the 
difficulty  of  determining  the  size  as  the  best,  is 
still  a  matter  of  dispute  amongst  hill-farmers. 
Lord  Napier  thought  7  yards  diameter  a  good 
size,  and  the  largest  not  to  exceed  !•">  yards 
inside  measure  ;  while  Mr  William  Hogg  ap- 
proves of  18  yards.  I  agree  with  Mr  liogg.  In 
the  first  place,  the  circular  form  is  better  than  a 
square,  a  parallelogram,  or  a  cross  ;  because  the 
wind  striking  against  a  curved  surface,  on  coming 
from  any  quarter,  is  divided  into  two  columns, 
each  weaker  than  the  undivided  mass ;  whereas, 
on  striking  against  a  straight  surface,  though  its 
velocity  is  somewhat  checked,  it  is  still  undi- 
vided, and  its  force  still  great,  when  it  springs 
upwards,  curling  over  the  top  of  the  wall,  throw- 
ing down  the  snow  a  few  yards  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  figure.  Any  one  who  has  noticed 
the  position  of  drifts  of  snow  on  each  side  of 
a  straight  stone  wall,  will  remember  that  the  lee- 
ward-side of  the  wall  is  completely  drifted  up, 
while  on  the  windward-side  a  hollow  is  left, 
often  clear  to  the  ground,  between  the  snow  and 
the  wall.  Every  form  of  stell,  therefore,  that 
presents  a  straight  face  to  the  drift  will  have 
that  fence  drifted  up  and  be  no  protection  to  the 
sheep.  Of  two  curves,  that  which  has  the  larger 
diameter  will  divide  tlie  drift  the  farther  asun- 
der. A  stell  of  small  diameter,  such  as  7  yards, 
dividing  a  mass  of  drift,  divides  also  the  current 
of  air  immediately  over  it  so  suddenly  that  the 
snow  it  carries  is  let  fall  into  the  stell.  A  stell 
of  large  diameter,  of  18  yards,  on  dividing  a 
column  of  air,  deflects  it  so  much  on  each  side 
that  it  has  long  passed  beyond  the  stell  before  it 
regains  its  former  state,  and  before  it  deposits 
its  snow ;  and  hence  the  snow  is  found  to  fall  in 
a  triangular  shape,  with  its  ape.x  away  quite  to 
leeward  of  the  most  distant  part  of  the  stell,  and 
of  course  leaves  the  interior  free  of  deep  snow. 

1031.  Fig.  60  represents  a  stell  of  18  yards 
diameter  inside,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  6  feet 
high,  the  first  3  feet  of  which  may  be  of  stone, 
and  the  other  3  feet  of  turf,  and  will  cost  2s.  4d. 
per  rood  of  6  yards,  if  erected  by  the  tenant,  but  if 
by  the  landlord,  and  wholly  of  stone  with  a  cope, 
60. 


THB  OIBCVLAR  STELL  FITTED  UP  WITH  HAV-RACKS,  AND  SUPPLIED  WITH  A  HAY-STACK. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


235 


will  cost  7s.  per  rood:  this  size  gives  9-3  roods, 
■wliich  at  7s.  makes  its  cost  £3,  5s.  4d.,  including 
the  quarrying  and  carriage  of  the  stones — a 
triiiing  outlay  compared  to  the  permanent  ad- 
vantage derived  from  it  on  a  hill-farm.  The 
opening  into  the  stell  should  be  from  the  side 
towards  the  rising  ground — and  its  width  3  feet, 
and  of  the  whole  height  of  the  wall,  as  seen  iu 
the  figure  ;  or  it  is  sometimes  a  square  of  3  or  4 
feet,  oa  a  level  with  the  ground,  through  which 
the  sheep  enter,  vrhile  persons  obtain  access,  in 
such  cases,  by  means  of  stile-steps  over  the  wall. 
Such  a  structure  as  this  should  supersede  every 
antiquated  form  ;  and  it  will  easily  contain  10 
score  of  sheep  for  weeks,  and  even  15  or  16  score 
may  be  put  into  it  for  a  night  without  being  too 
much  crowded  together. 

1032.  Stells  should  be  fitted  up  with  hay-racks 
all  round  the  inside,  as  in  fig.  60,  not  in  the  ex- 
pensive form  of  circular  wood  work,  but  of  a 
many-sided  regular  polygon.  It  is  a  bad  plan 
to  make  sheep  eat  hay  by  rotation,  as  recom- 
mended by  Lord  Napier  and  Mr  Little,  but  con- 
demned by  Mr  Fairbairn,  as  the  timid  and  weak 
will  be  kept  constantly  back,  and  suffer  much 
privation  for  days  at  a  time.  Let  all  have  room 
and  liberty  to  eat  at  one  time,  and  as  often  as 
they  choose.  The  hay-stack  should  be  built  in 
the  centre  of  the  stell,  as  in  fig.  60,  on  a  base- 
ment of  stone,  raised  6  inches  above  the  ground 
to  keep  the  hay  dry.  A  small  stack,  5  yards  in 
diameter  at  the  base,  6  feet  high  iu  the  stem, 
with  a  top  of  6  feet  in  height,  will  contain  about 
450  hay-stones  of  hay,  which  will  last  200  sheep 
33  days,  about  the  average  duration  of  a  long 
storm ;  but  upon  that  base  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  hay  might  be  built.  The  interior 
circumference  of  the  stell  measures  ICO  feet  round 
the  hay-racks  ;  and  were  8  or  9  six-feet  hurdles 
put  round  the  stack,  at  once  to  protect  the  hay 
and  serve  as  additional  hay-racks,  the  hurdles 
would  afford  47  feet  more — which  together  give 
1  foot  of  standing  room  at  the  racks  to  each  of 
200  sheep  at  one  time. 

1033.  Stells  form  an  excellent  and  indispensable 
shelter  for  sheep  in  a  snow-storm,  when  deprived 
of  their  pasture  ;  but  it  has  occurred  to  me  that, 
in  want  of  stone-stells,  very  good  stells  or  cham- 
bers might  be  made  of  snow  of  any  form  or  size 
desired.  Even  around  the  space  occupied  by 
sheep,  after  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  a  stell  might 
be  constructed  of  the  snow  itself,  taken  from  its 
interior,  and  piled  into  walls  as  wide  and  high  as 
required.  Such  a  construction  would  remain 
as  long  as  the  storm  endured.  A  new  storm  could 
be  made  available  for  repairs,  and,  even  after  the 
ground  was  again  clear,  the  snow  walls  would 
remain  as  screens  for  some  time  after.  A  small 
open  drain  or  two,  in  case  of  a  thaw,  would  con- 
vey away  the  water  as  the  snow  melted. 

1034.  As  long  as  the  ground  continues  green, 
natural  shelter  is  as  requisite  as  stells, — these 
consist  of  rocks,  crags,  braes,  bushes,  heather, 
and  such  like.  To  render  these  as  available  to 
sheep  as  practicable,  the  ground  should  be 
cleared   of  all   obstructions   around  them,  and 


bushe's  planted  in  places  most  suited  to  their 
growth,  such  as  the  whin  {Ulex  eurupoea.)  in 
poor  thin  clay,  and  it  is  a  favourite  food  of  sheep 
in  winter  ;  the  broom  {Genista  scoparia,)  on  rich 
light  soil  ;  the  juniper  {Junipcrus  comrtmnis,)  in 
sandy  soil  ;  the  common  elder  [Samhucus  nhjra,) 
in  any  soil,  and  it  grows  well  in  exposed  windy 
situations  ;  the  mountain  ash  {Fijrus  aucuparia,) 
a  hardy  grower  in  any  soil  ;  and  the  birch  when 
bushy  {Betiila  alba,)  grows  in  any  soil,  and  forms 
excellent  clumps  or  hedges  for  shelter,  as  well 
as  the  hazel  {C'orylus  arellajnt,)  and  the  common 
heaths  {Erica  tidga ris  and  tetralix,)  when  they  get 
leave  to  grow  in  patches  to  their  natural  height  in 
peaty  earth.  I  shall  advert  to  the  protection  of 
mountain  land  when  we  come  to  speak  of  shelter. 

1035.  There  are  other  modes  of  protecting  hill 
sheep  from  the  feverities  of  the  weather  besides 
stells,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  more  per- 
sonally comfortable  to  them  than  any  other  ; 
and  one  of  these  is  what  is  termed  hraUing,  which 
is  done  by  covering  the  sheep  with  a  cloth  as  an 
apron  or  brat.  In  tracing  the  origin  of  this 
practice,  Mr  M'Turk  of  Hastings  Hall  in  Dum- 
friesshire, observes  that,  "  After  exhausting  every 
practicable  means  of  yielding  protection  and 
shelter  to  sheep  on  the  hills,  by  the  erection  of 
stells,  &c.,  it  was  still  found  that  a  more  constant 
and  effectual  method  was  necessary,  and  salving 
was  resorted  to,  as  the  cheapest  and  most  likely 
way  of  attaining  three  important  objects— namely, 
defence  from  the  cold,  security  from  the  ravages  of 
the  scab,  and  the  destruction  of  vermin.  It  hais 
long  been  known  to  those  interested  in  the  man- 
agement of  sheep,  that  more  protection  is  afforded 
by  bratting  than  the  use  of  any  salve  ;  but,  until 
of  late  years,  salving  was  considered  necessary, 
at  the  same  time,  to  destroy  vermin  ;  but  this 
double  expense  was  too  considerable  to  admit  of  a 
profitable  return.  There  was  another  difficulty 
connected  with  bratting,  which  rendered  it  ex- 
ceedingly inconvenient  and  unpopular.  The 
practice  was  to  sew  the  brat  to  the  wool  upon 
the  animal,  which,  in  hands  little  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  the  needle,  was  both  awkwardly  per- 
formed, and  attended  with  great  trouble  and  loss 
of  time.  Never  could  cloth  be  obtained  for  brats 
at  so  cheap  a  rate  as  at  present,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  substances  have  been  discovered 
which  effectually  destroy  vermin,  and  entirely 
obviate  the  necessity  of  smearing,  at  not  more 
than  one  halfpenny  per  head,  or  one-tenth  of  the 
expense  of  smearing.  Cloth,  well  suited  for  the 
purpose,  may  be  made  from  the  refuse  wool  of 
carpet  manufactories,  as  thick  and  warm  as  a 
blanket,  and  at  only  a  6d.  per  yard.  If  sacking 
is  employed  it  may  be  had  for  4d.  per  yard. 

1036.  "  When  intended  fur  bratting  hoggs,  the 
cloth  should  be  three-quarters  wide,  and  two 
feet  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  one  Black-faced 
hogg.  When  intended  for  old  sheep  of  the  best 
description,  the  brats  may  be  made  larger  by  ap- 
plying the  cloth  the  long  way,  and  we  have  then 
27  inches  in  width  to  cover  the  back  and  sides 
instead  of  24,  and  it  can  be  cut  off  as  long  as  the 
largest  sheep  requires.  The  brat  should  come  as 
far  down  the  sides  as  to  cover  the  widest  part  of 


>36 


PRACTICE^— WINTER. 


the  libs  and  all  the  back,  from  the  tail  to  the 
back  of  the  neck.  Instead  of  fitting  the  cloth  to 
every  nheep,  the  be.'-t  plan  is  to  select  a  sheep  of 
the  average  size  of  the  class,  and  measure  and 
cut  the  quantity  of  cloth  required.  When  the 
cloth  has  been  applied  to  the  animal,  and  its 
proper  dimensions  ascertained,  the  parts  should 
then  be  marked  to  ivliich  the  different  straps  and 
strings  are  to  be  se\^cd.  to  hold  it  in  its  proper 
place.  A  strap  is  fi.xeil  to  one  of  tho  front  cor- 
ners, ill  a  direction  to  pass  beneath  the  throaty 
and  be  sewed  to  llu-  other  corner  ;  and  other 
straps  are  intended  to  pass  under  the  belly. 
These  straps  are  only  sewed  at  first  at  one  end, 
and  the  other  end  is  sewed  after  the  brat  is  fitted 
on,  90  as  to  keep  it  tight  in  its  place.  The  straps 
should  be  of  a  soft  material,  that  they  may  not 
chafe  or  injure  the  skin  when  the  sheep  is  moving 
about.  When  made,  the  brats  are  dipped  in 
coal  tar,  the  better  to  resist  the  wet  and  rotting, 
and  if  taken  care  of  will  last,  thus  prepared,  for 
five  seasons.  They  ought  to  be  made  early 
in  summer,  to  have  time  to  be  dried  before 
November,  when  they  are  used.  They  remain  on 
the  sheep,  but  not  longer  than  the  beginning  or 
middle  of  April,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  and  the  condition  of  the  flock.  A  per- 
son accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  needle,  can 
make  a  brat  in  five  minutes,  and  fit  it  on  in  less 
than  other  five. 

1037.  "  A  woollen  brat  with  strings  will  not 
cost  more  than  5d.,  a  flaxen  one  about  Sj.;  but 
the  former  will  last  much  longer,  and  answer 
better.  To  enable  the  shepherd  to  identify  the 
brats,  when  not  in  use,  they  should  be  branded 
with  the  farm  mark  in  white  paint.  The  sheep 
are  bathed  for  the  destruction  of  vermin,  and  the 
wool  should  regain  its  wonted  appearance  before 
the  brat  is  fitted  on.     The  prices  are,— for 

Small  woollen  brats  .  5d.  to  last  for  5  years. 

Larger      ....  6"        —  — 

Flaxen     .        .        .        .  3i      —  2 

Bathing  to  destroy  vermin        J      —  1 

038.  Fig.  61  represents  a  bratted  eheep,  the 
Fig.  61. 


A  BRATTED  SHEEP. 

tie  a  passes  below  the  belly,  immediately  behind 


the  shoulder  ;  b  immediately  in  front  of  the  hind 
legs  ;  c  under  the  middle  of  the  belly  ;  whilst  d  % 
and  e  pass  unnoticed  under  the  wool  across  the 
breast,  and  those  from  the  hind  corners  at /"may 
pass  behind  the  hind  legs,  and  be  sewed  below 
to'lhe  ties  of  b. 

103.9.  It  occurs  to  me  to  suggest  that  this 
thick  woollen  cloth  might  be  rendered  water- 
proof, and  the  strings  to  fasten  on  the  brats  might 
be  of  vulcanised  India  rubber,  which  while  yield- 
ing to  the  motions  of  the  animal,  will  cause  the 
brat  always  to  adhere  firmly  to  its  body. 

1040.  "  We  have  found  from  our  own  experi- 
ence," says  Mr  M'Turk,  "  and  we  have  not  heard 
the  fact  doubted  by  any  one  conversant  with  the 
management  of  sheep,  that  no  salve  hitherto 
tried  has  afforded  a  degree  of  protection  equal  to 
bratting,  when  thus  secured  to  the  animal.  We 
are  therefore  entitled  to  conclude  that,  under  this 
treatment,  the  flock  will  be  in  higher  condition, 
and  if  so,  the  clip  of  wool  will  be  greater,  and  the 
loss  by  death  considerably  lessened,  and  affording 
the  means  of  bringing  some  of  the  more  reduced 
of  the  old  ewes  through  the  winter,  which  conld 
not  have  otherwise  survived  in  a  high  and  ex- 
posed district.  When  the  brat  is  taken  off  in 
April,  the  wool  will  be  found  to  have  retained 
the  yolk,  and  will  appear  quite  yellow.  When 
examined,  it  will  be  found  to  be  sappy  and  sound, 
and  free  from  the  defect  that  wooi-staplers  call 
httsktf  and  piiitii/,  that  is,  dry  and  brittle,  which 
occasions  much  loss  in  the  manufacture,  ^^'hen 
washed,  its  natural  whiteness  is  unimpaired,  we 
would  even  say  increased,  from  the  soap  em- 
ployed in  the  bathing,  and  the  yolk  which  is  re- 
tained."* 

1041.  Since  hay  is  the  principal  food  given  to 
mountain  sheep  in  snow  or  in  black  frost,  it  is 
matter  of  importance  to  procure  this  valuable 
provender  in  the  best  state,  and  of  the  best  de- 
scription. It  has  long  been  known  that  irriga- 
tion promotes,  in  an  extraordinary  degree,  the 
growth  of  the  natural  grasses  ;  and  perhaps  there 
are  few  localities  which  possess  greater  facilities 
for  irrigation,  though  on  a  limited  scale,  than  the 
highland  glens  of  Scotland.  Rivulets  meander 
down  those  glens  through  haughs  of  richest  alla- 
rium,  which  bear  the  finest  description  of  natural 
pasture  plants.  Were  those  rivulets  subdivided 
into  irrigating  rills,  the  herbage  of  the  haughs 
might  be  multiplied  many  fold.  Such  being  the 
condition  of  those  glens,  I  cannot  too  earnestly 
draw  the  attention  of  hill-farmers  to  the  utility  of 
converting  them  into  irrigated  meadows  ;  and 
though  each  meadow  may  be  of  very  limited  ex- 
tent, the  grass  will  be  most  valuable  when  con- 
verted into  hay.  One  obstruction  only  exists  to 
their  formation,  the  fencing  required  around 
them,  to  keep  the  stock  off  while  the  grass 
is  growing  fur  hay.  But  the  exertion  of  fencing 
should  be  made  for  the  sake  of  the  crop 
protected  by  it.  Besides  places  for  regular 
irrigation,  there  are  rough  patches  of  pasture, 
probably  stimulated  by  latent  water  performing 


Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  July  1843,  p.  45. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  OX  TURXIFS. 


237 


a  sort  of  nnder-irrigation  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  which  should  be  mown  for  hay  ;  and  to 
save  farther  trouble,  this  hay  should  be  ricked  on 
the  spot,  fenced  with  small  hurdles,  around  which 
the  sheep  would  assemble  at  stated  hours,  feed 
through  the  hurdles  in  frosty  weather  from 
the  rick,  and  wander  again  over  the  green  sward 
for  the  remainder  of  the  day  ;  and  when  the  snow 
came,  the  stells  would  be  their  place  of  refuge 
and  support.  As  the  hay  in  the  stack  is  eaten, 
the  hurdles  are  drawn  closer  around  the  stack, 
to  allow  the  sheep  again  to  reach  it. 

1042.  Hurdles  are  constructed  in  different 
forms.  Fig.  40  is  the  strongest  and  most  durable, 
but  also  the  most  expensive  hurdle  in  the  first 
cost.  Each  hurdle,  with  its  fixtures,  consists  of 
14  pieces — viz.  2  side-posts  a,  4  rails  6,  and  3 
braces  odd,  which  go  to  form  the  single  hurdle  ; 
and  1  stay/,  1  stake  (j,  and  3  pegs  at  g,  h,  and  i, 
which  are  required  for  the  fixing  up  of  each 
hurdle.  The  scantling  of  the  parts  are  the  side- 
posts  4 5  feet  long,  4  inches  by  2  inches.  The 
rails  9  feet  long,  3J  inches  broad  by  1  inch  thick. 
The  braces,  2  diagonals  5  feet  2  inches  long,  2^ 
inches  broad  by  J  inch  thick,  and  1  upright  4  feet 
long,  and  of  like  breadth  and  thickness.  The 
stay  is  4^  feet  long,  4  inches  broad,  and  2  inches 
thick,  and  bored  at  both  ends  for  the  pegs ;  the 
stake  Ij  foot  long,  pointed  and  bored.  The  pegs 
1  foot  long,  1^  inch  diameter.  The  cost  is  2s. 
6d.  each  with  the  fixtures. 

1043.  The  preparation  of  the  parts  consists  in 
mortising  the  side-posts,  the  mortises  being  usu- 
ally left  round  in  the  ends,  and  they  are  bored  at 
equal  distances  from  the  joining  and  stay  pegs. 
The  ends  of  the  rails  are  roughly  rounded  on  the 
edges,  which  completes  the  preparation  of  the 
parts ;  and  when  the  flake  is  completed,  its  dimen- 
sions are  9  feet  in  length,  and  3  feet  4  inches  in 
breadth  over  the  rails ;  the  bottom  rail  being  9 
inches  from  the  foot  of  the  post,  and  the  upper 
rail  5  inches  from  the  head. 

1044.  Another  form  of  flake,  more  extensively 
employed,  has  5  rails,  which  are  If  inch  square. 
The  ends  of  the  rails  are  turned  round  by  ma- 
chinery, and  the  side-posts  bored  for  their  recep- 
tion, as  well  as  the  pegs  also  by  machinery. 
The  bottom  rail  is  9  inches  from  the  foot  of  the 
posts  ;  the  spaces  between  the  first  and  second, 
and  the  second  and  third  rails,  are  each  7  inches, 
and  the  two  upper  spaces  are  respectively  8  and 
9  inches,  leaving  5  inches  of  the  post  above  the 
upper  rail. 

1045.  These  are  extensively  manufactured  in 
Perthshire,  where  young  larches  are  abundant. 
Their  price,  when  sold  in  retail  by  fifties  or  hun- 
dreds, is  Is.  9d.  to  2s.  each,  includiag  all  the 
parts,  sold  in  pieces  ;  the  expense  of  putting  the 
parts  together  is  usually  2d.  each  hurdle,  includ- 
ing nails.  In  Kirkcudbright,  flakes  of  5  spars, 
and  6  feet  long,  sell  for  Is.  2d.  each. 

1046.  Where  the  common  crack-willow  {Salix 
fragiiis)  will  grow,  every  farmer  may  have  poles 

enough  every  year  for  making   2  or   3  dozen 


hurdles  to  keep  up  his  stock.  To  establish  a 
plantation,  large  cuttings  9  or  10  feet  long  should 
be  pushed, not  driven,  into  moist  soil,  and  on  being 
fenced  from  cattle,  will  soon  shoot  both  in  the 
roots  and  head,  the  latter  being  fit  to  be  cut  every 
seventh  year.  Where  soil  for  a  willow-planta- 
tion does  not  naturally  exist,  the  farmer  can  buy 
his  hurdles  ready  made  at  16s.  the  dozen  ;  when 
made  at  home  they  cost  4d.  each,  and  when  the 
shepherd  makes  them  they  cost  only  his  time. 
Hurdle-makers  go  the  round  of  the  country  in 
England,  and  make  at  4d.  and  mend  at  2d.  each, 
finding  their  own  tools. 

1047.  A  very  common  form  of  hurdle  used  in 
England  is  shown  in  fig.  62.  It  is  formed  of  any 
sort  of  willow  or  hard  wood,  such  as  oak-copse. 

Fig.  62. 


THE  ENGLISH  HTRDLE. 

ash-saplings,  or  underwood,  such  as  hazel.  It 
consists  of  2  heads  a  a,  6  slots  6,  2  stay-slots  c  c, 
and  an  upright  slot  d.  The  slots  are  mortij-ed 
into  the  heads  and  nailed  with  flattened  fine- 
drawn nails,  at  6d.  per  lb.,  which  admit  of  being 
very  firmly  riveted,  upon  which  the  strength  of  the 
hurdle  mainly  depends  ;  100  poles  at  iSs.  make 
36  hurdles,  which,  including  nails  and  workman- 
ship, cost  £\,  lis.  6d,  or  lOs.  6d.  per  dozen. 
Although  the  horizontal  slots  are  cut  9  feet  long,  , 
the  hurdle,  when  finished,  is  only  somewhat  more 
than  8  feet,  the  slot  ends  going  through  the  heads 
1  or  2  inches  :  2  hurdles  to  1  rod  of  16  feet,  or  8 
to  1  chain  of  22  yards,  are  the  usual  allow- 
ance. 

1048.  A  larger  kind  of  hurdle,  called  park 
hurdles,  worth  2s.  each,  is  made  fur  subdividing 
meadows  or  pastures,  and  are  a  sufiicient  fence  for 
cattle.  The  small  hurdles  are  used  for  sheep, 
the  larger  to  fence  cattle,  whereas  the  Scotch 
flakes  answer  both  purposes  at  once,  and  are 
therefore  more  economical. 

1049.  The  hurdles  being  carted  to  the  field,  ac- 
cording to  the  English  mode,  they  are  laid  down 
flat,  end  to  end,  with  their  heads  next  to,  but 
clear  of,  the  line  in  which  they  are  to  be  set.  A 
right-handed  man  generally  works  with  the  row 
of  hurdles  on  his  left.  Having  made  a  hole  in 
the  hedge,  or  close  to  the  dyke,  for  the  foot  of 
the  first  hurdle,  with  the  fold-pitcher,  fig.  63, 
which  is  an  iron  dibber,  4  feet  long,  having  a 
well-pointed  flattened  bit,  in  shape  similar  to 
the  feet  of  the  hurdles,  he  marks  on  the  ground 
the   place    where   the   other  foot   is   to  be   in- 


288 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


Fig.  63. 


inserted,  and  there  with  his  dibber 
he  makes  the  second  hole,  which, 
like  all  the  others,  is  made  9  inches 
deep.  With  the  left  hand  the 
hurdle  is  put  into  its  place,  and  held 
upright  while  lightly  pressed  down 
by  the  left  foot  on  the  lowest  slot. 
Tliis  being  done,  the  third  hole  is 
made  opposite  to,  and  about  six 
inches  from,  the  last.  The  dibber  is 
then  put  out  of  hand  by  being  Stuck 
in  the  ground  near  where  the  next 
hole  is  to  be  made  ;  the  second 
hurdle  is  next  placed  in  position, 
one  foot  on  the  open  hole,  and  the 
other  foot  marks  the  place  for  the 
next  hole,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
whole  row.  When  the  place  of  the 
second  foot  of  a  hurdle  is  marked  on 
the  ground,  the  hurdle  itself  is 
moved  out  of  the  way  by  the  left 
hand,  while  the  hole  is  made  by  both 
hands.  When  the  whole  row  is  set, 
it  is  usual  to  go  back  over  it,  giving 
each  head  a  slight  tap  with  the 
dibber,  to  regulate  their  height,  and 
give  them  a  firmer  hold  of  the 
ground. 


1050.  To  secure  the  hurdles  steady 

THB  FOLD-   against   the  rubbing  of  the  sheep, 

PITCHER  IN  coufyiiugs^  or,  as  they  are  commonly 

sKTT^vr'    *^*^'®*1»  copses,  are  put  over  the  heads 

of  each  pair  where  they  meet,  which 

is  a  sufficient  security.    These  couplings  are  made 

of  the  twigs  of  willow,  holly,  beech,  or  any  other 

tough   shoots   of  trees,  wound  in   a   wreath  of 

about  5  inches  diameter. 

1 051 .  The  number  of  hurdles  required  for  feed- 
ing sheep  on  turnips  is  one  row  the  whole  length 
of  the  ridges  of  an  enclosed  field,  and  as  many 
more  as  will  reach  twice  across  2  eight-step  lands 
or  ridges,  or  4  four-step  lands,  that  is,  48  feet,  or 
3  or  4  ridges  of  15  feet.  This  number,  whatever 
it  may  be,  is  sufficient  for  a  whole  quadrangular 
field,  whatever  number  of  acres  it  may  contain. 
The  daily  portions  are  given  more  or  less  in 
length,  according  to  the  number  of  the  flock. 
Two  of  these  portions  are  first  set,  the  sheep 
being  let  in  on  the  first  or  corner  piece.  Next 
day  they  are  turned  into  the  second  piece,  and 
the  cross-hurdles  that  enclosed  them  in  the  first 
are  carried  forwards,  and  set  to  form  the  third 
piece.  These  removes  are  continued  daily  till 
the  bottom  of  the  field  is  reached :  both  the 
cross-rows  are  then  to  spare,  and  are  carried  and 
set  to  begin  a  new  long-row,  close  to  the  offside 
of  a  furrow,  and  the  daily  folding  carried  back 
over  2  or  4  lands  as  at  first.  It  is  always  the  top 
of  a  field,  if  there  be  any  difference  of  the  level, 
where  the  folding  is  begun,  that  the  flock  may 
have  the  driest  lair  to  retire  to  in  wet  weather. 

1052.  "  When  there  U  a  mixed  flock,  that  is, 
couples,  fattening  and  store  sheep,  two  folds  or 
pens  are  always  being  fed  off  at  the  same  time, 


which  only  require  an  extra  cross-row  of  hurdles. 
The  couples  have  the  fresh  pens,  while  the  lambs 
are  allowed  to  roam  over  the  unfolded  turnips, 
by  placing  tlie  feet  of  the  hurdles,  here  and  there, 
far  enough  apart,  or  by  lanit»-hurdles  made  with 
open  panneld  for  the  purpose.  The  fattening 
sheep  follow  the  couples,  and  have  the  bulbs 
picked  up  for  them  by  a  boy.  The  stores  follow 
behind  and  eit  up  the  shells."*  It  is  never  the 
practice  in  Scotland  to  put  ewes  with  their  lambs 
upon  turnips,  as  uew  grass  is  considered  much 
better  for  them,  and  the  only  ewe  that  suckles  a 
lamb  on  the  early  part  of  the  turnips  in  winter  is 
the  Dorsetshire.  The  «for*-sheep  in  Scotland — 
that  is,  the  ewe-hoggs — are  always  fed  as  fully  as 
the  wether-hoggs  that  are  fattened.  In  England 
the  entire  turnip-stock,  ewes,  lambs,  and  wethers, 
are  fattened  for  the  butcher,  and  sold,  if  possible, 
before  the  turnips  are  all  eaten.  They  have  hay, 
oil-cake,  or  corn,  either  in  the  field  or  in  the 
sheep-house,  in  wet  or  stormy  nights. 

1Q53.  An  acre  of  good  turnips  maintains  5  score 
of  sheep  for  1  month. 

1054.  Nets,  by  which  sheep  are  confined  on 
turnips  in  winter,  are  made  of  good  hempen 
twine,  and  the  finer  the  quality  of  the  hemp,  and 
superior  the  workmanship  bestowed  on  it,  the 
longer  will  nets  last.  Being  necessarily  much 
exposed  to  the  weather,  they  soon  decay,  and  if 
carelessly  treated  will  scarcely  last  more  than 
one  long  season.  Nothing  destroys  them  so 
rapidly  as  laying  them  by  in  a  damp  state;  and  if 
rolled  up  wet  even  for  a  few  days,  they  become 
mildewed,  after  which  nothing  can  prevent  their 
rotting.  They  should  never  be  laid  by  damp  or 
dirty,  but  washed  and  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
open  air  before  being  rolled  up  and  stowed  away. 
It  is  alleged  by  shepherds  that  nets  decay  faster 
in  drought,  and  exposure  to  dews  and  light,  in 
summer  than  in  winter.  Several  expedients  have 
been  tried  to  preserve  nets  from  decay,  among 
others,  tanning,  in  imitation  of  fishermen  ;  but 
however  well  that  process  may  suit  nets  used  at 
sea,  it  makes  them  too  hard  for  the  shepherd's 
use  in  tying  the  knots  around  the  stakes.  Per- 
haps a  steeping  in  Kyan's  or  Burnett's  solution 
might  render  them  durable,  and  preserve  their 
pliability  at  the  same  time. 

1055.  She^'p-nets  are  wrought  by  hand  only. 
They  are  simply  made  of  dead  netting,  which 
consists  of  plain  work  in  regular  rows.  A  aliep- 
herd  ought  to  know  how  to  make  nets  as  well  as 
mend  them,  and  cannot  mend  them  well  unless 
he  understand  how  to  make  them.  Net  making 
is  a  very  suitable  occupation  for  women. 

105G.  All  the  instruments  required  in  this  sort 
of  net-making  are  a  needle  and  spool.  "  Needles 
are  of  two  kinds,  those  made  alike  at  each  end 
with  open  forks,  and  those  made  with  an  eye 
and  tongut  at  one  end  and  a  fork  at  the  other. 
In  both  needles  the  twine  is  wound  on  them 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  — namely,  by  pacing 
it  alternately  between  the  fork  at  each  end,  in 


•  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  647-53. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  OX  TURNIPS. 


239 


the  first  case,  or  between  the  fork  at  the  lower 
end  and  round  the  tongue  at  the  upper  end,  in 
the  second  case  ;  so  that  the  turns  ut'  the  string 
may  lie  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  needle,  and 
be  kept  on  by  the  tongue  and  fork.  The  tongue 
and  eye  needle  is  preferable  both  for  making  and 
mending  nets,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  so  liable 
to  be  hitched  into  the  adjoining  meshes  in  work- 
ing ;  but  some  netters  prefer  the  other  kind,  as 
being  capable  of  holding  more  twine  in  propor- 
tion to  their  size."  An  8-inch  needle  does  for 
making  nets,  but  a  4-inch  one  is  more  conve- 
nient for  mending  them. 

1057.  Spooh,  being  made  as  broad  as  the  length 
of  the  side  of  the  mesh,  are  of  difiFereut  breadths. 
They  "consist  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood  of  any 
given  width,  of  stout  wood,  so  as  not  to  warp, 
with  a  portion  cut  away  at  one  end,  to  admit 
the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  to  grasp 
it  conveniently.  The  twine  in  netting  embraces 
the  spool  across  the  width  ;  and  each  time  that 
a  loop  is  pulled  taught,  half  a  mesh  is  completed. 
Large  meshes  may  be  made  on  small  spools,  by 
giving  the  twine  two  or  more  turns  round  them, 
as  occasion  may  require." 

1058.  "In  charging  your  needle,  take  the  twine 
from  the  inside  of  the  ball.  This  prevents  tang- 
ling, which  is  at  once  recommendation  enough. 
When  you  charge  the  needle  with  double  twine, 
draw  from  two  separate  balls."* 

1059.  In  joining  the  ends  of  tioine  together,  in 
mending,  the  bend  or  weaver's  knot  is  used,  and 
in  joining  top  and  bottom  ropes  together  in 
setting  nets,  the  ree/-knot  is  best,  as  the  tighter 
it  is  drawn  the  firmer  it  holds. 

1060.  Sheep-nets  run  about  50  yards  in  length 
when  set,  and  weigh  about  14  lb.  Hogg-nets 
stand  3  feet  in  height,  and  dinmonts  3  feet  3 
inches,  and  both  are  set  3  inches  above  the 
ground.  The  mesh  of  the  hogg-net  is  3^  inches 
in  the  side,  and  of  the  dinmont  4{  inches  ;  the 
former  requires  9^  meshes  in  the  height,  the 
latter  8j.  The  twine  for  the  hogg-net  is  rather 
smaller  than  that  for  the  dinraont,  but  the  top 
and  bottom  rope  of  both  are  alike  strong.  A 
hogg-net  costs  123.,  or  under  3d.  per  yard  ;  a 
dinmont  10s.,  or  under  22-d.  per  yard,  at  Berwick 
upon-Tweed  and  Coldstream  ;  but  they  are  now 
sold  in  the  prison  of  Edinburgh  at  7s.  6d.,  or 
under  2d.  per  yard  ;  while  in  Loudon  the  charge 
is  42d.  per  yard. 

1061.  It  is  imagined  that  nets  will  not  confine 
Black-faced  sheep  on  turnips,  because  they 
would  be  broken  by  being  entangled  in  the  sheep's 
horns  ;  but  the  objection  is  unfounded  as  this 
anecdote  will  show  :  A  very  extensive  feeder  of 
Black-faced  sheep,  on  seeing  my  Leicester  hoggs 
on  turnips  confined  by  nets,  expressed  a  willing- 
ness to  try  them  with  his  own  sheep,  adducing 
the  great  expense  of  hurdles  as  a  reason  for 
desiring  a  change.  After  receiving  a  pattern 
net  from  me  to  stand  4  feet  high,  he  had  others 


mados  like  it  ;  and  so  successful  was  the  experi- 
ment, even  the  first  season,  he  ever  after  enclosed  a 
large  proportion  of  his  Black-faced  sheep  with 
nets.  There  were  a  few  cases  of  entanglement  at 
first,  but  the  shepherd  was  constantly  with  his 
large  flock,  and  no  harm  happened  to  the  sheep 
or  nets,  and  it  was  remarked  that  the  same  sheep 
never  became  entangled  more  than  once.  They 
never  attempted  to  leap  over  the  nets,  though 
they  would  not  have  hesitated  to  do  so  over  a 
much  higher  wall. 

1062.  Nets  are  wrought  by  machinery.  "  Net- 
ting for  fruit  trees,"  observes  Dr  Bathurst, 
"  is  made,  I  believe,  by  machinery  at  the  factory 
of  Mr  Benjamin  Edgington.  I  do  not  know 
that  any  other  nets  have  as  yet  been  made  for 
general  purposes,  or  of  any  other  description 
than  plain  or  dead-netting.  False  meshts,  or 
change  of  size  of  spools,  have  not  hitherto  been, 
as  far  as  I  know,  effected  by  machinery. "f  I 
have  made  inquiry  of  the  net-workers  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  and  find  that  the 
use  of  machinery  is  entirely  confined  to  the 
making  of  fishing  nets. 

1063.  A  mode  of  preserving  corn  dry  for  sheep 
on  turnips  has  been  tried  with  success  in  Fife. 
It  consists  of  a  box  like  a  hay-rack,  fig.  64,  in 
which  the  corn  is  at  all  times  kept   closely  shut 

Fig.  64. 


THE  CORN-BOX  FOR  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 

up,  except  when  the  sheep  wish  to  eat  it, 
when  they  get  at  it  by  a  simple  contrivance.  Into 
the  box  a  b  the  corn  is  poured  through  the  small 
hinged  lid  y.  The  cover  c  d,  concealing  the 
corn,  is  also  hinged,  and  when  elevated  the 
sheep  have  access  to  the  corn.  Its  elevation  is 
effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  sheep's  fore-feet 
upon  the  platform  ef,  which,  moving  as  a  lever, 
acts  upon  the  lower  ends  of  the  upright  rods  g 
and  h,  raises  them  up,  and  elevates  the  cover  c 
d,  under  which  their  heads  then  find  admittance 
into  the  box.  A  similar  apparatus  gives  them 
access  to  the  other  side  of  the  box.  The  whole 
machine  can  be  moved  about  to  convenient 
places  by  means  of  the  4  wheels. 

1064.  The  construction  of  the  interior  of  the 
box  being  somewhat  peculiar,  another,  fig.  65,  Ib 


*  Bathurst's  Notes  on  Nets,  p.  15,  17,  and  138. 


t  76ii.p.  144. 


240 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


THK    VERTICAL      SECTION    OF  ,,        ,  ^  . 

THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  CORN.  \1"^    '"^PP"  formmS 

jj,)x  the    corn-store  ;    a 

is  the  cover  of  the 
box  raised  onit^  hinges  by  the  rod/,  acted  upon 
by  the  phittbrm  e  /'  fig.  64,  and  when  in  this 
position,  tlie  sheep  put  their  heads  below  a  at  c, 
fig.  65,  and  eat  the  corn  at  d.  Machines  of  similar 
construction  have  bean  devised  to  serve  poultry 
with  corn  at  will.*  It  is  a  safer  receptacle  for 
corn  in  the  field  than  the  open  oil-cake  trough, 
fig.  52,  but  the  animals  require  to  become  fami- 
liarised with  its  use. 

1065.  Sheep  may  be  fed  on  horse-chestnuts. 
In  Switzerland,  the  chestnuts  are  bruised  in  a 
machine  for  the  purpose,  and  2  lbs.  of  them  are 
given  to  each  sheep,  morning  and  evening,  by 
little  at  a  time,  as  they  are  of  a  heating  nature. 
They  impart  a  rich  flavour  to  the  mutton. 

1066.  It  is  necessary  that  I  point  out  the  dis- 
eases to  which  the  animals,  whose  care  falls 
under  our  notice,  are  liable,  in  the  various  sea- 
sons; but  I  shall  not  enter  into  the  particulars  of 
their  treatment,  leaving  you  to  consult  the 
■works  of  accomplished  veterinarians.  The  first 
disease  which  presents  itself  on  sheep,  iu  the 
low  country  in  winter,  is  purginfj,  occasioned  by 
eating  too  heartily  of  the  tops,  when  first  con- 
fined on  turnips.  At  first,  the  complaint  is  not 
alarming,  and  the  i)hysicking  may  do  good  ulti- 
mately ;  but  should  it  increa^^e,  or  continue 
beyond  the  existence  of  the  exciting  cause,  it 
may  pass  into  diarrhoea,  causing  prostration  of 
strength,  and  at  last  terminate  in  dysentery. 
When  the  purging  is  moderate,  the  pain  is  incon- 
siderable :  but  when  aggravated,  the  mucous 
membrane,  which  is  the  seat  of  the  disease, 
acquires  a  tendency  to  inflammation,  and  griping 
and  colicky  pains  arc  the  consequence.  The 
disease  should  not  bo  thought  li;,'htly  of,  but 
speedily  checked.  When  the  green  food,  as  in 
this  case,  is  obviously  at  fault,  the  sheep  should 
be  removed  to  dry  pasture  until  the  symptoms 
disappear.  One  year,  I  remember,  the  white 
turnip  tops  grew  so  luxuriantly,  that  when 
Leicester  hoggs  were  put  on  in  October,  they 
were  very  soon  seized  with  ptirging,  and  the 
symptoms  were  much  aggravated  by  alternate 
occurrences  of  rain  and  raw  frost.  The  sheep 
were  removed  to  a  rough  moory  pasture,  which 
had  been  reserved  for  the  ewes  ;  and,  while  there, 
I  caused  the  field-workers  to  switch  off  the  tur- 

•  i'rj;«  Efsa'j  of  the  Illjldand  and 
t  Hogg  On  tSheep,  p.  100. 


given  of  a  vertical  nip-tops  with  sickles,  and  thus  got  rid  of  the 
^ectioll  of  it,  where  cause  Of  complaint.  In  a  short  time  the  hoggs 
h  is  the  hinged  lid  were  restored  to  the  turnips,  and  throve  apace  ; 
by  which  the  corn  though  the  wool  behind  was  much  injured  by  the 
is  put  into  the  box,  facal  discharge.  And  this  is  one  of  the  losses 
wlieuce  it  is  at  once  incurred  by  such  a  complaint  ;  and  at  a  season, 
received  into  the  too,  when  it  would  be  improper  to  clip  the 
hopper  d,  the  bot-  soiled  wool  away,  to  the  risk  of  making  the 
toui  of  which,  being  sheep  too  bare  below  to  lie  with  comfort  upon 
open,  and  brought  the  cold  ground, 
near  that  of  the  box, 

a  small  space  only  is  1067.  Sheep  are   sometimes   infested  with   a 

left  for  the  corn  to  species  of  louse,  which  belongs  to  the  same  gene- 
,  pass  into  tlie  box,  ric  group  as  that  of  the  horse,  and  is  named  the 
Trichodectes  sphceroceyhal us,  the  I'tdiculus  oris 
of  the  older  zoological  writers.  It  is  charac- 
terised by  Mr  Denny  as  having  the  head  nearly 
orbicular,  rough,  and  fringed  with  stiff  hairs,  and 
the  third  joint  of  the  antenna?  longest  and  clavate. 
Being  one  of  the  gnawing  lice,  it  destroys  the 
wool  by  cutting  it  near  the  root. 

1068.  This  animal  is  perhaps  induced  to  make 
its  appearance  by  an  increase  of  condition  after 
a  considerable  period  of  poverty.  It  is  seldom 
seen  on  Leicester  sheep,  because,  perhaps,  they 
are  seldom  in  the  state  to  induce  it  ;  but  hill- 
sheep  are  not  unfreqnently  infested  by  it,  and 
when  so,  it  is  amazing  what  numbers  of  the  ver- 
min may  be  seen  upon  a  single  sheep,  its  powers 
of  reproduction  seeming  prodigious.  It  lodges 
chiefly  upon  and  below  the  neck,  where  it  is 
most  effectually  destroyed  by  mercurial  ointment, 
which  should  not,  however,  be  applied,  in  quan- 
tity,  in  very  cold  or  in  very  wet  weather  ;  and 
in  these  circumstances,  tobacco-juice  and  spirit 
of  tar  may  be  safely  used.  Professor  Dick 
says,  that,  in  slight  visitations  of  the  louse,  a 
single  dressing  of  olive  oil  will  cause  its  dis- 
appearance. 

1069.  The  Ettrick  Shepherd  mentions  a  curi- 
ous danger  to  which  sheep  affected  with  lice  are 
liable,  "  the  animal  is  in  danger  of  being  bridled. 
This  is  occasioned  by  the  animal's  bending  its 
neck  extremely  to  claw  its  throat  with  its  teeth; 
on  which  occasions  the  teeth  often  fasten  in  the 
wool,  so  that  it  cannot  disengage  them,  and  it 
soon  loses  the  power  of  its  neck.  I  have  known 
several  die  in  this  way."t 

1070.  A  quart  bottle  of  decoction  of  tobacco- 
leaf,  containing  a  wine  glass  of  spirit  of  tar,  is 
a  useful  lotion,  for  many  purposes,  for  a  shepherd 
to  have  constantly  in  his  possession  ;  and  it  \s 
easily  poured  out  by  a  quill  passed  through  the 
cork. 

1071.  Another  disease  to  which  sheep  are  sub- 
ject on  passing  from  a  state  of  poverty  to  im- 
proved condition,  is  the  scab,  and  hoggs  arc  most 
susceptible  of  it.  This  disease  indicates  its 
existence  by  causing  sheep  to  appear  uneasy,  and 
wander  about  without  any  apparent  object  ;  to 
draw  out  locks  of  wool  with  its  mouth  from  the 
affected  parts,  as  the  disease  increases  ;  and, 
lastly,  to  rub  its  sides  and  buttocks  against  every 

Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii.  p.  405. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


Ml 


prominent  object  it  can  find,  such  as  a  stone,  a 
tree,  a  gate-post,  the  nets,  and  such  like.  Mr 
Youatt  says  that  it  arises  from  an  insect,  a 
species  of  acarus  ;*  and  mercurial  ointment  is  a 
sure  remedy  ;  a  weak  compound  of  1  part  of  the 
ointment  with  5  of  lard  for  the  first  stage,  and 
another,  a  stronger,  of  1  part  of  ointment  and  3 
of  lard,  for  an  aggravated  case.  The  ichorous 
matter  from  the  pustules  adheres  to  and  dries 
upon  the  wool,  and  gets  the  name  of  scurf, 
which  should  first  be  washed  off  with  soap  and 
water  before  applying  the  ointment.  The  scab 
is  a  very  infectious  disease,  the  whole  flock  soon 
becoming  contaminated  ;  but  the  infection  seems 
to  spread,  not  so  much  by  direct  contact,  as  by 
touching  the  objects  the  animals  infected  have 
rubbed  against.  Its  direct  effects  are  deteriora- 
tion of  condition,  arising  from  a  restlessness 
preventing  the  animal  feeding,  and  loss  of  wool  — 
large  portions  not  only  falling  off,  but  the  re- 
mainder of  the  broken  fleece  becoming  almost 
valueless  ;  and  its  indirect  effects  are  propaga- 
tion of  the  disease  constitutionally,  and  hence 
the  loss  to  the  owner  in  having  a  scabbed  flock, 
for  no  one  will  purchase  from  one  to  breed  from 
that  is  known  to  be,  or  to  have  been,  affected  by 
scab. 

1072.  The  very  existence  of  this  disease  is 
disgraceful  to  a  shepherd  —  not  being  able  to 
detect  its  existence  at  the  earliest  stage,  and 
allowing  it  to  make  head  amongst  the  flock. 
When  it  breaks  out  in  a  standing  flock,  it  must 
have  been  latent  in  the  sheep,  or  in  the  ground, 
when  the  shepherd  took  charge  of  the  flock,  and 
some  shepherds  have  only  the  skill  to  suppress, 
not  eradicate  it  ;  but  it  is  his  duty  to  examine 
every  sheep  of  his  new  charge,  and  every  newly 
purchased  one,  before  being  allowed  to  mix  with 
the  hirsel,  and  also  to  make  inquiry  regarding 
the  previous  state  of  the  ground. 

1073.  On  soft  ground  sheep  are  affected  with 
foot-rot,  when  on  turnips.  The  first  symptom  is 
a  slight  lameness  in  one  of  the  fore-feet,  then  in 
both,  and  at  length  the  sheep  is  obliged  to  kneel 
down,  and  oven  creep  upon  its  knees,  to  get  to 
its  food.  The  hoof,  in  every  case,  first  becomes 
softened,  when  it  grows  mis-shaped,  occasioning 
an  undue  pressure  on  a  particular  part ;  this  sets 
up  inflammation,  and  causes  a  slight  separation  of 
the  hoof  from  the  coronet  ;  then  ulcers  are  formed 
below  where  the  hoof  is  worn  away,  and  at  length 
arrives  a  discharge  of  fetid  matter.  If  neglected, 
the  hoof  will  slough  off,  and  the  whole  foot  rot 
off — which  would  be  a  distressing  termination 
with  even  only  one  sheep  ;  but  the  alarming  thing 
is,  that  the  whole  flock  may  be  similarly  affected, 
and  this  circumstance  has  led  to  the  belief  that 
the  disease  is  contagious. 

1074.  Much  difference  of  opinion,  however, 
exists  among  store-farmers  and  shepherds  on  this 
point,  though  the  opinion  of  contagion  prepon- 
derates. For  my  part,  I  never  believed  it  to  be 
so,  and  there  never  would  have  been  such  a 
belief  at  all,  had  the  disease  been  confined  to  a 


few^sheep  at  a  time;  but  though  numbers  are 
affected  at  one  time,  the  fact  can  be  explained 
from  the  circumstance  of  all  the  sheep  being 
similarly  situate  ;  and  as  it  is  the  condition  of 
the  locality  which  is  the  cause  of  the  disease,  the 
wonder  is  that  any  escape  the  affection  at  all, 
rather  than  that  so  many  are  affected. 

1075.  The  first  treatment  for  cure  is  to  wash 
the  foot  clean  with  soap  and  water,  then  pare 
away  all  superfluous  hoof,  dressing  the  diseased 
surface  with  some  caustic,  the  butter  of  antimony 
being  the  best — the  affected  part  being  bound 
round  with  a  rag,  to  prevent  dirt»  getting  into  it 
again — and  removing  the  sheep  to  harder  ground, 
upon  bare  pasture,  and  there  supplying  them 
with  sliced  turnips.  This  cure  indicates  that 
the  disease  may  have  been  prevented  by  carefully 
examining  every  hoof  before  putting  the  sheep 
upon  the  bare  ground,  and  paring  away  all  ex- 
traneous horn  ;  and  should  the  turnips  be  upon 
soft  moist  ground,  let  them  be  entirely  sliced, 
and  let  the  sheep  be  confined  upon  a  small  break 
at  a  time,  which  will  soon  be  trodden  firm,  and 
walking  superseded.  I  may  mention  that  sheep 
accustomed  to  hard  ground,  when  brought  upou 
soft,  are  most  liable  to  foot-rot,  and  hence  the 
necessity  of  frequent  inspection  of  the  hoof  when 
sheep  are  on  soft  ground  ;  and  if  the  farm  has  a 
large  proportion  of  soft  land,  the  shepherd  should 
inspect  a  few  sheep  daily. 

1076.  Erysipelatous  complaints  occur  in  winter 
amongst  sheep.  "  Wildfire,  it  is  said,"  observes 
Professor  Dick,  "generally  shows  itself  at  the 
beginning  of  winter,  and  first  attacks  the  breast 
and  belly.  The  skin  inflames  and  rises  into 
blisters,  containing  a  reddish  fluid,  which  escapes 
and  forms  a  dark  scab.  The  animal  sometimes 
fevers.  Venesection  (blood-letting)  should  be 
used,  the  skin  should  be  washed  with  a  solution 
of  sugar  of  lead,  or  with  lime-water,  and  physic 
given,  such  as  salts  and  sulphur  ;  afterwards  a 
few  doses  of  nitre."t 

1077.  There  is  no  circumstance  upon  which  an 
argument  could  be  more  strongly  founded  in 
favour  of  arable  land  being  attached  to  every 
hill-farm,  for  raising  food  for  stormy  weather, 
than  the  fatality  of  hraxy.  It  affects  young  sheep 
of  the  Black-faced  breed,  which  subsist  upon  the 
most  elevated  pasture.  Indigestion  is  the  pri- 
mary cause,  exciting  constipation,  which  sets  up 
acute  inflammation  of  the  bowels, and  causes  death. 
The  indigestion  is  occasioned  by  a  sudden  change 
from  succulent  to  dry  food  ;  and  the  sudden 
change  is  impelled  by  the  sudden  appearance  of 
snow  concealing  the  green  herbage  the  sheep  were 
eating,  obliging  them  to  subsist  upon  the  tops  of 
old  heather,  and  the  dried  twigs  and  leaves  of 
the  bushes  that  overtop  the  snow.  By  this  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  disease,  it  is  obvious 
that  were  stells  provided  for  shelter,  and  turnips 
for  food,  the  braxy  would  never  affect  young,  hill- 
sheep. 

1078.  The  Ettrick  Shepherd  thus  describes  its 


*  Youatt  On  Sheep,  p.  53-8. 
VOL.  I. 


+  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinart/  Science,  p.  110. 


M42 


PRACTICE-WIKTER. 


syirptoins  : — "  The  loss  of  cu<l  is  tlie  first  token. 
As  the  distemper  advances,  the  agony  which  the 
animal  is  suffering  becomes  more  and  more  visible. 
When  it  stands,  it  brings  all  its  four  feet  into  the 
compass  of  a  foot  ;  and  sometimes  it  continues  to 
rise  and  lie  down  alternately  every  two  or  three 
minutes.  The  eyes  are  heavy  and  dull,  and 
deeply  expressive  of  its  distress.  The  cars  hang 
down,  and,  when  more  narrowly  inspected,  the 
south  and  tongue  are  dry  and  parched,  and  the 
white  of  the  eye  inflamed.  .  .  .  The  belly  is  pro- 
digiously swelled,  even  so  much  that  it  some- 
times bursts.  All  the  different  apartments  of 
the  stomach  Sre  inflamed  in  some  degree."* 
Violent  inflammation  succeeds,  with  a  tendency 
to  mortification  and  sinking,  so  that,  after  speedy 
death,  tlie  stench  of  the  viscera,  and  even  of  the 
carcass,  is  intolerable.  Its  effects  are  so  sudden, 
that  a  hogg  apparently  well  in  the  evening  will 
be  found  dead  in  the  morning. 

1079.  Cure  thus  seems  almost  unavailable,  and 
yet  it  may  be  effected,  provided  the  symptoms 
are  observed  in  time  ;  when,  if  blood  is  drawn 
freely  from  any  part  of  the  body,  as  from  nicks 
made  across  the  under  side  of  the  tail,  from  the 
vein  under  the  eye,  and  that  behind  the  fore-arm, 
and  a  dose  of  salts  administered  in  warm  water, 
the  animal  will  most  probably  recover.f 

'1080.  But  the  grand  object  is  pr^r^n^ionof  the 
disea,se,  by  a  timely  supply  of  succulent  food  ; 
and  if  turnips  cannot  be  obtained,  it  may  be 
worth  the  store-master's  consideration  whether 
oil-cake  should  not  be  provided,  and  given  along 
with  hay,  during  a  storm.  The  laxative  property 
of  oil-cake  is  well  established,  and  its  carriage 
to  tie  remotest  hill-farm  comparatively  easy. 
Mr  Fairbaim  recommends  the  use  of  salt  to 
young  sheep,  when  shifted  suddenly  from  fresh 
to  dry  food  ;  and  as  a  condiment  it  would  prove 
beneficial,  especially  in  the  case  of  ruminants,  as 
cattle  and  sheep,  the  structure  of  whose  digestive 
organs  renders  them  peculiarly  susceptible  of 
indigestion  ;  and  on  this  account  it  would  be  a 
valuable  assistant  to  the  more  nutritious  oil-cake. 
Instead  of  entirely  acquiescing  in  the  Ettrick 
Shepherd's  recommendation  "to  pasture  the 
young  and  old  of  the  flocks  all  together," — as 
has  been  done  in  Peeblesshire,  to  the  eradication, 
it  is  said,  of  the  braxy,--as  being  in  many  cases 
impracticable  and  attended  with  no  profit,  Mr 
Fairbaim  suggests,  "  Let  the  pasture  for  a  hirsel 
be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  one  soil.  To  overlook 
this  is  a  mighty  error,  and  the  surest  means  of 
making  the  flock  unequal.  The  heath  should 
also  be  regularly  burned,  and  the  sheep  never 
allowed  to  pasture  long  upon  foft  grass,"  but  put 
them  on  turnips,  as  "an  infallible  antidote 
against  the  progress  of  the  malady,"  which  he 
has  "  invariably  found  to  give  a  settling  stroke 
to  the  disease."^ 

'  1081.  The  Ettrick  Shepherd  mentions  the  ex- 
istence of  4  kinds  of  braxy,  namely,  the  tijitel 
ticknets,  the  sickness  in  the  flesh  and  blood,  the 
dry  braxy,  and  the  leater  braxy,  all  originating 
*  Hogg's  Shepherd's  Guide,  p.  32. 

J  A  Lammer,nmr  Fanner^s  Treatise 


in  the  cause  above  described,  and  of  a  class  of 
diseases  allied  in  their  nature  to  hoven  in  cattle, 
and  flatulent  colic  or  batts  in  horses. 


OX     THK    ACCOMMODATION    AFFORDED    TO 
CATTLE  IX  WIXTER  BY  IDE  STEADING. 

1082.  On  looking  at  the  plan  of  the 
steading,  Plate  II.,  3'ou  will  find  that  the 
cattle  should  occupy  the  following  parts, 
— the  courts,  the  hamuiels,  and  the  byres. 

1083.  The  courts  are  occupied  by  the 
young  beasts,  such  as  the  calves  of  the 
year,  and  the  year-olds. 

1084.  The  hamraels  by  the  two-year- 
olds,  or  such  as  are  fattening  for  the 
butcher. 

1085.  The  byres  are  destined  for  the 
milk  cows,  the  breeders  of  the  calves;  and 
in  parts  of  the  country,  byres  are  also  em- 
ployed in  the  fattening  of  the  cattle  for 
the  butcher:  but  where  thev  are  used,  of 
course  haniniels  are  dispensed  with.  We 
shall,  by-and-by,  see  whether  byres  or 
hammels  are  best  suited  for  the  fattening 
of  cattle. 

1086.  Before  any  of  these  apartments 
can  be  occupied  by  their  res])ective 
tenants,  they  should  be  liberally  littered 
with  straw.  The  first  littering  of  the 
courts  and  hammels  should  be  abundant, 
as  a  thin  layer  of  straw  makes  an  uncom- 
fortable bed,  whereas  a  thick  one  is  not 
only  comfortable  in  itself,  but  acts  as  a 
drain  to  the  moisture  in  the  heap  of 
manure  above  it.  More  comfort  to  cattle 
is  involved  in  this  ordinary  matter  than 
most  farmers  seem  to  be  aware  of,  but  it 
is  obvious  that  the  first  layer  of  litter,  if 
thin,  soon  gets  trampled  down,  and  in 
rainy  weather  the  soil  below  it  as  soon 
becomes  poached — that  is,  saturated  with 
wet  and  pierced  into  holes  with  the  cattle's 
feet ;  so  that  any  small  quantity  of  litter 
afterwards  laid  upon  this,  will  but  absorb 
the  moisture  below  it,  and  afford  no  dry 
lair  to  the  cattle.  A  thick  layer  does  not 
become  poached  even  in  wet  weather,  the 
feet  cannot  pierce  through  it,  and,  acting 
as  a  drain,  the  moisture  is  let  pass  and 

+  The  Mountain  Shepiherd's  Jfanu'il,  p.  13. 
on  Sheep  in  High  Dittrictf,  p.  194. 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING. 


243 


kept  below,  and  the  bedding  above  remains     unfavourable  circumstances  as  regards  the 
comparatively  dry.  command  of  straw. 


10S7.  Sometimes  a  deficiency  of  straw 
is  experienced  in  the  early  part  of  winter, 
from  various  causes,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  a  dislike  in  farmers  to  thrash 
a  stack  or  two  of  the  new  crop  in  early 
winter,  even  when  no  old  straw  or  old 
stack  of  corn  is  left  from  the  former  crop — 
and  a  ready  excuse  is  found  in  the  want 
of  water  or  wind  to  move  the  thrashing 
machine ;  but  however  recently  formed 
the  stacks  may  be,  and  inconvenient  to 
thrash  their  produce  at  the  time,  it  should 
be  done  by  some  means  rather  than  stint 
the  cattle  of  bedding ;  for  should  bad 
weather  immediately  arrive,  an  event  not 
unlikely  to  happen,  the  cattle  may  become 
so  chilled  in  their  ill-littered  quarters,  that 
a  great  part  of  the  winter  may  elapse 
before  they  recover  from  its  effects ; 
and  hence  arise  disease  and  serious  reduc- 
tion of  profit. 

1088.  With  even  plenty  of  old  stacks,  a 
want  of  water  to  drive  the  thrashing- 
machine  may  really  be  experienced,  and 
this  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  in  the 
beginning  of  winter  on  farms  which  de- 
pend upon  surface-water  only  for  their 
supply ;  and.  a  windmill  is  in  no  better 
condition  from  want  of  wind.  In  case 
such  contingencies  may  happen,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  farmer  to  provide  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  litter  in  good  time, 
— and  there  are  various  ways  of  doing 
this.  Those  who  still  use  the  flail 
may  employ  it  at  any  season ;  and  those 
having  horse  thrashing-mills  are  equally 
independent.  Bog-land  supplies  coarse 
herbage,  "svhich  should  be  made  into  hay 
in  summer ;  but  precaution  is  requisite  in 
using  turf  as  a  bottoming  for  the  litter  of 
courts,  as  turf  will  become  like  a  sponge 
full  of  water  after  the  first  fall  of  rain, 
and  scarcely  any  quantity  of  straw  will 
prevent  the  cattle  rendering  the  bedding 
above  it  a  poached  mass.  I  once  tried 
turf,  after  considering  it  well  dried,  but 
was  glad  to  drive  it  out  of  the  courts 
again.  Ferns  cut  and  won,  as  also  dried 
grass  and  leaves  from  woods,  form  an  ex- 
cellent foundation  for  litter.  By  one  or 
all  of  these  means,  a  comfortable  bed  may 
be  provided  for  the  cattle  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  season,  under  the  most 


1 089.  The  plan  of  the  steading,  Plate  II., 
shows  two  courts  for  young  cattle,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  straw-barn.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  left-hand  court  is  entirely 
closed  in  by  itself,  while  the  right-hand 
one  has  a  causeyed  road  round  two  sides 
of  it,  which  is  the  cart  road  to  the  corn- 
barn,  and  to  one  of  the  doors  of  the  straw- 
barn.  The  cattle  have  liberty  to  walk  on 
this  road  when  they  choose,  but  it  should 
nevertheless  be  swept  clean  every  day  by 
the  cattle-man.  The  left-hand  court  is 
occupied  by  the  calves,  and  the  other 
by  the  year-olds.  They  are  both  fitted 
up  alike  with  turnip  troughs  along  the 
walls,  with  a  straw-rack  which  stands  inde- 
pendently in  the  middle  of  the  court, 
and  with  straw-racks  along  the  walls  of 
the  sheds,  which,  in  these  cases,  are  placed 
under  the  granaries  in  the  highest  part  or 
north  range  of  the  building. 

1090.  The  troughs  for  turnips  are  placed 
against  the  walls,  as  in  fig.  66,  where  a  is 

Fig.  6S. 


TURNIP  TROUGH  FOR  COURTS. 

the  wall  against  which  the  trough  is  built, 
and  b  a  building  of  stone  and  lime  2  feet 
thick,  to  support  the  bottom  of  the  trough, 
of  which  the  lime  need  not  be  used  for 
more  than  9  inches  in  the  front  and  sides 
of  the  wall,  and  the  remaining  15  inches 


244 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


may  be  filled  up  with  any  liarJ  material ; 
c  is  the  flairgijig  placed  on  the  tup  of  this 
wall,  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  trough. 
Some  board  the  bottom  with  wood ;  and, 
where  wood  is  plentiful,  it  is  cheap,  and 
answers  the  purpose,  and  is  pleasanter  for 
the  cattle  in  wet  and  frosty  weather;  but 
where  flags  can  be  easily  procured,  they 
are  more  durable  :  </  is  a  plank  3  inches 
thick  and  9  inches  in  depth  to  keep  in  the 
turnips.  Oak  planking  from  wrecks,  and 
old  spruce  trees,  however  knotty,  T  have 
found  a  cheap  and  durable  front  for  turnip 
troughs.  The  planks  are  spliced  together 
at  their  ends,  and  held  on  edge  by  rods  of 
iron  e  batted  with  lead  into  the  wall,  and 
with  nut  and  screw  in  front.  The  height 
in  front  should  not  exceed  2  feet  9  inches 
for  calves,  and  3  feet  for  the  other  beasts, 
and  it  will  become  less  as  the  straw  daily 
accumulates.  The  trough,  here  shown 
short,  may  extend  to  any  length  along  the 
side  of  a  court. 

1091.  The  strmc-racls  for  courts  are 
made  of  various  forms.  On  farms  of  liglit 
soils,  where  straw  is  usually  scarce,  a  rack 
of  the  form  of  fig.  67,  will  bo  found  ser- 
viceable in  preserving  the  straw  from  rain, 


COVERED  STRAW-RACK  FOR  COURTS. 

where  a  a  is  the  sparred  bottom  inclined 
upwards  to  keep  the  straw  always  forward 
to  the  front  of  the  rack  in  reach  of  the 
cattle.  The  shank  supporting  the  movable 
cover,  i,  which  jirotects  the  straw  from 
rain,  passes  through  the  apex  of  the  bottom. 
The  shank  with  its  cover  is  moved  up  and 
down,  when  a  supply  of  straw  is  given,  by 
the  action  of  a  rack  and  pinion,  c,  worked 
by  the  handle  d.  The  rack  is  made  of 
wood,  5  feet  8(juare,  and  5  feet  in  height  to 


the  top  of  the  corner  posts ;  and  sparred 
all  round  the  sides  as  well  as  the  bottom, 
to  keep  in  the  straw. 

1092.  A  more  common  kind  of  rack  is 
in  fig.  08,  of  a  square  form,  sjjarred  round 
the  sides  and  bottom  to  keep  in  the  straw. 
The  cattle  draw  the  straw  through  the  spars 

Fig.  68. 


WOODKV  STRAW-RACK  FOR  COl'RTS. 

as  long  as  its  top  is  too  high  for  them  to 
reach  over  it,  but  after  the  dung  accumu- 
lates, and  the  rack  thereby  becomes  low, 
the  cattle  get  at  the  straw  over  the  top. 
It  is  made  of  wood,  '>  feet  square  and  4 
feet  in  height.  This,  and  the  rack  above, 
may  he  pulled  up  higher  when  the  dung 
accumulates  much. 

1093.  Fig.  69  is  a  rack  of  malleable  iron 
to  supply  the  straw  always  over  its  top, 
Fig.  69. 


IRON  STRAW-RACK  FOR  COURTS. 

and  is  rodded  in  the  sides  to  keep  in  the 
straw.  It  remains  constantly  on  the 
ground,  and  is  not  drawn  up  as  the  dung 
accumulates,  as  in  the  case  of  the  racks 
described.  It  is  5\  feet  in  length,  4,};  in 
breadth,  and  A\  in  height;  the  upjjcr  rails 
and  legs  are  of  1  inch  s(|uarc  iron,  and  the 
other  rails  f  inch.  This  is,  of  course,  the 
most  durable  straw-rack. 

1094.  Few  things  indicate  greater  care 
for  cattle  than  the  providing  of  stored  tur- 
nips for  their  use ;  such  being  not  only 


ACCOM]VIODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING.         245 


convenient,  but  the  best  mode  of  keeping 
them  clean  and  fresh.  The  sites  of  the 
turnip  stores  may  be  seen  both  in  the 
isometrical  view,  Plate  I.  and  in  the  plan, 
Plate  II.  They  should  be  made  of  stone 
and  lime  8  feet  by  5  inside,  and  6  feel  in 
height,  with  an  opening  in  front,  2  feet 
and  upwards  from  the  ground,  for  putting 
in  and  taking  out  the  turnips;  or  they 
may  be  of  wood,  where  it  is  cheap.  They 
may  either  be  covered  or  straw  used  to  pro- 
tect the  turnips  from  frost.  They  should 
be  placed  near  the  cattle,  and  be  easy  of 
access  to  carts  from  the  roads. 

1 095.  The  supply  of  water  to  all  the 
courts  is  of  paramount  consideration.  The 
troughs  may  be  supplied  with  water  either 
directly  from  pump-wells,  or  by  pipes  from 
a  fountain  at  a  little  distance,  the  former 
being  the  most  common  plan.  As  a  pump 
cannot  conveniently  be  placed  at  each 
trough,  I  have  found  a  plan  of  supplying 
any  number  of  troughs  from  one  pump,  to 
answer  well,  provided  the  surface  of  the 


grQund  will  allow  the  troughs  being  placed 
nearly  on  the  same  level.  One  plan  is  to 
connect  the  bottoms  of  any  two  or  more 
troughs  on  the  same  level,  with  lead  pipes 
placed  under  ground ;  and  on  the  first 
trough  being  supplied  direct  from  the 
pump,  the  water  will  flow  to  the  same 
level  throughout  all  the  other  troughs. 
This  particular  arrangement  is  subject  to 
tliis  objection,  that  when  any  one  of  the 
troughs  is  emptying  by  drinking,  the  water 
is  drawn  off  from  the  rest  of  the  troughs, 
to  maintain  its  level  throughout  the 
whole. 

1096.  Were  the  trough  which  receives 
the  water  placed  a  few  inches  helow  the 
top  of  the  one  supplying  it,  and  a  lead 
pipe  to  come  from  the  bottom  of  the  sup- 
ply trough  over  the  top  of  the  edge  of  the 
receiving  one,  the  water  might  entirely  be 
emptied,  by  drinking,  without  affecting 
the  quantity  in  any  of  the  others.  Let  a, 
fig.  70,  be  the  supply  trough  immediately 
beside  the  pump;  let  h  be  the  trough  in 


Fig.  70. 


WATER-TROUGHS. 


any  other  court  to  be  supplied  with  water 
from  cf,  and  let  it  be  3  inches  below  the 
level  of  a.  Let  a  lead  pipe,  6?,  be  fastened 
to  the  bottom  of  «,  the  orifice  looking  up- 
wards, and  protected  by  the  hemispherical 
drainer,  c.  Let  the  lead  pipe,  J,  be  passed 
under  ground  to  the  trough  h,  and  emerge 
from  the  ground  by  the  side  of  and  over 
the  top  of  h  at  e.  When  a  is  filling  with 
water  from  the  pump,  the  moment  the 
water  rises  in  a  to  the  level  of  the  end  of 
the  end  of  the  pipe  at  ^,  it  will  commence 
to  flow  into  5,  and  will  continue  to  do  so 
until  h  is  filled,  if  the  pumping  be  con- 
tinued. The  water  .in  a,  helo^c  the  level 
of  the  end  of  the  pipe  at  e,  may  be  used 
in  a  without  aftecting  J,  and  the  water 
in  h  may  be  entirely  used  without  affect- 


1097.  Water-troughs  may  be   made  of 
various  materials;  a  is  hewn  out  of  a  solid 


block  of  free-stone,  which  makes  the  closest, 
most  durable,  and  best  trough. 

1098.  If  of  flag  stones,  as  5,  the  sides 
are  sunk  into  the  edges  of  the  bottom  in 
grooves  luted  with  white  lead,  and  held 
together  with  iron  clamps,  h^  at  the  corners. 
This  makes  a  good  trough,  but  is  apt  to 
leak  at  the  joints. 

1099.  Trough/  is  made  of  wood  dove- 
tailed at  the  corners,  which  are  held  to- 
gether by  clamps  of  iron,  i.  When  made 
of  good  timber,  and  painted,  they  last 
many  years. 

1100.  Water-troughs  arc  sometimes 
supplied  from  a  large  cistern,  somewhat 
elevated  above  their  level,  and  filled  from 
a  well  with  a  common  or  force-pump.  In 
this  case  a  cock,  or  ball-and-cock,  are  re- 
quired at  each  trough  :  if  a  cock,  the  sup- 


246 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


ply  must  (leiicnd  on  tlie  cock  being  turneil 
in  due  time  ;  and  if  a  ball-and-cock,  the 
8Ui)ply  depends  on  the  ciatem  always  hav- 
ing water  in  it :  but  this  method  is  expen- 
sive, and  liable  to  go  out  of  order. 

1101.  In  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
from  natural  springs,  accessible  without 
the  means  of  a  pump,  lead-pipes  may  be 
made  to  emit  a  constant  stream  of  water 
into  each  trougli,  and  the  surjjlus  con- 
veyed away  in  drains  to  the  horse-pond,  or 
to  any  other  useful  purpose. 

1102.  Still  another  mode  may  be 
adopted  where  the  supply  of  water  is 
plentiful,  and  it  flows  constantly  into  a 
supply-cistern.  Let  the  supply-cistern  be 
2  feet  in  length,  1  foot  wide,  an<l  18  inches 
in  depth,  provided  with  a  ball-and-cock, 
and  let  a  jtipc  proceed  from  its  bottom  to 
a  trough  of  dimensions  fit  for  the  use  ot 
cattle,  into  which  let  the  pipe  enter  by 
the  end  or  side  a  little  way,  say  3  inches, 
below  the  mouth  of  the  trough.  Let  a 
pipe  proceed  from  this  trough,  as  from  the 
lower  bend  of  the  pipe  c,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  trough  h,  fig.  70,  into  the  end  of  an- 
other trough,  and  so  on,  from  trough  to 
trough,  into  the  ends  of  as  n)any  succeed- 
ing troughs,  on  the  same  level,  as  are  re- 
quired, and  the  water  will  rise  in  each  as 
high  as  the  mouth  of  the  pipe,  and  which, 
when  withdrawn  by  drinking  from  anyone 
trough,  the  ball  aud-cock  will  replenish  it 
direct  from  the  supply-cistern  ;  but  the 
objection  to  the  ball-and-cock  applies  as 
strongly  in  this  as  in  tiic  other  case, 
although  economy  of  pipe  attends  this 
method. 

1 103.  The  sheds  attached  to  large  cattle 
courts  arc  usually  provideil  with  more 
than  one  opening  ov  tloor,  with  the  view 
of  allowing  a  timid  animal  to  escape  by  one 
door  while  chased  by  another.  But,  in 
my  opinion,  the  comfort  of  the  cattle  is 
more  secured  with  only  one  entrance,  in- 
asmuch as  every  draught  of  air  is  pre- 
vented ;  and  although  the  c)bject  of  two 
entrances  is  laudable  in  atlbrdin<:  a  means 
of  escajje  to  a  beast  that  may  be  ill-used 
by  the  i-est,  the  advantage  to  one  is  dearly 
bought  at  the  sacrifice  of  comfort  to  the 
others;  and,  after  all,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  contingency  thus  dreaded  can  be  avoid- 
ed   in   any  May,  unless  from  the  proba- 


bility of  general  agreement  after  a  common 
use  of  the  same  apartment  for  some  time. 
Cattle  bought  promiscuously  from  diflTerent 
quarters,  and  put  together,  are  much  less 
likely  to  agree  in  the  same  court  than 
those  brought  up  together  from  calf  hood. 
Howeverbrought  together,  there  should  not 
exceed  20  beasts  kept  together  in  a  court. 

1104.  Hammels  are  fitted  up  with  tur- 
nip troughs  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
courts,  though  the  straw- racks  are  always 
fastened  in  the  corners  or  against  the  walls 
in  the  sheds,  and  never  placed  in  the  small 
courts. 

1105.  Hammels  consist  of  a  shed,  and 
an  open  court,  communicating  by  a  large 
opening.  The  shed  part  need  not  be  so 
wide  as  the  rest  of  the  apartments  in  the 
farmstead,  in  as  far  as  the  comfort  of  the 
animals  is  concerned;  and  in  making  it 
narrower,  considerable  saving  isetl'ected  in 
the  cost  of  the  roofing. 

1106.  There  is  no  definite  rule  for  the 
size  of  hammels ;  but  as  their  advantage 
consists  in  assorting  the  cattle  according  to 
their  age,  temper,  size,  and  condition,  and 
in  giving  them  liberty  in  the  fresh  air, 
they  should  not  only  be  much  smaller  than 
courts,  but  only  contain  2  large  oxen,  or  3 
small  ones.  Hammels,  however,  are  often 
made  much  larjjer  tlian  this.  When  the 
dung  is  ])r()]iose(l  to  be  taken  away  by 
horse  and  cart  from  the  courts,  these  should 
not  be  less  tlian  30  feet  in  length  by  18  feet 
in  breadth,  and  the  entrance  gate  9  feet  in 
width  ;  and  this  size  will  easily  accommo- 
date 4  oxen,  which  will  each  attain  the 
dead-weight  of  70  stones  im])eriah  But 
the  dung  may  be  taken  out  with  barrows, 
and  a  court  15  feet  in  length  by  12  feet  in 
width,  free  of  the  turnip  trough,  will  ac- 
commodate 2  such  oxen  as  these. 

1107.  The  sheds  to  both  these  sizes  of 
courts  need  not  exceed  14  feet  in  width, 
and  their  lengtli  is  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  courts. 

1108.  To  give  jicrmanency  to  hammels, 
the  sheds  should  be  roofed  like  the  other 
buildings,  though  to  save  expense  many 
farmers  roof  them  with  small  trees  jilaced 
close  together  upon  the  walls  of  the  sheds, 
and   build  thereon  straw,  corn,  or  beans. 


ACCOMJklODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  TliE  STEADING. 


247 


This  is  an  excellent  place  for  a  stack  of 
beans  or  pease;  but  the  finished  building  is 
the  best  adapted  for  its  own  purpose.  Tem- 
porary erections  are  constantly  requiring 
repairs,  and  in  the  end  cost  as  much  as 
substantial  work. 

1109.  The  door  of  the  shed,  5  feet  in 
width,  sh-ould  be  at  one  side  and  not  in  the 
middle  of  the  hanmiel,  to  aflbrd  the  more 
room  and  warmth  to  the  interior.  The 
corners  of  the  scuncheon  should  be  cham- 
pered  off,  to  save  the  cattle  being  injured 
against  sharp  angles. 

1110.  The  divisions  betwixt  the  respec- 
tive courts  should  be  of  stone  and  lime 
walls,  1  foot  in  thickness,  and  6  feet  in' 
height.  Those  within  the  sheds  should  be 
carried  up  quite  close  to  the  roof,  but  more 
frequently  they  are  only  carried  up  to  the 
first  balk  of  the  couples,  over  which  a 
draught  of  air  is  generated  from  shed  to 
shed,  much  to  the  discomfort  of  the 
animals. 

1111.  I  prefer  hammels  to  large  courts, 
even  for  the  younger  beasts,  because  the 
heifers  might  be  separated  from  the  steers, 
and  each  class  subdivided  to  suit  cohiur, 
strength,  age,  temper,  or  any  other  point  in 
which  a  few  agree,  and  difier  from  the 
rest,  and  it  is  surprising  how  much  better 
the  same  animals  look  when  well  assorted. 

1112.  Neither  courts  nor  hammels  are 
completely  furnished  for  the  comfort  of 
their  tenants  unless  provided  with  well- 
built  drains  to  convey  away  the  surplus 
liquid  manure,  when  there  happens  to  be 
any  excess  of  it.  For  this  purpose  a  drain 
should  enter  into  each  of  the  large  courts, 
and  one  across  the  middle  of  each  set  of 
hammels.  The  ground  of  every  court 
should  be  so  laid  off  as  to  make  the  lowest 
part  of  the  court  at  the  place  where  the 
drain  conmiences  or  passes  ;  and  such 
lowest  point  should  be  furnished  with  a 
strong  block  of  hewn  freestone,  into  which 
is  sunk  flush  an  iron  grating,  having  the 
qars  only  an  inch  asunder,  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  straws  into  the  drain.  Fig.  71 
gives  an  idea  of  such  a  grating,  made  of 
malleable  iron,  to  bear  rough  usage,  such 
as  the  wheel  of  a  cart  passing  over  it ;  the 


bar^3  being  placed   across,  with  a  curve 
Fig.  71. 


DRAIN  GRATING  FOR  COURTS. 

downicai'ds,  to  keep  them  clear  of  obstruc- 
tions for  the  water  to  pass  through  them. 
A  writer,  in  speaking  of  such  gratings, 
recommends  "they  should  be  strong,  and 
have  the  ribs  well  bent  upicards^  as  in  that 
form  they  are  not  so  liable  to  be  choked 
uj) ;"  *  a  remark  quite  correct  in  regard  to 
the  form  of  gratings  for  the  sewers  of 
towns,  as  with  the  ribs  bent  doicnicards 
in  such  a  place,  the  accumulated  stuff 
brought  upon  them  would  soon  prevent 
the  water  getting  down  into  the  drains; 
but  the  case  is  quite  diflerent  in  courts 
where  the  straw,  covering  the  gratings,  lies 
loosely  over  the  ribs  bent  downwards,  and 
acts  as  a  drainer;  but  were  it  to  be  pressed 
against  the  ribs  bent  upwards,  the  water 
could  not  percolate  through  it.  Any  one 
who  has  seen  the  straw  of  dunghills  pressed 
hard  against  a  raised  stone  in  the  gronnd 
below  it,  will  easily  understand  the  efl.ect. 
The  positions  of  these  gratings  ai'e  indi- 
cated in  the  plan,  Plate  II. 

1113.  Liquid  manure  drains  should  be 
builtwith  stoneand  lime  walls,  9  inches  high 
and  6  inches  asunder,  flagged  smoothly  in 
the  bottom,  and  covered  with  single  stones. 
Fig.  72  shows  the  form  of  this  sort  of 
drain,  and  sufliciently  explains  its  struc- 
Fig.  72. 


tr^if ■ "  -  - 


LIQUID-MANURK  DRAIN. 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Higldand  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  viii.  p.  375. 


248 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


ture.  As  litjuiJ  manure  is  sluggish  in  its 
motion,  tlie  drains  require  a  much  greater 
fall  in  their  course  tiian  rain-water  drains. 
They  should  also  run  in  direct  lines,  and 
have  as  few  turnings  as  possible  in  their 
passage  to  tlie  tank,  which  should  be  situ- 
ate in  the  lowest  part  of  the  ground,  not 
far  from  the  steading,  and  out  of  the  way. 
The  advantage  of  these  drains  being  made 
straight  is,  that,  should  they  choke  up  at 
any  time,  a  large  quantity  of  water  poured 
into  them  would  clear  the  obstruction 
away.  The  direction  of  these  drains 
may  be  seen  in  the  plan,  Plate,  II.,  to- 
wards the  tank.  It  might  be  possible  to 
have  a  tank  to  each  set  of  hammels  and 
courts,  to  collect  the  liquid  manure  from 
each  separately;  but  such  a  multiplicity 
of  tanks  would  be  attended  with  much 
expense  at  first,  and  inconvenience  at  all 
times.  Were  the  practice  adopted  of 
spreading  the  liquid  manure  on  the  field  at 
ouce,  as  is  done  by  the  Flemish  farmers, 
a  tank  in  every  court  would  be  conve- 
nient. 

1114.  The  liquid  manure  tank  should  be 
built  of  stone  or  brick  and  liniQ.  Its  form 
may  be  either  round,  rectangular,  or  irre- 
gular, and  it  may  be  arched,  covered  with 
wood,  left  open,  or  placed  under  a  slated 
or  thatched  roof ;  the  arch  forming  the 
most  complete  roof,  the  rectangular  form 
should  be  chosen.  I  have  found  a  tank  of  an 
area  ofonly  100  square  feet,  and  a  depth  of  4 
feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  drains,  contain 
a  large  proportion  of  tlie  whole  liquid  ma- 
nurecollected  during  the  winter,fromcourts 
and  hammels  well  littered  with  straw,  in  a 
steading,  for  300  acres,  well  provided  with 
rain-water  sjjouts.  The  ]M»sition  of  the 
tank  may  be  .seen  in  the  plan,  Plate  II. 
It  is  rectangular,  and  might  be  roofed  with 
an  arch. 

111.').  A  cast-iron  pump  should  be  af- 
fixed to  one  end  of  the  tank,  the  spout  of 
which  should  be  as  elevated  as  to  allow 
the  liquid  to  run  into  the  bung-hole  of  a 
large  barrel  placed  on  the  framing  of  a 
cart,  or  over  a  series  of  compost  dung- 
hills. I  have  lately  seen  an  iron  pump 
which  raised  water  by  means  of  a  series  of 
screw-fans,  made  of  metal,  such  as  are 
used  in  tlie  screw-propellers  of  ships,  and 
which,  being  simple  in  construction,  and 
not  liable  to  be  put  out  of  working  order, 


would  answer  well  for  pumping  so  thick 
and  viscid  liquid  as  liquid  manure. 

1 1 1 G.  It  is  clear  that  if  all  the  rain  that 
falls  upon  the  roof  of  the  steading  gets 
leave  to  make  its  way  into  the  courts  and 
hammels  occupicil  by  the  cattle,  that  it 
will  p:iss  through  the  manure  as  rapidly, 
and  in  as  large  a  quantity,  as  the  rain 
happens  to  fall  copiously  or  otherwise  ; 
and  tliat,  in  its  way  through  the  manure 
to  the  drains  which  convey  it  to  the  liquid- 
manure  tank,  it  will  dissolve  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  soluble  part  of  the  manure, 
and  in  so  far  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the 
dunghill.  The  liquid  manure  thus  con- 
veyed to  the  tank  will,  therefore,  largely 
consist  of  rain  water;  and  when  it  is 
carried  from  the  tank  to  the  fields,  or  spread 
over  the  compost  heaps,  there  will  be 
carried  or  spread  as  much  of  rain-water. 
Now,  of  what  utility  is  it  to  the  field  or 
the  compost  heap  in  incurring  the  expense 
and  trouble  of  moving  about  so  much  rain- 
Mater?  Would  it  not  be  a  more  sensible 
proceeding  to  prevent  tlie  rain-water  en- 
tering the  courts,  and  only  bestow  the 
trouble  of  carrying  or  spreading  the  pure 
liquid-manure  which  shall  flow  from  the 
dunghills,  when  the  straw  is  unable  to 
absorb  and  retain  any  more  of  it  ?  No 
doubt  it  would ;  and  yet  I  believe  the 
largest  proportion  of  the  liquid  manure 
one  hoars  being  collected  in  the  tanks, 
consists  only  of  rain-water,  excepting  in 
the  case  of  dairy  fiirms,  where  the  cows  arc 
supplied  largely  with  succulent  food  in  the 
byres,  and  with  very  little  litter. 

1117.  For  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of 
the  rain  water,  the  eaves  of  the  roofs  of 
the  houses  which  surround  the  courts 
should  be  provided  with  raiu-icatcr 
spouts,  not  only  to  take  it  from  the  roofs, 
but  to  jiour  it  into  drains  to  be  carried  to 
a  ditch  at  a  distance  from  the  farmstead. 

1118.  As  to  the  rain  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  roofs,  drains  should  be  formed 
along  the  bottom  of  every  wall  not  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  courts.  The  drains 
should  be  dug  6  inches  below  the  founda- 
tion-stones of  the  walls,  conduited  with  a 
main  pipe-tile,  and  the  drain  filled  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  brokcm  stones. 
The  broken  stones  will  receive  the  rain 
dropping  from  the  roofs,  and  the  pipe-tile 


ACCOMMODATION"  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING. 


249 


conduit  will  carry  it  away ;  and  should 
the  stones  ever  become  hardened  on  the 
surface,  or  grown  over  with  grass,  the 
grass  might  be  easily  removed,  and  the 
stones  loosened  by  the  action  of  the  hand- 
pick. 

1119.  Eain  water-spouts  are  made  of 
wood,  cast-iron,  lead,  or  zinc,  the  last 
being  quite  durable,  very  light,  and 
cheapest  in  the  end,  and  are  fastened  to 
the  wall  by  iron  holdfasts.  The  direction 
of  the  rain-water  drains  may  be  traced 
along  the  dotted  lines,  accompanied  by 
arrows,  in  the  plan  Plate  II. 

1 1 20.  The  cow-house  or  byre  is  occupied 
by  the  cows,  and  in  some  districts  by  the 
fattening  oxen  also,  and  is  fitted  up  in 
a  peculiar  manner.  The  cows  stand  in 
stalls  :  the  stalls,  to  be  easy  for  the  cows 
to  lie  down  and  rise  up,  in  my  opinion,  for 
a  large  kind  of  cattle  should  never  be 
less  than  5  feet  in  width.  Four  feet  is 
a  more  common  width,  but  is  too  nar- 
row for  a  large  cow,  and  even  7  feet 
is  considered  in  the  dairy  districts  a  fair- 
sized  double  stall  for  two  cows.  My 
opinion  is,  that  every  cow  should  have  n 
stall  for  her  own  use,  lying,  standing,  or 
eating  her  food,  of  sufficient  length  and 
breadth  that  she  may  lie  at  eaSe  betwixt 
the  manger  and  the  gutter.  The  width  of 
the  byre  should  be  18  feet ;  the  manger 
2  feet  in  width,  the  length  of  a  large  co^v 
about  8  feet,  the  gutter  1  foot  broad,  leaves 
7  feet  behind  the  gutter  for  a  passage  fur 
containing  the  different  vessels  used  in 
milking  the  cows  and  feeding  the  calves. 
The  ceiling  should  be  quite  open  to  the 
slates,  and  a  A'entilator  for  every  four  or 
five  cows  in  the  roof,  for  regulating  the 
temperature  and  supplying  the  byre  with 
fresh  air.  A  door,  divided  into  upper  and 
lower  halves,  should  open  outwards  to  the 
court  on  a  giblet-check,  for  the  easy 
passage  of  the  cows  to  and  from  the  court, 
and  each  half  fastened  on  the  inside  with 
a  hand-bar.  Two  windows  with  glass 
panes,  with  the  lower  parts  furnished  with 
shutters  to  open,  will  give  sufficient  light, 
as  also  air,  with  the  half-door.  The  walls 
should  be  plastered  for  comfort  and  clean- 
liness. 

1121.  The  stalls  are  most  comfortably 
made  of  wood,  though  some   recommend 


stone,  which  always  feels  hard  and  cold. 
Tiieir  height  should  be  3  feet,  and  length 
no  farther  than  to  reach  the  flank  of  the 
cow,  or  about  6  feet  from  the  wall.  When 
of  wood,  a  strong  hard-wood  hind-post  is 
sunk  into  the  ground,  and  built  in  ma- 
sonry. Between  this  post  and  the  manger 
should  be  laid  a  curb  stone,  grooved  on  the 
uj)per  edge  to  let  in  the  ends  of  the  travis 
boai'ds.  The  deals  are  held  in  their  places 
at  the  upper  ends  by  means  of  a  hard- 
wood rail,  grooved  on  the  under  side,  into 
which  t!ie  edge  of  the  deals  are  let ;  and 
the  rail  is  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  hind- 
post  at  one  end,  and  let  into  the  wall  at 
the  other,  and  there  fastened  with  iron 
h(ddfasts.  Stone  travises  are  no  doubt 
more  durable,  and  in  the  end  perhaps 
more  economical,  where  flag-stones  are 
plentiful ;  but  I  would  in  all  cases  prefer 
wood,  as  feeling  warmer,  being  more  dry 
in  damp  weather,  and  less  liable  to  injure 
the  cows  coming  against  them,  and  within 
doors  will  last  a  long  time.  The  plan  of 
the  byres  may  be  seen  in  Plate  II. 

1122.  The  mangers  of  byres  are  usually 
placed  on  a  level  with  the  floor,  with  a 
curb-stone  in  front  to  keep  in  the  food, 
and  paved  in  the  bottom.  Such  a  position 
I  conceive  highly  objectionable,  as,  on 
breaking  the  turnips,  the  head  of  the  ani- 
mal is  so  depressed  that  an  undue  weight  is 
thrown  upon  the  fore-legs,  and  an  iuju- 
rious  strain  induced  on  the  muscles  of  the 
lower  jaw.  A  better  manger  is  made  of 
flag-stones  or  wood,  resting  on  a  building 
of  stone  and  mortar,  raised  about  20  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  a  plank  set  on  edge 
in  front  to  keep  in  the  food.  This  front 
should  be  secured  in  its  position  with  iron 
rods  batted  into  the  wall  at  one  end,  and 
the  other  end  passed  through  the  plank  to 
a  shoulder,  which  is  pressed  hard  by  means 
of  a  nut  and  screw.  Out  of  such  a  man- 
ger the  cow  will  eat  with  ease  any  kind 
of  food,  whether  whole  or  cut ;  and  all 
feeding-byres  for  oxen  should  be  fitted, 
up  with  mangers  of  this  construction. 
Mangers  are  generally  made  too  narrow 
for  cattle  with  horns,  and  the  consequence 
is  the  rubbing  away  of  the  points  of  the 
horns  against  the  wall. 

1 1 23.  The  supply  of  green  food  to  cattle 
in  byres  may  be  eftected  from  the  outside 
through  holes  in  the  wall  at  the  back  of 


250 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  manger.  This  is  a  convenient  mode 
for  the  cattle-man,  but  is  costlj'  in  the 
outfit,  and  allows  the  wind  to  blow  for- 
cibly upnn  the  heads  of  the  cows.  Fi<,'. 
73  is  a  door  shut  in  the  oi)eniug  of  the 
wall  on  the  outside.  I  prefer  giving  the 
food  by  the  stall,  when  it  is  5  feet  wide, 
and  no  cold  air 
Fig.  73. 


DOOR  THROUGH  WHICH  TO 
SUPPLY  MANGERS  WITH 
TURNIPS. 


can  come  upon  the 
cows.  But  when  the 
stalls  are  narrow,  a 
passage  of  2i  feet 
in  width,  betwixt 
the  stalls  and  the  - 
■wall,  would  allow 
the  cattle-man  to 
supply  turnips  and 
fodder.  In  such  a 
case,  the  space  be- 
hind the  cows  is  reduced  to  4^  feet  in 
width. 

1124.  A  wide  single  stall  is  not  only 
useful  in  supplying  the  food  from  within 
the  byre,  but  admits  of  the  cows  being 
more  easily  and  conveniently  milked.  A 
double  stall  is  objectionable  for  several 
reasons :  a  cow  is  a  capricious  creature, 
and  not  always  friendly  to  her  neighbour, 
and  one  of  them  in  a  double  stall  must  be 
bound  to  the  stake  on  the  same  side  as 
she  is  milked  from  ;  and,  to  avoid  the  in- 
convenience, the  dairy- maid  either  puts 
the  cow  aside  nearer  her  neighbour,  in  the 
same  stall — which  may  prove  unpleasant 
to  both  parties — or  the  cow  in  the  adjoin- 
ing stall  nearer  her  neighbour,  which 
may  prove  equally  inconvenient.  Neither 
is  it  a  matter  of  indifference  to  the  cow 
from  which  side  she  is  milked,  for  many 
■will  not  let  down  their  milk  if  the  milk- 
maid sits  down  to  the  unaccustomed  side. 
The  best  plan  in  all  respects  is,  for  each 
cow  to  have  a  roomy  stall  to  herself. 

1125.  The^oor  of  byres  should  be  paved 
with  rectangular  stones,  excepting  the 
gutter,  ■which  should  be  broader  than  an 
ordinary  square-mouthed  shovel,  and 
flagged  at  the  bottom,  to  form  a  trough 
with  two  curb-stones,  and  it  is  then 
quickly  cleaned  out.  A  similarly  firmed 
gutter,  though  of  smaller  dimensions, 
should  run  from  the  main  one  through  the 
wall  into  a  liquid  manure  drain.  The 
causewaying  of  the  stalls  should  extend 
only  a  very  little  farther  than  the  hind- 


posts,  because  cattle,  in  lying  down  and 
rising  up,  first  kneol  upon  their  fore-knees, 
which  would  be  injured  if  pressed  against 
any  hard  substance  like  stones,  and  which 
would  be  the  case  if  the  causeway  was 
not  always  covered  with  litter.  I  remem- 
ber of  a  valuable  short-horn  cow,  in 
Ireland,  getting  injured  in  the  knees  from 
this  cause :  they  swelled  so  much,  and 
continued  so  long  in  a  tender  state,  that 
she  would  not  lie  down  at  all ;  and  all  the 
while  her  owner  was  not  aware  of  the 
cause  until  I  suggested  it;  and  on  remo- 
val of  the  pavement,  and  substitution  of 
beaten  mould,  and  proper  treatment  of 
the  parts  afi'ected,  she  recovered  and  con- 
tinued well. 

1126.  A  most  excellent  pavement  has  of 
late  years  been  made  by  the  Kamtulicon 
Company  in  London,  of  caouchouc  or  India 
rubber  and  sand,  which  possesses  all  the 
firmness  of  boards  and  the  softness  of 
India  rubber,  and  is  impervious  to  damp- 
ness from  below,  and  unaffected  by 
wet  upon  its  surface.  It  forms  a  very 
suitable  paving  for  the  inner  half  of  the 
stalls  of  byres,  or  the  stalls  of  stables. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  valuable  an 
article  is  so  dear.  It  was  sold  two  years 
ago  at  l)s.  per  square  yard  of  one  inch  in 
thickness,  it  then  rose  to  lis.,  and  to  21s., 
owing,  it  is  said,  to  the  scarcity  of  the  gum, 
which  costs  Gd.  per  lb.  in  the  crude  state. 
It  is  now  14s.  Still,  at  the  dearest  cost,  I 
would  fit  up  every  byre  I  had  with  it. 

1127.  The  India  rubber  pavement  is 
always  laid  upon  hard  concrete,  and  its 
durability  depends  upon  the  tlegree  of 
perfection  in  which  the  basis  has  been 
formed.  The  concrete  consists  of  ]niLting 
together,  for  every  bushel  of  good  lime- 
shells,  2^  bushels  of  sharp  sand,  and  4 
bushels  of  gravel,  and  mixing  them  with 
as  much  water  as  to  form  a  pa,<te  of  the 
consistency  of  lime  mortar,  and  which 
will  then  have  a  bulk  of  S  bushels  of  con- 
crete. 

1128.  A  ground  work  to  place  the  con- 
crete upon  is  formed  in  this  manner; 
Let  the  earth  be  removed  to  the  depth  of 
12  inches,  and  its  place  occujued  with 
small  bruken  stones,  well  beaten  down 
and  compacted  together,  leaving  room 
above  them  for  at  least  2  inches  of  con- 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING. 


251 


Crete,  and  for  the  thickness  of  the  India 
rubber  pavement  to  lie  above  it.  The 
concrete  is  spread  upon  the  surface  of  the 
broken  stones  firmly,  and  finished  with  a 
smooth  surface.  Two  or  three  days  will 
be  required  to  render  the  concrete  hard 
enough  for  use,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  weather ;  but  it  must  not  be  used  until 
it  has  become  very  hard. 

1 1 29.  The  pavement  is  formed  in  slabs 
of  about  7  feet  long,  and  18  inches  in 
width,  of  two  thicknesses,  one  inch  and 
half  an  inch.  The  half-inch  is  too  thin  for 
tlie  purpose  of  pavement  for  grown  cattle 
to  stand  upon  :  perliaps  three-quarters  of 
an  incli  would  suffice,  but  I  would  prefer 
the  inch-thick  in  all  cases.  Tiie  pavement 
is  easily  cut  into  pieces  of  any  size  with  a 
chisel  and  hammer.  The  pieces  are  laid 
flat  upon  the  hardened  concrete,  and  one 
piece  is  joined  by  the  edge  to  another,  by 
using  a  solution  of  the  caoutchouc  in 
naptha,  which,  being  like  a  thin  jelly,  is 
easily  spread  with  a  broad  knife  upon  the 
edges  of  the  pieces  of  the  pavement ;  and, 
on  these  being  brought  together  after  a 
while,  the  spirituous  naptha  evaporates, 
and  leaves  the  gum  as  a  firm  cement  in 
the  joinings ;  and  after  the  solution  has  be- 
cunie  firm,  the  pavement  is  fit  for  use. 

1 1  SO.  Fig.  74,  is  a  section  of  a  travis  and 
manger  of  a  i//r(?,  as  just  described,  where 
a  is  the  wall,  b  the  building  which  sup- 
ports the  manger  e,  having  a  front  of  wood, 
and  bottomed  with  either  flags  or  wood;  d 


the  Jiard-wood  hind-post,  sunk  into  the 
ground,  and  built  in  with  stones  and 
mortar  ;  e  the  hard-wood  top-rail,  secured 
behind  the  post  d,  and  let  into  and  fixed 
in  the  wall  a  with  iron  holdfasts  ;  /  the 
stone  curb-stone,  into  which  the  ends  of 
the  travis-boards  are  let  ;  g  the  travis- 
boards  let  endways  into  the  curb-stone 
below,  and  into  the  top-rail  above,  by  a 
groove  in  each  ;  h  a  liard-wood  stake,  to 
which  the  cattle  are  fastened  by  binders,  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  let  into  a  hole  in  the 
block  of  stone  i,  and  the  upper  fastened 
by  a  strap  of  iron  to  a  block  of  wood  k^ 
built  into  the  wall  a ;  in  is  the  gutter  for 
the  dung,  having  a  bottom  of  flag-stones, 
and  sides  of  curb-stones ;  n  the  paved 
floor;  0  the  opening  through  the  wall  a  by 
which  the  food  is  supplied  into  the  manger 
c  to  the  cattle,  from  the  shed  s  behind. 
This  shed  is  8  feet  wide,  j?  being  the 
pillars,  6  feet  in  height,  which  support  its 
roof  q,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the 
slating  of  the  byre  roof,  the  wall  a  of 
which  is  9  feet  high.  But  where  these 
small  doors  are  not  used,  the  sheds,  pillars 
jD,  and  roof  q,  are  not  required,  but  they 
might  form  a  convenient  turnip-store,  to 
which  access  might  be  obtained  from  the 
byre  by  a  back  door. 

1131.  Cows  are  bound  to  a  stake  in 
the  stall  by  means  of  a  ligature  which 
goes  round  the  neck  behind  the  horns. 
One  method  of  binding  is  with  the  baikie, 
which  is  made  of  a  piece  of  hard-wood,  e 
fig.  75,  standing  upright,  and  flat  to  the 


Fig.  74. 


BYRE  TRAVIiS,  MANGSR,  AND  STAEB. 


252 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


Fig.  75. 


neck  of  tlio  cow.  A  rope  ri  fastens  the 
lower  end  of  it  to  the  stake,  uj)on  which  it 
slides  up  and  down 
by  means  of  a  loop 
which  the  rope  forms 
round  the  stake. 
This  rope  passes  U7i- 
der  the  neck  of  the 
animal,  and  is  never 
loosened.  Another 
rope  k  is  fastened  at 
the  upper  end  of  the 
piece  of  wood  <',  and, 
passing  ocer  the  neck 
of  the  animal,  and 
round  the  stake,  is 
made  fast  to  itself 
by  a  knot  and  eye, 
and  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  fastening  and 
loosening  the  animal.  The  neck,  being  em- 
braced between  tlie  two  ropes,  moves  up 
and  down,  carrying  the  baikie  along  with 
it.  This  method  of  binding,  though  quite 
easy  to  the  animals  themselves,  is  objec- 
tionable in  preventing  tlieni  turning  their 
heads  round  to  lick  their  bodies  ;  and,  the 
stake  being  in  a  perpendicular  position,  the 
animals  can  only  move  their  heads  up  and 
down,  and  are  obliged  to  hold  them  always 
over  the  mangers. 

1132.  A  much  better  mode  of  binding 
cattle  is  with  the  sm/,  which  consists  of  an 
iron  chain,  fig.  7Cj  where  a  is  the  large 
ring  of  the  binder,  which  slides  up  and 
down  the  stake  h,  which  is  here  shown  in 
the  same  position  as  is  h  in  the  section  of 
the  stall  in  fig.  74.  The  iron  chain,  being 
put  round  the  neck  of  the  cow,  is  fas- 
p.    -g_  tened  together 

by  a  broad- 
tongued  hook 
at  c,  which  is 
put  into  any 
link  of  the 
chain  that 
forms  the 

gauge  of  the 
neck,  and  it 
cannot  come 
out  until  turn- 
ed on  purpose 
edgeways  to 
the  link  of 
,  "        which    it    has 

CATTLE  6BAL  OR  BINDER.  a    liold.       This 


BVRK  WINDOW. 


sort  of  binder  is  in  general  use  in  the 
midland  and  nurthern  counties  of  Scotland. 
It  is  the  most  durable  form  of  binder,  and 
gives  the  animal  liberty,  nut  only  to  lick 
itself,  but  to  turn  its  head  in  any  direction 
it  pleases ;  and  the  inclination  of  the  stakes 
gives  the  animal  the  farther  liberty  of  lying 
down  or  standing  back  quite  free  of  the 
manger. 

1133.  A  convenient  form  of  icindow  is 
essential  to  the  comfort  of  a  byre.  It 
consists   of  two  shutters,  a  a,  fig.  77,    2 

Fig.  77.  ^^^\    ^^    height, 

which  open  by 
cross-tailed  hin- 
ges, and  are  kept 
shutwitb  thumb- 
latches.  The 
window-frame  is 
made  of  wood, 
and  glazed  with 
four  rows  of 
panes,  2^  feet  in 
height,  and  5  in 
number    to    the 

width — the  opening  of  the  window  being 

4,^  feet  in  height  and  3    feet   in   width. 

Such  a  form  of  window  admits  of  much 

light  and  air. 

1134.  A  good  description  of  window 
for  cottages  and  oflGces  was  made  by  Messrs 
M'Culloch  and  Co.,  Gallowgate,  Glasgow, 
and  for  which  they  received  a  premium 
from  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society.  "  This  window  is  extremely 
simple  in  its  construction,  and  may  with 
safety  be  ])ronounced  efficient  in  point  of 
comfort  and  utility  ;  while  the  price,  it  is 
believed,  will  not  be  higher  than  the 
cheapest  description  of  iron  windows  now 
in  use,  and,  for  durability,  will  be  prefer- 
able to  those  of  any  other  material.  The 
dimensions  that  have  been  recommended 
for  the  windows  of  ordinary  cottages  are, 
39  inches  for  the  height,  and  24  inches  for 
the  width,  within  tlie  wooden  frames. 
The  size  of  glass  required  for  tliese  frames 
is  7 J  by  5\  inches.  The  sa.sh  is  divided 
into  2  unecjual  parts,  the  lower  i)art  hav- 
ing 3  squares  in  height,  and  the  upjier 
part  2.  The  lower  jiart  is  permanently 
fixed,  while  the  upper  part  is  constructed 
to  turn  in  the  vertical  direction  on  j>ivots, 
which  are  situate  in  the  line  of  its  middle 
astragal ;  and  both  parts  are  set  in  a  sub- 


ACCOLmODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING. 


253 


stanfcial  wooden  frame,  which  may  either 
be,  built  in  while  the  wall  is  erecting,  or 
set  in  afterwards  in  the  ordinary  way, 
with  or  without  checked  rebats,  according 
to  the  taste  of  the  proprietor.  The  window 
and  its  arrangements  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  annexed  cuts, 
fig.  78  showing  an  inside  elevation,  fig. 
79  a  vertical  section,  and  fig.  80  a  plan, 
in  each  of  which  a  portion  of  the  wall  is 
Fig.  78. 


THE  ELEVATION  OF  AN  IMPROVED  WINDOW  FOR 
LIGHT  AND  AIR. 

exhibited,  and  the  same  letters  refer  to 
the  corresponding  parts  of  each  figure  ;  a 
is  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  wall,  b 
the  wooden  frame  of  the  window,  c  the 
lower  sash,  which  is  dormant,  and  d  the 
upper  and  movable  sash.  In  fig.  79,  the 
upper  sash  is  represented  as  open  for  ven- 
tilation. When  shut,  the  parts  of  the 
opening  sash  cover  and  overlap  the  fixed 
parts  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exclude  wind 
and  water;  but  when  ventilation  is  re- 
quired, the  arrangement  of  the  parts  which 
produce  this  is  such  as  to  enable  the  ad- 
mission of  air  to  any  extent.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  notched  latch  e  is  jointed  to  a 
stud  in  the  edge  of  the  sash  ;  a  simple  iron 
pin  or  stud  is  also  fixed  in  the  wooden  frame 
at  s,  and,  the  notches  of  the  latch  being 
made  to  fall  upon  this  stud  at  any  required 
distance,  the  requisite  degree  of  opening  is 


Fig.  79. 


secured  ;  and  when  the  sash  is  again  closed, 
the  latch  falls  down  parallel  with,  and  close 
to,  the  sash.  To  secure  the  sashes  when 
shut,  the  T  bolt  /,  in  the  middle  of  the 
meeting  bars, 
has  only  to  be 
turned  a  quar- 
ter round,  and 
the  movable 
sash  is  held 
fast  in  close 
contact  with 
the  other. 

Fig.  78  repre- 
sents the  win- 
dows as  finish- 
ed with  sim- 
ple dressings, 
namely,  plain 
deal  shutters, 
facings,  and 
sole,  which,  at 
a  small  ex- 
pense, would 
give  an  air  of 
neatness  and 
comfort,  and 
promote  a  cor- 
res  ponding 
taste  in  the 
other  parts  of 
a  cottage.  Though  the  dimensions  of  the 
Fig.  80. 


THE  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  AN 
IMPROVED  WINDOW  FOR 
LIGHT  AND  AIR. 


THE  PLAN  FOR  AN  IMPROVED  WINDOW  FOR 
LIGHT  AND  AIR. 

window  here  stated  may  be  conceived  suf- 
ficient for  lighting  an  apartment  of  ordi- 
nary size  in  a  cottage,  they  can,  neverthe- 
less, be  varied  to  suit  every  purpose  in 
oflaces  and  elsewhere.  This  may  be  done 
either  by  employing  two  such  windows,  as 
above  described,  with  a  mullion  of  wood  or 
of  stone  between  them,  or  the  single  win- 
dow may  be  enlarged  by  1  or  2  squares  in 
width,  or  in  height,  or  in  both  directions."* 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultxiral  Society,  vol.  xiii.  p.  538-41. 


254 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


11.3.1.  It  is  proper  to  mention  that  zinc, 
in  the  opinion  of  tradesmen,  is  too  Aveak 
for\vin(h)\v-sai>hes  to  admit  of  repair  b}'  an 
unj»ractised  hand.  AVood  and  lead  are,  for 
the  i-ame  reasons,  equally  unsuitable. 
Malleable  iron,  even  so  thin  as  to  impede 
the  liirht  but  little,  if  the  astr.agals  are  not 
provided  with  flanges  for  the  glass  to  rest 
against,  the  repair  mu.<t  also  be  a  work  of 
some  difficulty,  and  is  also  deemed  unfit  for 
the  purpose.  Cast-iron,  therefore,  appears 
to  be  the  material  least  liable  to  objection  : 
but  astragals  of  cast-iron  must  be  of  con- 
siderable thickness,  and  such  frames,  con- 
sequently, could  not  be  adapted  to  a  very 
small  size  of  glass,  without  materially  ob- 
scuring the  light.  The  iron  sashes,  as 
shown  above,  without  the  wooden  frames, 
cost  5s.,  and  glass  for  such  windows  may 
be  purchased  at  2|d.  per  square. 

11.36.  It  greatly  promotes  the  comfort 
and  health  of  animals  confined  for  many 
hours  every  day  in  one  apartment  to  have 
the  fresh  air  admitted  to  them  without  the 
creation  of  draughts,  and  no  means  of  ob- 
taining this  object  is  so  much  in  our  power, 
as  placing  ventilators  in  the  roof  of  the 
part  of  the  steading  so  occupied  by  the 
animals. 

1137.  Fig  81  is  a  ventilator,  in  which 
the  Venetian  blinds  a  are  fixed,  and  answer 
Fig.  81. 


\      \     \     \  'X~\ 


A  VENTILATOR. 

the  double  purpose  of  permitting  the  escape 
of  heated  air  and  effluvia,  and  of  prevent- 
ing the  entrance  of  rain  or  snow.  The 
blinds  are  covered  and  protected  by  the 
roof  6,  made  of  slates  and  lead ;  <;  is  an 
apron  of  lead.  Such  a  ventilator  would  be 
more  ornamental  to  the  steading  than  fig. 
81  is,  and  more  protective  to  the  blinds,  if 
its  roof  projected  12  inches  over.  One 
ventilator  6  feet  in  length,  3  feet  in  height 
in  front,  and  2  feet  above  the  rid'MUi;:  of 


the  roof,  for  every  six  horses  or  cows,  might 
suffice  to  maintain  a  complete  ventilation. 
But  such  openings  in  the  roof  will  not  of 
themselves  constitute  ventilation,  unless  an 
adequate  supply  of  fresh  air  is  admitted 
below  ;  and  the  supply  might  be  obtained 
from  small  openings  in  the  walls,  including 
the  chinks  of  doors  and  windows  when 
shut,  whose  gross  areas  should  be  nearly 
equal  to  those  of  the  ventilators.  The 
openings  should  be  in  such  situations  and 
numbers  as  to  cause  no  draught  of  air  upon 
the  animals ;  and  might  be  conveniently 
placed,  protecteil  by  iron  gratings  on  the 
outside  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  vermin, 
in,  the  wall  behind  the  animals,  of  such  a 
form  as  to  deflect  the  air  upwards  against 
a  plate  of  iron,  to  spread  it  about  as  much 
as  possible.  Other  forms  of  ventilators  are 
in  use,  consisting  of  a  piece  of  large  lead 
pipe  projected  through  the  roof  and  bent 
downwards  ;  or  simply  a  few  of  the  slates 
or  tiles  raised  up  a  little,  cither  of  which  is 
better  than  no  ventilator  at  all,  but  neither 
so  effectual  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation  as 
the  one  1  have  described. 

1138.  The  construction  of  byres  for  the 
accommodation  ol  fattening  oxen  and  »n7^ 
coirs  is  quite  the  same,  but  feeding  byres 
are  usually  made  much  too  small  for  the 
number  of  oxen  confined  in  them.  When 
stalls  are  put  up,  they  seldom  exceed  4  feet 
in  width ;  more  frequently  two  oxen  are 
put  into  a  double  stall  of  7  feet,  and  not 
unfrequently  travises  are  dispensed  with 
altogether,  and  simply  a  triangular  piece 
of  boarding  ])laced  across  the  manger 
against  the  wall,  to  divide  the  food  betwixt 
each  pair  of  oxen.  In  double  stalls,  and 
where  no  stalls  are  used,  even  small  oxen, 
as  they  increase  in  size,  cannot  all  lie  down 
at  one  time  to  chew  their  cud  and  rest ;  and 
as  they  require  more  room  and  rest  the 
fatter  they  become,  the  larger  the  oxen 
become  they  are  hampered  the  more.  In 
such  confined  byres,  the  gutter  is  placed  too 
near  the  heels  of  tlie  oxen,  and  prevents 
them  standing  back  when  they  desire. 
Short  stalls,  it  is  true,  save  the  litter  being 
dirtied,  by  the  dung  dropping  from  the 
cattle  directly  into  the  gutter,  and  the  ar- 
rangement saves  the  cattle-man  trouble; 
but  the  saving  of  the  litter  in  such  a  case 
is  at  the  sacrifice  of  comfort  to  the  animals. 

1139.  Such  arrangements  for  economy 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  CATTLE  IN  THE  STEADING. 


255 


arelegltiniate  considerations  forcowkeepors 
in  toAvns,  where  both  space  and  litter  are 
valuable ;  but  when  they  induce  to  the  con- 
struction of  inconvenient  byres  in  farm- 
steads, they  indicate  parsimony  in  the 
landlord  and  ignorance  in  the  architect; 
and  every  farmer  who  consults  the  well- 
being  of  his  animals  should  never  sanction 
such  a  plan.  The  truth  is,  the  erection  of 
confined  structures  is  one  of  the  many  evils 
arising  from  being  unacquainted  with  agri- 
culture by  those  who  sanction  them,  be- 
cause they  save  a  little  outlay  at  first. 
Expenditure  is  a  tangible  object ;  but,  in 
stinting  the  requisite  accommodation  in  the 
farmstead,  proprietors  injure  their  own  inte- 
rests, for  it  has  a  considerable  influence  on 
the  mind  of  the  farmer  when  valuing  the 
rent  of  the  farm  he  wishes  to  occupy. 
Should  you  have  occasion  to  fit  up  a  byre 
for  milk  cows  or  feeding  oxen,  bear  in 
mind  that  a  small  sum  withheld  at  first, 
may  cause  a  yearly  loss  of  greater  amount, 
by  preventing  the  feeding  cattle  attaining 
the  perfection  which  a  comfortable  lodging 
would  promote,  or  the  cows  bearing  the 
stout  and  healthy  calves,  which  ample 
room  would  promote  the  growth  of. 

1140.  The  several  apartments  being 
thus  prepared  for  the  reception  of  all  the 
sorts  of  cattle  to  be  accommodated  in  the 
steading  in  winter,  let  us  now  dispose  of 
all  the  cattle  into  their  respective  apart- 
ments ;  and  for  this  purpose  look  at  the 
plan  of  the  steading,  Plate  II.  The  difie- 
rent  classes  of  cattle  are  cows,  calves  of  the 
year,  one-year-olds,  two-year-olds,  bulls, 
heifers  in  calf,  and  extra  cattle. 

1141.  Cozr5  occupy  the  byre  Q.  Each 
should  always  occupy  the  stall  she  has 
been  accustomed  to,  and  will  then  go  out 
and  come  into  its  own  stall  without  inter- 
fering with  any  other.  Cows  thus  learn 
to  stand  quietly  in  their  stalls  to  the  cattle- 
man who  feeds  them,  and  the  dairy-maid 
who  milks  them.  The  byre  is  furnished 
with  a  court  I,  water-trough  ic,  and  liquid 
manure-drain  x;  the  turnip  store  is  at/. 

1142.  The  servants'  cotes  are  accommo- 
dated in  the  byre  Y,  in  th.e  same  range  of 
building  as  the  hammels  N,  fitted  up  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  byre  Q,  and  having 
a  court  »,  water-trough  ?c,  and  liquid- 
manure  drain  x.     This  byre  has  no  turnip 


store",  as  the  servants  supply  their  own  tur- 
nips. 

1143.  The  calves  of  the  year  occupy  the 
large  court  K.  Where  they  are  put  all  to- 
gether male  and  female,  strong  and  weak, 
buthavingplenty  of  trough  room  around  two 
of  the  walls,  they  are  all  provided  with 
abundance  of  food,  without  the  fear  of 
the  stronger  bufll'eting  about  the  weaker. 
The  shed  they  occupy  at  night  is  at  D, 
with  the  straw-rack  in  it  h,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  court  stands  the  straw-rack 
0,  fig.  67,  where  straw  is  scarce,  or  figs. 
68  and  69,  where  it  is  plenty.  The  turnip 
troughs  are  fitted  up  as  in  fig.  66,  and 
extend  along  two  of  the  walls.  The  water- 
trough  is  at  w,  it  being  essential  for  young 
stock  to  have  water  at  will,  and  necessarily 
so,  when  they  do  not  get  as  many  turnips 
as  they  can  eat ;  and  when  they  do,  young 
cattle  are  all  the  better  from  having  it  at 
command.  The  turnip- store  for  this  court 
is  at  <7 ;  and  x  is  the  mouth  of  the  liquid- 
manure  drain,  to  carry  oflP  the  superfluous 
water.  The  young  creatures  occupying 
this  court,  where  is  much  traflic  in  going 
to  and  fi'om  the  corn-barn  C,  soon  become 
familiarised  with  the  people  of  the  barn, 
and  frequently  get  pickiugs  of  corn. 

1144.  The  court  I  is  fitted  up  precisely 
with  the  same  conveniences  of  feeding- 
troughs  z^  water-trough  «?,  straw-racks  h 
and  0,  and  turnip-store  i,  as  the  other 
court  for  the  1 -year-olds. 

1145.  The  'i.-ycar  olds,  fattened  for  the 
butcher,  occupy  the  hammels  M,  where  are 
feeding-troughs  z,  liquid-manure  drains  x, 
fodder  in  racks,  in  three  of  the  corners  of 
the  sheds,  and  turnip-stores  at  e  and/. 

1146.  When  oxen  are  fattened  in  byres 
instead  of  hammels,  the  byres  are  fitted  up, 
as  I  have  said,  in  the  same  manner  as  thos^ 
at  Q  and  Y.  Oxen  usually  stand  in  pairs 
in  double  stalls,  with  a  small  partition 
across  the  turnip-trough  at  each  travis. 
When  cattle  are  bound  to  the  stake  for  the 
first  time,  they  are  apt  to  be  restless  for 
some  days,  and  until  they  become  recon- 
ciled to  their  confinement,  which  they  will 
be  very  soon,  provided  they  have  plenty 
of  food  given  them. 

1147.  Occasionally  the  cow  stock  re- 


256 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


quires  to  be  renewed,  one  or  two  at  a  time, 
hy  yoimg  he'ihrs;  and  as  these,  when  in 
calf,  are  not' fattened,  tbey  are  put  into 
hammels  by  themselves  as  at  N,  which  are 
fitted  up  ill  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
those  at  M,  with  feeding-trouirhs^,  straw- 
racks  in  the  corner  of  tiie  sheds,  liquid- 
manure  drain. r.  and  turnip-stores /> and  y. 
Each  hammel  will  afford  accommodation  to 
those  heifers  in  calf. 

11  i8.  The  old  cows,  which  these  heifers 
are  to  supersede,  are  fattened  in  the  ham- 
mels  N. 

1  ]  49.  Bulls,  young  and  old,  occupy  the 
hammels  X,  which  are  also  fitted  up  with 
feeding-troughs  z,  water-troughs  ir,  liquid- 
manure  drains  x,  and  racks  in  the  corners 
of  the  sheds.  More  than  one  bull-calf 
may  be  reared  together;  but  more  than 
one  bull  which  has  served  cows  should 
never  be  intrusted  together. 

1150.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  cattle-man 
to  attend  to  all  these  cattle  during  the 
winter,  and  he  assists  in  assorting  them  into 
their  respective  apartments. 

1151.  Having  accommodated  all  the 
cattle,  according  to  their  kinds  and  ages, 
in  their  respective  places  in  the  steading, 
for  the  winter,  let  us  attend  to  the  treat- 
ment which  each  class  should  daily  receive 
during  their  confinement  from  the  cattle- 
man ;  but  it  may  be  useful,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, to  enumerate  the  nomenclature  by 
which  cattle  are  recognised,  and  to  specify 
the  particular  duties  of  the  cattle-man. 

1152.  The  naTnc*  given  to  cattle  at  their 
various  ages  are  these : — A  new-born 
animal  of  the  ox- tribe  is  called  a  calf^  a 
male  beinir  a  bull-ccdf\  a  female  a  qucy-calj\ 
lteifer-cijlt\  or  coic-calf;  and  a  castrated 
jiialc  cah  is  a  stot-culf,  or  simply  a  calf. 
( 'aif  i.^  aiiidicd  to  all  young  cattle  until 
they  a'.tain  <mo  year  old,  when  they  are 
f/ear-oliig  or  i/edrlinr/a,  —  i/rar-old  hull, 
yi"\r  old  qn  y  or  heifer,  year-old  slot. 
t't^t  in  sunn;  jdaces  is  a  bull  of  any  age. 

1  \.'>:l.  In  another  year  they  are  2-year- 
old  biilL  '1-year-vld  quey  or  heifer,  l-year- 
uld  stjfi-.v  ste:r.  In  England  females  are 
i-tirks  from  calves  to  2-year-old,  and  males 
etecrs;  in  Scotland  both  young  male  and 


female  are  stiris.  Tlie  next  year  they  are 
3-year-old  bull,  in  England  y-year-old 
female  a  heifer,  in  Scotland  a  3-year-old 
quey,  and  a  male  is  a  3-year-old  slot  ox  steer. 

1154.  When  a  quey  bears  a  calf,  it  is  a 
cow,  both  in  Scotland  and  England.  Next 
year  the //«//«  are  ayed  ;  the  cozr*  retain 
the  name  ever  after,  and  the  slots  or  steers 
are  oxen,  which  they  continue  to  be  to 
any  age.  A  cow  or  quey  that  has  received 
the  bull  is  served  or  bulled,  and  are  then 
in  calf,  and  in  that  state  are  in  England 
in-calvers.  A  cow  that  suffers  abortion 
slips  its  calf.  A  cow  that  has  either  ??jm<?<^^ 
being  in  calf,  or  has  slipped  calf,  is  eilt; 
and  one  that  has  gone  dry  of  milk  is  a 
yeld-coir.  A  cow  giving  milk  is  a  milk 
or  milch-cow.  When  2  calves  are  born 
at  one  birth,  they  are  twins ;  if  three,  trins. 
A  quey  calf  of  twins  of  bull  and  quey 
calves,  is  a  free  martin,  and  never  pro- 
duces young,  but  exhibits  no  marks  of  a 
hybrid  or  mule. 

1 1 .55.  Cattle,  black  cattle,  horned  cattle, 
and  neat  cattle,  are  all  generic  names  for  the 
ox  tribe,  and  the  term  beast  is  a  synonyms. 

1 1 5C).  An  ox  without  horns  is  dodded  or 
humbled. 

1 1 57.  A  castrated  bull  is  a  segy.  A 
quey-calf  whose  ovaries  have  been  oblite- 
rated, to  prevent  her  breeding,  is  a  spayed 
heifer  or  a  spayed  quey. 


ON     THE     REARING     AND     FATTENING    OF 
CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 

1158.  The  most  personally  laborious 
part  of  the  duty  of  a  cattle-man  in  winter 
is  carrying  straw  in  large  bundles  on  his 
back  to  every  part  of  the  steading.  It 
may  easily  be  imagined,  from  this  state- 
ment, that  when  the  straw-barn  is  incon- 
veniently placed,  or  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  byres  and  hammels,  the 
labour  of  the  cattle-man  must  be  very 
much  increased ;  indeed,  it  is  possible, 
from  that  circumstance  alone,  for  hira  to 
require  assistance  to  fulfil  the  duties  he 
has  to  perform.  An  inconvenience  of  this 
kind  may  thus  be  the  cause  of  incurring 
the  expense  of  another  man's  wages  for 
the  winter. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


257 


1159.  A  convenient  means  of  carrying 
Btraw  is  with  a  soft  rope  about  the  thick- 
ness of  a  finger,  and  3  yards  in  length, 
furnished  at  one  end  with  an  iron  ring, 
through  which  the  other  end  slips  easily 
along  until  it  is  tight  enough  to  retain  the 
bundle,  when  a  simple  loop-knot  keeps 
good  what  it  has  got.  Provided  with  3 
or  4  such  ropes,  the  cattle-man  can  bundle 
the  straw  at  his  leisure  in  the  barn,  and 
have  the  bundles  ready  to  remove  when 
required.  The  iron  ring  permits  the 
rope  to  free  itself  readily  from  the  straw 
when  the  bundle  is  loosened. 

1160.  The  dress  of  a  cattle-man  is 
worth  attending  to,  as  regards  its  appro- 
priateness for  his  business.  Having  so  much 
straw  to  carry  on  his  back,  a  bonnet  or 
round-crowned  hat  is  the  most  conve- 
nient head-dress  for  him ;  but  what  is  of 
more  importance  when  he  has  charge  of 
a  bull,  is  to  have  his  clothes  of  a  sober 
hue,  free  of  gaudy  or  strongly-contrasted 
colours,  especially  t'ed,  as  that  colour  is 
peculiarly  oifensive  to  bulls.  It  is  with 
red  cloth  and  flags  that  fl">  bulls  in  Spain 
are  irritated  to  action  at  their  celebrated 
bull-fights.  Instances  are  in  my  remem- 
brance of  bulls  turning  upon  their  keepers, 
not  because  they  were  habited  in  red, 
but  from  some  strongly  contrasted  bright 
colours.  It  was  stated  that  the  keeper 
of  the  celebrated  bull  Sirius,  belonging 
to  the  late  Mr  Robertson  of  Ladykirk, 
wore  a  red  nightcap  on  the  day  the  bull 
attacked  and  killed  him.  On  walking 
with  a  lady  across  a  field,  my  own  bull — 
the  one  represented  in  the  plate  of  the 
Short-horn  Bull,  than  which  a  more  gentle 
and  generous  creature  of  his  kind  never 
existed — made  towards  us  in  an  excited 
state;  and  for  his  excitement  I  could 
ascribe  no  other  cause  than  the  red 
shawl  worn  by  the  lady ;  for  as  soon  as 
we  left  the  fic.d  he  resumed  his  wonted 
quietness.  I  observed  him  excited,  on 
another  occasion,  in  his  hammel,  when-  the 
cattle-man — an  aged  man,  who  had  taken 
charge  of  him  for  years — attended  him  one 
Sunday  forenoon  in  a  new  red  nightcap, 
instead  of  his  usual  black  hat.  Be  the 
cause  of  the  disquietude  in  the  animal 
what  it  may,  it  is  prudential  in  a  cattle- 
man  to  be  habited  in  a  sober  suit  of  clothes. 

1161.  Regularity  of  time  in  everything 

VOL.    I. 


done  for  them,  is  the  chief  secret  in  the 
successful  treatment  of  cattle.  Dumb 
creatures  as  they  are,  cattle  soon  under- 
stand any  plan  that  affects  themselves, — 
and  the  part  of  it  to  which  they  will  recon- 
cile themselves  most  quickly  is  regularity 
in  the  time  of  feeding ;  and  any  violation 
of  regularity  will  sootf  cause  them  to  show 
discontent.  The  regularity  consists  in 
giving  the  same  .sort  of  cattle  the  same 
kind  of  food  at  the  same  period  of  the  day, 
each  day  in  succession.  The  cattle- man 
cannot  follow  this  regular  course  without 
the  guidance  of  a  watch ;  and  if  he  has  not 
one  of  his  own,  such  is  the  importance  of 
regularity  in  this  matter,  that  no  one 
should  be  selected  a  cattle-man  until  a 
watch  is  provided  him. 

1162.  The  cattle-man's  day's  work  com- 
mences at  break  of  day,  and  ends  at  night- 
fall, expanding  the  day  with  that  of  the 
season,  until  daybreak  appears  at  5  in  the 
morning,  and  nightfall  occurs  at  6  in  the 
evening ;  and  after  those  hours  he  is  not 
expected  to  work,  excepting  at  8  at 
night,  when  he  examines,  with  a  light, 
every  court  and  byre,  to  see  that  the  cattle 
are  in  health  and  comfort  before  he  goes 
to  bed.  At  every  hour  of  daylight  he 
does  its  stated  work  ;  and  it  is  only  in  the 
morning  and  evening,  as  the  day  lengthens 
with  the  season  as  it  advances,  that  any 
change  in  the  time  is  allowable.  As  the 
same  amount  of  work  must  be  done  every 
day,-  he  has  most  to  do  in  the  least  time 
—  in  the  shortest  days  in  winter,  and  as 
the  days  lengthen  he  has  more  leisure. 

1163.  Let  us  accompany  the  cattle-man 
through  a  whole  day's  work.  He  break- 
fasts before  he  begins  his  labours.  At 
daybreak,  or  not  earlier  than  5  in  the 
morning,  should  the  day  dawn  before  that 
hour,  he  goes  to  the  byre  Q,  Plate  II.,  to 
the  co'-s,  and  removes  any  dung  in  the 
stalls  into  the  gutter,  with  a  graip,  to  make 
them  clean  for  the  dairymaid,  when  she 
comes  to  milk  the  cows.  This  business  may 
occupy  about  10  minutes. 

1164.  On  farms  on  which  calves  are 
bred,  the  cows  are  heavy  with  calf  in  win- 
ter,— so  most  of  them  will  be  dry  in  that 
season,  and  those  still  yielding  milk,  being 
the  latest  to  calve,  will  give  but  a  scanty 
supply.     It  is  not  as  inilk-covfs  that  cows 


268 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


Fig.  82. 


aro  treated  in  winter,  receiving  but  little 
succulent  food. 

1165.  The  graip  with  which  he  clears 
away  the  dung  is  seen  in  fig.  82,  and  con- 
sists simply  of  three  long  prongs  of  iron, 
and  a  helve  of  wood  set 
in  a  socket  of  iron  having 
a  slight  bend  in  it  at  the 
end  nearest  the  prongs. 
This  bend  gives  a  leverage 
power  to  the  handle,  when 
the  graip  is  used  to  lift 
rank  wet  litter ;  and  it 
serves  also  to  keep  the 
hands  so  elevated  as  not 
to  be  dirtied  by  the  dung 
or  litter. 


1166.  He  then  goes  to 
the  servants'  cow-byre  Y, 
and  does  the  same  piece  of 
work  for  the  cows  there, 
and  for  the  wives  of  the  ser- 
vants, who  also 'milk  their 
cows  at  this  time.  It  may 
occupy  him  5  minutes. 

1167.  He  shuts  the  doors 
of  both  the  byres,  and 
leaves  the  half-doors  into 
the  courts  open  for  the  ad- 
mission of  fresh  air. 

1 1 68.  He  goes  to  the  fat- 
tening beasts  in  the  ham- 
mels  M,  and  always  cleans 
out  with  a  shovel  the  refuse 
of  the  turnips  of  the  former 
meal,  first  from  the  same 
trough,  beginning  at  one  end 
of  tlie  range  of  troughs ;  and 
immediately  that  one  trough 
is  cleared  out,  he  replenishes 
it  with  turnips  from  tiie  tur- 
nip store  at  hand,  the  tur- 
nips being  broken  with  one 
of  the  instruments  in  use. 
In  this  manner  one  hammel 
is  supplied  with  turnips  after 
another.  This  may  occupy 
him  40  minutes. 

1169.  The  byre  and 
stable  shovel  is  seen  in  fig. 
83.  It  has  a  broad  square 
mouth,  to  stretch  across  the 


THK  GRAIP. 


Fig.  8a. 


THK  SQU ARK- 
MOUTHED 
AlOVJiL. 


bottom,  and  ent^r  the  comers  of  the  gutter 
of  the  byre  or  the  turnip  troughs  of  the 
hammels  and  courts.  Its  helve  is  of  wood, 
having  a  slight  curve  in  it,  to  save  the 
hands  being  dirtied  when  using  it  in 
shovelling  dung. 

1 170.  There  are  various  ways  of  cutting 
or  slicing  turnips  for  cattle.  An  old 
sharp-edged  spade  will  cut  them  in  pieces 
well  enough  ;  but  the  turnips  are  either 
too  much  bruised,  or  the  cut  pieces  are  apt 
to  start  away.  Any  of  the  instruments 
made  for  the  purpose  is  better — of  which 
are  several — and  a  choice  may  be  made 
from  them  according  to  the  qnantityof  the 
turnips  to  be  sliced.  Fig.  84  is  one  form  of 
hand  slicer.  The  cutting  part  consists  of  2 
steel-edged  blades,  which  are  slit  half- 
and-half  at  their  middle  point,  so  as 
to  penetrate  each 
Fig.  84.  other,  standing    at 

p  right  angles,  form- 

ing the  ct'Ofs  cutter 
a  a  a  a.  They  are 
then  embraced  in  a 
four-split  palm, and 
riveted.  The  palm 
terminates  in  a 
short  shanks,  which 
is  again  inserted 
into  the  hooped 
end  of  a  wooden 
handle  b,  which  is 
finished  with  a 
crosshead  c.  The 
price  of  this  instru- 
ment is  8s.  6d.  The 
mode  of  using  it  is 
obvious.  It  is  held 
by  the  hand  in  a 
vertical  position  ; 
and  when  placed 
upon  a  turnip,  one 
thru.st  downward 
cuts  it  into  quar- 
ters. This  instru- 
ment is  also  varied 
in  its  construction, 
being  sometimes 
made  with  3,  and  even  with  4  blades, 
dividing  the  turnip  into  6  or  into  8  por- 
tions. 

1171.  Another  form  of  the  same  spe- 
cies of  slice  is  represented  by  fig.  85.  It 
has  two  blades  a  a;  but  they,  instead  of 


THE  HAND  Tl'RMP-CHOP' 

PER,  WITH  CROSS 

BLADES. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


Fig.  85. 


crossing,  stand  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  therefore  divide  the  turnips  into 
three  portions,  resembling 
slices,  of  considerable 
thickness,  the  middle  one 
being  1^  inch  thick.  In 
the  construction  of  this 
cutter,  a  blunted  stud  is 
formed  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  each  blade,  which 
project  below  tlie  cut- 
ting edge  about  |  inch, 
serving  as  guards  to  save 
the  cutting  edges  from 
receiving  injury  when 
they  have  passed  through 
the  turnip,  by  striking 
against  any  hard  surface. 
These  guards,  it  may  be 
remarked,  would  form  a 
useful  addition  to  all  this 
class  of  cutters.  The  arm 
b  of  the  blades  rises  to  a 
height  of  9  inches,  widen- 
ing upward  to  3^  inches,  to  give  freedom  to 
the  middle  slice  to  fall  out.    The  two  arms 

Fig. 


THE  HAND  TURNIP 

CHOPPER,  WITH 
PARALLEL  BLADES 


259 

coalesce  above,  and  are  then  formed  into 
the  socket  c,  to  receive  the  handle,  which 
terminates  in  a  crosshead. 

1172.  The  lever  turnip-slicer,  fig,  86,  is 
a  more  efficient  instrument  than  either  of 
these.     It  was  contrived  by  Mr  Wallace, 
Kirkconnell,    as  an    improvement   on    a 
pre-existing  machine  of  the   same  kind. 
It  consists  of  a  stock  in   2  pieces,  con- 
nected by  an  iron  bar  or  strap  a  c,  which 
is  repeated  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the 
M'bole  bolted  together.      The  two  pieces 
forming  the  sole  are  separated  longitudi- 
nally from  each  other,  so  as,  with  the  two 
side-straps  of  iron,  to  form  a  rectangular 
opening,  bounded  on  the  two  ends  by  the 
parts  of  the  sole,  and  on  the  two  sides  by 
the  side-straps,  which,  to  the  extent  of 
the  opening,  are  thinned  off  to    a  sharp 
edge,    and    thus   form    the   two   exterior 
cutters.     The  sole  is  supported  at  a  height 
of  2  feet  upon  4  legs,  and  the  lever  d  e  is 
jointed  at  d  by  means  of  a  bolt  passing 
through  it  and  the  ears  of  the  side-straps. 
The  lever  is  4  feet  in  length,  its  breadth 
86. 


THE  LEVER  TURNIP-SLICER  FOR  CATTLE. 


260 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  thickness  equal  to  that  of  the  sole, 
but  is  rcthiced  at  the  end  «  of  a  conveni- 
ent size  for  the  hand.  It  is  furnislied  with 
a  block  of  wood  w»,  the  lower  face  of 
wliich  is  studded  with  iron  knobs,  to  pre- 
vent the  turnip  sliding  from  under  it. 
The  cutter  blocks  /  y  are  made  of  cast- 
iron,  and  contain  8  cutters,  which  make 
the  most  convenient  size  of  slice.  In 
using  this  portable  machine,  the  workman 
takes  hold  of  the  lever  at  c  with  his  right 
hand,  and,  having  raised  it  sufficiently 
hiiHi,  throws  a  turnip  into  the  cradle  with 
the  left  hand.  The  lever  is  now  brought 
down  by  the  right  hand,  which,  with  a 
moderate  impetus,  and  by  means  of  the 
block  in,  sends  the  turnip  down  upon  the 
cutters,  through  the  openings  of  wliich  it 
passes,  while  the  cutters  are  dividing  it, 
and  the  whole  falls  in  uniform  slices  into 
a  basket  placed  beneath.  In  most  cases 
it  is  found  more  convenient  to  have  a  boy 
to  throw  in  the  turnips,  to  expedite  the 
work.     The  cost  of  this  machine  is  SOs. 

1173.  When  this  lever  turnip-cutter  is 
furnished  with  an  additional  set  (>f  cut- 
ting knives,  six  in  number,  fixed  at  right 
anirles  to  those  described  above,  the 
machine  is  rendered  useful  for  cutting 
turnips  for  sheep  ;  and  it  will  cut  thera 
in  long  narrow  parallelepipeds,  well 
suited  in  shape  for  being  taken  into  the 
mouths  of  sheep.  It  will  thus  be  also  a 
cheap  instrument,  not  exceeding  40s.  in 
price. 

1 1 74.  From  the  hammels  the  cattle- 
man proceeds  to  the  large  court  K  to  the 
calves,  cleans  the  turnip  troughs  of  the 
refuse,  supplies  them  with  turnips  from 
the  store,  breaking  the  turnips  "with  one 
of  the  slicers, — the  lever  one  doing  tlie 
work  most  quickly.  The  calves  not  being 
able  to  eat  a  large  quantity  of  turnips, 
he  may  be  occupied  with  them  for  15 
minutes. 

1 1 75.  The  year-olds  in  the  other  large 
court  I  then  demand  his  care.  The  turnip 
troughs  are  cleared  of  refuse,  fresh  turnips 
are  supplied  from  the  store,  and  sliced 
with  the  machine.  These  larger  animals 
requiring  more  turnips,  he  may  be  occu- 
pied among  them  about  25  minutes. 

1176.  The  fattening  oxen  in  the  ham- 


mels receive,  of  course,  as  many  turnips 
as  they  can  eat, — and  so  ought  the  young 
beasts  in  the  courts ;  but  in  case  of  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  croj),  the  calves  should  have 
a  full  allowance,  while  the  older  slots  and 
queys  may  be  put  upon  short  allowance. 
Kather  than  this,  it  would  be  better  to 
purchase  oil-cake  for  the  fattening  oxen, 
and  give  them  fewer  turnii)s,  and  let  the 
younger  beasts  receive  a  full  allowance. 

1 1 77.  The  bulls  in  the  hammels  X  next 
receive  his  care.  Their  turnip  troughs 
are  cleaned  out,  and  a  few  fresh  turnips 
given  them,  and  sliced  with  a  hand  in- 
strument. The  two  hammels  may  engage 
him  10  minutes. 

1178.  The  extra  beasts  feeding  in  the 
hammels  N  should  next  be  attended  to, 
by  cleaning  out  their  turnip  trough,  and 
giving  them  a  fresh  supply  of  sliced  tur- 
nijis,  which  will  be  most  conveniently 
done  by  a  hand  instrument.  These  may 
take  10  minutes  to  be  attended  to. 

1179.  The  heifers  in  calf  in  the  ham- 
mels N  should  have  no  turnips  in  the 
morning,  only  a  little  fresh  oat-straw.  It 
may  take  10  minutes  to  go  for  this  to  the 
straw-barn,  and  put  it  into  the  racks. 

1180.  Having  thus  given  all  the  cattle 
at  liberty  their  morning's  ration  of  food, 
the  cattleman  takes  a  bundle  of  fresh  oat- 
straw  from  the  straw- barn,  returns  with  it 
to  the  byre  Q,  and  gives  a  little  to  each  of 
the  cows  to  engage  them,  while  he  em- 
ploys himself  in  removing  all  the  dung 
and  dirtied  litter  from  the  stalls  and 
gutter,  with  the  graip,  shovel,  and  wheel- 
barrow, fig.  87,  into  the  court,  wheeling 
and  spreading  it  equally  over  its  surface, 
and  sweeping  the  gutter  and  causeway 
clean  with  the  besom.  The  work  alto- 
gether may  engage  him  30  minutes. 

1181.  In  like  manner  he  gives  the  ser- 
vants' cows  a  little  fresh  oat-straw,  ana 
cleans  out  their  byre  of  dung  and  litter.  In 
doing  this  he  may  be  engaged  25  minutes. 

1182.  The  wheel-barrow  is  shown  in 
fig.  87,  and  is  of  the  common  form,  with 
close-boardeil  bottom,  sides,  and  back,  and 
of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  carry  a  good 
load  of  litter ;  but  not  of  greater  breadth 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TUENIPS  IN  WINTER. 


261 


than  will  easily  pass,  with  a  load,  through 
the  door. 

Fig.  87. 


A  WHEEL-B.4RR0W. 


1183.  When  the  byres  have  thus  been 
cleaned,  he  takes  a  bundle  of  litter  from 
the  straw-barn,  and  returns  with  it  to  the 
byre,  and  on  clearing  the  troughs  of  the 
refuse  fodder,  and  sprinkling  it  over  the 
stalls  for  litter,  they  are  ready  for  the 
reception  of  the  turnips  about  to  be  given 
to  the  cows.  After  n[iilking  is  finished  by 
the  dairymaid  in  the  morning,  the  common 
practice  is  to  give  the  cows,  though  heavy  in 
calf,  a  feed  of  cold  turnips  into  their  empty 
stomachs,  which  I  consider  a  very  inju- 
dicious practice ;  and  this  is  evinced  by 
the  fact  of  the  foetus  indicating  unequivo- 
tal  symptoms  of  its  existence  in  the  womb, 
B  it  does  after  a  drink  of  cold  water 
iken  in  the  morning.  I  therefore  prefer 
iving  cows  some  fresh  straw,  to  prepare 
leir  stomach  for  the  turnips.  Cows  in 
Jf  never  get  as  many  turnips  as  they 
can  eat,  the  object  being  not  to  fatten, 
but  support  them  in  a  fair  condition  for 
calving;  and  were  they  fed  fat,  they 
would  run  the  risk  of  losing  their  life  at 
calving  by  inflammation,  and  their  calves 
would  be  small.  It  is  not  easy  to  specify 
the  number  or  weight  of  turnips  that 
should  be  given  to  cows;  but  I  conceive 
that  ^  of  what  a  feeding  ox  would  con- 
sume will  suffice.  After  the  troughs  have 
been  supplied  with  the  requisite  quantity 
of  turnips  sliced,  and  the  same  order  of 
distribution,  from  stall  to  stall,  daily  ob- 
served, the  stalls  are  littered  with  the 
straw  the  cattle-man  brought  with  him  ; 
and  on  shutting  the  principal  door,  and 
leaving  the  other  half-door  open  for  air, 
he  leaves  them  for  a  time  to  rest  and  chew 
their  cud ;  for  nothing  irritates  cows  more 
than  to  go  about  them,  or  about  the  byre, 
and  make  a  noise,  while  they  are  eating 


their  principal  meal.     All  this  work  may 
require  about  30  minutes. 

1184.  The  turnips  are  supplied  to  the 
cows,  either  through  the  openings  in  the 
wall,  or  from  the  passage  running  along 
the  heads  of  the  stalls,  or  from  the  cause- 
way by  the  stalls  themselves,  by  whichever 
way  the  byre  has  been  constructed.  The 
most  common  practice  of  carrying  the 
turnips  is  by  the  stalls  in  baskets,  called 
sculls,  which  are  hollow  hemispherical- 
shaped  baskets  of  willow,  having  an  open- 
ing on  each  side,  to  take  hold  of  the  stout 
rim  for  handles.  Sculls  are  made  of  the 
common  basket-willow,  or  of  iron  wire. 

1185.  A  wire  basket  is  seen  in  fig.  88, 
where  the  rim  ab  c,  forming  its  mouth,  is 

Fig.  88. 


THE  WIRE  TURNIP-BASKET, 

a  flat  slip  of  iron  f  of  an  inch  in  breadth, 
and  the  keel  or  bottom  a  d  c  is  oi  the 
same  dimensions  and  materials.  Holes 
are  punched  through  them,  at  about  3 
inches  apart  from  each  other.  The  small 
iron  rods  are  inserted  through  them,  re- 
ceiving a  bend  to  suit  the  form  of  the 
basket,  and  the  ends  of  those  attached  to 
the  rim  a  b  c  are  shouldered  below,  and 
fastened  with  a  counter-sink  rivet  above. 
The  spaces  left  at  the  ends  of  the  keel, 
under  the  rim,  at  a  and  c,  form  the 
handles.  The  cost  is  about  2s.  6d.  each, 
and  with  due  care — such  as  the  replace- 
ment of  a  rod  now  and  then,  when 
broken, — will  last  from  5  to  10  years. 
Were  there  two  keels  instead  of  one,  the 
basket  would  stand  steadier  upon  the 
ground  to  be  filled  with  turnips.* 

1186.  The  servants'  cows  are  then 
littered  for  them  to  lie  down  and  rest,  the 
turnips  being  given  to  them  by  the  ser- 
vants themselves,  in  such  quantities,  and 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Tol.xi.  p.  112. 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


at  such  time,  as  they  think  proper.     The 
littering  may  occupy  about  10  minutes, 

1187.  The  supply  of  turnips  to  the 
servants'  cows  depends  on  the  terms  of 
the  agreement  made  with  the  servants. 
When  a  specified  number  of  cart-loads 
are  given,  the  servant  may  not  choose  to 
give  them  to  his  cow  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  winter,  if  she  is  dry ;  but  if  in 
milk,  the  servant's  family  give  what  quan- 
tity they  choose  from  their  own  store.  If 
the  farmer  has  agreed  to  treat  his  servants' 
cows  in  the  same  manner  as  his  own,  the 
cattle-man  takes  charge  of  them  as  he  does 
those  of  his  master. 

1188.  The  heifers  in  calf  now  get  a 
few  turnips,  and  they  should  be  sliced 
with  one  of  the  hand  instruments.  This 
may  occupy  10  minutes. 

1189.  The  extra  beasts  feeding  in  the 
hammels  N  should  now  receive  some 
fresh  oat-straw  as  fodder.  The  time  eu- 
gaged  in  this  may  be  about  10  minutes. 

1 1 90.  All  the  cattle  having  now  been 
fed,  the  next  step  the  cattle-man  takes  is 
to  supply  the  cattle  in  the  hammels  and 
courts  with  fodder  and  litter.  He  first 
pulls  all  the  old  fodder  out  of  the  racks  and 
scatters  it  about  as  litter,  and  then  supplies 
them  with  fresh  oat-straw  from  the  straw- 
barn.  The  litter  straw  is  then  taken  from 
the  straw-barn,  and  used  to  litter  the 
courts  and  hammels  in  such  quantity  as  is 
requisite  at  the  time,  dry,  fresh,  or  frosty 
weather  saving  the  usual  quantity,  and 
rainy  weather  requiring  more  than  the 
usual  quantity,  to  render  the  courts  com- 
fortable. This  distribution  of  the  straw 
may  occupy  about  30  minutes.  , 

1191.  Whatever  be  the  state  of  the 
weather,  whether  cold  or  warm,  wet  or 
dry,  the  cows  should  now  be  turned  into 
the  court  to  enjoy  the  fresh  air,  lick  them- 
selves and  one  another,  drink  water  from 
the  trough,  and  bask  in  the  sun.  They 
should  go  out  every  day  until  they  calve, 
except,  perhaps,  in  a  particularly  stormy, 
cold  wet  day.  One  hour  at  least,  and 
longer  if  fine,  they  should  remain  out. 

1 1 92.  In  loosening  cows  from  the  stalls, 
a  plan  requires  to  be  pursued  to  prevent 


confusion.  Every  cow,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  season,  should  be  put  in  the  stall  she  has 
occupied  since  she  first  became  an  inmate 
of  the  byre  ;  and  she  will  always  go  to  it, 
and  no  other,  avoiding  the  least  collision 
with  the  rest.  In  loosening  them  from 
the  stalls,  they  should  be  so  one  by  one, 
always  beginning  at  the  same  end  of  the 
byre,  and  finishing  at  the  other,  and  not 
indiscriminately.  This  will  prevent  im- 
patience in  each  animal,  and  collision  on 
the  floor,  and  jamming  in  the  doorway  on 
going  out, — accidents  always  injurious  to 
animals  with  young. 

1193.  The  servants'  cows  are  let  out 
into  their  court  in  the  same  manner.  The 
two  byres  may  in  this  way  occupy  15 
minutes. 

11 94.  It  is  now  time  to  give  the  fatten- 
ing beasts  in  the  hammels  their  mid-day 
ration  of  turnips;  and  in  doing  this  it  is  as 
necessary  to  clear  the  turnip  troughs  of 
refuse  as  in  the  morning.  The  turnips 
should  also  be  sliced.  This  may  occupy 
20  minutes. 

119.*).  In  enumerating  all  the  portions 
of  time  mentioned  in  doing  these  various 
pieces  of  work  by  the  cattle-man,  it  will 
be  found  to  amount  to  5  hours  5  minutes; 
and  if  he  began  his  work  at  dawn,  at  7 
o'clock,  the  time  now,  after  the  fulfilment 
of  so  much  of  the  day's  labour,  will  be  5 
minutes  past  1 2  at  noon.  Farm  labourers 
dine  at  12  o'clock,  so  the  cattle-man  is 
thus  ready  for  his  dinner,  both  as  regards 
time  and  the  state  of  his  work.  Should 
the  cattle-man  find  he  has  too  little  time 
to  accomplish  the  amount  of  work  indi- 
cated, he  has  the  consolation  of  believing 
that,  as  the  days  lengthen  after  the  22d  of 
December,  he  will  have  longer  time  to  do 
the  same  quantity  of  work,  and  that  he 
cannot  possibly  have  more  to  do  at  any 
time. 

1196.  The  cattle-man  is  entitled  to  rest 
one  hour  at  dinner. 

1197.  Immediately  after  his  dinner- 
hour  is  spent,  the  cattle-man  goes  to  the 
straw-barn,  and  bundles  as  many  vhid- 
lings  of  straw,  for  supper,  a-s  there  are 
cows  or  cattle  in  byres  under  his  charge. 
A  windling  is  a  small  bundle  twisted  and 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


263 


fastened  upon  itself,  and  is  about  10  lbs. 
in  weight.  He  also  makes  up  a  few 
large  bundles  of  fodder.  Taking  one  of 
these  last  to  the  cow-byre,  he  places  fod- 
der into  every  stall. 

1198.  The  cows  are  then  returned  from 
the  court  into  the  byre  ;  and,  to  remove 
every  temptation  from  even  a  greedy  cow 
running  up  into  another  one's  stall  for  the 
sake  of  snatching  a  little  of  her  food,  no 
green  food  should  be  lying  in  the  troughs 
when  they  return  to  their  stalls;  and  none 
should  be  given  them  immediately  after 
returning  to  the  byre,  as  the  expectation 
of  receiving  it  will  render  them  impatient 
to  leave  the  court,  and  make  them  rest- 
less in  the  stall  until  they  receive  it. 
This  is  contrary  to  usual  practice,  but 
it  will  suppress  inordinate  desire,  pre- 
vent violation  of  discipline,  and  the  ne- 
cessity for  correction.  When  subjected 
to  regular  discipline,  cows  soon  obey 
it,  and  make  no  confusion,  but  conduct 
themselves  peaceably.  They  should  be 
bound  to  the  stake  in  the  same  regular 
order  they  were  loosened  from  it,  from 
one  end  of  the  byre  to  the  other,  and  the 
regularity  provides  against  any  cow  being 
forgotten  to  be  bound  up. 

1199.  The  servants'  cows  are  returned 
into  their  byre  in  the  same  manner. 

1200.  He  then  replenishes  the  racks 
in  the  courts  and  hammels  with  fresh 
straw,  strewing  about  the  old  fodder 
as  litter;  and  he  litters  both  with  as  much 
fresh  straw  from  the  barn  as  is  requi- 
site to  render  the  ground  comfortable 
to  the  cattle  to  lie  down  in  the  open  air  if 
they  choose-  In  moonlight,  many  of  the 
cattle  choose  to  be  out  in  the  open  air  all 
night,  even  though  rime  should  be  depo- 
sited on  their  backs. 

1201.  He  places  the  windlings  in  the 
byres  in  the  proportion  theyare  required  by 
the  cows,  for  their  evening  foddering;  and 
he  does  this  to  avoid  the  danger  of  going 
into  the  straw-barn  at  night  with  a  light. 

1202.  When  the  business  with  the  straw 
in  foddering  and  littering  has  been  gone 
through,  it  is  time  to  give  the  cows  their 
second  ration  of  turnips,  to  have  them 
eaten  up  by  the  time  the  dairymaid  returns 


to  the  byre,  at  dusk,  to  milk  them.  Some 
people  don't  give  cows  when  dry  a  second 
ration,  but  I  think  they  require  it  for  the 
support  of  their  condition.  The  dairy- 
maid closes  the  door  of  their  byre. 

1 203.  The  fattening  oxen  in  the  ham- 
mels then  receive  their  evening  ration  of 
turnips,  having  the  troughs  cleaned  out,  and 
the  turnips  sliced  as  on  the  former  occa- 
sions, and  the  quantity  given  will  depend 
on  the  state  of  the  night ;  for  if  the  moon 
shine  through  the  greaterpartof  the  night,  a 
larger  allowance  of  turnips  should  be  given, 
as  cattle  eat  busily  during  moonlight. 
This  is  alsoapracticewithsheepon  turnips. 

1204.  The  calves  in  the  larger  court  K, 
and  the  young  cattle  in  the  other  large 
court,  receive  their  second  ration  of  turnips 
sliced,  immediately  after  the  fattening 
beasts  have  been  served.  Although  both 
these  lots  receive  as  many  turnips  as  they 
can  eat,  their  daily  allowance  may  be  given 
at  two  instead  of  three  times,  to  save  a 
little  trouble.  Where  the  turnip  troughs, 
however,  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  to 
contain  the  requisite  quantity,  without 
piling  the  turnips  on  one  another  in  heaps,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  afiPord  a  supply  three 
times  instead  of  twice;  for  where  turnips 
are  so  piled  up  in  the  troughs,  the  cattle 
never  fail  to  push  over,  if  they  can,  upon 
the  dung  litter,  every  turnip  they  have 
bitten  a  piece  off,  to  get  to  the  fresher  ones 
below,  and  thus  cause  waste. 

1205.  The  extra  beasts  fattening  in  the 
hammels  N  should  be  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  young  beasts. 

1206.  The  young  heifers  in  the  hammels 
N,  and  the  bulls  in  the  hammels  X,  next 
receive  their  turnips;  and  as  neither  of 
them  get  as  many  as  they  can  eat,  their 
proportion  is  divided  into  two  small  meals, 
sliced,  one  served  after  all  the  rest  in  the 
morning,  and  the  other  after  the  rest  in 
the  evening.  Both  these  classes  depend- 
ing much  upon  fodder  for  food,  it  should 
be  of  tlie  sweetest  and  freshest  straw,  and 
supplied  at  least  3  times  a  day,  morning, 
noon,  and  evening ;  and  having  water  at 
command,  and  liberty  to  move  about,  they 
will  maintain  sufficient  condition.  The 
heifers  and  bulls  are  supplied  from  the  tur- 
nip stores  p  and  q. 


264 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


Fig.  89. 


1 207.  He  then  litters  the  servants'  cows 
for  the  night,  by  which  time  the  cows  in 
the  other  bvre  will  be  niilke<l ;  immedi- 
atelj  after  which  they  are  also  littered  for 
the  night,  and  the  doors  closed  upon  them, 
and  the  labours  of  the  day  are  finished. 

1208.  At  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening 
the  cattle-man  inspects  every  court,  byre, 
and  hammel,  and  sees  that  all  the  cattle 
are  well  and  comfortable.  Until  twilight 
permit  him  to  see  the  cattle,  he  takes  a 
lantern  to  assist  him.  In  the  courts  and 
hammels  the  cattle  have  access  to  the  fodder 
at  all  times ;  in  the  byres  it  is  otherwise. 
He  now  gives  the  cows  the  windlines  of 
straw  he  had  made  up  in  tlie  straw- 
bam,  and  piled  up  in  each  bvre  at  night- 
faU. 

1209.  A  proper  form  of  lantern  that 
will  distribute  a  sufficient  intensity  of 
light  all  around,  and  be  safe  to  carry  to 
any  part  of  a  steading,  amongst  straw 
or  other  highly  inflammable  material,  is  yet, 
perhaps,  a  desideratum.  The  nearest  ap- 
proach to  safety  of 
any  form  of  lantern  1 
have  seen  is  that  in 
fig.  89,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  a  stout  glass 
globe,  which  may 
be  knocked  against  a 
piece  of  timber  and 
yet  not  be  fractur- 
ed. It  has  an  oil- 
lamp,  which  screws 
and  uuscrews  into 
its  place  from  below, 
within  the  foot  upon 
which  it  stands,  and  a 
ring  by  which  it  is 
carried ;  and  the  hand 

-  is  elevated  enough  to 
j  be  protected  from  the 
heat  which  escapes 
along  with  the  smoke 
from  the  ventilator.  A 
lantern  of  tin,  with  a  globe  about  9  inches 
meter,  a  suitable  size,  costs  6s.  6d. 

1210.  The  treatment  of  oj^n  fattened  in 
a  byre  is  somewhat  different  fnjm  that  of 
cows.  As  it  is  unusual  to  fatten  oxen  in 
byres  and  hammels  on  the  same  farm,  what 
I  have  said  of  fattening  cattle  in  the  ham- 
mel should  be  considered  in  lieu  of  what  I 


A  SAFE  LANTERN. 


shall  now  say  of  fattening  them  in  a  byre. 
Cattle  get  as  many  turnips  as  they  can 
eat,  and  are  not  permitted  to  leave  their 
stalls  until  sold  off  fat.  After  the  stalls 
of  the  cow-byres  have  been  cleared  into 
the  gutter,  of  any  dung  that  might  annoy 
the  dairymaid,  the  cattle-man  goes  to  the 
feeding- byre,  and,  first  removing  any 
fodder  that  may  have  been  left  from  the 
previous  night  into  the  stalls,  and  any 
refuse  of  turnips  from  the  troughs  into  the 
gutter,  gives  the  cattle  a  feed  of  turnips  at 
once.  The  quantity  at  this  time  should 
be  more  than  the  third  of  what  they  eat 
during  the  day;  for  they  have  wanted  a 
long  time,  and  they  should  be  fed  3  times 
a-day  —  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at 
sunset ;  and  in  distributing  the  food,  the 
same  regularity  should  always  be  observed 
as  in  the  case  of  the  cows,  the  same  ox  re- 
ceiving the  first  supply,  and  the  same  ox 
the  last.  When  thus  fed  in  regular  order, 
cattle  do  not  become  impatient  for  their 
turn.  The  best  plan  is  to  begin  serving 
at  the  farthest  end  of  the  byre,  as  the 
cattle-man  has  then  no  occasion  to  pass 
and  disturb  those  already  served ;  and  so 
in  the  case  of  duitlle-headi'd  byres,  in  which 
cattle  stand  on  both  sides,  tail  to  tail,  both 
sides  should  be  ser\-ed  simultaneously,  one 
beast  alternately  on  each  side,  thus  still 
leaving  the  served  ones  undisturbed.  With 
the  half-door  left  open  for  the  admission 
of  fresh,  and  the  emission  of  heated  air 
through  the  ventilators,  the  cattle-man 
leaves  them  to  enjoy  their  meal  in  quiet- 
ness. Whenever  the  cattle  have  eaten 
their  turnips,  the  byre  should  be  cleared  of 
the  dung  and  dirty  litter  with  the  graip, 
shovel,  besom,  and  wheeled  into  the  dung- 
hill with  the  barrow.  A  fresh  foddering 
and  a  fresh  littering  are  given,  when  thev 
are  left  to  themselves  to  rest  and  chew 
the  cud  until  the  next  time  of  feed- 
ing, which  should  be  at  mid-day,  when 
rather  less  than  a  third  of  turnips  wiB 
suffice.  After  finishing  this  feed,  more 
fodder  is  given,  and  the  dung  drawn  from 
the  stall  into  the  gutter.  In  the  aftemoun, 
before  daylight  goes,  the  dung  should  again 
be  carrie«l  away  to  the  dungliill,  and  then 
the  last  supply  of  turnips  given.  After 
these  are  eaten  up,  a  fresh  finidering  is 
given,  and  the  litter  shaken  up  and  aug- 
mented where  requisite.  After  eating  a 
little  of  this  fodder,  the  cattle  will  lie  down 
and  rest  until  visited  at  night. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


265 


1211.  In  thus  minutely  detailing  the 
duties  of  the  cattle-man,  my  object  has 
been  to  show  you  rather  how  the  turnips 
and  fodder  should  be  distributed  relatively 
than  absolutely;  but  whatever  hour  and 
minute  the  cattle-man  finds,  from  expe- 
rience, he  can  devote  to  each  portion  of 
his  work,  you  should  see  that  he  performs 
the  same  operation  at  the  same  time  every 
day.  By  paying  strict  attention  to  time, 
the  cattle  will  be  ready  for  and  expect 
their  wonted  meals  at  the  appointed  times, 
and  will  not  complain  until  they  arrive. 
Complaints  from  his  stock  should  be  dis- 
tressing to  every  farmer's  ears;  for  he  may 
be  assured  they  will  not  complain  until 
they  feel  hunger;  and  if  allowed  to  hunger, 
they  will  not  only  lose  condition,  but  ren- 
der themselves,  by  discontentj  less  capable 
of  acquiring  it  when  the  food  happens 
to  be  fully  given.  Wherever  you  hear 
lowings  from  cattle,  you  may  safely  con- 
clude that  matters  are  conducted  there  in 
an  irregular  manner.  The  cattle-man's 
rule  is  a  simple  one,  and  easily  remem- 
bered : — Give  food  and  fodder  to  cattle  at 

fixed  times,  and  dispense  them  in  a  fixed 
routine.  I  had  a  striking  instance  of  the 
bad  effects  of  irregular  attention  to  cattle. 
An  old  staid  labourer  was  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  cattle,  and  was  quite  able 
and  willing  to  undertake  the  task.  He 
got  his  own  way  at  first,  as  I  had  ob- 
served many  labouring  men  display  great 
ingenuity  in  arranging  their  work.  Low- 
ings were  soon  heard  from  the  stock  in 
all  quarters,  both  in  and  out  of  doors, 
which  intimated  the  want  of  regularity 
in  the  cattle-man ;  whilst  the  poor  crea- 
ture himself  was  constantly  in  a  state  of 
bustle  and  uneasiness.  To  put  an  end  to 
this  disorderly  state  of  things,  I  appor- 
tioned his  entire  day's  work  by  his  own 
watch ;  and  on  implicitly  following  the 
plan,  he  not  only  soon  satisfied  the  wants 
of  every  animal  committed  to  his  charge, 
but  had  abundant  leisure  to  lend  a  hand  at 
any  thing  that  required  his  temporary  as- 
sistance. His  old  heart  overflowed  with 
gratitude  when  he  found  the  way  of  mak- 
ing all  his  creatures  happy  ;  and  his  kind- 
ness to  them  was  so  undeviating,  they 
would  have  done  whatever  he  liked.  A 
man  better  suited,  by  temper  and  genius, 
for  the  occupation  I  never  saw. 

1212.  You  may  regard  all  these  minute 


details,  on  the  treatment  of  cattle,  frivolous 
and.  unnecessary  :  but  they  are  not  so;  and 
your  own  interest  will  soon  tell  you,  that 
where  a  number  of  minutite  have  to  be 
attended  to,  unless  taken  in  order,  they 
are  apt  to  be  forgotten  altogether,  or  at- 
tended to  in  a  hasty  manner ;  and  none  of 
these  conditions,  you  will  also  admit,  are 
conducive  to  correct  management.  Ob- 
serve the  number  of  minute  things  a  cattle- 
man has  to  attend  to.  He  has  various 
classes  of  cattle  under  his  charge — cows, 
fattening  beasts,  young  steers,  calves, 
heifers,  bulls,  and  extra  beasts  besides ; 
and  he  has  to  keep  them  all  clean  in  their 
various  places  of  abode,  and  supply  them 
with  food  and  fodder  three  times  in  a  short 
winter's  day  of  7  or  8  hours.  Is  it  possible 
to  attend  to  all  these  particulars,  as  they 
should  be,  without  a  matured  plan  of  con- 
duct ?  The  catt!e-man  requires  a  plan  for 
his  own  sake  ;  for  were  he  to  do  every 
thing  when  the  idea  just  struck  him,  his 
mind,  being  guided  by  no  rule,  would  be 
as  prone  to  forget  as  to  remember  what  he 
had  to  do.  The  injurious  effects  upon  the 
condition  of  animals  of  irregular  attend- 
ance upon  them,  seem  to  render  a  concocted 
plan  necessary  to  be  adopted.  Before  you 
can  see  the  full  force  of  this  observation, 
you  would  require  to  be  told  that  food, 
fodder,  and  litter,  given  to  cattle  in  an 
irregular  manner, — such  as  too  much  at  one 
time  and  too  little  at  another,  frequently 
one  day,  and  seldom  another, — surfeiting 
them  at  one  time,  hungering  them  at 
another,  and  keeping  them  neither  clean 
nor  dirty,  never  fails  to  prevent  them 
acquiring  that  fine  condition  which  good 
management  always  secures. 

1213.  Let  us  reduce  the  results  of  bad 
management  to  figures.  Suppose  you 
have  three  sets  of  beasts,  of  dift'erent  ages, 
each  containing  20  beasts,  that  is,  6U  in 
all,  and  they  get  as  many  turnips  as  they 
can  eat.  Suppose  that  each  of  these  I)easts 
acquires  only  half  a  pound  less  live  weight 
every  day  than  they  would  under  the  most 
proper  management,  and  this  would  incur  a 
loss  of  30  lbs.  a  day  of  live  weii;lit,  wliitli, 
over  180  days  of  the  fattening  seaion,  will 
make  the  loss  amount  to  540U  lbs.  of  live 
weight,  or,  according  to  the  common  riiles 
of  computation,  3240  lbs.,  or  231  stones  of 
dead  weight  at  6s.  the  stone,  £.Qd^  (is.,  a 
sum  e(j[ual   to  more  than   five   times  the 


266 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


wages  received  by  the  cattle- man.  The 
question,  then,  resolves  itself  into  this — 
whether  it  is  not  for  your  interest  to  save 
this  sum  annually,  by  making  your  cattle- 
man attend  your  cattle  according  to  a  regu- 
lar plan,  the  form  of  which  is  in  your  own 
power  to  adopt  and  pursue  ? 

1214.  What  I  have  just  stated  applies 
to  the  fattening  of  ordinary  cattle,  but 
selected  cattle  may  be  desired  to  be  fattened 
to  attain  a  particular  object.  You  may 
have,  for  instance,  a  pair  of  very  fine  oxen, 
which  you  are  desirous  of  exhibiting  at  a 
particular  show.  They  should  have  a  ham- 
mel  comfortably  fitted  up  for  themselves, 
and  your  ingenuity  will  be  taxed  to  render 
it  as  convenient  and  comfortable  as  pos- 
sible, which  you  will  the  better  be  able  to 
do,  after  determining  on  the  sorts  of  food 
you  wish  to  give  them.  You  will  present 
a  choice  of  food,  and,  therefore,  will  pro- 
vide a  trough  for  sliced  Swedish  turnips — 
a  manger  for  linseed-meal — another  for 
bruised  oats — a  third  for  compound — a 
rack  for  hay — and  a  trough  for  water. 
There  should  be  abundance  of  straw  for 
Jitter  and  warmth,  and  daily  dressing  of 
the  skin  to  keep  it  clean,  as  fat  oxen  can 
reach  but  few  parts  of  their  body  with 
their  tongue.  But  all  these  appliances 
will  avail  nothing,  if  a  regulated  attention 
is  not  bestowed  by  the  cattle-man.  Tlie 
cattle  have  as  much  as  they  can  eat,  but 
then  what  they  eat  should  be  administered 
with  judgment,  if  you  wi.<h  to  attain  a 
particular  end.  It  will  not  sufiice  to  set 
an  adequate  portion  of  each  sort  of  food 
daily  before  them,  to  be  taken  at  will ; 
one  or  more  of  the  kinds  will  have  to  be 
given  at  stated  times,  that  each  may  pos- 
sess the  freshness  of  novelty  and  variety, 
and  thereby  be  eaten  with  relish.  Every 
particular  thus  demands  attention,  and 
affords  .sufficient  exercise  to  the  iudjrment : 
and  if  this  is  in  the  case  with  i)articular 
animals,  the  necessity  for  attending  in  a 
similar  manner  on  cattle  in  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances cannot  but  be  impressed  on 
your  mind. 

1215.  Much  has  been  said  on  the  pro- 
priety of  wisping  and  currying  cows  and 
fattening  oxen  in  the  byre,  and  much 
may  be  said  in  recommendation  of  the 
practice,  were  the  cattle  always  confined 
to  the  byre  ;  but   animals   which   are   at 


liberty  a  part  of  the  day  do  not  require 
artificial  dressing,  except  when  in  high  con- 
dition, inasmuch  as  they  can  drcj-s  their 
own,  and  one  another's  skin,  much  better 
thananycattle-man.  With  cattle  constantly 
confined  in  the  byre,  it  seems  indispensable 
for  their  good  health  to  brush  their  skin 
daily;  and  I  believe  no  better  instrument 
can  be  used  for  the  purpose  than  an  old 
curry-comb,  assisted  with  a  wiwj)  of  straw. 
Currying  should  only  be  performed  on  the 
cattle  when  not  at  food ;  and  this  should 
be  strictly  enjoined,  for  people,  who  have 
charge  of  animals,  have  a  strong  propensity 
to  dress  and  fondle  them  when  at  food ; 
from  no  desire  to  torment  them,  but  chiefiy 
because  they  will  then  be  in  a  quiet  mood. 
Still  the  process  has  a  tendency  to  irritate 
some  cattle,  and  please  others  so  much  as 
to  make  them  desist  eating,  and  on  that  ac- 
count should  be  prevented.  Many  other 
animals  are  never  more  jealous  of  being 
approached  than  when  eating  their  food, 
— as  exemplified  by  the  growl  of  a  dog,  and 
the  scowl  of  a  horse. 

1216.  From  the  commencement  of  the 
season  to  the  end  of  the  year,  white  tur- 
nips alone  are  used  ;  after  which,  to  the  end 
of  the  winter  season,  the  yellows  are 
brought  into  requisition,  or  swedes,  where 
the  yellows  are  not  cultivated. 

1217.  When  turnips  are  brought  from 
the  field  in  a  dirty  state,  which  will  be  the 
case  in  wet  weather  from  clayey  soil,  they 
ought  to  be  washed  in  tubs  of  water,  and, 
as  long  as  the  dirt  is  fresh,  they  will  be 
the  more  easily  cleansed.  Washing  is  not 
so  troublesome  and  expensive  a  business 
as  may  at  first  seem.  A  field-worker, 
having  a  large  tub  of  water  placed  beside 
a  store  about  to  be  filled  with  turnips, 
takes  them  up  one  by  one  with  a  small 
fork,  and  dashing  them  about  in  the  water 
for  an  instant,  ])ulls  them  off  a^inst 
the  edge  of  the  store  or  barrow;  and  this 
she  does  much  faster  than  the  cattle-man 
wheels  them  away  and  slices  them  for 
the  beasts.  A  friend  of  mine  used  a 
very  curious  mode  of  washing  turnips. 
Whenever  any  of  the  fields  of  his  farm, 
along  which  passed  the  lade  that  con- 
ducted the  water  from  the  dam  to  the 
thrashing-mill,  were  in  turnips,  he  caused 
the  lade  to  be  filK-d  pretty  full  of  water, 
by  making  a  damming  in  it  in   the  par- 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


267 


ticular  field,  according  to  the  fall  of  the 
ground.  The  turnips  were  then  topped 
and  tailed,  and  plunged  into  the  lade, 
from  a  cart  when  the  distance  was  con- 
siderable, and  from  a  hand-barrow,  carried 
by  field-workers,  when  near.  The  dam- 
ming in  the  field  being  cut,  and  the  sluice 
at  the  mill  a  little  opened,  the  current  of 
water  floated  the  turnips  to  the  steading, 
where  they  were  taken  out  from  behind 
the  grating  of  the  sluice,  and  carried  to  the 
stores  in  barrows.  When  the  turnips  were 
very  dirty,  they  were  washed  in  the  lade 
by  a  person  pushing  them  about  with  a 
pole.  That  some  provision  for  cleaning 
turnips  is  sometimes  necessary,  is  certain  ; 
for  I  have  seen  very  fine  cattle  eating 
turnips  in  such  a  state  that  the  dirt  actually 
bedaubed  them  to  the  very  eyes,  which  the 
tops,  being  left  on,  had  assisted  much  in 
doing.  Surely  no  one  will  say  that  filth, 
in  any  shape,  is  beneficial  to  cattle ;  not 
that  they  dislike  to  lick  earth  at  times,  but 
they  do  so,  in  their  own  way,  to  rectify 
acidity  in  the  stomach. 

1218.  When  turnips  have  not  been 
stored,  and  are  brought  from  the  field  as 
required,  they  will  probably  be  in  a  frozen 
state  at  times,  when,  even  if  sliced  by  any 
of  the  instruments  in  use,  they  will  be 
masticated  by  the  cattle  with  difficulty ; 
and  frozen  turnips  never  fail  to  chill  cattle, 
which  is  indicated  by  the  staring  coat. 
Means  should  therefore  be  used  to  thaw 
frozen  turnips,  and  the  most  available  is  to 
put  them  for  a  time  in  tubs  of  cold  water. 
This  process  is  attended  with  much  more 
expense  than  storing  them  in  the  proper 
season. 

1219.  It  is  supposed  that  an  ox,  which 
attains  a  weight  of  70  stones  imperial  at 
the  end  of  the  season,  consumes  in  fattening 
a  double  horse-load  of  turnips  per  week; 
and,  as  carts  are  usually  loaded  at  field- 
work  in  winter,  the  weight  of  a  load 
may  be  estimated  at  about  15  cwt.;  so 
that  the  ox  will  consume  about  2g  cwt.  or 
16  stones  2  lbs.  a  day,  or  5  stones  5  lbs.  at 
each  of  3  meals,  and  about  19i  tons  during 
the  season  of  26  weeks.  The  calves  may 
consume  ^,  or  8  stones,  and  the  2-year- 
olds  |,  or  1  2  stones  a  day ;  cows  receiv- 
ing one-third  of  the  oxen,  5  stones  5  lbs. 


a  day.  Each  scullful  contains  about  37?  lbs. 
Thes^e  comparative  quantities  are  given 
from  no  authenticated  data,  for  I  believe 
no  comparative  trials,  with  different  ages 
of  cattle,  have  ever  been  made,  but  merely 
from  what  people  imagine  to  be  near  the 
truth ;  and  such  an  estimate  should  be 
made  at  the  beginning  of  every  season, 
that  you  may  know  whether  there  are 
turnips  enough  to  serve  the  stock.  It  was 
correctly  ascertained  by  Mr  Stephenson, 
Whitelaw,  East  Lotliian,  in  a  careful  ex- 
periment of  feeding  18  oxen  of  42  stones, 
that  they  consumed  10  stones  2  lbs.  on  an 
average  each  of  turnips  daily;*  and  Mr 
Bosvvell  Irvine  of  Kingcausie,  found  that 
oxen  of  43  stones  consumed  only  9  stones 
of  turnips  each  daily.t  This  discrepancy 
between  the  two  statements  might  be  ex- 
plained, perhaps,  if  we  knew  every  parti- 
cular of  the  treatment  in  the  two  cases. 
Taking  9^  stones  as  the  average  (juautity 
of  turnips  consumed  every  day  by  oxen  of 
42  stones,  and  taking  it  for  granted  that 
oxen  consume  food  nearly  in  the  propor- 
tion of  their  weight,  the  result  will  be  very 
nearly  what  is  stated  above  by  guess,  nearly 
16  stones  per  day,  by  cattle  of  70  stones. 

1220.  Cows  are  kept  on  every  species  of  farm, 
though  for  very  diftereiit  purposes.  Ou  carse 
and  pastoral  farms  they  are  merely  useful  in 
supplying  milk  to  the  farmer  and  his  servants. 
On  dairy  farms  they  afford  butter  and  cheese  for 
sale.  On  some  farms  nearlar'ie  towns,  they  sup- 
ply sweet  and  butter  milk  for  sale.  And  on 
farms  of  mixed  hvsbandry,  they  are  kept  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  calves. 

1221.  On  carsejand  pastoral  farms,  cows  receive 
only  a  few  turnips  in  winter,  when  they  are  dry, 
and  are  kept  on  from  year  to  year  ;  but  where 
the  farmer  supplies  milk  to  his  work-people,  as 
a  part  of  their  wages,  they  are  disposed  of  in  the 
yeld  state,  and  others  in  milk,  or  at  the  calving, 
bought  in  to  fill  their  place,  and  these  receive  a 
large  allowance  of  turnips,  with  perhaps  a  little 
hay.  On  such  farms,  little  regard  is  paid  to  the 
breed  of  the  cow,  the  circumstance  of  a  good 
milker  being  the  only  criterion  of  excellence.    . 

1222.  On  true  dairy  farms,  the  winter  season 
is  unfavourable  to  the  making  of  butter  and 
cheese  for  sale.  The  cows  are  in  calf  during 
this  season,  and  receive  raw  turnips  and  hay 
until  they  calve.  As  soon  as  they  calve  they 
receive  prepared  food. 

1223.  The  food  is  prepared  in  this  manner  : — 
Topped  and  tailed,  though  not  washed  turnips 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricvliural  Society,  vol.  sii.  p.  63.    t  Ibid.,  vol.  xi.  p.  462-4. 


268 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


are  put  into  a  large  boiler  until  it  is  about  half 
filled,  and  a  few  handfuls  of  salt  strewn  over 
them.  The  boiler  is  then  filled  and  heaped  up 
with  cut  hay  ;  as  mui-h  water  is  poured  into  it 
as  nearly  to  fill  it  ;  a  board  is  placed  upon  the 
hay,  and  the  fire  is  then  kindled  in  the  furnace. 
By  this  process  the  turnips  are  boiled  soft,  and 
the  hay  steamed  or  stewed  ;  and  in  about  three 
hours  the  mess  is  ready  to  be  put  into  a  cooler, 
the  hay  undermost,  the  turnips  above  it,  and  the 
water  from  the  turnips  poured  over  both,  and 
they  all  remain  in  it  until  parted  amongst  the 
cows. 

1224.  The  Cooler. — The  cooler  is  an  oblong  box, 
fig.  90,  having  the  sides  perpendicular,  and  the 
endB  berelled,  and  provided  with  two  wheels, 


THE  COOLER  FOR  A  BYRB. 


mounted  on  a  bent  axle,  which  passes  nnder  the 
bottom  of  the  box,  and  two  handles,  for  the 
purpose  of  moving  the  cooler  to  where  it  is 
wanted.  The  cooler  may  be  constructed  of  any 
dimensions,  to  suit  the  nizeofthe  dairy  ;  and  one 
6  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  24  feet  deep,  will  coDUin 
as  much  food  as  will  serve  2U  cows  at  one  meaJ. 

1225.  Before  serving  out  the  mess  to  the  cows, 
the  cooler  is  either  wheeled  into  the  byre,  or  to 
its  door  from  the  boiling-house.  The  turnips  are 
broken  and  mashed  with  a  small  graip,  against 
oue  of  the  bevelled  ends  of  the  cooler, — the  one 
next  the  handles  being  the  more  convenient  of 
the  two  to  stand  at.  While  a  portion  of  the 
turnips  is  thus  broken,  it  is  mixed  with  a  little 
of  the  hay,  well  shaken  up,  and  the  turnip  water. 
A  proportion  to  each  cow  is  put  into  a  small  tub, 
receiving  a  little  of  broken  oil-cake,  bruised 
linseed,  or  bean  meal,  and  emptied  into  its 
feeding-trough  in  the  byre.  A  prepared  mess  of 
this  description  is  given  to  the  cow  twice  a  day, 
morning  and  afternoon.  Should  the  mess  be 
rather  warm,  it  will  easily  be  cooled  by  the 
addition  of  cold  water  into  the  cooler. 

1226.  The  Cylinder  Stravp-cvUer. — So  named 
from  having  the  cutters  (generally  two,  but 
sometimes  four)  placed  on  the  periphery  of  a 
skeleton  cylinder,  each  cutter  lying  nearly  in  the 
plane  of  revolution.  Besides  the  cutting  cylin- 
der, they  necessarily  have  a  pair  of  feeding 

91. 


THE  CYLINDER  STRAW-CITTER  WfTH  STRAIGHT  KNIVES. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


269 


rollers,  which  bring  forward  the  substance  to  be 
cut,  and  also,  from  the  velocity  of  their  motion, 
regulate  the  length  of  the  cut.  Two  forms  of 
the  machine  exist,  the  essential  difference  of 
which  is,  that,  in  the  one,  the  cutters  are  placed 
upon  the  cylinder  with  a  large  angle  of  obliquity 
to  the  axis,  generally  about  35",  and  are  there- 
fore bent  and  twisted  until  their  edges  form  an 
oblique  section  of  the  cylinder,  while  the  box, 
or  the  orifice  through  which  the  substance  is 
protruded  for  being  cut,  lies  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  feeding  rollers.  In  the  other  variety,  the 
knives  are  placed  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder,  and  therefore  straight  in  the  edge  ; 
while  the  cutting-box  is  elongated  into  a  nozzle, 
and  is  twisted  to  an  angle  of  15°  with  the  axis 
of  the  feeding-rollers.  I  prefer  this  latter 
variety,  because  the  knives,  being  straight,  are 
easily  taken  off  and  put  on,  and  sharpened  by 
any  common  smith  or  carpenter,  and  twisted 
knives  are  generally  very  heavy  to  work. 

1227.  The  cylinder  straw-cutter  with  straight 
knives,  as  constructed  by  Mr  James  Slight, 
Edinburgh,  at  prices  from  £7,  10s.  to  £8,  10s., 
is  represented  by  fig.  91,  being  a  view  in  per- 
spective of  the  machine.  The  machine  is  made 
entirely  of  iron,  chiefly  cast-iron.  The  two 
side-frames  a  a,  are  connected  together  by  the 
stretcher  bolts  6,  one  being  formed  of  the  bed- 
plate c,  which  is  bolted  to  a  projecting  bracket, 
and  carries  the  cheeks  or  frame  of  the  feeding- 
rollers.  The  lower  roller  carries  upon  its 
axle  the  driving-wheel  g,  and  also  the  feed- 
ing-wheel, which  works  into  its  equal  wheel  i, 
fitted  upon  the  axle  of  the  upper  roller.  In 
the  apex  of  the  side-frames,  bearings  are  formed 
for  the  axle  of  the  cutter-wheels  k,  which  form 
the  skeleton  cylinder,  and  whose  axle  carries 
also  the  driving-pinion  I,  acting  upon  the  wheei 
g.  Intermediate  between  the  feeding-rollers  and 
the  cutter-wheels  is  placed  the  twisted  cutting- 
box  or  nozzle  m,  bolted  to  the  roller-frame.  On 
the  further  end  of  the  cutter-wheel  axle  the 
fly-wheel  «  is  fixed  ;  and  on  the  near  end  of 
the  same  the  winch-handle  o,  by  which  the  ma- 
chine is  worked.  The  feeding-trough  p  is  hooked 
to  the  roller-frame  at  the  mouth,  and  supported 
behind  by  the  jointed  foot  q.  The  cutters  r 
are  made  of  the  finest  steel,  backed  with  iron. 
The  cutters  are  fixed  upon  the  cylinders,  each 
with  two  screw-bolts,  as  seen  at  r,  passing  through 
the  ring  of  the  wheel,  and  they  are  placed 
slightly  eccentric  to  it  ;  the  cuttiug-edge  being 
about  J  inch  more  distant  from  the  centre  than 
the  back.  To  secure  the  regular  feed  of  the 
rollers,  the  lower  one  turns  in  fixed  bearings  ; 
but  the  other  is  at  liberty  to  rise  and  fall  in  the 
fork  of  the  roller-frame.  In  order  further  to 
secure  a  uniform  pressure  on  this  roller,  abridge 
is  inserted  in  the  fork,  resting  on  both  jour- 
nals of  the  roller.  A  compensation  lever  v 
has  its  forked  fulcra  through  a  strap,  which  is 
hooked  on  to  pins  in  the  roller-frame  ;  and  it 
thus  bears  upon  the  bridge  at  both  sides  by 
means  of  the  forked  end.  A  weight  ic  is  ap- 
pended to  the  extremity  of  the  lever,  which,  thus 
arranged,  keeps  a  uniform  pressure  on  the  upper 
roller,  while  it  is  always  at  liberty  to  rise  or  fall 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and 


according  to  the  thickness  of  the  feed  which  the 
rollers  are  receiving. 

1228.  The  Canadian  Straw-cutter. — Besides 
this  machine,  1  shall  give  a  figure  of  a  simple 
and  efficient  straw-cutter,  which  has  been  im- 
ported from  Canada,  as  its  name  implies,  and 
which  is  preferred  by  some  persons  to  any  other 
kind.  A  description  of  this  machine  was  sent 
from  Canada  by  Mr  Fergusson  of  Woodhill,  now 
of  Fergus,  Upper  Canada,  to  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society,  in  whose  Transactions  it 
was  first  published;*  but  the  present  figure  is 
taken  from  the  machine  as  made  by  Mr  Slight, 
Edinburgh,  who  has  greatly  improved  the  con- 
struction of  the  cutting  cylinder.  Fig.  92  is  a 
view  in  perspective  of  this  machine.  It  consists 
of  a  wooden  frame,  of  which  a  a  a  a  are  the  four 
posts,  the  front  pair  being  higher  than  the  back 
pair.  These  are  connected  by  two  side-rails,  one 
of  which  is  seen  at  b,  and  a  cross-rail  c,  which 
last  serves  also  to  support  the  bottom  of  the  feed- 
ing-spout. The  posts  are  further  connected  by 
four  light  stay-rails  below  ;  and  the  frame,  when 
thus  joined,  supports  the  rollers  at  the  front.  The 
feeding-spout  is  d.  The  acting  part  of  this  straw- 
cutter  consists  of  the  cutting  cylinder  e,  armed  with 
cutters  or  knives  ;  its  axle  runs  in  plumraer- 
blocks,  bolted  upon  the  posts,  and  carries  likewise 
the  wheel  /.  The  pressure  cylinder  g  is  a  plain 
cylinder  of  hardwood,  beech  or  elm,  turned  true 
upon  an  iron  axle,  which  runs  in  plummer- 
blocks  similar  to  the  former,  and  carries  no 
wheel,  but  revolves  by  simple  contact  with  the 
cutting  cylinder.  The  pressure  cylinder  is  fur- 
nished with  a  pair  of  adjusting  screws  at  h  h, 
which  act  upon  the  plummer-blocks  of  the  cylin- 
der, and  afford  the  means  of  regulating  the  pres- 
sure of  the  one  cylinder  upon  the  other.  The 
shaft  i,  which  has  also  its  plummer-blocks,  carries 
at  one  end  a  pinion,  which  acts  upon  the  wheel/, 
while,  at  the  other  end,  it  carries  the  fly-wheel  I. 
The  winch  handle  m  is  also  attached  to  the  shaft 
i,  and  serves  to  put  the  machine  in  motion. 

1229.  As  this  machine  acts  entirely  by  direct 
pressure,  it  will  readily  be  observed  that,  in 
working  it,  the  straw  being  laid  in  the  trough  d, 
and  brought  in  contact  with  the  cutting  cylin- 
der and  its  antagonist,  the  hay  or  straw  will  be 
continuously  drawn  forward  by  means  of  the 
two  cylinders  ;  and  when  it  has  reached  the 
line  of  centres  of  the  two,  it  will  be  cut  through  by 
the  direct  pressure  of  the  cutting  edges  of  the  one 
against  the  resisting  surface  of  the  other  cylin- 
der, and  the  process  goes  on  with  great  rapidity. 
The  straw  is  cut  into  lengths  of  about  a  inch  ; 
and  though  it  passes  in  a  thin  layer,  yet  the  rapi- 
dity of  its  motion  is  such  that,  when  driven  by 
the  hand,  at  the  ordinary  rate  of  44  turns  of  the 
handle  per  minute,  the  number  of  cuts  made  by 
the  cutting  cylinder  in  that  time  is  360  ;  and  the 
quantity,  compared  by  weight,  will  be  three  times 
nearly  what  any  other  straw-cutter  will  produce, 
requiring  the  same  force  to  work  it, — that  is  to 
say,  a  man's  power.  There  is  one  objection  to 
this  machine,  which  is,  the  wearing  out  of  the 
resisting  cylinder  ;  but  this  is  balanced  by  the 
excess  of  work  performed,  and  by  the  circum- 

Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.  p.  336. 


270 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


/         Btanee  that  the  moving  cylinder  can  be  removed     six  months.     The  price  of 
at  an  «xpe*ie  of  29.,  and  it  will  last  from  three  to     cutter  is  £6,  lOs. 

Fig.  9-2. 


the  Canadian  straw- 


THE  CANADIAN  STRAW-CUTTER. 

1230.  The  Lhc  Straw-cutter  is,  for  the  most  feature,  the  cutting  knife,  fixed  upon  the  fly- 
part,  employed  in  England,  and  is  the  most  nu-  wheel,  is  invariable,  except  that  it  at  times  carries 
merous  of  this  class  of  machines.    The  principal     one,  and  at  others,  two  knives. , 

Fig.  93. 


PLAN  or  A  BYRK  FOR  A  LAROS  DAIRT-FARM. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


271 


1231.  In  a  large  dairy  farm,  comprehending 
from  40  to  60  cows,  the  most  economical  arrange- 
ment is  to  place  them  all  under  one  roof  in  one 
byre,  situate  close  beside  the  boiling-house  and 
hay-house,  when  the  food  can  be  prepared  and 
dealt  out,  the  byre  cleansed,  and  the  cows 
milked,  under  the  immediate  superintendence  of 
the  head  dairymaid.  I  shall  give  a  plan  of  such 
a  byre,  which  may  be  extended  in  width  and 
length,  to  contain  any  number  of  cows  desired. 
Fig.  93  represents  such  a  byre,  capable  of  accom- 
modating 48  cows  in  double  stalls,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  stalls  of  24  cows  may  be  cleaned 
at  one  time,  and  the  mangers  of  from  12  to 
24  replenished  from  the  same  passage  :  a  are 
the  double  stalls,  8  feet  wide,  and  7  A  feet  long 
from  manger  to  gutter:  6  the  stone  troughs  or 
mangers,  27  inches  long  and  16  inches  wide,  and 
8  inches  deep  inside  ;  two  are  placed  in  each 
double  stall,  and  each  6  inches  from  the  side  of  the 
stall,  and  its  upper  edge  18  inches  above  tlie 
floor :  g  the  gutter  or  grupes  for  receiving  the 
dung  and  urine,  1 5  inches  wide,  in  each  of  which 
is  a  grating  h  communicated  by  a  drain  with  those 
which  convey  the  urine  to  the  liquid-manure 
tank  :  i  are  the  foot-paths,  4  feet  wide,  from  the 
outer  doors  k  to  the  stalls,  along  which  the  cows 
leave  and  enter  their  stalls,  and  by  which  the 
cattle-man  removes,  in  his  barrow,  by  the  doors, 
the  dung  and  litter  from  the  gutters  and  stalls 
to  the  dunghill :  d  are  the  passages  along  the 
heads  of  the  stalls,  4  feet  wide,  from  which  the 
food  and  fodder  are  put  into  the  mangers  ;  the 
principal  passage  I,  6  feet  wide,  being  the  one 
along  which  the  cooler,  fig.  90,  is  drawn,  with  the 
prepared  food,  from  the  boiiing-house :  k  are  the 
outer  doors  at  the  end  of  each  footpath  i,  by 
which  each  division  of  cows  leave  and  enter  the 
byre,  without  disturbing  the  rest :  /  are  the 
windows,  such  as  fig.  78,  situate  one  at  the 
end  of  each  passage  d,  along  the  heads  of  the 
stalls :  m  is  the  central  position  of  the  water- 
cock,  to  supply  the  cattle-man  and  assistant 
dairymaids  tor  washing  down  the  footpaths  i, 
the  gutter  g,  and  the  mangers  b  :  the  water 
thus  used  and  enriched,  on  finding  its  way 
into  the  liquid-manure  tank,  keeps  the  drain 
clear:  c  are  the  travis-boards,  2  feet  long 
across  the  mangers,  and  3  feet  in  front  of  the 
travis  post,  from  which  they  slope  in  a  trian- 
gular form  to  the  floor ;  e  is  the  boarding,  2^ 
feet  high,  along  the  heads  of  the  stalls,  and  over 
which  the  food  and  fodder  are  put  into  the  man- 
gers 6.  Thus  furnished,  the  byre,  containing  48 
cows,  will  be  64  feet  in  length,  and  54  feet  in 
breadth. 

1232.  Connected  with  the  byre  is  the  apart- 
ment M,  15  feet  by  16,  containing  two  large 
boilers,  which  are  heated  alternately,  to  prepare 
the  food  by  turns,  and  is  provided  with  an  outer 
door  3^  feet  wide,  and  a  window — the  door  be- 
ing opposite  the  one  of  the  byre,  also  3^  feet 
wide,  at  the  end  of  the  principal  passage  i  of  the 
byre — and  with  a  water-cock  to  each  boiler. 

1233.  The  store  o  is  17i  feet  by  16,  and  con- 
tains the  topped  and  tailed  turnips  for  the 
boilers,  also  provided  with  a  door  for  taking  in 


the  turnips,  and  a  window  to  give  light  to  the 
assistant  dairymaid,  when  replenishing  the 
boilers  with  turnips,  through  the  door  into  the 
boiling  house  w.  This  apartment  is  also  fur- 
nished with  a  convenient  space  p,  for  containing 
the  coals  used  in  the  furnaces ;  and,  being  here, 
the  boiling-house  is  kept  free  of  dust. 

1234.  The  hay-house  r,  18^  feet  by  16,  adjoins 
the  boiling-house,  provided  with  a  door  for  tak 
ing  in  the  hay,  and  a  window  to  afford  light  to 
cut  and  take  away  the  cut  hay  to  the  boilers, 
through  the  door  into  the  boiling-house  n.  In 
this  apartment  stands  the  straw-cutter,  fig  91, 
for  preparing  the  hay,  near  the  window,  and 
may  here  be  driven  by  hand  or  power. 

1235.  At  the  other  end  of  the  byre  is  a  large 
apartnient,54  feet  by  16,at  the  one  end  of  which  is 
a  turnip  store  o,  for  the  turnips  to  be  given  raw 
to  such  of  the  cows  as  have  not  calved,  and  are 
not  in  milk.  The  turnips  are  put  into  the  store 
by  an  outer  door.  The  hand-lever  turnip-slicer, 
fig.  86,  would  stand  conveniently  here  for  use. 

1236.  Opposite  to  this  turnip  store  is  the  hay 
house  r,  for  the  hay  given  to  the  cows  as  ordinary 
fodder.  The  hay  is  taken  into  the  apartment  by 
an  outer  door.  An  inside  door,  3^  feet  wide, 
allows  both  the  turnips  and  hay  to  be  takeu 
along  the  principal  passage  l. 

1237.  A  window  is  placed  opposite  the  inside 
door,  on  either  side  of  which,  s  and  t,  may  stand 
the  oilcake  breaker,  fig.  53,  the  linseed  crusher, 
fig.  97,  and  the  barrels  to  contain  the  bruised 
linseed  and  bean-meal.  Thus  every  convenience 
wanted  for  a  byre  may  be  obtained,  by  such  a 
plan,  under  one  roof,  the  entire  building  being 
101  feet  in  length  by  58  feet  in  breadth,  over  the 
walls. 

1238.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  width  of 
this  byre  is  much  beyond  that  of  ordinary  stead- 
ings ;  but  the  construction  of  the  trussed  form  of 
roof  is  now  so  well  understood  that  it  is  per- 
fectly safe  on  ordinary  thickness  of  walls  ;  and  aa 
a  large  number  of  cows  can  be  easily  taken  care 
of  under  one  roof,  this  form  of  lyre  seems  well 
adapted  for  the  purposes  of  a  large  dairy. 
Figure  s  of  this  sort  of  roof  will  be  given  when 
we  come  to  consider  the  construction  of  steadings 
in  general. 

1239.  To  keep  the  stone  troughs  always  sweet 
and  clean,  they  should  be  washed  out  and 
scrubbed  with  a  heather  rinse  once  a-day  ;  and. 

Fig.  94. 


SECTION  OF  A  STONE  TROUGH  FOR  A  BYRX. 


272 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


that  the  water  may  be  conveniently  got  rid  of, 
the  troughs  should  be  formed  as  in  fig.  94,  with 
the  bottom  sloping  both  along  it  from  a  to  c,  and 
across  it  from  (/  to  e,  where  is  a  metallic  sucker 
and  stopper,  to  allow  the  water  to  escape  to  the 
drain  uiiiierneath;  and  this  drain,  of  course,  com- 
municates with  the  other  drains.  A  convenient  form 
and  size  of  trough  is  27  inches  in  length,  16  inches 
in  width,  and  8  inches  in  depth  at  a,  increasing  to 
9  inches  at  c,  aud  10  iaches  at  e,  the  lowest  point. 

1240.  A  hydraulic  apparatus  is  sometimes  pro- 
vided to  such  byres,  for  the  supply  and  removal 
of  cold  water  from  the  troughs,  by  means  of  the 
action  of  a  lever  operating  at  each  trough  ;  and 
as  long  as  the  apparatus  works  well,  its  con- 
venience is  certainly  great,  but  it  is  apt  to  get  out 
of  proper  action,  when  its  presence  becomes  a 
continual  source  of  annoyance. 

1241.  The  cows  of  a  farm  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  towns,  and  those  in  the 
towns'  dairies  themselves,  are  fattened  when  the 
milk  leaves  them,  and  not  allowed  to  breed 
again, — the  time  in  which  they  would  remain  dry 
being  regarded  as  lost  ;  and  new-calved  cows,  or 
just  about  to  calve,  are  purchased  from  the 
country  in  their  stead.  A  market  is  held  in 
most  towns  every  week  for  the  purchase  of  such 
cows,  which  are  usually  brought  from  a  distance. 
The  calves  are  sold,  and  not  attempted  to  be  fat- 
tened. The  dairyman  in  and  near  large  towns 
must  always  have  milk  to  supply  his  customers  ; 
and  it  is  his  interest  to  render  the  milk  as  pala- 
table as  possible.  For  this  purpose  he  purchases 
cows  early  to  calve  at  all  seasons,  and  prepares 
the  whole  food  given  them. 

1242.  The  cows  in  the  public  dairies  in  Edin- 
burgh are  supported  in  winter  on  a  variety  of 
substances— namely,  turnips,  brewers'  and  dis- 
tillers' grains  called  draff,  dreg,  malt  comiiis, 
barley,  oats,  hay  seeds,  chaff,  and  cut  hay.  One  or 
more  of  these  substances,  with  turnips,  are  cooked 
together,  and  the  usual  process  of  doing  this,  and 
administering  the  cooked  food,  is  as  follows  : 
— Turnips,  deprived  of  tops  and  tails,  and  washed 
clean,  are  put  into  the  bottom  of  a  boiler,  and 
covered  near  to  its  top  with  a  quantity  of  malt 
comins,  cut  hay,  hay  seeds,  chaff,  or  barley,  or 
more  than  one  of  these,  as  the  articles  can  be 
procured.  Water  is  then  poured  into  the  boiler 
sufficient  to  boil  them,  and  a  lid  placed  upon  it. 
After  being  thoroughly  boiled  and  simmered,  the 
mess  is  put  into  tubs,  when  a  little  pounded  rock- 
salt  is  strewed  over  it,  and  chopped  into  a  mash 
with  a  spade.  As  much  dreg  is  then  poured 
upon  the  hot  mash  as  to  make  it  lukewarm,  and 
of  such  a  consistence  as  a  cow  might  drink  up. 
From  1  to  li  stable  pailfuls  of  this  mixture, — 
from  40  to  60  pints  imperial, — according  to  the 
known  appetite  of  the  cow,  is  then  poured  into 
the  trough  belonging  to  each  cow.  The  trough  is 
afterwards  removed  and  cleaned,  and  tlie  manger 
Is  ready  for  the  reception  of  fodder— hay  or 
ttraw  This  mess  is  given  3  times  a  day,  after 
the  cows  have  been  milked,  for  dairymen  well 


understand  that  animals  should  not  be  disturbed 
while  eating  their  food.  The  times  of  milking 
are  6  a.m.,  12  noon,  and  7  p.m.  The  sweet  milk 
and  cream  obtained  by  these  means,  and  received 
direct  from  the  dairy,  are  pretty  good.  The  for- 
mer ^ells  in  Edinburgh  at  lii.,  and  the  latter  at  Is. 
the  imperial  pint.  Dr  Cleland  states  the  price  of 
sweet  milk  in  Glasgow  at  l^d.  the  imperial  pint. 

1243.  It  will  be  observed  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  articles  given  to  cows,  that  none  are  so 
expensive  as  oil-cake,  cabbages,  kohl-rabi,  or 
cole-seed.  These  products  were  employed  by  the 
late  Mr  Curwen,  in  his  experiments  to  ascertain 
the  cost  of  producing  milk  for  supplying  the  poor, 
aud  his  results  show  they  leave  very  little  profit.* 

1244.  There  is  little  milk  in  winter  on  a  farm 
of  mixed  husbandry,  which  only  supports  cows 
for  breeding  stock,  the  supply  being  derived  from 
one  or  two  cows  that  are  latest  of  calving  in 
spring.  All  the  spare  milk  may  probably  be 
eagerly  bought  by  cottars  who  have  no  cows  ; 
but  should  this  not  be  the  case,  a  little  butter 
may  be  made  once  in  10  days  or  a  fortnight, 
which,  if  not  palatable  for  the  table,  may  be  used 
in  making  paste,  and  other  culinary  purposes. 
A  little  saltpetre,  dissolved  in  water,  and  put  into 
the  new  warm  milk,  certainly  modifies  tlie  rank 
taste  of  turnips  in  both  butter  and  milk.  Cows 
are  not  bought  in  but  bred  on  such  farms. 

1245.  In  pastoral  farms,  where  cattle  are 
wholly  bred  and  no  sheep,  the  cattle  in  winter, 
and  especially  the  young  ones,  require  both  food 
and  shelter,  though  both  are  not  unfrequently 
denied  them.  There  should  be  provided  arable 
land  to  raise  turnips,  and  courts  and  sheds 
to  shelter  them.  Suppose  we  take  the  .same 
extent  of  arable  land  as  we  took  for  a  sheep 
pastoral  farm,  namely,  100  acres,  which  is  the 
least  compass  for  a  pastoral  farm  of  tolerable 
extent.  Under  a  four-course  rotation,  lOO  acres 
will  afford  25  acres  of  green  crop,  50  acres  of 
straw,  and  25  acres  of  cutting  grass  every  year. 
What  the  young  cattle  want  is  a  few  turnips  a- 
day,  and  shelter  in  sheds  at  night. 

1246.  This  form  of  steading  seems  suitable  to 
such  a  farm,  where  a,  fig.  95,  is  a  corn-barn  and 
chaff-house,  25 J  by  18  feet,  with  an  upper  barn 
above  them,  containing  a  four-horse  tliraslung- 
machiue  ;  b,  a  straw-barn  26  feet  by  18  feet  ;  c, 
a  cart  shed  20  feet  by  18  feet,  with  two  ports,  to 
contain  four  carts  and  other  larger  implements, 
with  a  granary  above  it  having  access  by  an  out- 
side stair  *  ;  rf  is  the  work-horse  stable,  32  feet 
by  18  feet,  having  four  stalls  of  6  feet  in  width 
each,  a  loose  box  x  8  feet  wide,  and  two  win- 
dows ;  e  is  the  hay  house,  12  feet  by  18  feet  ;  / 
the  riding-horse  stable,  12  feet  by  18  teet  ; 
g  a  turnip  store,  12  feet  by  18  feet  ;  h  is 
the  cow-byre,  25  feet  by  18  feet,  having  5  stalls 
of  5  feet  in  width  each  ;  »  is  an  out-house  for 
putting  the  smaller  implements  in,  1)!]  feet  by 
18  feet:  should  it  be  desired  to  give  the  cow- 
byre  another  stall,  this  apartment  may  be  made 


Curwen's  Agricultural  Hintt,  p.  47-52. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  02T  TURliriPS  IN"  WINTER. 


273 


as  much  smaller  ;  k  is  another  turnip-store,  12      18  feet,  provided  with  a  boiler  and  furnace ;  m 
feet  by  18  feet ;  Hs  the  boiling-house,  1'2  feet  by     are  four  courts  for  the  cattle,  and  ?i  the  sheds 

Fig.  95. 


0 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ss^^s^ss 


^^^^^^2^2^ 


C^^^^^ 


W^KVA'^     ...    -  I 


A  PLAN  OF  A  STEADING  FOR  THE  CATTLE  OP  A  PASTORAL  FARM. 


belonging  to  them,  15  feet  in  width.  In  the 
drawing  the  sheds  are  represented  at  18  feet  in 
width,  to  render  the  appearance  of  the  steading 
uniform  ;  but  15  feet  is  sufficient  width  for  sheds. 
The  courts  m  will  be  30  or  33  feet  in  length  from 
the  gates,  according  as  the  sheds  are  made  15  or 
18  feet  in  width  :  o  are  turnip-troughs  placed 
against  the  southern  walls  of  the  courts  ;  and  r 
are  water-troughs.  The  courts  are  supplied  with 
straw  from  the  doors  of  the  straw-barn  6,  the 
most  distant  ones  also  through  the  gates  in  the 
walls  between  the  courts ;  and  the  turnips  are 
put  over  the  front  wall  into  the  troughs  from  the 
barrowfuls  brought  from  the  respective  stores  at 
g  and  k\  t  is  the  horse-course  26  feet  in 
diameter. 

1247.  The  lengths  of  the  wings  of  the  building 
containing  the  work-horse  stable,  the  straw- 
barn,  and  cow-byre,  is  733  feet  each  ;  and  the 
width  of  the  courts  may  be  extended  to  any 
length,  and  the  courts  increased  to  any  number, 
to  contain  the  number  of  cattle  to  be  accommo- 
dated ;  but  the  courts  should  in  every  case  face 
the  south,  the  meridian  sun,  to  receive  its  heat 
and  drought,  and  especially  as  the  straw  on  a  pas- 
toral farm  will  always  be  scanty  for  the  number 
of  cattle.    Ferns  form  good  litter  for  such  courts. 

1248.  In  carse  farms,  the  accommodation  of 
cattle  in  winter  is  made  a  matter  of  secondary 
import,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  courts 
facing  the  north  ;  but  there  being  abundance  of 
straw  ©n  such  farms,  the  animals  do  not  feel  the 
cold  s»  severely  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
exposure. 

1249.  This  form  of  steading  seems  well  suited 
for  the  accommodation  of  cattle  in  a  carse  farm, 

VOL.  I. 


in  fig.  ^^,  where  a  is  the  corn-bam  and  chaff- 
house,  30  feet  by  15  feet,  above  which  is  the 
upper  barn  and  thrashing-machine,  which  should 
be  one  of  8  horse  power,  driven  by  steam, 
Fig.  96. 


A  PLAN  OF  A  STEADING  FOR  THE  CATTLE  OP  A 
CARSE  FARM. 

there  being  so  much  of  the  long  straw  of  wheat 
to  thrash;  h  is  the  engine-house,  8  feet  by  18  feet; 
c  the  boiler-house  and  chimney-stalk  ;  d  is  the 
straw-barn,  40  feet  by  15  feet,  and  as  high  as  the 
upper  bam;  this  barn  has  two  doors  outside  the 
courts  /,for  the  convenience  of  carrying  straw  to 
the  work-horse  stable  and  cow-byre,  besides  an- 
other into  one  of  the  courts  to  take  out  the  chaff 


274 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


by.  The  straw-barn  need  not  b«  made  very  large 
on  a  carse  farm,  though  there  is  abundance  of 
straw,  a.«  the  fresh  stra^v  only  is  used  for  fodder, 
and  the  re^st  is  stacked  up  by  itself  in  a  con- 
Tenient  place  ;  e  i-  the  implement  house,  \h  feet 
by  l.i  feet,  to  contain  the  small  implements,  with 
a  w.jjilen  fljured  apartment  above,  to  hold  the 
meal  chest  for  supplying  the  ploughmen  with 
meal,  and  other  articles  of  a  cleanly  and  dry 
nature,  requiring  to  be  placed  under  lock  and 
key  ;  /  is  the  work-horse  stable,  102  feet  by  18 
feet,  containing  IG  stalls  of  6  feet  each,  for  8 
pairs  of  horses,  and  provided  with  two  doors  and 
four  windows,  with  a  passage  by  a  back-door, 
opposite/,  by  which  the  straw  from  the  straw- 
bnm  d  is  brought  and  the  dung  and  litter 
wheeled  out  into  the  court  ;  gg  are  hay-houses, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  stable,  each  18  feet  by  18 
feet  ;  h  is  the  cart-^hed,  80  feet  by  15  feet,  con- 
taining 8  ports  for  carts  and  heavy  implements ; 
t  is  the  C'lw-byre,  40  feet  by  15  feet,  to  contain 
8  cows  if  required,  to  provide  the  ploughmen 
with  milk  ;  it  is  the  boiler-house,  264  f^^t  by  15 
feet,  a  large  size  for  such  a  purpose,  but  where 
so  many  hordes  require  prepared  food,  a  large 
store  of  Swedi^-h  turnips,  beside  bruised  corn  and 
beans,  is  convenient,-- the  boiler  should  either  be 
a  large  one,  or  two  boilers  beside  each  other  ; 
//  are  the  courts  fur  the  cattle,  each  46  feet  long 
by  38  feet  wide,  faciiig  tlie  meridian  sun,  their 
dimensions  being  dependant  on  the  length  given 
to  the  north  range  of  the  building,  which  is  de- 
termined by  the  extent  of  granary  accommoda- 
tion, which  cannot  be  less  than  50  feet  to  each 
gratiary,  on  a  farm  where  much  grain  is  raised; 
m  m  are  the  .-heds,  1 8  feet  wide,  belonging  to  the 
courts,  one  being  38  feet  long,  the  others  only 
30  feet,  on  account  of  the  room  for  the  engine  ; 
fj  n  are  the  troughs  placed  against  the  south 
walls  of  the  courts,  to  contain  turnips  or  bean 
chaff,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  the  granaries  are 
over  the  ^heds  m  in.  one  of  the  hay-hou?es  ./,  and 
part  of  the  cart-shed  A  ;  over  which  last  place  the 
com  to  be  driven  to  market  should  be  kept,  to 
allow  the  carts  to  be  easily  loaded  with  it;  and 
the  other  granary  will  answer  for  seed  and  horse- 
corn,  the  latter  being  tent  down  by  a  spout 
into  the  corn-chest  in  the  hay-house  below. 
Water-troughs  should  be  provided  in  the  cattle- 
courts. 

1250.  The  outer  wings  of  this  steading  extend 
to  1414  f^ct  over  the  walls. 

1251.  There  are  no  wintering  cattle  kept  on 
farm«  in  the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns  ;  the 
few  cattle  being  fed  for  the  butcher  either  in 
byres  or  haminels. 

1252.  I  have  minntely  described  in  what  man- 
ner the  steading  <>f  a  farm  of  mi.\ed  husbandry  is 
occ'ipied  in  winter,  and  how  tattle,  in  general, 
are  fed  on  turnips  ;  but  Qattle  are  fed  on  other 
substances  than  trirnips,  either  by  themselves  or 
in  co:ijn!icti<>n  with  turnips.  Hitherto  potatoes 
have  been  the  most  common  subRtance  used  for 
this  purpose;  but  they  cannot  now  be  depended 
upon  as  a  crop,  and  will  probably  be  a  costly 


food  for  the  future.  Oil-cake  is  used  in  large 
quantities,  though  very  expensive.  As  a  sub- 
stitute for  oil-cake,  it  has  been  proposed  to  raise 
linseed  at  home,  and  feed  cattle  on  it  in  a  bruised 
state.  Linseed  oil,  absorbed  in  cut  straw  and 
hay,  has  been  recommendel.  Many  cattle  are 
fed  on  the  refuse  derived  from  distillation  and 
brewing,  commonly  called  dniJT  and  dreg— the 
former  being  in  the  state  of  grains,  the  latter  in 
that  of  a  liquid.  Oats,  barley-meal,  peas-meal, 
bean-meal,  have  all  been  pressed  into  the  service 
of  feeding  cattle.  We  shall  now  direct  our 
attention  to  the  results  of  the  various  sub- 
stances which  have  been  given  to  cattle,  with  a 
view  to  expediting  their  condition  towards 
maturity,  as  also  to  the  actual  states  in  which 
these  substances  should  be  administered  as  food 
to  them. 

1253.  The  Potato. — The  potatoes  used  in  feed- 
ing cattle  are  either  the  common  kinds  known  in 
human  food,  or  others  raised  on  purpose,  such 
as  the  yam  and  ox-noble  ;  and  they  are  given 
either  alternately  or  with  turnips.  In  feeding 
cattle  with  potatoes  of  any  kind,  and  in  any  way, 
there  is  considerable  risk  of  flatulency  and 
choking.  To  prevent  the  latter,  the  potatoes 
should  be  smashed  with  a  hammer,  or  with  a 
instrument  like  a  paviour's  rammer;  and  though 
some  juice  will  come  out  in  the  operation,  no 
great  loss  would  perhaps  be  incurred.  To  pre- 
vent flatulence  from  potatoes  is  no  easy  matter; 
but  a  friend  of  mine  used  a  plan  which  com- 
pletely answered  the  purpose,  which  was,  mix- 
ing some  cnt  straw  with  the  broken  potatoes. 
The  straw  obliging  the  cattle  to  chew  every 
mouthful  before  being  swallowed,  may  prevent 
tQO  large  a  quantity  of  gas  being  generated  in  the 
paunch,  which  bruised  jKitatoes  alone  might  do, 
and  it  is  the  pressure  from  this  gas  which  oc- 
casions ;he  distressing  complaint  called  horen. 
A  farm-steward,  who  had  considerable  experience 
in  feedmir  cattle  on  potatoes  on  a  led-farm, 
always  placed  as  many  potatoes,  whole,  before 
the  cattle  as  they  cotild  consunie,  and  they  never 
swelled  on  eating  them  ;  because,  as  he  conjec- 
tured, and  [erhaps  rightly,  they  do  not  eat  them 
so  greedily  when  in  their  power  to  take  them  at 
will,  as  when  doled  out  in  small  quantities  at 
distant  periods.  This  fact  confirms  the  pro- 
priety of  mi.\ing  cut  straw  amongst  potatoes 
when  given  in  small  qnantities.  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  appetite,  and  fill  the  paunch  with  uuferment- 
able  matter.  The  only  precaution  required  in 
giving  a  full  supply  of  j)otatoes  is,  to  give  only  a 
fi-v.-,  and  frequently  at  first,  and  gradually  to  in- 
crease the  quantity. 

1254.  The  nutrient  powers  of  the  potato  was 
carefully  examined  by  Dr  Fromberg  in  1R46. 
The  potato  contains  a  very  lart:e  proportion  of 
water,  on  an  average  about  76  j  er  cent,  or 
thrce-fourths  of  its  entire  weight.  The  propor- 
tion of  dry  or  nutritive  matter  mn»t,  therefore, 
be  on  the  average  only  24  per  cent,  or  one-fourth 
of  the  Weight. 

1255.  The    quantity    of  water  in   the  potato 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  ^V'lNTER. 


275 


depends  very  much  upon  the  state  of  ripeness  the 
crop  has  attained.  Youn^  unripe  potatoes  give 
82  per  cent,  and  ripe  full-grown  ones  only  6!}'G 
per  cent  of  water,  the  solid  matter  varying  from 
31*4  per  cent  in  the  ripest,  to  only  18  percent  in 
the  unripost.  The  water  also  differs  in  quantity 
from  the  different  parts  of  the  potato,  the  rose 
end  containing  the  most,  the  middle  next,  and 
the  heel  end  the  least;  but  these  distiuctious  can- 
not be  made  available  in  feeding. 

1256.  The  proportions  in  the  component  parts 
of  the  potato  vary  much  in  those  in  the  natural 
and  in  the  dry  state.     For  example: — 

^  ^     '  '  round  numbers. 
Water          .         75'52 

Starch         .         13"72        .        .  .        64* 
Dextrin       .           O'o5 

Sugar           .           3'30  and  Gum  .         15' 
Albumen,  casein, 

gluten       .  l'4l  Protein  compounds   9' 

Fat      .         .           0-24         ..  .           1- 

Fibre           .           3-2e         .         .  .         11- 


100-00 


100- 


1257.  The  ash  of  the  potato  consists  of,   ac- 
cording to  — 

Boussingault.  Fromberg:. 

Lanark.  Drummore.  Mean. 


Potash 

59-95 

57-58 

49-73 

55-75 

Soda 

traces 

3-66 

1-93 

1-86 

Lime 

2-09 

0-81 

3-31 

2-07 

Magnesia     . 

6-28 

4-53 

5-03 

5-28 

Oxide  of  iron  and 

alumina 

0-59 

0-42 

0-56 

0-52 

Pho.sphoric  acid   . 

13-16 

9-98 

14-58 

12-57 

Sulphuric  acid 

8-27 

14-63 

18-04 

13-65 

Chlorine 

314 

5-16 

4-51 

4-27 

Silica 

6-52 

3-68 

2-49 

4-23 

. 

100-00 

100-45 

10018 

100-20 

Per-centageofash 

in  the  dry  state 

4-00 

4-01 

3-75 

3-92 

1258.  As  the  fibrous  part  forms  an  important 
element  in  the  general  composition  of  the  potato, 
the  composition  of  its  a^sh  becomes  interesting, 
which  is  as  follows,  according  to  Mr  Filgate  — 


Potash  and  soda,  -with  a  little  common  salt  372 

Lime 50-84 

Magnesia             10-21 

Oxide  of  iron 3-82 

Phosphoric  acid            ....  19-o6 

Su|^,lmric  acid     .....  5-74 

Silica 5-54 


Per-centage  of  ash 


99-53 
1-40 


"  These  analyses  show,"  observes  Professor 
Johnston,  "  that  the  fibre  leaves  only  one-third 
of  the  quantity  of  ash  which  is  left  by  the  whole 
potato,  and  that  this  ash  consists  chiefly  of  lime 
in  the  state  of  carbonate  and  of  phosphate.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that  the  alkaline  matter  of 
the  potato  exists  chiefly  in  the  sap,  while  the 
phosphate  of  lime  is  principally  attached,  in  an 
insoluble  state,  to  the  fibre."  In  feeding,  there- 
fore, with  potatoes,  calves  would  be  most  bene- 
fited by  the  fibre,  while  the  sap  might  be  most 
useful  to  milk  cows. 

1259.  The  quality  of  nutritive  matter  derived 
from  a  crop  of  potatoes  of  6  tons,  or  13,500  lbs.,  cr 
about  25  bolls  per  acre,  is  as  follows, — 540  lbs.  of 
husk  or  woody  fibre ;  2,400  lbs.  of  starch,  sugar, 
&c.  ;  270  lbs.  of  gluten,  &c. ;  45  lbs.  of  oil  or  iat ; 
and  120  lbs.  of  saline  matter. 

1260.  On  comparing  the  nutritive  properties  in 
the  solid  matter  of  the  potato  with  other  roots,  it 
is  found  that  the  potato  and  yellow  turnip  do 
not  differ  much,  though  the  advantage  is  on  the 
side  of  the  turnip,  but  that  the  mangjld-wnrlzel 
exceeds  the  potato  in  protein  compounds  in  the 
ratio  of  15A  to  9.  "This  is  a  very  important 
fact,'"  remarks  Professor  Johnston,  "  and  is  de- 
serving of  further  investigation.  If,  as  at  pre- 
sent supposed,  the  protein  compounds  serve  the 
purpose,  when  eaten,  of  supplying  to  animals  the 
materials  of  their  muscle,  the  mangold-wurtzel 
ought  to  be  considerably  superior  to  the  potato 
in  this  respect.  Even  in  their  natural  state  this 
should  be  the  case,  since  100  lbs.  of  the  man- 
gold-wurtzel contain,  of  these  protein  compounds, 
2|,  while  the  potato  contains  on  an  average  only 
2  lbs.  It  is  to  be  desired,  therefore,  that  the 
mangold-wurtzel  should  be  more  generally  cul- 
tivated, wherever  circumstances  are  favourable 
to  its  growth."* 

1261.  Linseed. — The  seed  of  the  flax  plant,  or 
linseed,  has  long  been  known  by  farmers  to  be  a 
very  nutritious  substance  ;  as  well  as  one  that 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  certain  complaints 
of  cattle,  as  a  safe  and  efiicacious  medicine.  The 
whole  seed  boiled  soft,  and,  together  with  the 
water  in  which  it  has  been  boiled,  is  given  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  as  a  cordial  drink  to 
cows  after  calving,  and  as  a  tonic  to  promote 
recovery  after  an  illness.  But,  like  all  seeds 
having  a  strong  envelope,  when  administered  in  a 
whole  state,  even  on  being  boiled,  is  apt  to  pass 
through  the  digestive  organs  of  ruminating  ani- 
mals unaltered.  To  derive  all  its  nutrient  pro- 
perty, it  should  be  used  only  when  bruised  or 
converted  into  meal.  In  the  form  of  meal  it  has 
long  been  used,  after  being  boiled  into  a  porridge 
or  jelly,  as  an  assistant  food  to  milk  for  the  older 
calves,until  they  are  weaned.  Linseed  meal,  wh.en 
boiled  and  used  hot,  forms  also  an  excellent 
poultice  for  the  drawing  of  any  sore  that  may 
affect  an  animal. 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Cliemistry,  2d  edition,  pp.  384,  421,  916,  928.  To  those 
desirous  of  following  the  progress  of  Dr  Fromberg's  analysis  of  the  potato,  I  would  refer  to  his  inte- 
resting memoir  in  the  Transacfwits  0/  the  Uighland  and  Agricultural  /Society  for  ilarch  1847,  p. 
637-98. 


276 


PRACTICE— ■\^^NTER. 


1262.  The  composition  of  linseed  is  as  follows, 

according  to  Leo  Meier  : — 

Oil  . 

11-8 

Husk,  &c.    . 

44-4 

AVoodv  fibre  and  starch 

1-5 

Sugar,  &c. 

10-« 

Mucilage 

7-1 

SoluMe  albumen  (casein?) 

15-1? 

Insoluble  do. 

37 

Fatty  matter 

3-1 

Loss 

3-0 

100-0 

Beside  oil,  linseed,  we  see,  contains  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  gum  and  sugar,  and  a  large 
quantity  here  called  soluble  alhumen,  having  a 
great  resemblance  to  the  curd  of  milk.  In  this 
respect  it  resembles  the  oat,  instead  of  containing 
gluten.  "  Besides  its  fattening  property,"  ob- 
serves Professor  Johnston,  "  which  this  seed  pro- 
bably owes  in  a  great  measure  to  the  oil  it  con- 
tains, this  peculiar  albuminous  matter  ought 
to  render  it  very  novrishinij  also  ; — capable  of 
promoting  the  growth  of  the  growing,  and  of 
sustaining  the  strength  of  the  matured  animal." 

1263.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  linseed  is 
as  follows  : — 


Riga. 

Dutch. 

Johnston. 

Johnston. 

Potash 

25-85 

17-59 

aooi 

Soda 

0-71 

6-92 

1-88 

Lime 

25-27 

8-46 

812 

Magnesia 

0-22 

lU-83 

14-52 

Oxide  of  iron 

3-67 

l-_>5 

0-68 

Phosphoric  acid 

40-11 

36-42 

37-64 

Sulphuric  acid 

2-47 

2-16 

Sulphate  of  lime 

1-70 

Chlorine 

0-17 

0-29 

Chloride  of  sodium  (c 

ommon 

salt) 

1-55 

Silica 

0-92 

ld-'58 

5-60 

100-00 

98-69 

100-90 

Per  centage  of  as 

h         4-63* 

1264.  The  importation  of  linseed  from  abroad 
is  considerable.  The  Russian  seed  is  the  best 
for  sowing,  and  is  of  course  the  highest  in  price  ; 
but  I  suppose  the  inferior  seeds,  such  as  the 
Dutch,  will  answer  every  purpose  of  feeding 
cattle.  In  Lithuania,  the  raising  of  linseed  of 
the  finest  quality  is  an  especial  object  of  the 
cultivators  of  flax  ;  and  to  attain  this  object  they 
sacrifice  the  quality  of  the  fla.\.  Accordingly, 
we  find  the  flax  imported  from  Riga  is  generally 
of  a  coarse  quality.  The  quantity  of  linseed  im- 
ported of  all  kinds,  was — 

Inl842       .  .  .         367,700  quarters. 

1843  ,  ,  .        470,5.'?9 

1844  .  .  .        616,947 

1845  .  .  .        633,293 


Average  of  the  4  years 


522,1-20 


Taking  this  average,  and  assuming  the  ave- 
rage price  at  £2,  5s.  per  quarter,  it  gives 
£1,174,770.+ 


1265.  There  are  several  efficient  enongh 
machines  for  bruising  linseed  into  meal,  thonjjh, 
from  the  oleaginous  nature  of  the  seed,  the 
rollers  are  apt  to  clog  up  and  get  out  of  working 
order.  As  simple  and  cheap  a  machine  for  the 
purpose  as  is  perhaps  made,  is  the  one  by  Mr  A. 
Dean,  Birmingham,  which  is  driven  by  hand,  and 
costs  £6,  5s.,  and  is  represented  by  fig.  97,  where 
Fig.  97. 


THE  LINSEED  BKUISER. 

a  is  the  hopper  for  containing  the  seed;/"  the  box 
containing  the  crushing  rollers  ;  c  the  spout  down 
which  the  meal  descends  ;  d  the  winch-handle 
which  gives  motion  to  the  rollers;  e  the  fly-wheel ; 
and  b  the  slide  which  regulates  the  feed  to  the 
rollers. 

1266.  Oil-cake.— 0\l-czke  has  been  long  and 
much  employed  in  England  for  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  and  is  making  its  way  in  that  respect  into 
Scotland.  It  consists  of  the  compressed  husks 
of  linseed,  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed  from 
it,  when  it  is  formed  into  thin  oblong  cakes. 
The  cakes,  when  used,  are  broken  into  pieces  by 
the  machine,  fig.  53.  Cattle  are  never  entirely 
fed  on  oil-cake,  which  is  always  associated  with 
other  substances,  as  turnips,  potatoes,  cut  hay, 
or  cut  straw.  When  given  with  cut  hay  or 
straw,  an  ox  will  eat  from  7  to  9  lbs.  of  it  a-day ; 
and  the  hay  or  straw  induces  rumination,  which 
the  cake  itself  would  not  do.  Oil-cake  and  cut 
meadow-hay  form  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious 
diet  for  oxen,  and  is  a  favourite  one  in  England. 
When  given  with  turnips  or  potatoes,  3  lbs.  or 
4  lbs.  a-day  will  sufiBce. 

1267.  The  importation  of  foreign  oil-cake  is 
stated  at  as  much  a-s  75.000  tons  annually  ;  and 
when  it  is  considered  that  it  is  very  seldom  sold 
so  low  as  £7  per  ton,  and  sometimes  as  high  as 
£12,  an  idea  may  bo  formed  of  the  large  sum 
sent  out  of  the  country  every  year  for  the  pur- 
chase of  food  for  animals.  What  may  be  the 
annual  consumption  of  oil-cake  in  the  kingdom 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  AgriculUiral  ChemiMry,  2d  edition,  p.  381  and  921. 
+  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  viii.  p.  443. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


277 


cannot  be  ascertained,  as  a  considerable  quantity 
of  it  is  manufactured  in  this  country  by  the  oil- 
crushers.  The  English  oil-cake  bears  the  highest 
price  in  the  market,  seldom  under  £11  per  ton  ; 
and  of  the  foreign,  that  from  Flensburg  in  Schles- 
wig  is  most  in  repute,  and  sells  at  from  £9  to  £  1 0 
per  ton.  There  is  no  doubt  that  foreign  oil-cake 
is  adulterated  with  the  husks  of  other  seeds  ;  and 
yet  no  sufRcient  motive  exists  for  doing  this, 
since  the  cake  is  formed  when  the  oil  is  com- 
pressed— unless,  indeed,  other  oil-producing  seeds 
are  purposely  mixed  with  the  linseed,  for  adul- 
terating the  linseed  oil.  It  seems  to  me  an  im- 
possible process  to  break  down  pure  linseed-cake, 
and,  after  mixing  it  with  the  husks  of  other  seeds, 
to  compress  it  again  into  a  solid  cake.  The  oil, 
therefore,  must  be  adulterated  before  the  cake  ; 
and,  in  that  case,  the  purchasers  of  foreign  linseed 
oil  for  feeding  cattle  would  be  as  much  imposed 
on  as  when  purchasing  foreign  cake — unless  the 
oil  of  other  seeds  is  as  nutritious  as  linseed  oil, 
in  which  case,  by  a  parity  of  reasoning,  the  husks 
of  those  seeds  ought  to  be  as  nutritious  as  those 
of  the  linseed.  The  matter  is  then  brought  to 
this,  that  the  feeder  must  either  purchase  pure 
linseed  or  raise  it  for  himself. 

1268.  The  nutritive  properties  of  oil-cake  have 
been  ascertained  by  analysis  by  Professor  John- 
ston. The  composition  of  the  oil-cake  of  com- 
merce is  as  follows : — 

English        American 
linseed-cake,  linseed-cake. 
Water  .  .         10-05  10-07 

Mucilage  .  .        39-10  36-25 

Albumen  and  gluten  22-14  22-26 

Oil       .  .  .         11-93  12-38 

Husk  .  .  9-53  12-69 

Ash  and  sand  .  7-25  6-35 


100-00 


100-00 


The  large  per-centage  of  protein  compounds 
is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  pease  and  beans — 
a  result  somewhat  unexpected,  since  the  value 
of  oil-cake  for  feeding  stock  has  hitherto  been 
supposed  to  depend  on  its  power  of  laying  on 
fat.  The  proportion  of  oil,  too,  is  greater  than 
in  any  of  the  grains,  oats  having  7,  while  the 
cake  has  12  per  cent. 

1269.  Oil-cake  leaves  6  per  cent  of  ash.     The 
composition  of  the  ash  is  as  follows  : — 

English        American 
linseed-cake,  linseed-cake. 
Alkaline  salts      .  .         31-55  38-20 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia .  .  .  47-67  56-26 
Lime  .  .  .  4-88  1-24 
Magnesia  .  .  1-51  trace. 
Silica  .  .  .  10-81  4-04 
Sand       .            .            .          3-86 


100-28 


99-74 


The  American  cake  seems  one  of  pure  quality. 
The  phosphates  are  large  in  quantity,  and  twice 
as  valuable  for  making  bone  as  oats  or  barley. 
The  dung  derived  from  oil-cake  is  richer  than 
that  from  even  grain,  because  it  contains  more 


phosphate  than  the  animals  can  use,  which  there- 
fore^must  pass  away  into  the  dunghill  ;  the  oil 
is  in  larger  quantity  than  can  be  appropriated, 
and  must  also  find  its  way  into  the  dunghill  ; 
and  as  full-grown  animals  scarcely  appropriate 
any  of  the  phosphates,  when  oil-cake  is  given  them 
to  fatten,  these  will  all  pass  into  the  dunghill.* 

1270.  The  valuable  property  of  oil-cake,  then, 
is  its  containing  a  large  proportion  of  the  phos- 
phates. From  the  consideration  of  this  property. 
Professor  Johnston  has  recommended  a  mixture 
which  contains  all  the  ingredients  found  by 
analysis  in  oil-cake,  and  which,  theoretically, 
ought  to  produce  similar  results  ;  but  these  can 
only  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  If  such  a 
mixture  could  be  made  at  less  cost  than  the 
price  of  oil-cake,  it  would  be  the  farmer's  interest 
to  use  it,  instead  of  taking  the  trouble  of  seeking 
and  paying  for  oil-cake  ;  and  if  it  could  be  manu- 
factured into  the  form  of  durable  cakes,  it  might 
be  transmitted  to  any  part  of  the  country.  The 
mixture  is  this  : — 

Braised  linseed  .  .  .40  lbs. 

Bean  meal     .  .  .  ,60 

Bone  meal,  (ground  bones)  .  .  4 

104 

the  constituents  of  which  are,  in  every  100  lbs.: — 
Starch  ....         40  lbs. 


Protein  compounds 

Fat 

Saline  matter 

Water  and  busk 


27 

11 

7 

15 

loot 


1271.  It  seems  to  me  extremely  doubtful  that 
any  such  mixture  can  be  made  so  low  in  price 
as  to  come  seriously  into  competition  in  the 
market  with  oil-cake,  because  oil-cake  will  be 
made,  whether  or  not  it  can  be  sold  at  a  high 
price,  as  long  as  oil  shall  be  crushed  from  seed  ; 
and  if  a  high  price  cannot  be  obtained  for  the 
cake,  the  oil-crushers  will  take  any  price  for  it 
rather  than  keep  it.  Tlie  high  price  of  cake 
either  keeps  the  price  of  oil  lower  than  it  would 
be,  or  gives  a  higher  profit  to  the  oil-crushers. 
Should  the  price  of  oil  remain  as  it  is,  after 
farmers  shall  have  manufactured  mixtures  at 
home  for  feeding  their  cattle,  it  will  show  that 
oil-cake  has  hitherto  realised  extravagant  prices, 
which  I  have  long  suspected  to  be  the  case,  as 
I  cannot  understand  why  an  article  that  must  be 
made  at  all  events,  should  realise  in  a  public 
market  so  large  a  price  as  £10  per  ton,  unless  the 
demand  for  it  was  inordinate. 


1272.  The  importation  of  oil-cake  from  abroad 

was  : — 

In  1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 


67,293.1  tons. 
63,2671 
85,890 
74,68 1^ 


Average  of  the  4  years 


72,783 


Taking  this  average  quantity,  and  assuming  the 
Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  Jan.  1846,  p.  202-4.      f  lb.  p.  207. 


278 


PRACTICE— ^^^^TEIL 


average   price   at   £8,    lOs.    per    ton,   it  givts 
£618,655,  10s.* 

1273.  Distilhry  Drti]. — Draff  is  the  exhausted 
husks  of  the  barley  used  in  distillation,  and  dreg 
is  the  refuse  of  the  still.  Dreg  is  in  a  state  of 
.thin  and  thick  liquid. 

1274.  Five  gallons  of  thin,  and  two  gallons  of 
thick  dreg  yield  3  lbs.  of  dry  food.  One  gallon 
of  the  thin,  on  evaporation,  leaves  4,235  grains, 
and  the  same  quantity  of  the  thick  10,884  grains 
of  dry  solid  matter. 

1275.  Tlie  4,235  grains  of  solid  matter  from 


the  thin  dreg,  affords  of 
Organic  matter 
Inorganic  matter 


3,871  grains. 
3'i4 

4,235 


And   the    10,884   grains  from  the   thick   dreg, 

gives  of 

Organic  matter          .  .           10,290  grains 

Inorganic  matter      .  .               5i^4 

10,884 

Hence  weight  for  weight  of  the  thick  dreg  con- 
tains as  little  water,  and  as  much  organic  and 
inorganic  matter,  as  the  turnip. 

1276.  The  364  grains  of  the  inorganic  matter 
of  the  thin  dreg,  and  the  594  grains  of  the 
thick,  contain,  on  analysis,  the  following  in- 
gredients : — 

Thin  dreg.  Tliick  dre?. 


Ora^llon              Oranllon 

contains 

contains. 

Per  cent 

Grains. 

Ter  cent. 

Grains. 

Potash  and  soda,  •with 

a  little  muriatic  and 

sulphuric  acids             46'24 

168 

38-36 

226 

Phosphoric  acid,  com- 

bined in   the   liquid 

with  some  of  the  above 

potash  and  soda           21  '67 

79 

24-35 

145 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 

and  lime     .         .         2o-88 

104 

1.5-.00 

.04 

Siliceous  matter     .          2-56 

10 

20-.95 

1-24 

Loss      .        .        .          0-65 

3 

0-44 

5 

10000 

364 

100-00 

594 

Here  the  alkaline  pho.«phates  abound  ;  and  the 
large  proportion  of  siliceous  matter  in  the  thick 
dreg  is  probably  derived  from  the  husk  of  the 
malt,  and  would  render  the  dreg  a  good  manure 
for  corn  and  grass,  as  well  as  food  for  young 
stock.  The  dairymen  in  large  towns,  as  I  have 
already  noticed,  (1242.)  give  large  quantities  of 
dreg  to  their  milk  cows,  as  a  drink  ;  and  the 
nourishing  drink  is  therefore  attended  with  little 
trouble  in  its  use.+ 

1277.  Brewers^  Draff  or  Grains. — Brewers' 
draff",  it  is  generally  understood,  contains  less 
nutritive  matter  than  that  of  distillers. 


1278.  The  composition  of  brewers'  draff  is  as 
follows,  in  every  100  lbs.: — 

Water  ....  75-85 

Gum  ....  1-06 

Other  organic  matter,  chiefly  husk       .  21 -28 
OrL'anic    matter,    containiug    nitrojen, 

(protein  cunipounds,)  .  .  0*62 

Inorganic  matter,  as  ash  .  .  1*19 


J  00-00 


Here  is  an  evident  deficiency  in  tlie  protein  com- 
pounds. 


1279.  The  ash  is  thus  composed  :  — 


Alkaline  salts  (chlo- 
rides, with  a  small 
quantity  of  sul- 
phates)andalkali 

Phosphoric  acid  in 
combination  with 
the  alkali 

Earthy  phosphates    . 

Silica 


Percent  In  1000  p.trti 
of  CLili.     of  wet  draff. 


7-60        0-90 


In  1000  part* 
of  dry  draff. 


3-7-- 


211 

0-25 

1-04 

4800 

5-81 

24-06 

41 -.=51 

4-94 

20-46 

99-22      11-90 


49-28 


1280.  A  bushel  of  draff  weighs  about  46  lbs. 
and  costs  from  3d.  to  3id.  Albumen  can  be  ob- 
tained cheaper  in  oil-cake,  but  the  draff  affords 
the  phosphates  more  economically. 

1281.  Draff  is  best  used  as  food  when  accom- 
panied with  other  substances,  such  as  turnips, 
oil-cake,  or  beans.+ 

1282.  Barlei/, 'Sprouts or  Comi))s. — "When bar- 
ley begins  to  sprout,"  says  Professor  Johnston,  "it 
throws  its  roots  immediately  outwards  from  the 
one  extremity,  while  the  young  germ  (acrospire) 
proceeds  beneath  the  hu>k  towards  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  grain.  The  maltster  arrests 
the  growth  before  the  young  germ  escapes  from 
the  husk  ;  and  when  he  dries  his  malt,  the  young 
root  falls  off  in  considerable  quantity.  They 
are  known  by  the  name  of  barley  sprouts  or 
comins,  and  are  employed  both  as  a  manure  and 
in  the  feeding  of  cattle." 

1283.  Comins,  when  burned,  leave  725  per 
cent  of  ash,  which  contain  the  following^  in- 
gredients:— 


Lime 

3-09 

^lasrnesia 

5-46 

Oxide  of  iron 

1-09 

Phosphciric  acid 

24-K7 

Sulphuric  acid 

4-84 

Chlorine 

7 -9.5 

Silica,  soluble  in  water 

l-flO 

Insoluble  silica 

13-96 

99-84 


*  Journal  of  the  AijviciiUuraJ  Society  of  Enijland,  vol.  viii.  p.  443. 

+  Transactionf  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  March  1846,  p.  305-6. 

+  Ibid  for  January  1847,  p.  582. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


279 


1284.  Comins  are  thus  rich  in  alkaline  salts 
and  phosphoric  acid,  and  silica,  and  may  there- 
fore be  advantageously  employed,  both  as  food 
for  animals  and  a  manure  to  plants.* 

1285.  Malt. — Of  late  years  a  desire  has  been 
expressed  by  some  agriculturists  to  have  the 
duty  taken  off  malt, — to  have  the  excise  restric- 
tions, in  fact,  removed  from  the  manufacture  of 
this  commodity,  that  they  may  be  enabled  to 
malt  their  own  barley  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
live  stock.  If  this  restriction  should  ever  be 
removed,  which  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  when- 
ever the  necessities  of  the  public  revenue  allow 
it,  it  is  interesting  to  inquire  into  the  changes 
effected  in  barley  in  the  process  of  malting,  and 
thus  to  ascertain  whether  barley  is  really  ren- 
dered more  nutritious  by  malting,  as  seems  to 
be  the  general  impression  amongst  feeders  of 
stock. 

1286.  According  to  Dr  R.  D.  Thomson,  the 
composition  of  the  same  barley  is  thus  altered 
by  malting :  — 

Barley.  Malt. 

Natural  state  At  212"  Natural  state  At212i' 

Carbon         41-()4  4(vll  42-44  43-,'j;3 

Hydrogen      6-02  6-6.5  6-64  7-00 

Nitrogen        1-81  2-01  Ml  1--29 

Oxygen  .     37-66  41-06  43-08  46-51 

Ash         .       3-41  4-17  1-68  1-27 

Water    .      9-46              ...  5-0.5 


1288.  The  comparative  composition  of  the  ash 
of  barley  and  malt  is  as  follows :  — 


100-00         10000       100-00        100-00 


Hence,  if  these  figures  are  reduced  to  their 
equivalents,  it  appears  that  barley  loses  carbon 
in  the  process  of  malting,  without  doubt,  in  the 
form  of  carbonic  acid,  and  also  nitrogen,  in  the 
shape  of  albumen, — possibly  in  part  as  ammonia  ; 
whilst  the  malt  has  gained  hj'drogen  and  oxygen — 
that  is  water  ;  and  100  parts  by  weight  of  barley 
is  reduced  to  80  parts  by  weight  of  malt. 

1287.  As  regards  the  comparative  nutritive 
power  of  barley,  when  converted  into  malt,  Dr 
Thomson  observes,  that  "  The  quantity  of  nitro- 
gen in  different  parts  of  the  same  sample  of  malt 
varies  very  remarkably^ — indeed  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  results  obtained  by  three  analysts,  who 
had  obtained  almost  identical  numbers  for  the 
"  nitrogen  in  barley,  differed  as  much  as  from  MS 
to  1-62.  This,  indeed,  is  a  circumstance  which 
might  be  anticipated,  from  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
cess of  malting,  and  is  one  which  renders  malt  a 
very  objectionable  substance  as  an  article  of 
nourishment,  since,  in  the  same  specimen,  diffe- 
rent portions  would  vary  so  much,  according  to' 
the  preceding  data,  as  that  73  lbs.  of  one  part 
would  produce  as  much  effect  in  the  nourish- 
ment of  an  animal  as  100  lbs.  of  another  portion. 
.  .  .  .  So  that  the  nutritive  powers  of  barley 
and  malt,  according  to  these  estimates,  are  as 
follows  :  — 

59  barley:=  1 00  malt,  according  to  the  lowest  estimate. 
79    ...     =         hio-hest      ...    •" 


Barley. 

Malt. 

Potash 

16-00 

14-54 

Soda 

8-86 

6-08 

Lime 

3-23 

3-89 

Magnesia 

4-30 

9-82 

O.xide  of  iron 

0-83 

1-.59 

Phosphoric  acid 

3680 

35-34 

Sulphuric  acid 

0-16 

Chlorine 

0-15 

trace. 

Silica 

29-67 

28-74 

10000 

100-00 

Per-centage  of  ash 

3-05 

2-52 

1289.  The  loss  sustained  by  barley  in  malting 
may,  perhaps,  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

^^'ater  ....  6-00 

Saline  matter  ,  .  ,  0-48 

Organic  matter  .  .  .         12-52 

19-OOt 

1290.  Barley-meal. — Barley,  when  reduced  to 
meal,  is  used  in  the  feeding  of  stock,  and  espe- 
cially of  pigs.  Whole  grains  of  barley  are  boiled 
in  water  as  a  mash  for  horses.  I  haye  just  given 
the  composition  of  both  barley  and  malt,  and 
shall  now  state  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
afforded  by  an  acre  of  land,  from  a  crop  of  barley 
producing  40  bushels  per  acre:  —  40  bui^hels, 
weighing  2100  lbs.,  gives  of  husk  or  woody  fibre 
315  lbs.  ;  starch,  sugar,  &c.  1260  lbs. ;  gluten,  &c. 
from  250  lbs.  to  310  lbs. ;  oil  or  fat  from  42  lbs. 
to  63  lbs. ;  and  60  lbs.  of  saline  matter.^ 

1291.  Oatg. — Oats  are  seldom  given  to  animals 
as  food  in  the  form  of  meal,  but  horses  are 
greatly  supported,  during  most  part  of  the  year, 
on  the  grain  of  oats,  while  the  meal  is  used  by 
the  labouring  people  of  the  farm.  The  quantity 
of  nutritive  matter  afforded  by  an  acre  of  land, 
from  a  crop  of  oats  producing  50  bushels  per 
acre,  is  as  follows  :  -50  bushels,  weighing  2100 
lbs.,  give  420  lbs.  of  husk  or  woody  fibre  ;  1050 
lbs.  of  starch  ;  from  290  lbs.  to  400  "lbs.  of  gluten, 
&c.  ;  from  75  lbs.  to  150  lbs.  of  oil  or  fat,  and  80 
lbs.  of  saline  matter.  § 

1292.  The  composition  of  the  grain  of  the  oat 
is  as  follows  : —  i 

Hopetoun  oats.         Potato  oats. 
Ayrshire.        Northumberland. 


Starch 

Sugar 

(ium 

Oil 

Casein  (avenine) 

Albumen 

Gluten 

Epedermis 


Fnmiberg 
64-80 
2-58 
2-41 
6-97 
16-26 
1-29 
1-46 
!-39 


Alkaline  salts,  and  loss    1-84 


100-00 


Norton. 

65-60 
0-80 
2-28 
7-38 

16-29 
2-17 
1-45 
2-28 
1-75 

100-00 


*  Johnstone's  Lectures  on  Agricidtural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  425-6. 

+  Thomson's  Experimental  Researches  into  the  Flod  of  Animals,  p.  106-121. 

J  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Aijricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  928. 


§  Ibid. 


280 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


1293.  "  The  quantities  of  oil  given  above,"  Mr 
Norton  observes,  "  are  large,  but  I  thiuk  correct. 
The  earlier  analyses  of  oats  give  from  three  to 
four- tenths  of  a  ]>er  cent  of  oil.  Both  Boussingault 
and  Johnston,  however,  have  recently  found 
from  (!  to  8  per  cent.  This  oil  is  of  a  beautiful 
pale  yellow  colour,  and  its  smell  may  be  perceived 
on  heating  oatmeal  cakes.  The  fattening  qua- 
lities of  the  oat  must  be  very  great.  The  maize 
or  Indian  corn  is  celebrated  for  fattening  ani- 
mals, and  Dumas  gives  only  9  per  cent  as  its 
maximum  of  fatty  matters.  Boussingault  gives 
7  per  cent  as  the  average  ;  while  Liebig  has  de- 
nied that  it  contains  more  than  5  per  cent.  If 
we  take  7  per  cent  as  the  average,  the  meal 
of  the  oat,  so  far  as  the  oil  is  concerned,  should 
nearly  equal  that  of  the  Indian  corn." 

1294.  The  per-centage  of  ash  in  the  oat  I 
have  already  given,  (4G2,)  and  the  composition 
of  that  ash  is  as  follows  : — 

Potato  oats. 

Nortliiimberland. 

Norton. 

16-27 


31-56 
5-32    id-'-ii 

8-()9      9-98 

0-88      5-08 

1-25 


Potash  .... 

Soda      .... 

Lime      .... 

Magnesia 

Peroxide  of  iron     . 

Peroxide  of  manganese 

Sulphuric  acid        '         .         . 

Phosphoric  acid     .        .        .         49-19    46-26 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)    (1-35 

Chloride  of  potassium    .         .  ...         5-32 

Soluble  silica  .         .         .  0-89 

Insoluble  siliea       .        .        .  0-98       3-70 

97-86    98-27 


"  In  every  part  of  the  plant  but  the  grain,"  ob- 
serves Mr  Norton,  "  we  have  found  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  watery  solution  of  the  ash  ;  in  the 
grain  it  seems  to  give  way  to  phosphoric  acid. 
In  the  only  instance  in  which  sulphuric  acid  was 
present,  the  grain  was  from  a  poor  crop,  grown 
on  an  e.xhausted  soil;  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
sulphuric  acid  may  have  been  present  only  be- 
cause the  crop  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  a 
full  supply  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  large  quan- 
tity of  phosphoric  acid  is  remarkable  ;  in  nearly 
every  case  it  constitutes  almost  or  quite  one 
half  of  the  ash.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  see  how 
the  addition  of  bones  or  guano  should  benefit  the 
oat  crop.  Silica  is  very  small  in  quantity  in  the 
grain,  compared  with  that  in  other  paVts  of  the 
plant."- 

1295.  Pease-meal.— The  pea  in  the  grain,  and 
boiled,  is  given  as  food  to  pigs,  while  pease-meal 
is  used  in  bread  by  the  labouring  population  of 
the  south  of  Scotland  ;  and  it  is  boiled  to  the 
form  of  jelly,  and  given  to  calves  amongst  milk. 

1296.  The  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  de- 
rived from  an  acre  of  pease  is  as  follows,  from  a 
crop  producing  25  bushels  per  acre  :  25  bushels 
=  1 600  lbs.,  give  of  husk  or  woody  fibre  1 30  lbs. ; 


of  starch,  gum,  kc,  800  lbs.;  of  gluten,  380  lbs.; 
of  oil  or  fat,  34  lbs.;  aud  of  saline  matter,  48  lbs. 

1297.  Bean-meal. — The  bean,  when  bruised  or 
boiled,  is  a  favourite  food  of  the  horse  when 
mixed  with  oats,  or  in  a  mash  of  boiled  barley  ; 
and  bean-meal  is  highly  relished  by  fattening 
oxen. 

1298.  The  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  de- 
rived from  an  acre  of  beans  producing  SO  bushels, 
or  1,900  lbs.  per  acre,  is,  of  husk  or  woody  fibre, 
190  lbs.;  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.,  760  lbs.;  of  gluten, 
&,c.,  from  450  lbs.  to  530  lbs.;  of  oil  or  fat,  from 
38  lbs.  to  57  lbs.;  and  of  saline  matter,  57  lbs. 

1299.  The  chemical  composition  of  these 
grains  has  not  yet  been  carefully  investigated. 
Let  this  statement  sufiBce: — 


Composition  of  tlie 
Grain.  I 

Water.  Husk.  Meal. 
Peas      14-0     10-5    75-5 
Field 
beans  15-5     16-2    68-3  I 


Composition  of  the 
Meal. 
Starcli.  Legumin.  Gum,  && 
O'5-O  23  12 


69-0 


19 


12 


1300.  The  proportion  of  the  ash  of  the  pea 

and  bean  I  have   already  given  (462)  and  the 

composition  of  that  of  the  field-bean  and  field- 
pea  is  as  follows  -. — 

Bean  .ash.  Pea  asli. 
Jlean  of  3  analyses.     Mean  of  4  analyses. 

Potash       .        .         3;5-56  3(i-05 

Soda          .        .         10-60  7-42 

Lime          .        .          5-77  5-29 

Magnesia   .         .           7-99  8-46 

Oxide  of  iron      .           0-.56  0-.09 

Phosphoric  acid          37-57  33-29 

Sulphuric  acid   .          1-00  4-36 
Chlorine     .         .           0-73 

Silica    .     .         .           1-15  0-51 
Chloride  of  sodium 

(common  salt)    .       ...  3*13 


98-93 


99-50 


It  will  be  observed  from  these  analyses  that 
those  leguminous  grains  contain  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  protein  compounds,  and  are 
therefore  eminently  useful  in  supplying  the 
waste  of  muscular  matter.+ 

1 301 .  Indian  Corn. — This  grain  is  very  nourish- 
ing to  every  kind  of  stock.  It  is  raised  in  very 
large  quantities  in  America,  and  is  tliere  used 
both  by  man  and  beast.  In  southern  Germany, 
the  horses  are  chiefly  supported  upon  it,  the 
grain  being  simply  steeped  in  water  for  several 
hours  before  being  used.  In  Italy,  cakes  are 
made  of  its  flour,  which  are  much  reli>hed  when 
new  baked,  but  become  flinty  and  hard  on 
being  kept.  The  flour,  having  a  .somewhat 
chalky  flavour,  will  not  likely  be  mucli  relished 
in  this  country  as  a  part  of  the  food  of  the 
people;  but  the  grain  seems  well  adapted  for  the 
fattening  of  all  the  domesticated  animals,  espe- 
cially poultry. 


*  Tramacdons  of  the  Highland  and  A'lricultnral  Society  for  July  1846,  p.  346-53. 
t  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  377,  895,  928. 


FEEDING  OF  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


1302.  The  nutritive  matter  afforded  by  an 
acre  of  this  grain,  producing  30  bushels,  or  1800 
lbs.,  is  as  follows  : — of  husk  or  woody  fibre,  100 
lbs. ;  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.,  1260  lbs. ;  of  gluten, 
&c.,  216  lbs. ;  of  oil  or  fat,  from  90  lbs.  to  107 
lbs.;  and  of  saline  matter,  27  lbs.  The  most  re- 
markable result  in  these  particulars  is  the  large 
quantity  of  fat  contained  by  this  grain. 

1303.  Its  composition  when  dried,  according 
to  Payen,  is  this: — 


Husk 

5-9 

Gluten,  &c. 

12-3 

Starch           .... 

.        .       71-2 

Sugar  and  gum              .         . 

0-4 

Fatty  matter         .         .        . 

9-0 

Saline  matter  or  ash 

1-2 

1000 

1304.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  grain 

from  a  mean  of  two  analyses,  obtained  from  the 

United  States,  by  Fromberg,  and  from  Germany 

by  Letellier,  is  as  follows  : — 

Potash       .... 
Soda          .... 

•     I  32-48 

Lime         .... 

!        '.           1-44 

Magnesia 

16-22 

Oxide  of  iron     . 

0-30 

Phosphoric  acid 

44-87 

Sulphuric  acid 

2-77 

Chlorine 

0-18 

Silica         •        .        .         . 

1-44 

99-70 


According  to  the  analysis  of  Letellier,  Indian 
corn  consists  almost  entirely  of  the  phosphates 
of  potash,  soda,  and  magnesia.* 

1305.  Warnes'  Compound.  —  Mr  Warnes, 
Trimingham,  in  Norfolk,  recommends  a  composi- 
tion for  feeding  both  sheep  and  cattle,  consisting 
of  linseed  and  barley,  which  he  says  is  much 
superior  in  nutrition  to  the  best  oil-cake;  and 
to  this  composition  he  has  given  the  name  of 
Compound. 

1306.  Compound  for  Sheep. — The  directions  he 
gives  for  making  the  compound  for  sheep  are 
these: — Let  a  quantity  of  linseed  be  reduced  to 
a  fine  meal,  and  barley  flattened  into  the  thick- 
ness of  a  wafer  by  means  of  a  crushing-mill  with 
smooth  rollers.  Put  168  lbs.  of  water  into  an 
iron  boiler,  and  as  soon  as  it  boils,  not  before,  stir 
in  21  lbs.  of  linseed  meal,  and  let  the  water 
again  boil,  which  it  may  do  in  about  5  minutes. 
Then  let  63  lbs.  of  crushed  barley  be  sprinkled 
by  hand  by  one  person  upon  the  boiling  mucilage, 
while  another  person  rapidly  stirs  the  mass, 
cramming  in  the  barley.  After  the  water,  lin- 
seed, and  barley,  have  entirely  incorporated, 
which  will  not  occupy  above  10  minutes,  put  the 
lid  upon  the  boiler,  and  throw  the  furnace-door 
open  ;  and  should  the  fire  be  strong,  rake  it  out, 
when  the  mass  will  continue  to  simmer,  until 
the  barley  shall  have  absorbed  all  the   linseed 


mucilage.  When  this  has  been  accomplished, 
the  barley  will  have  resumed  nearly  its  original 
shape,  and  may  be  compared  to  small  oil-cakes, 
which,  when  cold,  will  be  devoured  by  sheep 
with  avidity.  After  a  little  practice,  the  eye 
will  be  a  sufficient  guide  as  to  the  proportions  of 
the  materials,  without  the  trouble  of  weighing 
them.  The  compound  is  then  put  into  tubs 
out  of  the  boiler,  and  pressed  down  with  a 
rammer  to  exclude  the  air,  and  prevent  rancidity. 
If  properly  made,  the  compound  ought  to  be 
like  clay  when  made  into  bricks,  in  which  state 
it  will  keep  a  long  time.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  proporti««is  consist  of  3  parts  of  barley  to 
1  of  linseed,  and  of  2  parts  of  water  to  1  of 
barley  and  linseed  included.  Also,  that  the 
weight  of  the  whole  is  18  stones  when  put  into 
the  boiler,  but,  after  it  has  been  made  into  com- 
pound and  becomes  cold,  it  will  be  found  in 
general  reduced  to  something  less  than  15  stones. 

1307.  Compound  for  Oxen. — In  making  the 
compound  for  oxen,  the  same  process  as  to  the 
cookery  is  followed,  but  the  barley  should  be 
ground  into  fine  meal,  the  water  reduced  to  150 
lbs.,  and  the  fire  extinguished,  the  meal  becoming 
sufficiently  cooked  by  immersion  in  the  hot 
water  and  mucilage:  the  above  quantity  of  15 
stones  will  afford  1  bullock  for  a  fortnight  1 
stone  per  day,  containing  H  lb.  of  linseed. 

1308.  The  compound  for  cattle  may  be  formed 
into  cakes,  on  being  put  into  moulds  with  a 
trowel,  while  in  a  hot  state,  the  mould  having  no 
bottom,  and  resting  on  a  board,  upon  which  the 
cakes  are  cooled.  When  cold,  the  cakes  may  be 
cut  into  pieces  like  bread,  and  given  to  the 
cattle,  but  Mr  Warnes  considers  this  a  trouble- 
some, expensive,  and  unnecessary  proceeding. 

1309.  The  linseed  mucilage  may  be  made  into 
a  compound  with  other  materials  than  barley  or 
grain  of  any  kind,  the  compound  with  pease  and 
bean  meals  being  a  very  nutritious  mixture. 
The  mixture  with  turnips,  carrots,  and  mangold- 
wurtzel,  is  effected  in  this  way:  Let  the  roots  be 
washed  and  sliced,  and  boiled  in  the  boiler  with 
a  small  quantity  of  water  :  when  sufficiently 
boiled,  some  of  the  roots  are  put  into  a  tub  with 
a  little  linseed  meal,  and  the  mass  is  beaten  with 
a  rammer,  while  another  person  turns  it  over 
until  it  becomes  uniform.  In  this  way  one  por- 
tion after  another  is  prepared.  Cut  hay  or 
straw  and  fine  chaff  may  be  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  with  the  mucilage.  For  example,  1 
peck  of  fine  linseed  meal  is  stirred  in  20  gallons 
of  boiling  water,  and  in  about  10  minutes  the 
mucilage  is  ready  to  be  poured  over  2  bushels  of 
cut  hay  in  a  trough  at  a  time,  until  the  mucilage 
is  exhausted  ;  and  its  absorption  by  the  hay  is 
promoted  by  beating  with  a  rammer,  and  on 
being  pressed  down. 

1310.  This  quantity  of  compound  will  serve 
21  scores  of  sheep  for  a  day,  the  peck  of  linseed 
costing  Is.  9d.,  or  Id.  per  score,  including  the 
trouble  of  crushing  and  boiling  it.     It   is  not 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chetnistry,  p.  892  and  928. 


Stt 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


easy  to  detenaine  the  quantity  of  this  which  an 
ox  may  require,  <>o  much  dependitif^  on  the  size 
aud  condition  uf  the  animal  ;  but  1  lb.  of  linseed 
meal  per  day  mixed  in  mucilage,  with  2  or  3 
skeps  of  cut  straw  or  hay,  along  with  boiled 
Swedish  turnips,  according  to  experience,  will 
advance  the  cundition  of  an  ox. 

1311.  Tlie  compound  may  be  formed  with  any 
kind  of  farm-produce,  provided  it  contains  a 
proper  (|uantity  of  the  linseed.  If  barley,  beans, 
or  pease  be  used,  they  must  first  be  ground  into 
nieal ;  if  grass,  clover,  hay,  straw,  or  pea  and 
bean  hanlm  be  u«ed,  they  must  first  be  cut 
into  chafi" ;  if  turnips,  carrots,  mangold-wurtzel, 
cabbages,  or  potatoes,  are  used,  they  must  first  be 
boiled  or  steamed  ;  after  which  all  or  any  of  the 
above  materials  may  be  formed  into  the  com- 
pound, by  admixture  of  the  linseed  boiled  in 
water.  The  compounds  are  essentially  of  three 
kinds — the  corn  and  pulse  compound,  the  root 
compound,  and  tlie  grass  and  chaflF  compound. 
These  may  all  run  into  and  mingle  with  each 
other,  according  to  circumstances,  but  they  con- 
stitute the  three  leading  distinctions,  and  in  one 
or  other  of  which  all  the  cattle-compounds  may 
be  classed — lin.seed  being,  however,  the  chief 
ingredient  for  fattening. 

1312.  The  apparatus  required  for  the  making 
of  compounds  according  to  Mr  Warnes'  method, 
is, — a  linseed  crusher,  a  barley  mill  and  bruiser, 
a  boiler,  one  or  two  half-hogsheads,  and  two  or 
three  pails,  with  a  ladle,  stirrer,  and  rammer.* 

1313.  Corn-bruisur. — This  machine  is  shown 
in  perspective  in  fig.  98.  It  is  constructed  al- 
most entirely  of  cast-iron,  except  the  hopper  and 
discharging-spout  ;  but  its  frame  or  standard 
may  with  propriety  be  formed  of  hardwood,  when 
circumstances  render  the  adoption  of  that  ma- 
terial desirable.  In  the  figure,  ana  is  the 
frame-work,  consisting  of  two  separate  sides  con- 
nected by  two  stretclier-bolts.  A  case,  W,  formed 
of  cast-iron  plates,  is  bolted  upon  the  projecting 
ears  at  the  top  of  the  fram«,  and  contains  the 
bruising  cylinders.  The  cylinders  are  of  cast- 
iron  or  ofsteel,  and  have  an  axle  of  malleable  iron 
passing  through  tbem.  The  spur-wheels  c  and 
d  are  fitted  upon  the  axle  of  the  cylinders.  The 
cylinder  corresponding  to  <l  is  jierfectly  smooth, 
while  that  of  c  is  grooved  into  sharp  edges.  The 
grooves  lie  obliquely  on  tlie  face  of  the  cylinder. 
The  winch-handle  e  is  attached  to  the  axle  of  the 
roller  c,  whose  bearings  are  permanent,  while 
those  of  d  are  movable,  being  formed  in  separate 
plates,  and  fitted  to  slide  to  a  small  extent  in  a 
seat,  for  the  adjustment  of  the  cylinder  to  any 
desired  grist.  This  adjustment" is  effected  by 
means  of  the  screws/,  which  act  upon  the  sliding- 
plates  of  the  bearings  :  <j  is  one  of  the  bearings  of 
a  feeding-roller,  placed  also  within  the  case  ;  it 
is  turned  by  means  of  a  toothed  wheel  fitted 
upon  the  further  end  of  its  axle,  and  which  is 
driven  by  another  wheel  on  the  axle  of  the 
cylinder  (/.  The  fly-wheel  h  is  fitted  upon  the 
txle  of  the  cylinder  c  ;  t  is  the  feeding-hopper, 


attached  to  the  top  of  the  case  by  two  small 
hooks  ;  and  it;  is  a  wooden  spout  to  convey  the 
bruised  grain  from  the  case.  This  is  a  very 
efficient  machine  for  bruising  either  oats  or  beans. 
From  the  different  Teli>cities  of  the  two  cylinders, 
Fig.  98. 


THE  HAND  CDRN-liRl'I.sKR. 

the  grooved  one  being  the  fastest,  it  pro(iuces  a 
cutting  a-s  well  as  a  bruising  action,  which  ren- 
ders its  effects  on  the  ;.'rain  more  ]icrfect  than 
simple  pressure.  It  can  be  worked  by  one  man, 
who  will  bruise  4  bushels  of  oats  in  an  hour. 
The  price  of  the  machine  is  £6,  lOs. 

1314.  Pfain  Corn-hniher  for  pomr. —  When 
corn  is  desired  to  be  merely  flattened  and  not 
reduced  to  the  mealy  state,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  plain  rollers,  and  these  cannot  be  worked 
effectually  but  by  power.  Fig.  99  is  an  eleva- 
tion of  such  a  machine.  It  is  a  very  efficient 
one,  and  adapted  to  power.  In  the  figure,  a  a  Is 
one  of  the  side-frames  of  cast-iron,  which  are 
connected  together  by  stretcher-bolts,  and  the 
frame  so  formed  is  bolted  to  a  floor  through  the 
palms  at  cc.  On  the  top  bar  of  thofram«'s  there  are 
two  strong  snugs  cast  sufficient  to  resist  the  pres- 


•  Warnes  On  the  Cultivation  of  Flax,  2d  edition,  p.  134-266. 


FEEDING  OF  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


283 


Bure  of  the  rollers,  and  are  formed  also  to  receive 
the  brass  bushes  in  wliich  the  journals  of  the  two 
rollers  are  made  to  run.  The  two  rollers  are 
fitted  with  malleable  iron  shafts;  one  roller  runs  in 
permanent  bearings,  but  the  other  has  its  bushes 
movable,  for  adjustment  to  the  degree  of  bruising 
required,  and  this  adjustment  is  effected  by  the 
adjusting  screws  <;.  The  shaft  of  each  roller 
carries  a  wheel  h  ;  one  roller  lias  also  upon  its 
Fig.  99. 


AN  ELEVATION  OF  THE  POWER  CORN-BRUISER. 

shaft  the  driving-pulley  i,  which,  by  means  of  a 
belt  *s  from  any  shaft  of  a  thrashing-machine,  or 
other  power  having  a  proper  velocity,  puts  the 
rollers  in  motion.  The  rollers  are  enclosed  in  a 
square  wooden  case  k  k,  in  the  cover  of  which  a 
narrow  hopper-shaped  opening  is  formed,  to  di- 
rect the  grain  between  the  rollers.  A  hopper 
m,  for  receiving  the  grain,  is  supported  on  the 
light  wooden  frame-work  n  n,  which  also  sup- 
ports the  feeding-shoe  o,  jointed  to  the  frame  at 
p,  and  suspended  by  the  strap  q,  which  last  is 
adjustable  by  a  screw  at  q,  to  regulate  the  quan- 
tity of  feed.  After  passing  the  rollers,  the  grain 
is  received  into  a  spout,  which  either  delivers  it 
on  the  same  floor,  or  through  a  close  spout  in  the 
floor  below.  The  price  of  thiTmachine,  as  manu- 
factured by  Mr  Slight,  Edinburgh,  is  £10. 

1315.  I  have  now  shown  you  how  cattle  are 
treated  and  fed  on  turnips  in  winter,  and 
enumerated  a  variety  of  ingredients  which  are 


employed  separately,  or  in  conjunction  with  tur- 
nips, to  fatten  cattle.  1  shall  now  relate  some 
experiments  showing  the  comparative  value  in 
feeding  of  some  of  these  ingredients  and  turnips, 
and  then  exhibit  the  comparative  advantages  of 
treating  cattle  in  winter  in  various  ways. 

1316.  The  late  Earl  Spencer  made  an  experi- 
ment to  ascertain  the  comparative  values  of 
mangold-wurtzel  and  Swedish  turnips  in  feeding 
cattle.  He  selected  two  steers  equally  well  bred, 
rising  2-years  old,  and  on  the  24th  of  December 
1825,  he  put  one  on  Swedish  turnips,  and  the 
other  on  mangold-wurtzel.  Their  weights  were 
determined  by  measurement,  both  being  4  feet 
10  inches  in  length  by  6  feet  5  inches  in  girth, 
weighing  668  lbs.  each.  On  the  23d  January 
182G,  one  had  consumed  1624  lbs.  of  Swedish 
turnips,  giving  an  increase  of  weight  to  703  lbs. 
or  absolutely  an  increase  of  35  lbs.,  which  was  at 
the  rate  of  48^  lbs.  for  every  ton  of  turnips  con- 
sumed. The  otlier  consumed  184  8  lbs.  of  mangold- 
wurtzel,  giving  a  weight  of  721  lbs.,  or  absolutely 
53  lbs.,  or  at  the  rate  of  65^  lbs.  for  every  ton  of 
the  root. 

1317.  As  this  difference  may  have  arisen  from 
a  greater  propensity  to  fatten,  the  food  was  ex- 
changed, and  on  the  20th  February  No.  1  had 
consumed  1884  lbs.  of  mangold-wurtzel,  giving  an 
increase  to  734  lbs.,  having  absolutely  increased 
in  weight  31  lbs.,  or  at  the  rate  of  36f  lbs.  for 
every  ton  of  the  root.  No.  2  had  consumed  1880 
lbs.  of  Swedish  turnips,  making  him  weigh  734 
lbs.,  or  making  an  increase  of  13  lbs.,  or  at  the 
rate  of  154  ^bs.  to  every  ton  of  turnips  consumed. 

""  1318.  They  were  then  both  put  on  mangftld- 
wurtzel,  dividing  the  food  equally  between  them. 
On  the  19th  March  they  luul  ea<-h  consumed 
1792  lbs.,  and  No.  1  weighed  784  lbs.,  giving  an 
increase  of  50  lbs.,  and  No.  2  weighed  765  lbs., 
with  an  increase  of  31  lbs. 

1319.  It  would  appear  that  the  propensity  to 
feed  in  No.  1  was  greater  than  No.  2,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  50  to  31;  but  notwithstanding  this,  in 
the  first  month,  when  No.  1  was  upon  Swedish 
turnips,  and  No.  2  upon  mangold-wurtzel.  No.  2 
beat  No.  1  in  the  proportion  stated 'above,  of 
65 1  to  48^.  No.  2  in  the  first  month,  wlien 
feeding  on  mangold-wurtzel,  increased  in  girth  3 
inches,  and  in  the  next  month,  when  fed  upon 
Swedish  turnips,  did  not  increase  in  girth  at  all, 
indicating  a  stoppage  of  growth.  "  It  appears,'' 
observes  his  lordship,  "  as  if  there  could  be  no 
great  inaccuracy  in  estimating  the  relative 
weight  of  the  animals,  as,  soon  alter  the  experi- 
ment was  concluded,  I  sold  No.  1  to  a  butcher  in 
the  county  for  £24,  3s.,  and  No.  2  at  Smithfieid 
for  £24."* 

1320.  It  would  appear,  from  experiments  made 
by  the  late  Mr  Moubray  of  Cambus,  Clackman- 
nanshire, that  cattle  may  be  fed  on  turnips  and 
hay  as  cheaply  as  on  turnips  and  straw,  because, 
when  straw  is  given,  more  turnips  are  consumed. 


*  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Emjland,  vol.  ii.  p.  297. 


284 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and,  therefore,  when  turnips  are  scarce,  hay  may 
be  used  with  advantage. 

1321.  It  would  also  appear,  from  other  experi- 
ments made  by  hiui,  that  cattle  may  be  fed 
cheaper  on  distillery  draff  and  dreg  than  on  tur- 
nips and  straw  ;  but  the  distillery  refuse  requires 
more  time  to  bring  cattle  to  the  same  condition, 
which  in  some  circumstances  may  be  an  incon- 
Tenience.* 

1322.  Linseed  oil  has  been  successfully  em- 
ployed by  Mr  Curtis  of  West  Rudham,  in  Nor- 
folk, to  feed  cattle.  His  mode  of  using  the  oil  is 
this: — First  ascertain  how  much  cut  straw  the 
oxen  intended  to  be  fed  will  consume  a-week, 
then  sprinkle  the  oil  on  the  cut  straw,  layer 
upon  layer,  at  the  rate  of  1  gallon  per  week  per 
ox.  The  mixture,  on  being  turned  over  fre- 
quently, is  kept  2  days  before  being  used,  when 
a  slight  fermentation  takes  place,  and  then  the 
oil  will  scarcely  be  discerned,  having  been  en- 
tirely absorbed  by  the  straw,  which  should,  of 
course,  be  the  best  oat  straw.  This  mixture,  when 
compared  with  oil-cake,  has  stood  its  ground. 

1323.  Linseed  of  fine"  quality  weighs  52  lbs. 
per  bushel,  and  yields  from  11  to  12  gallons  of 
oil  per  quarter,  weighing  S^  lbs.  per  gallon,  or 
about  25  per  cent  of  its  weight.  The  price  of 
linseed  oil  is  about  34s.  per  cwt.  of  ]2\  gallons, 
which  makes  the  feeding  of  an  ox  only  cost 
2s.  lOd.  per  week.f 

1324.  Mr  Curtis  has  fed  cattle  for  upwards  of 
20  years  upon  what  he  calls  ijrfen  malt,  which 
consists  of  steeping  light  barley  "  for  48  hours  in 
soft  water,  when  the  water  is  let  off,  and  the 
barley  is  thrown  into  a  round  heap,  in  a  conical 
form,  till  it  gets  warm  and  begins  to  sprout 
freely.  It  is  then  spread  out  and  turned  over 
repeatedly  as  it  grows.  The  only  care  required 
is,  that  the  sprout  or  future  blade  does  not  get 
cut  off,  as  the  malt  will  then  loose  much  of  its 
nutritions  quality."  He  finds  this  substance, 
which  costs  with  its  labour  Is.  a  stone,  prefer- 
able to  oats  at  lOd.  in  their  natural  state.:^  It  is 
questionable,  however,  that,  if  this  mode  of  treat- 
ing barley  were  generally  adopted  by  feeders  of 
stock,  they  would  not  become  amenable  to  the 
Excise  laws.  The  experiment  might  be  danger- 
ous; and  every  question  with  the  Excise,  as  is 
well  understood,  invariably  leaves  its  opponent 
the  loser. 

1325.  Mr  Brodie,  .\bbey  Mains,  East  Lothian, 
made  an  experiment  on  feeding  cattle,  from 
October  1836  to  June  1837,  on  different  kinds  of 
food.  There  were  4  lots  of  cattle,  consisting  of 
5  each.  The  first  lot  was  fed  on  turnips  and 
straw,  which,  being  the  usual  treatment,  formed 
the  standard  of  comparison.  The  second  lot  had 
half  the  weight  of  turnips  and  30  lbs.  of  oil-cake 
a-day.  A  third  lot  was  fed  on  the  last  quantity 
of  turnips  and  bean-meal  and  bruised  oat*.  And 
the  fourth  had  distillery  grains  and  ground  beans. 


The  value  of  the  cattle,  when  put  up  to  feed,  was 
£1 1  a-piece,  and  they  were  of  the  Aberdeenshire 
polled  breed.  This  in  a  summary  of  the  cost  of 
feeding : — 

Lot  1.   White  turnips  at  8s.  4d.,  swedes 

at  12s.  (id.  per  ton,  cost        .  £53     9  10 

Average  cost  of  each  bea«t  per  week     0     6     3 

Lot  2.  Turnips  as  above,  oil-cake,  £7, 15s. 

per  ton,  cost  .  £48  16    0 

Average  coit  of  each  bea^t  per  week     0     5     9 


Lot  3.  Turnips  as  above,  bean-meal,  5s., 
bniised  oats,  Se.  O'd.  per  bushel, 
coft  .  .         £58    8     1 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week     0     6     8 


Lot.  4.  Turnips  and  bean-meal,  as  above, 
draff,  4s.  6d.  per  quarter,  dreg, 
2s.  6d.  per  puncheon,  cost  .  £63     3    2 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week     0    7    2 


The  ultimate  resu 

ts  are  as  follows: — 

Lots.    Live  weight. 

Beef. 

Tallow. 

Hide.     { 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

St. 

5.36 
552 
517 
545 

St.     lbs. 

283     3 
295  10 
280     7 
280    0 

St.     lbs. 

36  10 
41     6 

37  2 
36  11 

St    lbs.    I 
27  13 
29    6 
26  13 
25    7 

"  Upon  the  whole,"  concludes  Mr  Brodie,  "  it  is 
evident,  by  these  experiments,  that  feeding  with 
turnips  as  an  auxiliary  has  been  the  most  ad- 
vantageous mode  of  using  turnips,  as,  by  the 
above  statement,  it  is  apparent  that  if  the  cattle 
of  the  first  lot  had  only  been  allowed  half  the 
quantity  of  turnips  which  they  consumed,  and 
had  got  oil-cake  in  lieu  of  the  other  half,  as  was 
given  to  the  second  lot,  the  expense  of  their  keep 
would  have  been  lessened  £4,  13s.,  and  from  su- 
perior quality  of  beef,  their  value  would  have  been 
increased  £10,  making  together  £14, 13."§ 

1326.  Some  remarks  occur  to  me  on  the  pro- 
gress of  this  experiment, — that  if  the  cattle  had 
been  sold  on  the  7th  April  1837,  when  they 
were  adjudged  by  competent  farmers,  they  would 
not  have  repaid  the  feeder  his  expenses,  as  the 
price  of  lot  first,  with  the  cost  pf  feeding  to  that 
time,  amounted  to  £95,  Is.  8d.,  and  they  were 
only  valued  at  £82  ;  lot  second  cost  £S0,  12s., 
and  were  valued  at  £88,  10s.;  lot  third  £93,  4s., 
and  valued  at  £77;  and  lot  fourth  £97,  4s.  5d., 
and  their  value  was  only  £81,  10s.  And  this  is 
almost  always  the  result  of  disposing  of  cattle 
before  the  end  of  fhe  feedin<j  gensou.  because  it  is 
only  after  they  attain  high  condition  that  the 
quality  of  the  meat  improves  so  rajtidly  as  to 
enhance  its  value  so  as  to  leave  a  profit.  As 
with  sheep  so  with  cattle,  the  inside  is  first  filled 
up  before  the  outside  indicates  condition.  Tliis 
result  should  be  a  useful  hint  to  you  to  weigh 
well  every  consideration  before  disposing  of  your 
fattening  beasts  in  the  middle  of  the   feeding 


•  Prizt  &.«/iy«  oftht  Highland  and  Agricidtural  Sorietij,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  61.  f  Ibid.  p.  587. 

J  Jbid.,  p.  588.  §  (luarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  viii.  p.  331. 


FEEDING  OF  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


285 


season.  The  cattle  of  the  first  lot  continuing  to 
receive  the  same  sort  of  food  they  had  been  ac- 
customed to,  throve  more  rapidly  at  first  than 
those  in  the  other  lots,  but  afterwards  lost  their 
superiority;  thereby  corroborating  the  usual  ex- 
perience of  stock  not  gaining  an  advantage 
immediately  on  a  change  of  food,  even  of  a 
better  description,  such  as  from  turnips  to  grass. 

1327.  Pollard  or  bran  has  been  often  recom- 
mended to  be  given  to  feeding  cattle.  Mr 
Dobito  gave,  iu  the  early  part  of  the  season  of 
feeding  with  white  turnips,  half  a  stune  of  bran 
to  each  beast  a-day,  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
oat-hay  or  straw,  and  no  oil-cake.  "  Some  per- 
sons," observes  Mr  Dobito,  "  may  fancy  this  food 
is  of  too  loosening  a  nature;  but  I  can  assure 
them,from  several  years' experience, that  although 
pollard  is  loosening  by  itself,  it  has  the  etfect  of 
preventing  the  watery  white  turnips  from  purging 
too  much.  Although  the  bullocks  do  not  gain 
much  iu  weight  during  this  time,  yet  I  am  satis- 
fied they  go  on  faster  afterwards, — the  reason  of 
which,  I  suspect,  is,  that  their  bodies  are  more 
prepared  for  the  artificial  state  they  have  to  live 
in  for  the  next  few  months."  In  November 
swedes  are  given  1  bushel,  cut  with  a  slicer,  for 
the  day's  consumption  ;  then  a  dry  bait,  consist- 
ing of  2  lbs.  of  oil-cake,  3  lbs.  of  bran,  and  a 
little  hay-chafi*;  and  turnips  again.  The  bran  can 
be  purchased  for  £4, 15s.  a  ton.*  Would  not  oil- 
cake answer  all  the  purposes  of  bran  as  to  prepar- 
ing the  bodies  of  the  cattle  for  the  feeding  they  are 
afterwards  to  receive  ?     I  think  it  would. 

1328.  At  one  time  it  was  a  question  whether 
cattle  would  thrive  better  on  food  prepared  or 
cooked  for  them  by  means  of  fire.  It  was  well 
understood  that  horses  and  pigs  both  fattened 
and  continued  healthy  upon  prepared  food  ;  and 
the  experience  of  dairymen  in  large  towns  estab- 
lished the  fact,  that  cows  gave  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  milk  on  prepared  than  on  raw  food. 
Still  it  was  believed  that  cattle  would  not  fatten 
well  on  boiled  or  steamed  food,  from  the  opinion, 
that  food  given  in  a  comminuted  state  to  cattle, 
which  are  ruminating  animals,  the  cud  would  be 
prevented  being  chewed.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  by  premium, 
induced  several  farmers  to  put  the  matter  to 
the  test  of  experiment,  and  independent  of  the 
supposed  effect  of  prepared  food  upon  the  system 
of  ruminating  animals,  it  was  desirable  to  ascer- 
tain whether,  even  should  cattle  be  found  to 
thrive  equally  well  on  prepared  as  on  raw  food, 
the  trouble  incurred  in  preparing  it  would  be 
repaid  by  the  superior  condition  of  the  cattle,  for 
unless  this  was  decidedly  the  case,  there  would 
be  no  use  of  undertaking  the  trouble. 

1329.  The  results  of  the  experiments  under- 
taken in  consequence  of  the  Society's  premium 
were,  that  no  profit  attends  the  feeding  of  cattle 
on  prepared  food.  The  first  instance  I  shall 
notice,  in  support  of  this  conclusion,  are  the  ex- 
periments of  Mr  Walker,  Ferrygate,  East 
Lothian.      He   selected,   in   February   1833,   6 


heifers  of  a  cross  between  country  cows  and  a 
short-horn  bull,  that  had  been  on  turnips,  and 
were  advancing  in  condition,  and  divided  them 
into  2  lots  of  3  heifers  each,  and  put  one  lot  on 
steamed  food,  and  fed  them  three  times  a-day,  at 
daybreak,  noon,  and  an  hour  before  sunset.  The 
food  consisted  of  as  many  swedes  as  they  could 
eat,  with  3  lbs.  of  bruised  beans  and  20  lbs.  of 
potatoes,  with  i  s-tone  of  straw  and  2  ounces  of 
salt  to  each  beast.  The  three  principal  ingre- 
dients were  mixed  together  in  a  tub  placed  over 
a  boiler  of  water,  and  cooked  by  steaming.  The 
lot  on  raw  food  also  got  as  many  swedes  as  they 
could  eat,  and  brui&ed  beans  were  given  them  at 
noon,  and  one-half  of  the  potatoes  in  the  morning 
and  another  half  in  the  afternoon.  It  was  soon 
discovered  that  tlie  lot  on  the  cooked  food  con- 
sumed more  turnips  than  the  other,  the  consump- 
tion being  exactly  37  cwt.  16  lbs.,  whilst,  when 
eaten  raw,  it  was  only  25  cwt.  1  qr.  14  lbs.,  the 
difference  being  55  lbs.  every  day,  which  con- 
tinued during  the  progress  of  the  experiment  for 
3  months. 

1330.  Steers  were  experimented  on  as  well  as 
heifers,  there  being  2  lots  of  2  each.  They  also 
got  as  many  Swedish  turnips  as  they  could  eat, 
and  had  30  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  4^  lbs.  bruised 
beans,  2  oz.  of  salt,  and  5  stone  of  straw  each, 
every  day. 

1331.  The  cost  of  feeding  the  heifers  was  as 
follows : — 

3  heifers  on  steamed  food — 

Consumed  of.      Cwt.  qr.  lb.  per  cwt. 

Swedish  turnips,  37     0  16  at  4d.  £0  12  4| 

Potatoes         .          3    3     0  at  Is.  3d.  0  4  8 

Beans,  1  bushel       0     2     7                .  0  3  0 

Salt                .             .  .            .  0  0  Of 

Coals  and  extra  labour  .             .  0  2  0 


£1     2     li 


Cost  of  3  heifers  1  week 
or  7s.  43d.  per  week  each. 


3  heifers  on  7-aw  food — 

Consumed  of.     Cwt.  qr.  lb.    per  cwt. 
Swedish  turnips    25     1  14    at  4d.         £0     8     6| 
Potatoes,  beans,  aud  salt,  as  above  0     7     8| 


Cost  of  3  heifers  1  week 

or  5s.  5d.  each  per  week. 


£0  16     3 


2  steers  on  steamed  food — 

Consumed  of.     C^^•t.  qr.  lb.  per  cwt. 

Swedish  turnips    28     2     0  at  4d.  £0  7  10 

Potatoes          .        3     3    0  at  Is.  3d.  0  4    8 

Beans     ..027            •  030 

Salt 0  0     Oi 

Coals  and  extra  labour      .              .  0  16 


Cost  of  2  steers  for  1  week 
or  8s.  6^d.  each  per  week. 


£0  16     Oh 


2  steers  on  raw  food — 

Consumed  of  ■     Cwt.  qr.  lb.    per  cwt. 
Swedish  turnips    17     2     0    at  4d.  0     5  10 

Potatoes,  beans,  and  salt,  as  above  0     7     8^ 


Cost  of  2  steers  for  1  week 

or  6s.  y^d.  each  per  week. 


£0  13     6J 


•  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  0/  England,  vol.  vi.  p.  77. 


rRACTICE— WINTER. 


1332.  The  following  table  shows  the  progress  of 

condition  made  bj 

these  heifers  and  steers. 

Arenige  live- 

1                 1 
Average  1  Average  |  xvemge 
live-       incn-aseof      ^^^1       A»era«e 

1 

1 

weiglit  of  3  at 

Average  I  Average 

CXTTLK. 

cooimence- 

weiglit  of       live-       ,  „„j..|,,  of   wtislil-i.f 

wiik'lit  of   weight  of 

ment  of 

3  at  end  |  weight  in    "^^'Z  °' 
of  feeding.  3  montlK.! 

1                  1 

talluw. 

liide.           offal. 

feeding. 

St. 

St.    lb».!  St.    lb. 

St   Ihs. 

St  lbs. 

St  lh«. 

St    Iht. 

Heifer  on  steamed  food 

74 

90     0 

16    « 

50    0 

7.11 

3  IJ 

'Jfi     9 

Heifer  on  raw  food 

74 

89    3 

15    0 

50     1 

8    4 

4    4 

26  10 

Steer  on  su-amed  food 

84 

103    4 

19    0 

56  19 

8  11 

5  1-2 

28    3 

Steer  on  raw  food 

90 

106    5 

15    0 

58    6 

8    8 

5    4 

30    4 

1333.  The  comparative  profits  on  the  cooked 
and  raw  food  stand  thus  :- — 
Live-weight  of  1  heifer,  when  put  to  feed 
on  steamed  food,  74  st.=42  st.  4  lbs. 
beef,  at.7s.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  offal  £11   12     7 
Cost  of  keep   12  weeks  5  days,  at 
7s.  4  id.  per  week       .        .        .        4  19    0 

Total  cost     .    £16  11     7 
Live-weieht  of  the  same  heifers,  when 
finisheil  feeding  on  steamed  food,  90 
st.=50  St.  9  lbs.,  at  O's.  6d.  per  stone, 
^sinking  offal 16     9     1.^ 

Loss  on  steamed  food  on  each  heifer  £0     2     6.^ 


Live-weight  of  1  heifer,  when  put  to  feed 
on  raic  food,  74  st.=  42  st.  4  lbs.  beef, 
at  5s.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  (iff;il.  11   12     7 

Cost  of  keep    12  weeks  5  duys,  at 
5s.  5d.  per  week  .         .         .         3     8  10^ 


Total  cost     £15     1     o^ 
Live-weight  of  the  same  heifer  when 
finished  feeding    on    raw   food,  S9  st. 
31bs.=  50st.  rifc.,at  6s.  6d.  per  stone, 
sinking  offal 16    5    5.^ 

Profit  on  raw  food  on  each  heifer  £  1     4     0 


Live-weight  of  1  steer  when  put  up  to 
feed  on  steamed  food,  84  stones^=50  st. 
4  lbs.,  at  5s.  6d.   per   stone,   sinking 

offal £13    4    0 

Cost  of  keep  12  weeks  5  days,  at 

8s.  6^d.  per  week     '  .         .         .384 


ToUl  cost    £18  12    4 
Live-weight  of  the  same  steer  after  being 
fed  on  steamed   food,  1(14  st.   71bs.  = 
56  St.    10  lbs.,  at   6s.  O'd.   per   stone, 
sinking  offal £18     8    7A 


Profit  on  each  stot  on  steamed  food    £0    3    8.^ 


Live-weight  of  1  steer  when  put  on  raw 
food,  90  St.  =  51  St.  (I  lbs.,  at  5s.  Cd. 
per  stone,  sinking  offal      .  .         .£14     2  lOJ 

Cost  of  12  weeks  5  days'  keep,  at 
6s.  9Jd.  per  week        .        .        .461 


Total  cost  £18     8  11| 
Live-weight  of  the  same  steer  after  ln-ing 
fed  on  raw  food   106  st.  7  lbs.=.58  st. 
6  lbs.  at  6s.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  offal    18  19     9 J 

Profit  on  each  steer  on  raw  food  £0  10  10 


1334.  Tlie  facts  brought  out  in  this  experi- 


ment are  the.se: — It  appears  that  the  turnips  lose 
weijilit  on  beiiiju;  steamed.  For  example,  5  tons 
8  cwt.  only  weighed  out  4  tons  4  cwt.  3  qrs.  16 
lbs.  after  being  steamed,  having  lost  1  ton  3  cwt. 
12  lbs.,  or  i  of  weight;  and  they  also  lost  i  of 
bulk  when  pulled  fresh  ia  February  ;  but  oa 
being  pulled  in  April,  the  loss  of  weight  ia 
steaming  decreased  to  l.  Potatoes  did  not 
lose  above  ,;'„  of  their  weight  by  steaming,  and 
none  in  bulk.  Tiie  lieifcrs  on  steamed  food  not 
only  consumed  a  greater  weight  of  fresh  turnips, 
in  the  ratio  of  37  to  25  ;  but  after  allowing  for 
the  loss  of  steaming,  they  consumed  more  of  the 
steamed  turnips.  Tlius,  after  deducting  i  from 
37  cwt.  16  lbs. — the  weight  lost  iu  steaming 
tliem— the  balance  29  cwt.  2  qr.  17  Ibf.  is  more 
than  the  2.5  cwt.  1  qr.  14  lbs.  of  raw  turnips 
consumed,  by  4  cwt.  1  qr.  3  lbs.  All  the  cattle 
on  the  steamed  and  raw  food  reli.shed  salt  ;  so 
much  so,  that  when  it  was  withheld,  they  would 
not  eat  their  food  with  the  avidity  they  did  when 
it  was  returned  to  them. 

1335.  Steamed  food  should  always  be  given  in 
a  fre^h  state — that  is,  new  made  ;  and  if  old,  it 
becomes  suur,  when  cattle  will  scarcely  touch  it. 
and  the  sourer  it  is  they  dislike  it  the  more. 
"  In  short,"  says  Mr  Walker, "  the  quantity  they 
would  consume  miijht  have  been  ma<le  to  agree  to 
the  fresh  or  sour  state  of  the  food  when  pre.~ented 
to  them.  .  .  .  We  are  quite  aware,  that  to 
have  done  a  large  quantity  at  one  steaming 
would  have  lessened  the  expense  of  coal  and 
labour,  and  also,  by  getting  sour  before  being 
u^ed.  saved  a  great  quantity  of  food  ;  but  we  are 
equally  well  aware,  that,  by  so  doing,  we  never 
Could  have  fattened  our  cattle  on  steamed  food." 

1336.  An  inspection  of  the  above  table  will 
show  that  both  heifers  and  steers  increased  more 
in  live-wei>;ht  on  steamed  than  on  raw  food;  the 
larger  profit  derived  from  the  raw  food  arising 
chiefly  from  the  extra  expense  incurred  in  cook- 
ing tne  food.  It  appears, however,  that  a  greater 
increase  of  tallow  is  derived  from  raw  food. 
The  results  appear  nearly  alike  with  heifers  and 
steers  of  the  same  age;  but  if  the  steers  were  of 
a  breed  possessing  less  fatteninir  propensity  than 
cross-bred  heiiers, — and  Mr  Walker  does  not 
nioution  their  breed,— then  they  would  seem  to 
acquire  greater  if«i.//if  than  heilcr-.  which  I  be- 
lieve is  the  usual  experience.  The  conclusion 
come  to  by  Mr  Walker  is  this  :  "  We  have  no 
hesitatiou  in  saying  that,  in  every  respect,  the 
advantage  is  in  favour  of  feeding  with  raw  food. 


FEEDING  OF  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


287 


But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  difference  in 
the  consumption  of  food  arises  on  the  turnips 
alone.  We  would  therefore  recoinmeiid  every 
person  wishing  to  feed  cattle  on  steamed  food  to 
use  potatoes,  or  any  other  food  that  would  not 
lose  bulk  and  weight  in  the  steaming  process;  as 
there  is  no  question  tiiat,  iu  doing  so,  they  would 
be  brought  much  nearer  to  each  other  in  the 
article  of  expense  of  keep.  .  .  .  Upon  the 
whole,  we  freely  give  it  as  our  opinion,  that 
steaming  food  for  cattle  will  never  be  attended 
with  beneficial  results  under  any  circumstances 
whatever ;  because  it  requires  a  more  watchful 
and  vigilant  superiniendence  during  the  whole 
process,  than  can  ever  be  delegated  to  the  com- 
mon run  of  servants,  to  bring  the  cattle  on  steamed 
food  even  upon  a  footing  of  equality,  far  less  a 
superiority,  to  those  fed  on  raw  food."  * 

1337.  One  of  the  steers  fed  on  raw,  and  an- 
other on  steamed  food,  were  kept  and  put  to 
grass.  In  th;;ir  external  condition,  no  one  could 
have  said  how  they  had  been  fed.  They  were 
put  to  excellent  grass  on  the  •20th  May,  and  the 
steer  on  raw  food  gained  condition  until  iOth 
July,  when,  perhaps,  the  pasture  may  have  be- 
gun to  fiil.  That  on  steamed  food  lost  to  that 
time  3  stones  live-weight.  On  20th  August  both 
were  put  on  cut  grass,  and  both  improved,  espe- 
cially the  one  that  had  been  ou  steamed  food, 
until  the  18th  October,  when  both  were  put  on 
turnips,  and  both  gained  alike  by  the  10th  No- 
vember— that  is,  the  steer  on  raw  food  increased 
from  108  to  120  stones,  and  the  other  from  106 
to  118  stones,  live-weight. 

1338.  One  instance  in  a  question  of  this  nature 
will  not  suffice.  Similar  results  as  to  profit  were 
obtained  by  the  experiments  of  Mr  Howden, 
Lawhead,  East  Lothian.  "  To  me,"  be  says,  "  it 
has  been  most  decidedly  shown  that  preparing 
food  in  this  way  [by  steaming]  is  any  thing  but 
profitable.  Local  advantages — such  as  fuel  and 
water  being  at  hand — may  enable  some  others  to 
steam  at  less  expense  ;  but  in  such  a  situation  as 
mine,  I  am  satisfied  that  there  will  be  an  ex- 
pense of  more  than  10s.  a-head  upon  cattle  in- 
curred by  the  practice.  A  single  horse-load  of 
coals,  carriage  included,  costs  me  10s.  ;  and 
exactly  6  cart-loads  were  required  and  used  in 
preparing  the  food  for  the  cattle,  equal  to  6s.  8d. 
each,  and  probably  as  mucli  more  would  not  be 
an  over-estimate  fur  the  additional  labour  in  the 
3  months."  A  few  facts,  worthy  of  attention,  have 
been  brought  to  light  by  Mr  Howden's  experi- 
ment, and  we  shall  attend  to  these  without  going 
into  details.  It  seems  that  raw  potatoes  and 
water  will  make  cattle  fat, — a  point  which  has 
been  questioned  by  some  of  our  best  farmers. 
Potatoes,  beans,  and  oats,  taken  together,  will 
feed  cheaper,  in  reference  to  time,  than  turnips 
or  potatoes  separately;  and  from  this  fact  may 
be  deduced  these  others,  namely,  that  potatoes, 
when  used  alone,  to  pay  their  expense,  would 
require  the  beef  fed  by  them  to  fetch  4d.  per  lb.; 
turnips  alone  S^d.;  while  potatoes  and  corn  to- 
gether vrould  requiie  3d.,  and  the  beef  of  finer 


quality.  This  is  a  curious  fact.  Of  6  heifers,  I 
iu  a  li^t  of  3  weighed  1022  lbs.  ;  and  another,  in 
another  lot  of  3,  weighed  also  1022  lbs.,  on  5th 
M:irch,  when  both  were  put  up  to  be  experiment- 
ed on,  the  one  on  rr,\v  and  tlie  other  prepared 
food  ;  and  on  the  5th  June  fuliowing,  alter  both 
had  consumed  140  lbs.  of  turnips  a  day,  they 
were  of  the  same  weight,  namely,  1176  lbs.,  ex- 
actly showing  an  increase  of  154  lbs.  This  is  a 
remarkable  coincidence  ;  but  here  it  ends,  and 
the  superiority  of  cooked  food  becomes  apparent; 
for  the  beef  of  the  heifer  fed  on  raw  turnips 
weighed  4',',  stones,  and  its  tallnv  5  stones  10  lbs.; 
whereas  that  of  the  one  fed  on  steamed  turnips 
was  44  stones  4  lbs.,  and  its  tall  .w  6  stones  12 
lbs.  How  is  this  to  be  accounted  for  {  Partly, 
no  dtiubt,  on  the  food  being  cooked,  but  partly,  I 
should  suppose,  from  the  superior  state  of  the 
animal,  indicated  by  its  thinner  hide,  being  8  lbs. 
lighter,  imparting  a  greater  disposition  to  latten. 
Mr  Howden,  however,  mentions  this  fact.  The 
turnips  lor  the  experiment  were  stored  against  a 
wall,  one  store  having  a  northern  and  another  a 
western  aspect  ;  but  whether  fi-om  aspect,  or 
dampness,  or  other  cause,  those  intended  to  be 
eaten  raic  had  fermented  in  the  store  a  while  be- 
fore being  observed,  and  thus,  becoming  unpala- 
table, of  the  18  t'ins  15  cwt.  stored,  about  24  tons 
were  leftunconsumed;  so  that,  in  fact,  the  heifers 
upon  the  raw  turnips  did  not  rLceive  their  food 
in  so  palatable  a  state  as  those  on  the  steamed. 
Steaming  renders  tainted  turnips  palatable  as 
well  as  musty  hay,  while  it  has  a  contrary  effect 
on  tainted  potatoes,  the  cattle  preferring  the  raw. 
Turnips  require  a  longer  time  to  steam,  and, 
according  to  Mr  Howden's  experience,  they  lose 
g  or  I'o  more  of  their  weight  than  potatoes. f  Vuu 
may  observe,  from  the  state  of  the  turnips  in  the 
store,  the  injudii'iousuess  of  storing  them  against 
a  wall,  as  I  have  before  observed  (831.) 

1339.  Mr  Boswcll  of  Kingcausie,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, comes  to  the  same  conclusion  as  to  the 
unprofitableness  of  ft  eding  cattle  on  cooked  food. 
He  observes,  "that  it  is  not  worih  the  trouble 
and  expense  of  preparation  to  feed  cattle  ou 
boiled  or  steamed  food;  as,  although  there  is  a 
saving  in  food,  it  is  counterbalanceil  by  the  cost 
of  fuel  and  labour,  and  could  only  be  gone  into 
profitably  where  food  is  very  Idgh  iu  price  and 
Coal  very  low."  His  experiments  were  made  on 
10  dun  Aberdeenshire  horned  cattle,  very  like  one 
another,  and  their  food  consisted  of  the  Aberdeen 
yellow  bullock  turnips  and  Perthshire  red 
potatoes.  The  5  put  on  raw  food  weighed  alive 
228  stones  11  lbs.,  and  the  other  Son  cooked,  224 
stones  6  lbs.  imperial.  When  slaughtered,  the 
butcher  considered  both  beef  and  tallow  "  to  be 
perfectly  alike."  Those  fed  on  law  food  cost 
£32,  2s.  Id.,  on  cooked  £34,  5s.  lOd.,  leaving  a 
balance  of  £2,  3s.  9d.  in  favour  of  the  former. 
Circumstances  attending  the  feeding  of  cattle 
are  not  alike  iu  all  cases.  Thus,  Mr  Buswell 
found,  "  That  the  lot  on  raw  consumed  much 
more  food  than  those  on  steamed."  a  result 
directly  the  opposite  of  t'.iat  st-tted  l)y  Mr  Walker, 
(1329.)      '-Twice  a-wcck,   on    fixed    days,'    he 


Prize  Essni/s  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x.  p.  253-2C6.      t  ^'-id-  P-  266-70. 


288 


PRACTICE— WLNTER. 


observes,  "  both  lots  got  a  small  quantity  of  the 
tops  of  comraon  lieuili,  wliich  acted  in  tlie  way 
of  presenting  any  scouring  ;  in  fact,  turnip-cattle 
eeem  very  fouil  of  heather  as  a  coudiment. 

13J0.  The  dung  of  the  steamed  lot  was  from 
first  to  la.<t  in  the  be^^t  state,  without  the  least 
appearance  of  purgiug,  and  waa  free  of  that 
abominable  smell  which  is  observed  when  cattle 
are  fed  on  raw  potatoes,  or  even  when  a  portion 
of  their  ftjod  consists  of  that  article.  Another 
fact  was  observed,  that  after  the  steamed  lot  had 
taken  to  their  food,  they  had  their  allowance 
finished  sooner  than  the  raw  lot,  and  were  there- 
fore sooner  able  to  lie  down  and  ruminate."' 

1341.  Mr  Boswell  mentions  a  curious  fact  re- 
garding the  preference  or  dislike  shown  by  cattle 
forfood  indifferent  states.  "  \Vhen>airturnipsand 
potatoes  were  put  into  the  stall  at  the  same  time, 
the  potatoes  were  always  eaten  up  before  a  tur- 
nip was  tasted  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
steamed  turnips  were  eaten  in  preference  to 
steamed  potatoes.''* 

1342.  Before  leaving  this  subject,  I  shall  men- 
tion some  interesting  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Mr 
Ilobert  Stephenson,  Whitelaw,  East  Lothian, 
while  experimenting  on  the  feeding  of  cattle. 
He  put  up  three  lots  of  6  each,  one  fed  on  oil- 
cake, bruised  beans,  bruised  oats,  with  whatever 
turnips  they  could  eat,  and  potatoes  on  the  last 
few  days  of  the  experiment :  another  lot  received 
the  same  sort  of  food,  with  the  exception  of  the 
oil-cake  ;  and  the  third  had  turnips  entirely. 
The  live-weights  of  the  lots  varied  trom  346  ^  to 
486  imperial  stones.  The  experiment  was  con- 
ducted for  17  weeks,  from  November  1834  to 
March  1835. 

1343.  Each  beast  that  got — 

Oil-cake  cost     ...        6s.       per  week. 

Cora        4g.  6d. 

Turnips 2s.  3d. 

1344.  Estimating  the  value  of  fed  beef  at 
6s.  6d.  per  imperial  stone,  the — 

Loss  incurred  by  the  oil-cake  was  12J  per  cent. 
Gain  left         ...         corn          ...       R^ 

turnips    ...  22 

1345.  It  took— 

90  lbs.  of  turnips  to  produce  1  lb.  of  live-weight. 

40  lb.  of  potatoes  

8, 'j  lbs.  of  corn              ... 
21  y^j  lbs.  of  oil-cake        

1 346.  The  cost  of  doing  this  was  as  follows : — 

Per  1  lb.  of 
live-weight. 
90  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  4d.  per  cwt.,  3i^d. 

40  lbs.  of  potatoes,  at  Is.  6d.  per  cwt.,     6j'',sd. 
Sy'nlbs.  of  corn  at  3s.  3d.  per  bushel  of 

•»01h.<. 5^.j.d. 

21y'5  lbs.  of  oil-cake,  at  Jd.  per  lb,  or 

£7  per  ton,  .  .  .         16T=!i5d. 

1347.  These  numbers  are  not  absolute  and 
invariable,  and  apparently  similar  circnmt-tances 
in  the  feeding  of  cattle  will  produce  dissimilar 


results.  What  the  circumstances  are  which 
regulate  the  tendencies  of  cattle  to  fatten,  are 
yet  unknown.  The  fact  is,  cattle  consume  very 
different  quantities  of  turnips  in  different  states 
of  condition,  consuming  more  when  Ipan,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight,  than  when  fat.  A  lean 
beast  will  eat  twice,  or  perhaps  thrice,  as  many 
turnips  as  a  fat  one,  and  will  devour  as  much  as 
\  part  of  his  own  weight  every  day,  while  a  very 
fat  one  will  not  con^^ume  y'j.  Some  steers  of  Mr 
Stephenson's,  in  November  ate  2/n  lb.  for  every 
stone  of  live-weight  they  weighed  ;  the  year 
after  the  quantity  decreased  to  l^^n  lb.,  and  after 
the  experiment  was  concluded,  when  their  live- 
weights  were  nearly  doubled,  they  consumed 
only  Ij^s  lb.  1  had  a  striking  example  of  this 
one  year,  when  I  bought  for  £6,  in  April,  a  very 
lean  2-year-old  steer,  a  cross  betwixt  a  short-horn 
bull  and  .\iigus  cow  ;  a  large-boned  thriving 
animal,  but  his  bones  were  cutting  the  skin. 
He  was  immediately  put  on  Swedish  turnips  ; 
and  the  few  weeks  he  had  them,  before  being 
turned  to  grass,  he  could  hardly  be  satisfied, 
eating  three  times  as  much  as  the  fat  beasts  in 
the  same  hammel.  He  was  grazed  in  summer, 
and  fed  off  on  turnips  and  sold  in  April  following 
for  17  guiueas. 

1348.  The  results  of  these  experiments  were, 
that  oil-cake  is  an  unprofitable  food  for  cattle, 
that  corn  yields  a  small  profit,  that  turnips  are 
profitable,  and  that  when  potatoes  can  be  sold 
at  Is.  6d.  per  cwt.  they  are  also  unprofitable. 
"  When  any  other  food  than  turnips,"  observes 
Mr  Stephenson,  "  is  desired  for  feeding  cattle, 
we  would  recommend  bruised  beans,  as  being 
the  most  efficient  and  least  expensive  :  on  this 
account  we  would  prefer  bruised  beans  alone  to 
distillery  offal.  As  regards  linseed-cake,  or  even 
potatoes,  they  are  not  to   be   compared  to  %ans. 

We  give  it  as  our  opinion,  that 
whoever  feeds  cattle  on  turnij>t  aivtie  will  have 
no  reason,  on  the  score  of  profit,  to  regret  their 
not  having  employed  more  expensive  auxiliaries 
to  hasten  the  fattening  process.  This  opinion 
has  not  been  rashly  adopted,  but  has  been  con- 
firmed by  a  more  extended  and  varied  experi- 
ence in  the  feeding  of  cattle  than  has  fallen  to 
the  lot  of  most  men. " 

1349.  Whether  cattle  consume  food  in  propor- 
tion to  their  weights,  Mr  Stephenson  observes, 
"  that  cattle  consume  food  something  nearly  in 
proportion  to  their  weights,  we  have  very  little 
douht, provided  theii  hareyrer'wus/i/  hten/fd  in  the 
tanu  maiinfr,  and  are  nearly  alike  in  condition. 
Age,  sex,  and  kind,  have  little  influence  in  this 
respect,  as  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  depends 
much  on  the  length  of  time  the  animal  ha-<  l>een 
fed,  and  the  degree  of  maturity  it  has  arrived  at, 
— hence  the  great  difficulty  of  selecting  animals 
to  be  experimented  upon.  To  explain  our  mean- 
ing by  an  example,  we  would  say  that  2  cattle 
of  the  same  weight,  and  which  had  been  previ- 
ously kept  for  a  considerable  time  on  similar 
food,  would  consume  about  the  same  quantity. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  should  2  beasts  of  the  same 


•  Prize  Ettayi  of  the  Hiyhland  and  Agricultural  Svciety,  vol.  x.  p.  271. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


289 


weight  be  taken,  the  one  fat  and  the  other  lean, 
the  lean  beast  would  perhaps  eat  twice,  or  per- 
haps thrice,  as  much  as  the  fat  one ;  more  espe- 
cially if  the  fat  one  had  been  for  some  time 
previously  fed  on  the  same  food,  as  cattle  eat 
fi^radually  less  food  until  they  arrive  at  maturity, 
when  they  become  stationary  in  their  appetite." 

1350.  "We  shall  conclude,"  he  says,  "  by  re- 
lating a  singular  fact" — and  a  remarkable  one  it 
is,  and  worth  remembering, — "  that  sheep  on  tur- 
nips will  consume  nearly  in  proportion  to  cattle, 
weight  for  weight ;  that  is,  10  sheep  of  14  lbs.  a- 
quarter,  or  40  stones  in  all,  will  eat  nearly  the 
same  quantity  of  turnips  as  an  ox  of  40  stones ; 
but  turn  the  ox  to  grass,  and  6  sheep  will  be 
found  to  consume  an  equal  quantity.  This  great 
difference  may  perhaps,"  says  Mr  Stephenson, 
and  I  think  truly,  "  be  accounted  for  by  the 
practice  of  sheep  cropping  the  grass  much  closer 
and  oftener  than  cattle,  and  which,  of  course, 
prevents  its  growing  so  rapidly  with  them  as 
with  cattle."* 

1351.  Notwithstanding  these  results,  which 
were  undoubtedly  obtained  from  carefully  con- 
ducted experiments,  instances  are  not  awant- 
ing  in  which  cattle  have  been  very  profitably 
fattened  upon  prepared  food.  Mr  Warnes,  for 
example,  has  fattened  bullocks  on  his  compound 
of  linseed,  with  barley  and  beans,  or  any  other 
of  the  substances  I  have  enumerated  in  describ- 
ing the  method  of  making  it  for  cattle.  (1307.) 
It  will  be  necessary  to  quote  a  few  in- 
stances of  Mr  Warnes'  success.  "  The  last 
of  my  experimental  bullocks  for  1841,"  he 
observes,  "  was  disposed  of  at  Christmas,  at 
8s.  6d.  per  stone.  He  weighed  60  st.  5  lbs.  im- 
perial;  cost  £7,  17s.  6d.  thirteen  months  pre- 
viously; so  that  he  paid  £17,  10s.  for  little 
more  than  one  year's  keening.  His  common 
food  was  turnips  and  grass  :  14  lbs.  a-day  of 
barley  or  pease  compound  were  given  him  for  48 
weeks,  and  an  unlimited  quantity  the  last  five 
weeks  ;  when,  considering  the  shortness  of  that 
time,  his  progress  was  perfectly  astonishing,  — 
not  only  to  myself,  a  constant  observer,  but  to 
many  graziers  and  butchers  who  had  had  occa- 
sional opportunities  of  seeinghim.  Altogether, the 
weight  of  compound  consumed  did  not  exceed 
2  tons  4  cwt.,  at  the  cost  of  only  £3,  16s.  per 
ton."  .  ..."  A  few  bullocks  were  shown 
by  Mr  Warnes  as  proofs  of  the  fattening  pro- 
perties of  the  compound  ;  and,  as  much  difference 
of  opinion  was  expressed  respecting  the  weight, 
2  were  killed  on  the  spot,  viz.,  a  Devon  steer, 
and  a  yoilng  home-bred  heifer.  The  following 
are  the  particulars  of  the  cattle  slaughtered: — the 
Devon  bullock,  purchased  on  the  8th  of  January, 
at  £9, 15s.,  killed  on  the  28th  October  following, 
weighed  58  st.  10  lbs.,  loo'^e  fat  8  st.  7  lbs.,  value 
of  the  carcass  at  8s.  per  stone,  £23,  10s.  ; 
which,  after  deducting  the  cost  price,  and  £8, 
lis.  for  compound,  leaves  a  balance  of  £5,  4s., 
with  the  manure  for  turnips  and  grass,  the  real 
value  of  which  was  trifling,  on  account  of  the 
small  quantity  consumed.     The  home-bred  was 


only  1 1  months  old,  and  was  purchased  in  May  at 
£3.Jt  weighed  29  St.  12  lbs.,  loose  fat  4  st.  2  lbs., 
value  of  the  carcass  at  8s.  per  stone,  £12,  leav- 
ing a  balance  of  £9  for  compound  and  grass; 
latterly  it  had  a  few  turnips  and  potatoes,  but 
no  milk  or  any  other  food  whatever."  The  low- 
est priced  beasts  always  pay  the  best  when 
fed  on  compound.  Two  small  bullocks  pur- 
chased by  Mr  Warnes,  and  one  bred  on  the  farm, 
were  worth  £4,  £3,  3s.,  and  £4, 10s.  respectively. 
"  Two  of  them  were  Durham  heifers,  the  other 
Norfolk  bred  ;  their  ages  18  months  each  when 
killed.  The  first  weighed  46  st.  7  lbs. ;  the  second 
41  St.  2  lbs.;  the  third  35  st.  imperial,  making 
122  st.  9  lbs.,  wliich,  at  6d.  per  lb.  the  current 
price  of  beef  in  the  neighbourhood,  amounts  to 
£42,  18s.  6d.;  and  had  I  sold  them  by  weight," 
observes  Mr  Warnes,  "  would  have  afforded  a 
balance  of  £31,  5s.  6d.,  and  a  profit  unexampled 
in  the  agricultural  history  of  this  county — unex- 
ampled on  account  of  the  shortness  of  time,  the 
size  of  the  animals,  the  smallness  of  the  outlay, 
and  the  food  being  entirely  a  home  production 
Should  it  be  asked,  what  was  their  condition 
when  purchased  ?     I  refer  to  the  cost  price." 

1352.  These  instances  are,  perhaps,  sufficient 
to  establish  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  com- 
pound as  a  fattener  of  cattle  ;  but  it  is  of  impor- 
tance to  establish  its  superiority  over  oil-cake, 
and  if  it  be  not,  there  is  little  likelihood  of 
people  taking  the  trouble  of  making  compound, 
for  it  must  be  admitted,  on  all  hands,  that  its 
use  is  attended  with  considerable  trouble.  To 
make  the  comparison,  6  beasts  selected  to  be  fed 
on  compound  weighed  602  st.,  and  6  beasts  on 
oil-cake,  590  St.,  the  former  6  having  the  advan- 
tage of  weight  to  neat  cattle  of  12  st.  When 
fat,  the  former  weighed  725  st.  and  the  latter 
705  St.,  giving  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  former 
of  20  St. ;  from  which  falls  to  be  deducted  the 
12  St.  originally  possessed  by  them,  thus  leaving 
still  a  balance  in  their  favour  of  8  st.  But  a 
greater  difference  than  this  was  shown  by  the 
dead-weight ;  which,  of  beef,  loose  fat,  and  hides, 
was  38  St.  6  lbs.  more  of  the  compound-fed  than 
of  the  oil-cake-fed  beasts.  Nor  would  the  mere 
value  of  the  beef  and  fat  show  the  superiority  of 
the  compound-fed,  as  these  consumed  a  smaller 
quantity  of  turnips,  and  their  compound  only 
cost  £19,  6s.  14d.,  while  the  oil-cake  was 
£21,  14s.  9d.t 

1353.  This,  however,  does  not  exhaust  the 
subject  of  feeding  cattle  on  linseed.  Mr  Joseph 
Marshall,  Holme  Lodge,  Bedale,  Yorkshire,  has 
presented  it  to  the  notice  of  agriculturists  in 
another  aspect.  On  liis  farm,  the  food  is  pre- 
pared, and  all  other  work  connected  with  the 
system  performed,  by  one  man,  except  the  grind- 
ing of  the  corn,  which  is  done  at  the  mill.  He 
uses  Dean's  hand-n.ill,  fig,  97,  for  crushingthe  lin- 
seed, and  Clawdray's  chopper  to  cut  the  straw, 

1354.  The  best  artificially  prepared  food 
which  he  has  hitherto  found,  is  boiled  linseed, 
ground  corn,  and  cut  straw,    along  with  some 


*  Prize  Essai/s  of  the  Hiijhlavd  and  AqricvUural  Society,  vol.  xii.  p.  61. 
■)"  Warnes  On  the  Cultivation  of  Flax,  2d  edition,  p.  27,  133,  and  174. 


290 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


raw  turnips,  piren  a.  in.erva.s.  The  crushed 
linseed  i:-  boiled  in  water,  1  lb.  of  linseed  in  H 
gallon  of  water,  for  '2  or  3  hours.  The  ground 
com  and  chopped  straw  are  mixed  together  first, 
and  then  the  boiled  linseed  is  poured  over  them 
and  mixed  with  them,  on  a  floor,  with  a  shovel ; 
the  heap  allowed  to  stand  1  or  2  hours,  and 
given  while  yet  warm  :  for,  if  allowed  to  stand 
a  few  hours,  the  mass  ferments  and  quickly  turns 
sour.  Hence  the  necessity  for  the  strictest  clean- 
liness in  all  the  vessels  and  implements  made  use 
of.  Linseed  may  be  boiled  3  times  every  day, — 
twice  for  the  feeding  beasts,  and  once  for  the 
store  beasts,  consuming  about  1  cwt.  of  coal. 

1355.  The  apparatus  used  by  Mr  Marshall  for 
boiling  the  linseed  consists  of  a  small  steam 
boiler  and  furnace,  which  supplies  steam  by  a 
pipe  to  a  double-cased  iron  vessel,  one  placed 
within  the  other,  like  a  small  hat  within  a  large 
one,  the  inner  one  resting,  by  its  rim,  upon  that 
of  the  outer.  The  steam  is  introduced  between 
the  two  vessels,  and  boils,  by  its  heat,  the  water 
and  linseed  contained  in  the  iuner  one. 

1356.  A  heifer  weighing  from  40  to  50  st. 
will  consume,  daily,  2  lbs.  of  crushed  linseed,  5 
lbs.  of  ground  com,  10  lbs.  of  chopped  straw,  and 
about  80  or  90  lbs.  of  yellow  bullock  turnips,  with  a 
little  straw,  not  cut,  placed  in  its  rack  at  night. 

1357.  The  cost  of  preparing  this  food  is  as 
follows,  in  which  no  charge  is  made  for  straw 
and  turnips,  but  ample  allowance  made  for  coal, 
labour,  and  outlay  of  capital. 

Cost  of  preparing  food  for  22  cattle  and   3 
draught  horses,  for  8  weeks,  in  1844  and  1845  : — 
2688  lbs.  of  linseed,  or  48  lbs.  per  day. 
192  lbs not  used  on  Sundays  deducted. 

2496  lbs.,  or  46.1  bushels  of  54  lbs.  at  6s. 

perbu^he'l  .  .  .      £13  18     0 

458  st  of  ground  oats,  at  1  lid.  per  st.         21   18  1 1 

8  weeks''  wages,  sU  I3s.  per  week   .  5     4     0 

1  cwt.  of  coal  per  day.  at  I5s.  per  ton        1      1     0 

terest  oa  outlay  of  £50,  tear  aud  wear        15    9 

£43    7     8 


In  teres 


this  kind  of  food  is.  that  it  saves  the  consump- 
tion, and  makes  the  beasts  pretty  independent 
of  the  turnip  crop,  which  is  always  an  expensive 
one  to  rai«e,  and  cannot,  in  all  ^ea'^ons,  be  reck- 
oned  to  grow  fully.  This  advantage  may  be 
made  to  appear  in  thL<  way :-  a.-^fuiiiing  I  acre 
of  laud  to  grow  20  tons  of  yellow  bullock  turnips, 
worth  £6,  \5>.  per  acre,  each  beast  will  eat  85 
lbs.  per  day,  with  the  prepared  food  ;  so  that  20 
tons  of  turnips  will  feed  20  beasts  for  26  days  at 
a  cost  of  Is.  8d.  per  week  per  head.  Again,  as- 
suming 1  acre  of  land  to  yield  20  tons  of  swedes, 
worth  £8,  5s.  per  arre,  each  beast  will  eat  63  lbs. 
daily,  with  prepared  fond.  Hence  20  tons  will 
supply  20  bea*ts  for  35  days,  at  a  cost  of  Is.  8d. 
per  week  per  head;  and  hence,  also,  5  acres  of 
swedes,  yielding  20  tons  per  acre,  will  suffice  for 
20  beasts  for  25  weeks. 

1360.  An  instance  or  two  of  the  coniparatiye 
effects  of  this  mode  of  feeding  may  .-iiffice  to 
show  its  superiority  over  tJ.e  one  with  oil-cake. 
Mr  Hutton  of  Sowber  Hill,  near  Northallerton, 
fed  two  lots  of  beasts  of  8  each,  against  each 
other  for  8  weeks.  The  cost  of  Uoing  so  was  as 
follows:  — 

«.  d. 
Linseed-cake,  3  St.,  at  13Jd.  per  stone  3  4^ 
Turnips,  9iJ0  lbs.  "  .  .30 

Labour,  iic         ,  .  .0    5^ 

Cost  per  week  per  head         6  ]  0 


Linseed  and  ground  com 
Turnips,  VM  lbs. 
Labour,  iS.c. 
Coals 


4 

4 

1 

6 

0 

H 

0 

6 

Cost  per  week  per  Lead         5     9j 


Average  cost  of  25  beasts  per  week  for 

8  weeks  .  .  .  .044 


1358.  The  mode  in  which  the  cattle  are  fed  is 
as  follows:  —  At  6  a.  m.  each  beast  is  supplied 
with  about  40  or  45  lbs.  of  yellow  bullock  turnip, 
sliced,  fig.  86  ;  at  10  a.  m.  1  lb.  of  linseed,  boiled 
and  prepared  as  above,  24  lbs.  ground  corn,  and 
5  lbs.  of  chopped  straw  are  given  ;  at  1  p.  m.  the 
turuipe  are  repeated  ;  and  at  5  p.  m.  the  prepared 
food  is  repeated.  At  night  a  little  straw  is  placed 
in  the  rack.  If  any  beasts  refused  their  messes 
they  were  removed  and  given  to  those  that  had 
finished  tlieirs  and  were  desirous  of  more.  No  pre- 
pared food  is  given  on  Sunday,  to  save  the  cattle- 
man some  trouble ;  and  on  this  omission  of  the 
food,  the  cattle  return  to  it  with  increased 
appetite. 

1359.  One  advantage  derived  from  the  use  of 


The  two  lots  of  beasts  were  sold  at  liedale 
market;  and  thoseled  on  prepare!  food  realised 
£2,  6a.  Gd.  more  than  those  otherwise  fed. 

1361.  Mr  Tliompson  of  Moat  Hall,  by  York, 
also  tried  the  experiment,  and  fed  tv»o  beasts 
with  prepared  food  against  other  two  led  on  oil- 
cake and  bean  meal,  with  turnips.  The  cost  of 
the  two  methods  was  as  follows : — 


lOA  lb?,  of  linseed,  at  7s.  per  bushel  of  56 
lbs.  per  bushel,  or  U  per  lb.     . 

:>5  lbs.  bean  nu-»l,  at  Is.  per  ctuue  . 
loo  lbs.  of  coal  daily  at  14a.  pet  ton  • 
l:L.\tra  wages,  4  s.  per  week 

Cost  per  head  per  week 

21  lbs.  of  oil-cake,  at  £10  per  ton 
21  lbs.  of  bean  meal,  at  Is.  per  stone 
20  stones  of  turnips  extra,  say 


Cost  per  Lead  per  week         4     4 

The  cost  of  the  two  methods  is  about  the  same. 
"  If  we  compare,  however,"  observes  Mr  Tiiomp- 
son,  "  the  increase  of  weight  of  the  two  bullocks 
fed  on  the  old  plan  for  31  days,  \.t.  8  st.  2  lbs., 
with  the  increase  of  the  same  bullocks  when  fed 


11 

4     3 

1   10| 
1     6 

0  14 

FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


291 


on  prepared  food  for  31  days,  viz.,  14  st.  5  lbs.,  the 
superiority  of  the  latter  is  very  apparent."  * 

1362.  On  comparing  the  effect  of  feeding 
beasts  on  linseed  with  oil-cake  or  bean  meal,  it 
would  seem  that  the  superiority  lies  entirely  in 
the  linseed,  which,  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  oil  and  uf  si>lnble  albumen,  fully  supports  on 
trial  the  high  character  of  its  nutritive  proper- 
ties indicated  by  chemical  analysis,  (r2()2.) 
"Experience alone,"  says  Mr  Warnes,"  will  con- 
vince any  one  that  whether  hay,  peas  or  potatoes, 
beans  or  barley,  are  employed,  the  office  of  all 
mainly  consists  in  conveying  linseed  to  the 
stomach  of  the  animal,  and  that  a  great  error 
would  be  committed  by  a  parsimoniuus  use  of 
that  potent  ingredient."  "One  of  the  main  causes 
of  the  rapid  progress  of  cattle,  when  fed  on  pre- 
pared food,"  observes  Mr  Thompson,  "  is,  I  con- 
ceive, the  perfect  state  of  health  the  animalsenjoy. 
Linseed  oil  is  a  mild  purgative,  and  when  com- 
bined with  meal,  especially  bean  meal,  the 
bowels  and  skin  are  kept  uniformly  in  a  state  of 
health,  which,  I  think,  cannot  be  surpassed,  and 
which  I  never  before  saw  equalled."  "  What  I 
have  seen  of  this  system,"  observes  Mr  Huttou, 
"convinces  me  that  certainly  double  the  quantity 
of  stock  can  be  maintained  with  the  same  quan- 
tity of  turnips  as  was  consumed  by  the  old 
metliod  of  feeding  cattle.  The  manure  is  of  the 
best  quality,  and  very  soon  fit  for  use.  No  ma- 
nure I  liave  seen  has  equalled,  in  efficacy,  that 
derived  from  this  process.  Hence,  it  is  hard  to 
fix  any  precise  limits  to  the  number  of  stock 
that  may  be  maintained  on  a  farm,  with  a  mode- 
rate supply  of  turnips,  when  this  method  is 
rightly  carried  out,  and  persevered  in.  It  seems 
peculiarly  adapted  to  stiff  soils,  where  the  tur- 
nips cannot  be  consumed  on  the  land.  It  is  also 
applicable  to  light  land,  where  only  a  small 
quantity  of  turnips  can  be  taken  away  ;  as  the 
whole  of  the  straw,  by  this  method,  may  be 
made  into  a  much  better  quality  of  manure." 

1363.  Of  the  two  methods  of  using  the  linseed 
presented  to  public  notice  by  Mr  Warnes  and 
Mr  Marshall,  1  would  prefer  the  latter,  as  being 
the  more  natural  one — to  give  the  cattle  some  raw 
turnips  every  day  ;  and  I  cannot  get  over  the 
fact  of  boiled  or  steamed  turnips  having  been 
proved  to  bestow  no  benefit,  as  evinced  by  those 
carefuUy-conducted  experiments  I  have  described 
above  (1329.)  The  steam  boiler  recommended 
by  Mr  xVIarshall  serves  no  good  purpose,  in  my 
opinion,  and  is  attended  with  much  outlay  at 
first — not  less  perhaps  than  £40  or  £50.  Now,  a 
simple  builerand  furnace  would  be  much  cheaper, 
and  answer  every  purpose  more  easily  and 
readily,  and  there  is  no  risk  of  the  apparatus 
going  wrong.  If  the  linseed  burning  in  the  pan, 
or  it  boiling  over,  is  dreaded,  from  want  of  care 
on  the  part  of  the  person  whose  business  it  is  to 
prepare  the  food,  the  risk  may  be  easily  avoided 
by  putting  the  metallic  vessel  in  which  the  linseed 
and  water  are  into  the  boiler,  containing  water, 
and  both  waters  may  easily  be  boiled  at  one  time. 
Indeed  the  steaming  process,  for  any  purpose,  is 

*  Marshall  Oti  the  Feedhiij  of  Stock  with  Prepared  Food,  p.  4-11. 
•f"  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  viii.  p.  481-2 


going  fast  out  of  use,  and  the  old-fashioned  opeu 
boiler  is  again  being  resorted  to  daily. 

1364.  There  are  objections  to  Mr  Warnes' 
method  of  making  tlie  compound,  which  are  well 
expressed  by  Mr  Thompson  thus  :— ''  The  cheap- 
est, and  I  think  the  best  way  of  making  this  com- 
pound, is  to  mix  it  on  a  smooth  brick  floor,  im- 
mediately adjoining  the  pan  or  boiler  in  which 
the  linseed  mucilage  is  prepared.  Upon  the 
floor  throw  down  the  cut  straw  or  chaff ;  mix 
with  it,  whilst  dry,  the  meal  intended  to  be 
given  ;  upon  this  heap,  flattened  at  top,  pour  the 
mucilage  by  bucketfuls  :  nothing  more  remains 
to  be  done  but  to  turn  the  heap  over  with  a 
shovel.  The  partial  cooking  of  the  mixture  by 
its  own  heat,  is  perfectly  well  effected  in  a  heap 
such  as  I  have  described,  if  smoothed  over  with 
a  shovel,  and  left  for  half  an  hour  before  being 
served  out  to  the  cattle.  The  advant:iges  of  this 
mode  of  mixingare — that  it  is  more  quickly  dune; 
that  there  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  quantity 
of  food  that  can  be  prepared  without  any  ad- 
ditional utensils  ;  and  that  a  few  minutes  suffice 
to  wash  the  floor  clean  after  each  mixing.  In 
tubs,  the  compound  cannot  be  thoroughly  mixed 
without  a  liberal  use  of  the  stirrer  and  rammer  ; 
and  where  there  are  many  cattle,  and  conse- 
quently several  tubs,  the  whole  process  of  putting 
successive  layers,  stirring  and  rannaing,  has  to 
be  repeated  in  each.  Taking  the  compound  out 
of  the  tubs  also,  after  it  has  been  rammed  down 
tight,  especially  from  near  the  bottom,  is  tedious 
compared  with  shovelling  it  up  from  a  heap  on 
the  floor  ;  and  each  tub  must  be  washed  and 
scraped  very  clean,  otherwise  the  small  fragments 
remaining  turn  sour,  and  gi'O  a  disagreeable 
taste  to  the  next  mixing.  In  all  the  feeding 
establishments  in  Yorkshire  that  I  am  acquainted 
with,  mixing  on  the  floor  is  preferred  to  the  use 
of  tubs."t 

1365.  Still  another  question  remains  to  be 
considered  in  reference  to  the  feeding  of  cattle 
in  winter,  which  is — whether  they  thrive  best  in 
hammels  or  in  byres  at  the  stake  I  The  determi- 
nation of  this  question  would  settle  the  future 
constructi/>n  of  steadings  ;  for,  of  course,  if  more 
profit  were  certainly  derived  by  the  farmer  in 
feeding  his  cattle  in  hamaiels  than  in  byres,  not 
only  would  no  more  byres  be  erected,  but  those 
in  use  would  be  converted  into  hammels— and 
this  circumstance  would  so  materially  change  the 
form  of  steadings  as  to  throw  open  the  confined 
courts,  embraced  within  quadrangles,  to  the 
influence  of  the  sun,  at  the  only  season  these 
receptacles  are  required,  namely  in  winter. 
Some  facts  have  already  been  decided  regarding 
the  comparative  ettects  of  hammels  and  byres 
upon  cattle.  Cattle  are  much  cleaner  in  ham- 
mels than  in  byres.  No  doubt  they  can  be  kept 
clean  in  byres  ;  but  not  being  so,  there  must  be 
some  difficulty  incidental  to  byre-management — 
and  it  consists,  I  presume,  in  the  cattle-man  find- 
ing it  more  troublesome  to  keep  the  beasts  clean 
in  a  byre  than  in  hammels  ;  otherwise  the  fact 
is  not  easily  to  be  accounted  for,  for  he  takes  no 


Note. 


202 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


fffciol  care  to  keep  beasts  in  hammels  clean. 
Perhaps  when  cattle  have  liberty  to  lie  d.jwn 
where  ihey  plea.*e,  they  may  choose  the  driest, 
because  the  most  "comfortable  spot  :  whereas,  in 
a  byre,  they  must  lie  down  upon  what  may  be, 
and'  which  they  cannot  see  behind  thera.  There 
is  another  advantage  derived  from  hammels — the 
hair  of  cattle  never  scalds  off  the  skin,  and  never 
becomes  short  and  smooth,  but  remains  long  and 
moisy,  and  is  all  licked  over,  and  washed  clean 
by  rain,  until  it  is  naturally  cast  in  spring  ;  and 
this  advantage  is  felt  by  cattle  when  sent  to 
market  in  winter,  where  they  can  withstand 
much  more  wet  and  cold  than  those  which  have 
been  fed  in  byres.  A  third  advantage  is,  that 
cattle  from  hammels  can  travel  the  road  without 
injury  to  their  feet,  being  accustomed  to  be  so 
much  upon  their  feet,  and  to  move  about.  It 
has  been  alleged  in  favour  of  byres,  that  they 
accommodate  more  cattle  on  the  same  space  of 
ground,  and  are  less  expensive  to  erect  at  first 
than  hammels.  That  in  a  given  space  more 
beasts  are  accommodated  in  byres  tliere  is  no 
doubt — and  there  is  as  little  doubt  that  more 
beasts  are  put  in  a  byre  than  should  be — but  I 
have  great  doubts  that  it  will  cost  more  money 
to  accommodate  a  given  number  of  cattle  in  a 
hamrael  than  in  a  byre  ;  because  hammels  can 
be  constructed  in  a  temporary  form  with  wood  and 
straw,  and  they  make  beasts  very  comfortable,  at  a 
moderate  charge,  whereas  byres  cannot  be  formed 
in  that  fashion  ;  and  even  in  the  more  costly 
form  of  roofs  and  walls,  the  shedding   of  ham- 


mels requires,  comparatively  to  a  byre,  but  a 
small  stretch  of  roof ;  and  it  is  well  known  that 
it  is  the  roof,  and  not  the  bare  masonry  of  the 
walls,  that  constitutes  the  most  cosily  part  of  a 
steading.  I  have  seen  a  set  of  hammels,  having 
stone  and  lime  walls,  and  feeding-troughs,  and  a 
temporary  roof,  erected  for  £1  tor  every  beast  it 
could  accommodate,  and  no  form  of  byre  could 
be  built  at  that  cost,  liut  all  these  advantages 
of  hammels  would  be  of  trifling  import,  if  it 
could  be  proved  by  experience  that  cattle  return 
larger  profits  on  being  fed  in  byres  ;  and  unless 
this  superiority  is  established  in  regard  to  either, 
the  other  is  undeserving  of  prelerence.  How, 
then,  stands  the  fact  ? — has  experiment  ever  tried 
the  comparative  effects  of  both  on  auy  thing  like 
fair  terms  I  Mr  Boswell  of  Balmuto  has  done 
so  both  in  Fifeshire  and  at  Kingcausie,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, to  give  variety  to  the  experiment,  and 
it  shall  now  be  my  duty  to  make  you  acquainted 
with  the  results. 

1 366.  At  Balmuto,  4  three-year-olds  were  put 
in  close  byres,  and  4  in  open  hammels,  and  the 
same  number  of  two-year-olds  were  accommo- 
dated in  a  similar  manner  at  Kingcausie.  Those 
at  Kingcausie  received  turnips  only,  and  of 
course  straw  ;  at  Balmuto  a  few  potatoes  were 
given  at  the  end  of  the  season,  in  addition  to  the 
turnips.  The  season  of  the  experiments  extended 
from  17th  October  1834  to  19th  February  1835. 
The  results  were  these  ; — 


The  4  hammel-fed  2-year-oIds  at  Kingcausie  gained  of  live  weight 
—  4        ...  3  year-olds  at  Balmuto  —  — 


—  4  byre-fed  2-year-oIds  at  Kiogcansie  gained  of  live  weight 

—  4       —       3-year-olds  at  Balmuto  —  — 

Gain  of  live  weight  by  the  hammel-fed 


St.    ItK. 

.     32     7 
.     36     0 


St.  lbs. 

45  8 

46  0 

91     8 


68     7 
23    1 


Tliis  is,  however,  not  all  gain,  for  the  hammel-fed  consumed  more  turnips,  the  Aberdeen  yellow 
bullock,  than  the  byre  fed. 

Ton.  cwt.  qr.  11m; 
1  nose  at  Kingcausie  consumed  more  by        .  .  .  .  .  .  .     1     7     2     t> 

And  those  at  Balmuto       —         —  .  .  .  .  ,  ,  .     2     4     3  22 


Total  more  consumed 


3  12    2     0 


In  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  the  gain  upon 
the  hammel-fed  was  this  : — 23  stones  1  lb.  live 
weight,  =  13J  stones  beef,  at  6s.  per  stone,  gives 
£4,  23.;  from  which  deduct  the  value  of  the  tur- 
nips, at4d.  per  cwt.,  £1,  4s.  2d.,  leaving  a  balance 
of  £2,  78.  lOd.  in  favour  of  hammel-feediiig. 

1 367.  It  is  a  prevalent  opinion  amongst  far- 
mers, that  young  cattle  do  not  lay  on  weight  so 
fa»t  as  old.  But  this  experiment  contradicts  it  ; 
for  the  two-year-olds  in  the  hammels  at  King- 
causie gained  45  stones  8  lbs.  on  their  united 
weights  of  320  stones  7  lbs.,  in  the  same  time 
that  the  three-year-olds  in  the  hammels  of  Bal- 
muto, weighing  together  350  stones,  were  of 
gaining  46  stones.  Besides,  the  young  beasts  in 
the  hammels  at  Kingcausie  gained  orer  those  in 


the  byre  13  stones  1  lb.,  whilst  the  older  cattle 
in  the  hammels  at  Balmuto  gained  over  those  in 
the  byre  only  10  stones.  So  that,  in  either  way, 
the  young  cattle  had  the  advantage  over  the 
older. 

1368.  Mr  Boswell  observes,  that  "hammels 
ought  never  to  be  used  unless  when  the  climate 
is  good,  ami  the  accommodation  of  courts  dry 
and  well  sheltered  ;  and,  above  all,  unless  when 
there  is  a  very  large  quantity  of  litter  to  keep 
the  cattle  constantly  clean  and  dry."  Shelter  is 
essential  for  all  sorts  of  stock  in  any  situation, 
and  the  more  exposed  the  general  condition  of 
the  farm  is,  the  more  urcniiere  is  of  shelter; 
but  let  the  situation  be  what  it  may,  it  is,  in  mj 
opinion,  quite    possible  to  render  any  hammel 


FEEDING  CATTLE  OX  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


293 


sheltered  enough  for  stock,  not  only  by  tlie  dis- 
tribution of  planting,  but  by  temporary  erections 
upon  the  weather-side  ;  and  these  means  will  be 
the  more  effectual  when  the  hainmel  is  placed 
facing  the  meridian  sun,  which  it  should  be  in 
every  case.  If  these  particulars  are  attended 
to,  and  rain-water  spouts  placed  along  the  eaves 
in  front  to  prevent  the  rain  from  the  roof  falling 
into  the  court,  and  well-built  drains,  with  con- 
venient gratings,  connected  with  all  the  courts, 
are  properly  made,  the  quantity  of  straw  required 
will  not  be  inordinate,  as  I  have  myself  expe- 
rienced when  farming  dry  turnip-soil.  Mr 
Boswell's  testimony  in  favour  of  hammels  is 
most  conclusive,  and  it  is  this, — "  From  the  re- 
sult of  my  own  experiment,  as  well  as  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  every  agriculturist  with 
whom  I  have  conversed  on  the  subject,  I  feel 
convinced  that  there  is  no  point  more  clearly 
established  than  that  cattle  improve  quicker,  or, 
in  other  words,  titrite  better  in  open  hammds 
than  in  close  byres."* 

1369.  A  method  of  accommodating  cattle  while 
feeding  has  been  practised  in  some  parts  of 
England  for  a  few  years  past,  and  it  is  called 
box-feeding.  The  boxes,  as  they  are  termed, 
consist  of  several  railed  in  spaces  under  one  roof, 
or  a  series  of  them  protected  by  a  roof  against  a 
high  wall  as  lean-to's,  or  upon  low  walls  as  a 
shed  roof.  They  form,  in  short,  a  series  of  loose 
boxes  or  cribs.  They  are  made  from  10  feet  to 
8  feet  square,  and  are  intended  for  the  accom- 
modation of  a  single  beast  each.  The  crib  out 
of  which  the  beast  takes  its  food  is  made  to 
move  up  and  down  between  two  posts,  according 
as  the  litter  becomes  high  by  accumulation,  or 
low  by  removal.  The  bottom  of  the  box  is  sunk 
into  the  ground,  say  2  feet,  and  the  hollowed 
space  is  built  round  the  sides  with  brick  work, 
or  mason  work,  to  the  level  of  the  ground,  and 
causewayed  or  paved  in  the  bottom.  A  passage, 
from  which  the  food  is  supplied,  runs  along  one 
end  of  the  boxes.  Compound  and  cut  straw  are 
regularly  supplied  to  the  cattle,  and  litter  strewn 
in  sufEcient  quantity  to  keep  them  clean  ;  and, 
thus  supplied  with  food  and  litter,  they  are  re- 
presented as  being  very  comfortable  in  such 
boxes. 

1370.  Mr  Warnes  says,  that  when  these  boxes 
are  erected  with  rough  materials,  they  cost  only 
30s.  a-piece.  Timber  of  all  kinds  is  sold,  I 
believe,  very  cheap  in  the  rural  districts  of 
England  ;  but  in  Scotland,  no  accommodation  for 
cattle  kept  constantly  under  roof,  and  affording 
requisite  shelter  in  winter,  can  be  erected  at  so 
small  a  cost.  But  if  cattle  are  to  be  really 
benefited  by  comfortable  accommodation,  why 
grudge  them  it,  since  benefit  to  them  is  profit  to 
their  owners  ?  A  space  of  8  feet  square  seems 
too  small  for  an  ox  that  will  attain  50  stones  ; 
and  as  to  the  ox  having  room  to  shy  away  from 
any  person  going  beside  him,  in  such  a  limited 
space,  is  out  of  the  question — especially  when 
the  two  upper  rails,  which  form  two  sides  of  the 

*  Prize  Essai/s  of  the  Illijhiaudand  Anr 
+  See  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Sociity 
J  Warnes  On  the  Cultivation  of  Flax,  2d 


box,  are  obliged  to  be  left  as  wide  as  to  allow 
the  4iead  of  the  beast  to  pass  between  them, 
on  turning  himself.f  I  feel  the  same  objection 
to  cattle  being  so  confined  when  feeding,  as  I  did 
to  the  sheep  in  their  confined  cribs  and  stalls, 
(967  ;)  and  the  question  of  the  feeding  is  not  to 
be  ascribed  to  the  boxes,  but  to  the  superior 
nature  of  the  linseed  upon  which  they  are  fed. 
Indeed,  I  should  consider  the  dampness  inherent 
to  a  situation  dug  2  feet  into  the  ground,  in  ren- 
dering even  dry  straw  unwholesome  in  it  as  a  bed, 
as  having  a  tendency  to  injure  the  progress  of  an 
ox  towards  maturity  rather  than  otherwise  ;  and 
I  am  sure  that  exposure  at  will  to  the  sun  and 
air,  and  even  rain  in  winter,  is  much  more  con- 
ducive to  the  health  of  an  ox  than  constant  con- 
finement under  a  roof.  It  is  true  that  box-feeding 
affords  much  more  liberty  to  the  animal  than 
when  feeding  at  the  stake  in  a  byre  :  but  in  what 
respects  box-feeding  should  excel  small  hammels 
it  is  not  easy  to  discover.  The  cost  of  construct- 
ing small  hammels,  to  hold  two  or  three  oxen 
together,  is  not  great, — two  is  the  number  I 
would  always  prefer,  as  affording  society,  and 
avoiding  contention  on  the  one  hand,  and  loneli- 
ness on  the  other, — but  the  cost  of  constructing 
accommodation  for  cattle  I  consider  a  secondary 
consideration,  in  comparison  to  affording  them 
the  greatest  comfort  ;  and  greater  comfort  than 
a  haramel  may  afford  is  scarcely  possible  to  be 
attained  by  any  other  means— certainly  not  by 
such  boxes  ;  and  the  manure  would  be  equally 
as  well  compressed  and  good  in  hammels  as  in 
boxes. 

1371.  Surely  Mr  Warnes  endeavours  to  make 
too  much  of  box-feeding,  to  compare  it  with  -the 
worst  method  of  feeding  cattle,  when  he  truly 
observes,  that  "  in  a  yard  the  master  cattle  con- 
sume the  choicest  parts  of  the  turnips.  They 
delight  in  goading  and  driving  the  underlings 
about,  and  allow  them  but  little  rest.  .  .  . 
In  fact,  the  system  of  feeding  cattle  in  boxes 
can  be  regulated  to  the  greatest  nicety,  while 
that  in  the  yard  must  ever  remain  slovenly, 
wasteful,  and  imperfect."  Compare  this  picture 
with  the  general  system  adopted  in  the  north  of 
England  and  the  south  of  Scotland,  in  fattening 
cattle  in  small  hammels,  and  it  will  be  found  to 
possess  all  the  advant-ages  derivable  from  boxes, 
in  which,  as  Mr  Warnes  informs  us,  "  every  bul- 
lock can  eat  at  his  leisure,  ruminate  unmolested, 
and  take  his  rest."J  Small  hammels  and  boxes 
are  thus  the  receptacles  for  cattle  that  admit  of 
a  legitimate  comparison  with  one  another,  for 
affording  them  shelter,  health,  and  comfort,  and 
not  open  courts  or  yards. 

1372.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  in  Ireland 
to  turn  out  cows,  when  even  giving  milk,  upon  the 
pasture  in  winter,  where,  of  course,  very  little 
subsistence  can  be  obtained  by  them  ;  and  the 
objectionable  practice  exists  by  necessity,  as  no 
turnips  have  been  raised  for  tlieir  support.  To 
show  the  loss  incurred  by  such  a  practice,  1  shall 
give  an  instance  of  the  increased  value  of  the 

icultural  Societi/,  vol.  xi.  p.  461. 
of  England,  vol.  viii.  p.  473. 
edition,  p.  166-7 


294 


PRACTICE— A\TNTER. 


produce  of  a  single  small  cow,  naturally  a  bad 
milker,  from  being  so  treated,  to  receiving  pre- 
pared food  in  the  byre.  Mr  John  Lynch,  the 
owner,  thus  writes  : — 

1844. 
"Nov.  7,1  had  her  milked  at  11  o'clock  a.m.,  in 

the  presence  of  workmen — the   milk 

measured  was  1  quart  and  3  naggins, 

and   at  night  her  milk  was   but   3 

naggins. 
...     9,  Milked    before    the   workmen,   at    10 

o'clock  A.M.,  1  quart  and  1   naggin  ; 

and  in  the  evening  again,  before  them, 

3  naggins. 
...   11,1  got  her  in  to  house-feed,  after  the 

following  manner  : — 
1st  feed,  6  o'clock    a.m..  Cut   straw,  hay,    and 
turnips,  all  boiled  to- 
gether. 

2d     ...     8       Raw  turnips. 

10       Let  out  on  the  field  till 

1 2  o'clock. 
3d     ...   12       ...         M.     Hay. 
4th    ...     3       ...        P.M.  Prepared  food  same  as 

in  the  morning. 
Sth   ...     6       ...         ...     Raw  turnips  and  man- 

gold-wurtzel  leaves, 
&c. 

6th    ...     8       Hay. 

The  result   was  an   increase   from  the    1st  day 
to    the    3d,   when  she   milked   2  quarts   in    the 
morning  and  the  same  at  night  ;  on  the  Sth  day 
2.^  quarts  at  each  milking  ;  and  on  the   12th  day 
after  being  put  in  she  milked  3  quarts  at  a  time, 
and  continued  so  fur  four  days.     Being   limited 
in  my  supply  of  green  food,  (as  I  then  thought.) 
I  curtailed  her  a  little  in  the  different  feeds, 
consequently  she  did  not  increase. 
From  the  day   on  wliich    she    was    £    s.    d. 
got  in  to  house-feed,  up  to  the  first  of 
April,   (being   140    days,)   her    milk 
averaged  5  quarts  per  day,  at   l^d. 

per  quart 4     7     6 

On  the  1st  of  April,  the  turnips 
and  mangold- wurtzel  not  being  nearly 
consumed,  I  increased  her  feeds  again, 
when  she  averaged  6  quarts  a-day  for 
the  first  fortnight,  and  7  quarts  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  month— being 
64  quarts  per  day  for  30  days,  or  195 
quarts,  at  Ud.  per  quart  .         .     1     4     45 

9th  May. —  The  vetches  were  now 
fit  for  cutting,  and  the  supply  of  tur- 
nips and  maugold-wurtzel  continuing 
up  to  the  1.5th  of  June,  she  frequently 
milked  9  quarts  a-day.  Her  milk  at 
this  date  (lot  August)  is  9  quarts, 
allowing  an  average  from  the  1st  of 
May  to  the  present  date  (being  92 
days)  at  8  quarts  per  day,  or  736 
quarts,  at  1  id.  per  quart  .         .     4  12     0 


Total  amount  from  11th  Nov.  to 
Ist  August 10     3  10^ 

Deduct  the  value  of  21  cwt.  of  hay, 
at  £2  per  ton  .        .        .        .220 


£8     1   lOi 
Dublin  Farmers*  Gai 


The  quantity  of  ground  under  green  fo6d 
was — 

Mangold- wurtzel  .        .  lO.l  perches  English. 

Swedish  turnips  .         .  21 

Aberdeen  yellows  .           9.J 

Vetches  and  rape  .  15 

Statute  measure  5ij:=35  perches  Irish. 
An  Irish  acre  of  ground  bearing  crops  such  as 
the  above,  and  being  turned  to  the  same  advan- 
tage, would  (notwithstanding  the  cow  being  such 
a  poor  milker)  bring  in  a  return  of  £46,  IDs., 
(minus  the  price  of  hay,)  together  with  a  large 
quantity  of  manure,  and  the  cattle  well  fed. 
My  cow  is  at  present  in  excellent  condition.  Had 
she  not  been  house-fed,  I  would  have  had  to  buy 
milk  and  butter  for  my  family  during  the  winter, 
and  to  pay  about  '60s.  for  sea-weed  or  guano,"* 

1373.  I  have  dwelt  the  longer  on  the  subject 
of  feeding  cattle,  because  of  its  great  importauce 
to  the  farmer,  and  also  because  of  the  uncertainty 
sometimes  attending  its  practice  to  a  profitable 
issue  ;  and  whether  it  leaves  a  profit  or  not  de- 
pends, no  doubt,  upon  the  mode  in  which  it  is 
prosecuted.  Many  are  content  to  fatten  their 
cattle  in  any  way,  or  because  others  do  so, 
provided  they  know  they  will  not  actually  lose 
money  by  it;  but  if  they  do  not  make  them  in  the 
ripest  state  they  are  capable  of  being  made,  they 
are,  in  fact,  losing  part  of  their  value.  But  hovy 
are  they,  you  may  ask,  best  to  be  made  ripe  1 
There  lies  the  difBculty  of  the  case — and  it  must 
be  attended  with  much  difficulty  before  a  man 
of  the  extensive  experience  in  fattening  cattle  as 
Mr  Stephenson  has  had,  would  express  him- 
self thus  : — "  We  have  had  great  experience  ia 
feeding  stock,  and  have  conducted  nnmben  of 
experiments  on  that  subject  with  all  possible  care, 
both  in  weighing  the  cattle  alive,  and  the  whole 
food  administered  to  them,  and  in  every  experi- 
ment we  made  ire  difcorered  something  neir.  But 
we  have  seen  enough  to  convince  us,  that  were 
the  art  of  feedinc)  letter  understood,  a  great  deal 
more  beef  and  mutton  might  be  produced  from  the 
same  quantity  of  food  than  is  generally  done." 
So  far  should  such  a  declaration  deter  you  from 
fattening  cattle — it  should  rather  be  a  proof  of  the 
wideuess  of  the  field  still  open  for  you  to 
experiment  in  ;  and  fortunately,  of  late  years, 
facilities  have  daily  presented  themselves.-  Oil- 
cake is  now  a  more  general  favourite  than  it  was 
some  years  since,  and  linseed  and  linseed-oil  now 
rank  themselves  amongst  the  richest  class  of 
cattle  food.  Chemistry  has  also  stepped  forward 
to  inform  us  of  the  substances  which  afford  most 
bone,  those  which  supply  most  muscular  fibre, 
and  those  which  deposit  most  fat.  The  theory 
of  the  digestion  of  the  domesticated  animals,  and 
of  the  combined  effects  of  variius  sorts  of  food, 
is  now  better  understood  than  it  was  ;  and  to 
these  we  shall  direct  our  attention,  after  you 
have  learnt  the  mode  of  feeding  every  kind  of 
animal  found  on  a  farm. 

1374.  There  are  but  few  rfi.tfa.'w  incidental  to 
cattle  in  a  state  of  confinement  in  winter,  these 
being  chiefly  confined  to  the  skin,  such  as  the 

:tte,  of  9th  August  1845. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


295 


afFection  of  Hce,  and  to  accidents  in  the  admini- 
stration of  food,  as  koren  and  obstruction  of  the 
gullet  may  be  termed. 

1375.  Lice. — When  it  is  known  that  almost 
every  species  of  quadruped  found  in  the  country, 
and  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  inhabited  by  one  or 
more  pediculidai— sometimes  peculiar  to  one  Iciud 

of  animal,  at  other  times  ranging  over  many it 

will   not  excite   surprise   that  they  should  also 
occur  on  our  domestic  ox.     Indeed,   domestica- 
tion, and   the   consequences  it  entails — such   as 
confinement,  transition  from  a  lower  to  a  higher 
condition,  high  feeding,  and  an  occasional  devia- 
.    tion  from  a  strictly  natural  kind  of  food— seem 
peculiarly  favourable   to  the    increase   of  these 
parasites.     Their  occurrence   is  well  known  to 
the  breeder  of  cattle,  and   to  the  feeder  of  fat 
cattle  ;  and   they  are  not  unfrequently  a  source 
of  no  small  annoyance   to   him.     Unless   when 
they  prevail  to  a  great  extent,  they  are  probably 
not  the  cause  of  any  positive  evil  to  the  animal  ; 
but,  as  their  attacks  are   attended  with   loss  of 
hair,  an  unhealthy  appearance  of  the   skin,  and 
their  presence  is  always  more  or  less   unsightly, 
and  a  source  of  personal  annoyance  to  the  cattle, 
they  may  much  impair  the  animal's  look,  which, 
when  it  is  designed  to  be  exhibited  in  the  market, 
is   a  matter  of  no    small   consequence.     As   an 
acquaintance  with  the  appearance  and  habits  of 
these  creatures   must  precede  the  discovery  and 
application  of  any  judicious  method  of  removing 
or  destroying  them,  I  shall  describe   the  species 
now  which  are  most  common  and  noxious  to  the 
ox,  and  afterwards  such  as  infest  the  other  do- 
mestic animals  of  the  farm.    They  may  be  divided 
into  two  sections,  according  to   a  peculiarity  of 
structure,  which  determines  the  mode  in  vihich 
they  attack  an  animal — namely,  those  provided 
with  a  mouth  formed  for  sucking,  and    such   as 
have  a  mouth  with  two  jaws  formed  for  gnawing. 
Of  the  former  there  are  three  species,  which  are 
very  common,  attacking  the  ox,  the  sow,  and  the 
ass. 

1376.  0.v-Iot,fe  {Hcemafopinm  eurmernm,) 
fig.  lOC.-It  IS  abi.ut  1  or  U  line  in  length-the 
line  being  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch,  as  seen  by 
the  hue  belovy  the  figure-the  head  somewhat 
triangular,  and  of  a  chestnut  colour,  the  eyes  pale 
brown,  antenna  pale  ochre-yellow  ;  thorax  dark- 
p.     ,„„  er  chestnut  than    the 

^^'        •  head,  with  a  spiracle 

or  breathing-hole  on 
each  side,  and  a  deep 
furrow  on  each  side 
anteriorly  ;  the  shape 
nearly  square,  the  an- 
terior line  concave  ; 
abdomen  broadly  ov- 
ate, greyish-white,  or 
very  slightly  tinged 
with  yeliow,  with  four 
longitudinal  rows  of 
dufky  horny  excre- 
scences, and  two  black 
curved  marks  on  the 
THE  OX-LOUSE,  H^EMATO-  hist  Segment ;  legs  long 
PiNUs  EURY.sTERNUs.         and  strong,  particular- 


T 


ly  the  two  fore  pairs,  the  colour  chestnut ;  claws 
strong  and  black  at  the  extremity.  This  may  be 
called  the  common  louse  that  infests  cattle.  It  is 
most  apt  to  abound  on  them  when  tied  to  the  stall 
for  winter  feeding,  and  a  notion  prevails  in  Eng- 
land that  its  increase  is  owing  to  the  cattle  feediiTg 
on  straw.  The  fact  probably  is,  that  it  becomes 
more  plentiful  when  the  animal  is  tied  up,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  being  then  lessableto  rubaiidlick 
itself,and  the  louse  is  left  to  propagate,  which  it  does 
with  great  rapidity,  comparatively  undisturbed. 
It  generally  concentrates  its  forces  on  the  mane 
and  shoulders.  As  the  parasite  is  suctorial,  if  it 
is  at  all  the  means  of  causing  the  hair  to  fall  off, 
it  can  only  be  by  depriving  it  of  the  juices  by 
■which  it  is  nourished,  which  we  can  conceive  to 
be  the  case  when  the  sucker  is  inserted  at  the 
root  of  the  hair  ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
hair  is  rubbed  ofi'by  the  cattle  themselves,  or  is 
shorn  off  by  another  louse  to  be  just  noticed. 
The  egg  or  nit  is  pear-shaped,  and  may  be  seen 
attached  to  the  hairs. 

1377.  Ox-louse    (Trichodectes    scalaris,)    fig. 
101.— This   parasite,  which    was    described    by 
Linnaeus  and    the   older  naturalists   under    the 
name  of  Pediculus  Bovis, 
is    minute,    the     length 
seldom    exceeding    ^    a 
line.     The  head  and  tho- 
rax are  of  a    light  rust 
colour,    the     former    of 
a  somewhat     obcordate 
sliape,   with  two  dusky 
spots  in  front  ;  the  third 
joint  of  the  antennae  long- 
est,  and   spindle-shaped 
(in  the  horse-louse,  Tri- 
chodectes Equi,  that  joint 
is    clavate  ;)     abdomea 
pale — tawny,  pubescent, 
the  first  6  segments  with 
a    transverse    dusky    or 
rust-coloured    stripe    ou 
the  upper   half,   a   nar- 
row  stripe  of  the  same 
colour    along  each  side, 
and  a  large  spot  at  the 
hinder  extremity   of  the   abdomen  ;   legs,  pale 
tawny.      Plentiful  on  cattle  ;  commonly  found 
about  the  mane,  forehead,  and  rump,  near  the 
tail-head.     It   has   likewise   been  found   on  the 
ass.     It  is  provided  with  strong  mandibles,  with 
2  teeth  at  the  apex,  and   by  means  of  these  it 
cuts  the  hairs  near  the  roots  with  facility.    Both 
these  vermin  are  destroyed  by  the  same  means 
as  the  sheep-louse,  (1067.) 

1370.  Chokinci.—When  cattle  are  feeding  on 
turnips  or  potatoes,  it  occasionally  happens  that  a 
piece  larger  than  will  enter  the  gullet  easily  is 
attempted  to  be  swallowed,  and  obstructed'  in 
Its  passage.  The  accident  chiefly  occurs  to 
cattle  receiving  a  limited  supply  of  turnips,  and 
young  beasts  are  more  subject  to  it  than  old. 
When  a  number  of  young  beasts  in  the  same 
court  only  get  a  specified  quantity  of  turnips  or 
potatoes  once  or  twice  a-day,  each  becomes 
apprehensive,  when  the  food  is  distributed,  that 


THE   OX-LOUSE,  TRI- 
CHODECTES SCALARIS. 


296 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


it  will  not  get  its  own  share,  and  therefore  eat8 
what  it  can  with  much  apparent  greediness,  and, 
not  taking,'  sufficient  time  to  masticate,  swallows 
its  food  hastily.  A  large  piece  of  turnip,  or  a 
amall  potato,  thus  easily  escapes  beyond  the 
power  of  the  tongue,  and,  assisted  as  it  is  by  the 
saliva,  is  sent  to  the  top  of  the  gullet,  where  it 
remains.  Cattle  that  project  their  mouths  for- 
ward, in  eating,  are  most  liable  to  choke.  When 
turnips  are  sliced  and  potatoes  broken,  there  is 
less  danger  of  the  accident  occurring,  even 
amongst  young  cattle.  The  site  of  the  obstruc- 
tion, its  consequent  effects,  and  remedial  mea- 
sures for  its  removal,  are  thus  described  by 
Professor  Dick.  "  The  obstruction  usually 
occurs  at  the  bottom  of  the  pharynx  and  com- 
mencement of  the  gullet,  not  far  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  larynx,  which  we  have  seen  mistaken 
for  the  foreign  body.  The  accident  is  much 
more  serious  in  ruminating  animals  than  in 
others,  as  it  immediately  induces  a  suspension  of 
that  necessary  process,  and  of  indigestion,  fol- 
lowed by  a  fermentation  of  the  food,  the 
evolution  of  gases,  and  all  those  frightful  symp- 
toms which  will  be  noticed  under  the  disease 
hoven.  The  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  the 
general  uneasiness  of  the  animal,  usually  direct 
at  once  to  the  nature  of  the  accident,  which 
examination  brings  under  the  cognisance  of  the 
eye  and  hand.  ]Vo  time  viuU  he  iont  in  endea- 
Touring  to  afford  relief;  and  the  first  thing  to  be 
tried  is,  by  gentle  friction  and  pressure  of  the 
hand  upwards  and  downwards,  to  see  and  rid 
the  animal  of  the  morsel.  Falling  in  this,  we 
mention  first  the  great  virtue  we  have  frequently 
found  in  the  use  of  mild  lubricating  fluids,  sucli 
as  warm  water  and  oil,  well  boiled  gruel,  «Scc. 
The  gruel  is  grateful  to  the  animal,  which  fre- 
quently tries  to  gulp  it,  and  often  succeeds. 
Whether  this  is  owing  to  the  lubrication  of  the 
parts,  or  to  the  natural  action  superinduced,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  inquire  ;  but  the  fact  vve  know, 
that  a  few  pints  of  warm  gruel  have  often 
proved  successful  in  removing  the  obstruction. 
Jf  this  remedif  should  he  ineffectual,  the  foreign 
body  may  perhaps  be  within  the  reach  of  the 
small  hand  which  a  kind  dairy-maid  may  skil- 
fully lend  for  the  purpose.  Jf  this  good  service 
cannot  be  procured,  the  common  probang  must 
be  used,  the  cup-end  being  employed.  Other 
and  more  complicated  instruments  have  been 
invented,  acting  upon  various  principk>s, — some, 
for  example,  on  that  of  bruising  the  obstructing 
body — and  the  use  of  these  requires  considerable 
skill.  Disappointed  in  all,  we  must  finally  have 
recourse  to  the  knife."*  You  may  try  all  these 
remedies,  with  the  exception  of  the  knife,  with 
perfect  confidence.  The  friction,  the  gruel,  the 
hand,  and  the  probang,  I  have  successfully  tried  ; 
but  the  use  of  the  knife  should  be  left  to  the 
practical  skill  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

1379.  The  common  pruhang  is  represented  in 
fig.  102,  a  being  the  cup-end,  which  is  so  formed 
that  it  may  partially  lay  hold  of  the  piece  of 
turnip  or  potato,  and  not  slip  between  it  and  the 
gullet,  to  the  risk  of  rupturing  the  latter  ;  and 
being  of  larger  diameter  than  the  usual  state  of 


Fig.  102. 

0 


the  gullet,  on  being  pressed  forward  it  distends 
the  gullet,  and  makes  room  for 
the  obstructing  body  to  proceed 
to  the  stomach.  Formerly  the 
probang  was  covered  with  cane, 
but  is  now  with  India-rubber, 
which  is  more  pliable,  it  is  used 
in  this  manner  :  Let  the  piece  of 
wood,  fig.  103,  be  placed  over 
the  opened  niuuth  ot  the  animal 
as  a  bit,  and  the  straps  of 
leather  attached  to  it  buckled 
tightly  over  the  neck  behind  the 
horns,  to  keep  the  bit  steady  in 
its  place.  The  use  of  the  bit  is, 
not  only  to  keep  the  month  open 
without  trouble,  but  to  prevent 
the  animal  injuring  the  ))robang 
with  its  teeth,  and  it  offers  the 
most  direct  passage  for  the  pro- 
bang  towards  the  throat.  Let  a 
few  men  seize  the  animal  on  both 
sides  by  the  horns  or  otherways, 
and  let  its  mouth  be  held  jjroject- 
ing  forward  in  an  easy  position, 
but  no  fingers  introduced  into  the 
nostrils  to  obstruct  the  breath- 
ing of  the  animal,  nor  the  tongue 
forcibly  pulled  out  of  the  side  of 
the  mouth.  Introduce  now  the 
cup-end  a  of  the  probang,  fig. 
1  02,  thriiugh  the  round  hole  6  of 
the  mouth-piece,  fig.  103,  and 
push  it  gently  towards  the  throat 
until  you  feel  the  piece  of  the 
turnip  obstructing  you;  push  then  with  a  firm 
and  persevering  hand, 
cautioning  the  men,  pre- 
vious to  the  push, to  hold 
on  firmly — tor  the  start- 
n :  of  the  piece  of  tur- 
nip by  the  instrument 
may  give  the  animal  a 
smart  pain,  and  cause  it 
to  wince  and  even  leap 
a-icie.  The  obstruction 
w:ll  now  most  liki-'l)  give 
way,  especially  if  the 
ojieration  ha^  been  per- 
formed before  the  parts 
around  it  began  to  swell; 
but  if  not,  the  probang  must  be  used  with  still 
more  force,  whilst  another  person  rubs  with  his 
hands  up  and  down  upon  the  distended  thi'oat  of 
the  beast.  If  these  attempts  fail,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  the  knife,  and  a  veterinary  surgeon  sent 
for  instantly. 

1380.  The  probang,  fig.  102,  is  5  feet  1  inch  in 
length,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
with  pewter  cup  and  ball  ends  1^  inch  diameter. 
The  mouth-piece,  fig.  103,  is  .'>  inches  long  and  3 
inches  wide,  with  two  handles,  5  inches  long 
each.  Price  of  the  probang  is  12s.,  and  with  the 
mouth-piece  14s. 


THE  lATI'I.; 

rRonAN<i. 


Fi?.  10.3. 


THK  MOl'TH-I'IECE  FDR 
THK  CATTLB  PROB.iNG. 


1381.  Horen. — The   hoven   in   cattle    is    the 
corresponding  disease  to  the  gripes  or  batts  in 

Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  46. 


FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 


297 


horses.     The  direct  cause  of  the  symptom's  are 
undue  accumulation  of  gases   in   the  paunch  or 
large  stomach,  which,  not  finding  a  ready  vent, 
causes  great  pain  and  uneasiness  to  the  animal, 
and,  if  not  removed  in  time,  rapture  of  the  paunch 
and  death  ensue.      The  cause  of  accumulation 
of  the  gases  is  indigestion.    "  The  structure  of  the 
digestive  organs  of  cattle,"  says  Professor  Dick, 
"  renders  them  peculiarly  liable  to  the  complaint, 
whilst  the  sudden  changes  to  which  they  are  ex- 
posed in  feeding  prove  exciting  causes.     Thus, 
it   is  often  witnessed  in  animals  removed  from 
confinement  and  winter  feeding  to  the  luxuriance 
of  the  clover  field  ;  and  in  house-fed  cattle,  from 
the  exhibition  of  rich  food,  such   as  pease-meal 
and  beans,  often  supplied"  to  enrich  their  milk. 
We  have  already  mentioned  that  it   sometimes 
proceeds  from  obstructed  gullet.     The  symptoms 
bear  so  close  a  resemblance,  both  in  their  pro- 
gress and  termination  in  rupture  and  death,  to 
those  so  fully  described  above,  that  we  shall  not 
repeat  them.    The  treatment  mostly  corresponds, 
and  it  must  be  equally  prompt.     The  mixture  of 
the  oils  of  linseed  and  turpentine    is    nearly  a 
specific."*     The  recipe  is,  linseed  oil,  raw,  1  lb.  ; 
oil  of  turpentine,  from  2  to  3  oz.  ;  laudanum, 
from    1    to  2  oz.,  for  one  dose  :    or  hartshorn, 
from  4  to  1  oz.,  in  2  pints  imperial  of  tepid  water. 
In  cases  of  pressing  urgency,  from   1  to  2  oz.  of 
tar  may  be  added  to  -|  pint  of  spirits,  and  given 
diluted,  with  great  prospect  of  advantage.    These 
medicines  are  particularly  effective  in  the  early 
stage   of  the  disease,  and  should  therefore  be 
tried  on  the  first  discovery  of  the   animal  being 
affected  with  it.      Should  they  not  give  imme- 
diate relief,  the  probang  may  be  introduced  into 
the   stomach,  and   be  the  means  of  conveying 
away  the  gas  as  fast  as  it  is  generated  ;  and  I 
have  seen  it  successful  when  the  complaint  was 
produced  both  by  potatoes  and   clover  ;    but   I 
never  saw  an  instance  of  hoven  from  turnips, 
except  from  obstruction  of  the  gullet.     The  trial 
of  the   probang  is  useful  to  show  whether  the 
complaint  arises  from  obstruction  or  otherwise, 
for  should  it  pass  easily  down  the  throat,  and 
the  complaint  continue,  of  course  the   case  is  a 
decided   one   of  hoven.     Placing  an  instrument, 
such  as  in  fig.  103,  across  the  mouth,  to  keep  it 
open,  is  an  American  cure  which  is  said  never  to 
have  failed.     But  the  gas  may  be  generated  so 
rapidly  that  neither  medicines  nor  the  probang 
maybe  able  topreventorconveyit  away,  in  which 
case  the  apparently  desperate  remedy  of  paunch- 
ing  must  be  had  recourse   to.     "  The   place  for 
puncturing  the  paunch,"  directs  Professor  Dick, 
"  is  on  the  left  side,  in  the  central  point  between 
the  lateral  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebra,  the 
spine  of  the   ileum,  and  the   last  rib.     Here  the 
truchar  may  be  introduced  without  fear.     If  air 
escape  rapidly,  all  is  well.     The  canula  may  re- 
main in  for  a  day  or  two,  and  on  withdrawal, 
little  or  no  inconvenience   will  usually  manifest 
itself     If  no  gas  escapes,  we  must  enlarge  the 
opening  freely,  till  the   hand  can  be  introduced 
into  the  paunch,  and  its  contents  removed,  as  we 
have  sometimes  seen,   in  prodigious  quantities. 


This  done,  we  should  close  the  wound  in  the 
divided  paunch  with  2  or  3  stitches  of  fine  cat- 
gut, and   carefully  approximate  and   retain   the 
sides  of  the  external  wound,  and  with  rest,  wait 
for  a  cure,  which   is  often  as  complete   as  it   is 
speedy. "f    To  strengthen  your  confidence  in  the 
performance   of  this  operation,  I   may  quote   a 
medical  authority  on  its  safe  effects,  on  the  human 
subject,  even  to  the  extent  of  exposing  the  intes- 
tines as    they  lay  in   the  abdomen.     "  I  should 
expect  no  immediately  dangerous  effects    from 
opening  the  abdominal  cavity.     Dr  Blundell  has 
stated,    that    he    has    never   in  his  experiments 
upon  the   rabbit  observed   any  marked   collapse 
when  the  peritoneum  was  laid  open,  although  in 
full  expectation  of  it.     The  great  danger  to  be 
apprehended    is    from    inflammation,    and    the 
surgeon,  of  course,  will  do   all   in  his   power  to 
guard    against  it."t     I  once    used   the    trochar 
with  success  in  the   case  of  a  Skibo  stot  which 
had  been  put  on  potatoes  from  turnips,  and  as  he 
was   in  very  high  condition,  took  a  little   blood 
from  him  after  the  operation,  and  he   recovered 
very  rapidly.     In  another  year  I  lost  a  fine  one- 
year-old   short-horn    quey  by    hoven,  occasioned 
by  potatoes.     Oil  and  turpentine  were  used,  but 
as  the  complaint  had   remained  too  long,  before 
it    was   notified    to   myself,    late    at  night,    the 
medicine  had  no  effect.     The  probang  went  down 
easily,  proving   there  was  no   obstruction.     The 
trochar   was    then    thrust   in,  but    soon   proved 
ineffectual  ;  and  as  I  had  not  the  courage  to  use 
the  knife  to  enlarge  the  opening  the  trochar  had 
made,  and  withdraw  the  contents  of  the  paunch 
by  the  hand,  the  animal  sank,  and  was  imme- 
diately  slaughtered.      The  remedies  cannot   be 
too  soon  applied  in  the  case  of  hoven. 

1382.  The  irocAar  is  represented   in   fig.  104. 
It  consists  of  a  round  rod  of  iron  a,  5  inches  in 
Fig.  104.  length,  terminating 

at  one  end  in  a  tri- 
angular pyramidal- 
shaped  point,  and 
furnished  with  a 
wooden  handle  at 
the  other.  The  rod 
is  sheathed  in  a  cy- 
lindrical cover  or 
case  6,  called  the 
canula,  which  is  open 
at  one  end,  permit- 
ting the  point  of  the 
rod  to  project,  and 
THE  TROCHAR.  fumished     at      the 

other  with  a  broad 
circular  flange.  The  canula  is  kept  tight  on 
the  rod  by  means  of  a  slit  at  its  end  nearest 
the  point  of  the  rod,  which,  being  somewhat  larger 
in  diameter  than  its  own  body,  expands  the 
slitted  end  of  the  canula  until  it  meets  the  body, 
when  the  slit  collapses  to  its  ordinary  dimen- 
sions, and  the  canula  is  kept  secure  behind  the 
enlarged  point,  as  at  c.  On  using  the  trochar, 
in  the  state  as  seen  in  c,  it  is  forced  with  a 
thrust  into  the  place  pointed  out  above,  through 


*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  54.  f  Ibid.  54-5. 

X  Stephens  On  Obstructed  and  Inflamed  Hernia,  p.  183-4. 


298 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  skin  into  the  paunch  ;  and  on  withdrawing 
the  rod  by  its  handle, — which  is  easily  done, 
notwithstanding  the  contrivance  to  keep  it  on, — 
tlie  cannla  is  left  in  the  opening,  and  retained  in 
its  place  by  the  flange,  to  permit  the  gas  to 
escape  through  the  channel.  On  account  of  the 
distended  state  of  the  skin,  the  trochar  may 
rebound  !rom  the  thrust  ;  and  in  such  an  event, 
a  considerable  force  must  be  used  to  penetrate 
the  skin.  The  spear  of  the  trochar  is  5  inches 
long,  and  the  handle  4  inches,  and  price  3s.  6d. 

1,383.  The  fardlebound  of  cattle  and  sheep  is 
notliing  more  than  a  modification  of  the  disease 
in  hur.-es  called  stomach-staggers,  which  is 
caused  by  an  enormous  distention  of  the  stomach. 
*•  In  this  variety,  it  has  been  ascertained,"  says 
Professor  Dick,  "  that  the  manipHes  are  most 
involved,  its  secretions  are  suspended,  and  its 
contents  become  dry,  hard,  and  caked  into  one 
solid  mass.  Though  the  constipation  is  great, 
yet  there  is  sometiiue:^  the  appearance  of  a  sliglit 
purging,  which  may  deceive  the  practitioner."* 
The  remedial  measures  are,  at  first,  to  relieve 
the  stomach  by  large  drenches  of  warm  water, 
by  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump.  Searching 
and  stimulating  laxatives  are  then  given,  assisted 
by  clysters,  and  then  cordials. 

1384.  Warts  and  angle-berries  are  not  uncom- 
mon excrescences  upon  cattle.  They  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  groin  and  belly.  I  have  fre- 
quently removed  them  by  ligature  with  waxed 
silk  thread.  Escharotics  have  great  efficacy  in 
removing  them  ;  such  as  alum,  bluestone,  corro- 
sive sublimate. 

1385.  Encyfted  tumours  sometimes  appear  on 
cattle,  and  may  be  removed  by  simple  incision, 
having  no  decided  root  or  adhesion.  1  had  a  one- 
year-old  shurt-horu  qiiey  that  had  a  large  one 
upon  the  front  of  a  hind  foot,  immediately  above 
the  coronet,  which  was  removed  by  a  veterinary 
surgeon  by  simple  incision.  What  the  true  cause 
of  its  appearance  may  have  been,  I  cannot  say  ; 
but  the  quey,  when  a  calf,  was  seen  to  kick  its 
straw  rack  violently  with'  the  foot  affected,  and 
was  lame  in  consequence  for  a  few  days ;  after 
which,  a  small  swelling  made  its  appearance 
upon  the  place,  which,  gradually  enlarging,  be- 
came the  loose  and  unsightly  tumour  which  was 
removed. 

1386.  A  gray-coloured  scabby  eruption,  vul- 
garly called  the  ticker,  sometimes  comes  out  on 
young  cattle  on  the  naked  skin  around  the  eye- 
lids, and  upon  the  uo>e  between  and  above  the 
nostrils.  It  is  considered  a  sign  of  thriving,  and 
no  doubt  it  makes  its  appearance  most  likely  on 
beasts  that  are  improving  from  a  low  Stat€  of 
Condition.  It  may  be  removed  by  a  few  appli- 
cations of  sulphur  ointment. 

1387.  In  winter,  when  cows  are  heavy  in  calf, 
some  are  troubled  with  a  complaint  commonly 
called  a  coming  dotrn  of  the  calf-led.  A  part  of 
the  womb  is  seen  to  protrude  through  the  vagi- 


nal passage  when  the  cow  lies  down,  and  disap- 
pears when  she  stands  up  again.  It  is  supposed 
to  originate  after  a  very  severe  labour.  Ban- 
dages have  been  recommended,  but,  in  the  case  of 
the  cow,  they  would  be  troublesome,  and  indeed 
are  unnecessary ;  for  if  the  litter  is  made  firm 
and  a  little  higher  at  the  back  than  the  front 
part  of  the  stall,  so  as  the  hind-quarter  of  the 
cow  shall  be  higher  than  the  fore  when  lying, 
the  protrusion  will  not  occur.  I  had  a  cow  that 
was  troubled  with  this  inconvenience  every  year, 
and  as  she  had  no  case  of  severe  labour  while  in 
my  possession,  I  do  not  know  whether,  in  her 
case,  it  was  occasioned  by  such  a  circumstance  ; 
but  she  may  have  been  sold  on  account  of  that 
complaint,  which  gave  her  no  uneasiness,  alter 
the  above  preventive  remedy  was  resorted  to. 

1388.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  to  cattle 
in  large  courts,  and  more  especially  to  those  in 
the  court  nearest  the  corn-barn,  that  an  oat- 
chafiFgets  into  oue  of  their  eyes  in  a  windy  djy. 
An  irritation  immediately  takes  place,  causing 
copious  watering  from  the  eye,  and,  if  the  cbaff 
is  not  removed,  a  considerable  inflammation 
and  consequent  pain  soon  ensue,  depriving  the 
sufferer  of  the  desire  for  food.  To  have  it  re- 
moved, let  the  animal  be  firmly  held  by  a  number 
of  men, — and  as  beasts  are  particularly  jealous  of 
having  any  thing  done  to  their  eyes,  a  young 
beast  even  will  require  a  number  of  men  to  hold 
it  fast.  The  wetted  forefinger  should  then  be 
gently  introduced  under  the  eyelid,  pushed  in 
as  far  as  it  can  go,  and  being  moved  round 
upon  the  surface  of  the  eye-bull,  is  brought  to 
its  original  position,  and  then  carefully  with- 
drawn, and  examined,  to  see  if  the  chafi"  has 
been  removed  along  with  it,  which  it  most  likuly 
will  be ;  but  if  not,  repeated  attempts  will  succeed. 
A  thiji  handkerchief  around  the  finger  will  secure 
the  extraction  at  the  firtit  attempt.  Fine  salt  or 
snuff"  have  been  recommended  to  be  blown  into 
the  eye  when  so  affected,  that  the  consequent 
increased  discharge  of  tears  may  float  away  the 
irritating  substance ;  but  the  assistance  of  t!ie 
finger  is  much  less  painful  to  the  animal,  and 
sooner  over, — and  as  it  is  an  operation  I  have  fre- 
quently performed  with  undeviating  success,  I 
can  attest  its  efficacy  and  safety.  Another  re- 
medy recommended  is,  to  take  an  awn  of  barley, 
and,  on  seeing  the  position  of  the  chaff",  to  use 
its  butt-end  to  take  hold  of  it,  which,  it  is  said, 
it  will  do,  by  drawing  the  awn  towards  you 
against  its  serrated  teeth  ;  and,  I  have  no  doubt, 
cures  have  been  eff"ected  with  it ;  but,  to  secure 
its  success,  a  barley  awn  must  be  at  hand, 
which  it  may  not  be  at  the  time,  and  in  using 
it,  should  the  animal  give  a  start  and  break  the 
awn  and  leave  it  in  the  eye,  the  cure  would  be 
worse  than  the  cause  of  the  complaint. 

ON    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    STABLES    FOR 
FARM-HORSES. 

1389.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
weeks  in  summer,  when  they  are  at  grass, 


Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  57. 


CONSTEUCTION  OF  STABLES  FOR  FARM-HORSES. 


299 


farm-horses  occupy  tlieir  stable  all  the 
year  round.  The  stable  is  situate  at  0, 
Plate  T.,  where  its  front  elevation,  with 
two  doors  and  two  windows,  is  seen  sur- 
mounted with  two  ventilators,  as  fiir-  81,  on 
the  roof.  The  plan  of  it  is  seen  at  O,  Plate 
II.,  containing  12  stalls  and  a  loose  box. 

1390.  The  lenirth  of  a  work-horse  stable, 
of  course,  depends  on  the  number  of  horses 
employed  on  tlie  farm  ;  but  in  no  instance 
should  its  width  be  less  than  18  feet,  for 
comfort  to  the  horses  themselves,  and  con- 
venience to  the  men  who  take  charge  of 
them.  This  plan  being  made  for  a  definite 
size  of  farm  contains  stalls  for  1  2  hoi'ses, 
with  a  loose  box,  the  entire  length  being 
84  feet.  Few  stables  for  work-horses  are 
made  wider  than  16  feet,  and  hence  few 
are  otherwi.■^e  than  hani)'ered  for  room. 
A  glance  at  the  jTivtit-iilnrs  wMiich  should 
be  accommodated  \\\  the  widtli  of  a  work- 
horse stable,  will  show  you  at  once  the 
inconvenience  of  this  narrow  breadth. 
The  length  of  a  work-horse  is  seldom  less 
than  8  feet ;  the  Avidth  of  a  hay-rack  is 
about  2  feet ;  the  harness  hanging  loosely 
against  the  wall  occupies  about  2  feet ; 
and  the  gutter  occupies  1  foot  ;  so 
that  in  a  -width  of  16  feet  there  is 
only  a  space  of  3  feet  left  from  the 
heels  of  the  horses  to  the  harness,  to  pass 
backward  and  forward,  and  wheel  a  bar- 
row and  use  the  shovel  and  broom.  No 
wonder,  when  so  little  room  is  given  to 
work  in,  that  cleanliness  is  so  much  ne- 
glected in  farm-stables,  and  that  much  of 
the  dung  and  urine  are  left  to  be  decom- 
posed and  dissipated  by  heat  in  the  shape 
of  ammoniacal  gas,  to  the  probable  injury 
of  the  breathing  and  eyesight  of  the 
horses,  when  shut  up  at  night.  To  aggra- 
vate the  evil,  there  is  very  seldom  a  ven- 
tilator in  the  roof;  and  the  windows  are 
generally  too  small  for  the  admission  of 
light  and  air;  and  what  is  still  worse,  a 
hay-loft  is  placed  inmied  lately  above  the 
horses'  heads  ;  and,  to  render  the  condi- 
tion of  the  stable  as  bad  as  possible,  as 
regards  cleanliness,  its  walls  are  never 
plastered,  and  their  rough  stones  form 
receptacles  of  dust  and  cobwebs. 

1391.  Some  imagine  that  twelve  horses 
are  too  great  a  number  in  one  stable,  and 
that  2  stables  of  6  stalls  each  would  be 
better.     Provided  the  stable  is  properly 


ventilated,  no  injury  can  arise  to  a  larger 
than  a  smaller  number  of  horses  in  it; 
and  there  are  practical  inconveniences  in 
having  2  stables  on  a  farm.  Tliese  are, 
that  neither  the  farmer  nor  farm-steward 
can  personally  superintend  the  grooming 
of  iiorses  in  two  stables ;  that  the  orders 
given  to  the  2)loughmen  by  the  steward 
must  be  repeated  in  both  stables;  and 
that  either  all  the  ploughmen  must  be 
collected  in  one  of  the  stables  to  receive 
their  orders,  or  part  of  them  not  hearing 
the  orders  given  to  the  rest,  there  cannot 
be  that  common  understanding  as  to  the 
work  to  be  done  which  should  exist  among 
all  classes  of  work-people  on  a  farm. 

1392.  Another  particular  in  which  most 
stables  are  improperly  fitted  up,  is  the 
narrowness  of  the  stalls,  5  feet  3  inches 
being  the  largest  space  allowed  for  an 
ordinary-sized  work-horse.  A  narrow 
stall  is  not  only  injurious  to  the  horse 
himself,  by  confining  him  peremptorily  to 
one  position,  in  which  he  has  no  liberty 
to  bite  or  scratch  himself,  should  he 
feel  so  inclined,  but  it  materially  obstructs 
the  ploughman  in  the  grooming  and  sup- 
plying the  horse  with  food.  No  work- 
horse, in  my  opinion,  should  have  a 
narrower  stall  than  6  feet  from  centre  to 
centre  of  the  travis,  in  order  that  he  may 
stand  at  ease,  or  lie  down  at  pleasure  with 
comfort. 

1393.  It  is  a  disputed  point  of  what 
form  the  hay-racks  in  a  work-horse  stable 
should  be.  Tlie  prevailing  opinion  may 
be  learned  from  the  general  practice, 
which  is  to  place  them  as  high  alj  the 
horses'  heads,  because,  as  it  is  alleged,  the 
horse  is  thereby  obliged  to  hold  up  his 
head,  and  he  cannot  then  breathe  upon 
his  food.  Many  better  reasons,  as  I  con- 
ceive, may  be  adduced  for  placing  the 
racks  low  down.  A  work-horse  does  not 
require  to  hold  his  head  up  at  any  time, 
and  much  less  in  the  stable,  where  he 
should  rest  a-s  much  as  he  can.  A  low 
rack  permits  the  neck  and  head,  in 
the  act  of  eating,  to  be  held  in  the 
usual  position.  He  is  not  so  liable  to  put 
the  hay  among  his  feet  from  a  low  as 
as  from  a  high  rack.  His  breath  cannot 
contaminate  his  food  so  much  in  a  low  as 
in  a  high  rack,  inasmuch  as  the  breath 
naturally  ascends ;    and  as   breathing   is 


300 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


eraployeH  by  the  Lorse  in  choosing  his 
food  by  the  sense  of  smell,  he  chooses  his 
food  at  pleasure  from  a  low  rack,  whereas 
he  is  first  obliged  to  pull  it  out  of  the 
high  one  before  he  knows  he  is  to  like 
what  he  pulls.  He  is  less  fatigued  eating 
out  of  a  low  than  from  a  high  rack,  every 
mouthful  having  to  be  pulled  out  of  the 
latter,  from  its  sloping  position,  by  the 
side  of  the  mouth  turned  upwards.  For 
this  reason  mown  grass  is  much  more 
easily  eaten  out  of  a  low  than  a  high  rack. 
And,  lastly,  I  have  heard  of  peas  falling 
out  of  the  straw,  when  pulled  out  of  a 
high  rack,  into  an  ear  of  a  horse,  and 
therein  setting  up  a  serious  degree  of  in- 
flammation. 

13.94.  The  front  rail  of  the  lozc  rack 
should  be  made  of  strong  hardwood,  in 
case  the  horse  should  at  any  time  playfully 
put  his  foot  on  it,  or  bite  it  when  groomed. 
The  front  of  the  r<*ck  should  be  sparred, 
for  the  admission  of  fresh  air  among  the 
food,  and  incline  inwards  at  the  lower  end, 
to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  horses'  fore-feet. 
The  bottom  should  also  be  sparred,  and 
raised  at  least  6  inches  above  the  floor,  for 
the  easy  removal  of  the  hay  seeds  that  may 
have  passed  through  the  spars.  The  man- 
ger should  be  placed  at  the  near  end  of 
the  rack,  for  the  greater  convenience  of 
supplying  the  corn.  A  spar  of  wood 
should  be  fixed  across  the  rack  from  the 
front  rail  to  the  back  wall,  midway  be- 
tween the  travis  and  the  manger,  to  pre- 
vent the  horse  tossing  out  the  fodder 
with  the  side  of  his  mouth,  which  he  will 
sometimes  be  inclined  to  do  when  not 
hungry.  The  riucf  through  which  the 
stall  collar-shank  passes,  is  fastened  by  a 
staple  to  the  hardwood  front-rail.  I  have 
seen  the  manger,  in  some  new  steadings, 
made  of  stone,  on  the  alleged  plea  that 
stone  is  more  easily  cleaned  than  wood 
after  prepared  food.  I  do  not  think  wood 
more  difficult  of  being  cleaned  than  stone, 
when  cleaned  in  a  proper  time  after  being 
used.  As  ploughmen  are  proverbially 
careless,  the  stone  manger  has  perhajjs 
been  substituted  on  the  supposition  that 
it  will  bear  much  harder  usage  than  wood; 
or  perhaps  the  proprietors  could  obtain 
stone  cheaper  from  their  own  quarries 
than  good  timber  from  abroad  :  but  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  reasons  for  pre- 
ferring stone  in  such  a  situation,  it  has  a 


clumsy  appearance  and  feels  uncomfortable, 
and  is  injurious  to  the  horses'  teeth  when 
they  seize  it  suddenly  in  grooming,  and 
even  work-horses  will  bite  any  object 
when  groomed  ;  and  I  suppose  that  stone 
would  also  prove  hurtful  to  their  lips  when 
collecting  their  food  at  the  bottom  of  the 
manger. 

1395.  The  best  hiynl-posts  of  travises 
are  of  cast  iron,  rounded  in  front,  grooved 
in  the  back  as  far  as  the  travis-boards 
reach,  and  run  with  lead  at  the  lower  ends 
into  stone  blocks.  These  posts  are  most 
durable  and  able  to  withstand  the  kicks 
of  the  horses,  some  of  whom  always  strike 
out  when  groomed.  When  wooden  posts 
are  used,  they  are  fastened  at  the  upper 
ends  to  battens  stretching  across  the  stable 
from  the  ends  of  the  couple  legs  where 
there  is  no  hay-loft,  and  from  the  joists  of 
the  flooring  where  there  is,  and  sunk  at  the 
lower  ends  in  stone  blocks  placed  in  the 
ground.  The  head-posts  are  divided  into 
two  parte,  which  clasp  the  travis-boarda 
between  them,  and  are  kept  together  with 
screw-bolts  and  nuts,  and  their  lower  ends 
are  also  sunk  into  stone  blocks.  Their 
upper  ends  are  fastened  to  the  battens  or 
joists  when  the  hind-posts  are  of  wood. 
The  tracis-hoards  are  put  endways  into 
the  groove  of  tlie  hind-post,  and  pass  be- 
tween the  two  divisions  of  the  head-post 
to  the  wall  before  the  horses'  heads ;  and 
are  there  raised  with  a  sweep  so  high 
as  to  prevent  the  horses  putting  their 
heads  over  it. 

1396.  The/oor  of  all  stables  should  be 
made  hard,  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
horses'  feet.  That  of  a  work-horse  stable 
is  usually  causewayed  with  small  round 
stones,  imbedded  in  sand,  such  as  are  to 
be  found  on  the  land  or  on  the  sea-beach. 
This  is  a  cheap  but  not  good  mode  of  pav- 
ing. Squared  blocks  of  whinstone  (trap 
rock,  such  as  basalt,  greenstone,  &c.)  an- 
swer the  purpose  much  better.  Flags 
make  a  smoother  pavement  for  the  feet 
than  either  of  these  materials,  and  they 
undoubtedly  make  a  floor  that  can  be  kej>t 
quite  clean,  as  the  small  stones  are  apt  to 
retain  the  dung  and  absorb  the  urine 
around  them,  which,  on  deC(tnipos!tion, 
cause  filth  and  a  constant  annoyance  to 
horses.  To  avoid  this  inconvenience  in 
a  great  degree,  it  is  advisable  to  form  the 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES  FOR  FARM-HORSES. 


301 


gutter  behind  tbe  horses'  heels  of  hewn 
freestone,  containing  a  continuous  channel, 
along  which  the  urine  runs  easily,  and  all 
filth  is  completely  swept  away  with  the 
broom.  This  channel  sliould  have  a  fall 
of  at  least  1^  inch  to  the  10  feet  of 
length.  But  pavement  makes  too  smooth  a 
floor  for  a  work-horse  stable ;  and  the 
feet  of  work-horses  are  apt  to  slip  upon 
it:  causewaying  is  therefore  better  for 
such  a  stable.  The  causeway  on  both 
sides  should  incline  towards  the  gutter, 
the  rise  in  the  stalls  being  3  inches  in  all. 
In  some  stables,  such  as  those  of  the 
cavalry  and  of  carriers,  the  floor  of  the 
stalls  rise  much  higher  than  3  inches;  and 
on  the  Continent,  particularly  in  Holland, 
I  have  observed  it  to  be  considerably  more 
than  in  any  stables  in  this  country.  Some 
veterinary  writers  say  that  the  position  of 
the  feet  of  the  horse  imposed  by  the  rise, 
does  not  throw  an  injurious  strain  on  the 
back  tendons  of  the  hind  legs.*  This  may 
be,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  in  this 
position,  the  toes  are  raised  above  the 
heels  much  higher  than  on  level  ground. 
I  admit  that  a  rise  of  3  inches  is  necessary 
in  stalls  in  which  geldings  stand,  as  they 
eject  their  water  pretty  far  on  the  litter; 
but  in  the  case  of  mares,  so  great  a  rise  is 
unnecessary.  It  is  indisputable  that  a 
horse  always  prefers  to  stand  on  level 
ground,  when  he  is  free  to  choose  the 
ground  for  himself,  and  much  more  ought 
he  to  have  level  ground  to  stand  on  in  a 
stable,  which  is  his  place  oi  rest.  It  is  no 
argument  in  this  case  to  call  for  instances 
in  which  the  horse  has  been  lamed  by 
standing  in  a  stall  having  a  great  de- 
clivity; for  the  question  is,  not  whether 
or  not  the  horse  can  be  rendered  lame,  in 
any  degree  or  in  any  way,  but  how  to 
aff"ord  the  greatest  ease,  and  even  comfort, 
to  the  work-horse  while  in  the  stable. 

1397-  Fig.  105  gives  a  view  of  the  par- 
ticulars of  a  stall  for  u-ork-/iorses,  fitted 
up  with  wooden  travis-posts,  which  is  yet 
the  common  method:  a  a  are  the  strono- 
hind- posts;  b  b^  the  head-posts,  both  sunk 
into  the  stone  blocks  c  c  c  c,  and  fastened  to 
the  battens  dd,  stretching  across  the  stable 
from  the  wall  e  to  the  opposite  wall ;  //, 
the  travis-boards,  let  into  the  posts  a  ahy 
grooves,  and  passing  between  the  two  divi- 


sions of  the  posts  bb;  the  boards  are  repre- 
sented high  enough  to  prevent  .the  horses 
annoying  each  other ;  (/  g  are  curb-stones 
set  between  the  hind  and  fore  posts  «  and  b. 
to  receive  the  side  of  the  travis-boards  in 
grooves,  and  thereby  secure  them  from 
Fig.  105. 
<ii \\\         'M  III  !li  _       \\\        I!! 


A  STALL  FOR  A  WORK-HORSE  STABLE. 

decay  by  keeping  them  above  the  ac- 
tion of  the  litter ;  A  is  the  sparred  bot- 
tom of  the  hay-rack,  the  upper  rail  of 
which  holds  the  ring  i  for  the  stall  collar- 
shank;  k  the  corn-manger  or  trough;  /  the 
bar  across  tlie  rack,  to  prevent  the  horse 
tossing  out  the  fodder ;  7n  the  pavement 
within  the  stall ;  n  the  freestone  gutter  for 
conveying  away  the  urine  to  one  end  of  the 
stable  ;  o  the  pavement  of  the  passage  be- 
hind the  horses'  heels;  p  are  two  parallel 
spars  fastened  over  and  across  the  battens, 
when  there  is  no  hay-loft,  to  support 
trasses  of  straw  or  hay,  to  be  given  as 
fooder  to  the  horses  in  the  evenings  of 
winter,  to  save  the  risk  of  fire  in  going  at 
night  to  the  straw-barn  or  hay-house  with 
a  liLdit. 


Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  p.  17. 


302 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


1398.  I  tliink  it  right  also  to   give  a 
figure  of  a  stall,  furnislied  with  cast-iron 
hind-posts,  as  in  fig.  106.  • 
Fi?.  106. 


A  STALL  WITH  CAST-IRON  HIND- POSTS. 

1309.  The  roo/of  a  ?r(7rX;-stal)le  should 
always  he  open  to  the  slates,  and  not  only 
60,  hut  have  openings  in  its  ridge,  pro- 
tected by  ventilators,  fig.  81  ;  and  such 
are  ahsolutely  necessary  for  a  work-  horse 
stable.  It  is  distressing  to  tlie  feelings  to 
inhale  the  air  in  some  farm  stables  at  night, 
particularly  in  old  steadings  econoniicully 
fitted  up,  which  is  not  only  warm  from 
confinement,  moist  fnmi  breathing,  and 
stifling  from  sudorific  odours,  but  cutting 
to  the  breath,  and  pungent  to  the  eyes, 
from  the  volatilisation  of  ammonia.  The 
windows  are  seldom  opened,  and  can 
scarcely  be  so  by  disuse.  The  roof  in 
such  a  stable  is  like  a  suspended  extin- 
guisher over  the  half- stifled  horses.  This 
evil  is  still  further  aggravated  by  a  hay- 
loft, the  floor  of  which  is  extended  over 
and  within  a  foot  or  less  of  the  horses' 
heads.  Besides  its  inconvenience  to  the 
horses,  the  hav  in  it,  through  nightly 
roasting  and  fumigation,  soon  becomes 
dry  and  brittle,  and  contracts  a  disagree- 
able odour.  The  only  remedy  for  all  these 
inconveniences  is  cianplete  ventilation. 

1400.  Vent'iJat'ion. — The  object  of  ven- 
tilation, to  anva]jartment  wliich  constitutes 
the  abode  of  animals,  is  to  procure  a  con- 
stant supply  of  air  in  suHicieut  i)urity  to 


meet  the  demands  of  the  anini.al  economy. 
The  practice  that  has  long  prevailed,  as 
regards  ventilation,  seems  to  deny  its  uti- 
lity, and  to  doubt  the  injury  accompany- 
ing its  neglect.  "•  It  is  upwards  of  eiglit- 
and-forty  years,"  says  Stewart,  "  since 
James  Clarke  of  Edinburgh  protested 
against  close  stables.  He  insisted  they 
were  hot  and  foul,*  to  a  degree  incompat- 
ible willi  health,  and  he  strongly  recom- 
mended that  tliey  should  be  aired  in  such 
a  manner  as  t((  have  tliem  always  cool  and 
sweet.  Previous  to  the  publication  of 
Clarke's  work,  people  never  thought  of  ad- 
mitting fresh  air  intoastalde  ;  they  had  no 
notion  of  its  use.  In  fact,  thev  regarded  it 
as  highly  pernicious,  and  did  all  they  could 
to  exclude  it.  In  those  times  the  groom 
shut  up  his  stable  at  night,  and  was  care- 
ful to  close  every  aperture  by  which  a 
breath  of  fresh  air  might  find  admission. 
The  keyhole  and  the  threshold  of  the  door 
Mere  not  forgotten.  The  horse  was  con- 
fined all  night  in  a  sort  of  hot-house;  and, 
in  the  morning,  the  groom  was  delighted 
to  find  his  stalde  warm  as  an  oven.  He 
did  not  perceive,  or  did  not  notice,  that 
the  air  was  bad,  charged  with  nmisture, 
and  with  vapours  more  pernicious  than 
moisture.  It  was  o})pressively  warm,  and 
that  was  enough  for  him.  He  knew  no- 
thing about  its  vitiation,  or  about  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  horses'  health.  In  a 
large  crowded  stable,  where  the  horses  were 
in  constant  and  laboi-ious  work,  there 
would  be  much  disease, — glanders,  grease, 
mange,  blindness,  couglis,  and  broken 
wind  would  prevail,  varied  occasionally 
by  fatal  inflammation.  In  another  stable, 
containing  fewer  horses,  and  those  doing 
little  work,  the  principal  diseases  would  be 
sore  throats,  bad  e^^es,  swelled  legs,  and 
inflamed  lungs,  or  frequent  invasions  of 
the  influenza.  Rut  every  thing  on  earth 
would  be  blamed  for  tliem  before  a  close 
stable."  Moreover,  he  observes,  *"  Tiie 
evils  of  an  impure  atmosphere  vary  accord- 
ing to  several  circumstances.  The  ammo- 
niacal  vapour  is  injurious  to  the  eyes,  to 
the  nostrils,  and  the  throat.  iStablos  that 
are  both  close  and  filthy  are  notorious  for 
producingbliudness, Couglis,  ami  inflamma- 
tion of  the  nostrils;  these  arise  from  acrid 
vapours  alone.  Tiiey  are  most  common 
in  those  dirty  iiovels  where  the  dung  and 
urine  are  allowed  t<j  accumulate  for  weeks 
together.    The  air  of  a  stable  may  be  con- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  STABLES  FOR  FARM-HORSES.  309 

taminated    by    union    with    animoniacal  of  625  lbs.,  or  it  would  heat  1  lb.  of  water 

vapour,    and    yet    be    tolerably   pure    in  87,528  degrees.    It  would  consume,  at  the 

other  respects.     It  may  never  be  greatly  same    time,    the     enormous    quantity    of 

deficient  in  oxygen  ;  but  v.dien  the  stable  3o0,429  cubic  inches  of  oxygen,  or  I91;j 

is  so  close  that  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  cubic  feet  of  this  gas;  and  as  this  amounts 

deficient,    other  evils  are  added  to  those  to  one-fifth  of  the  atmospheric  air,  we  find 

arising  from  acrid  vapours.     Disease,  in  a  that  a  cow,  consuming  6  lbs.  of  carbon  for 

visible  form,  may  not  be  the  immediate  respiratory  purposes,  would   require  956^ 

result.      The    horses   may   perform    their  cubic  feet  of  atmospheric  air,  a  sufficient 

work  and  take  their  food,  but  they  do  not  indication  of  the  immense  importance  of  a 

look  well,  and  they  have  not  the  vigour  free  ventilation  in  cow-houses,  and  of  the 

of  robust  health;  —  some  are  lean,   hide-  dangerofover-crowding,if  the  animals  are 

bound,   having  a  dead  dry  coat,  —  some  expected  to  retain  a  healthy  condition."* 
have    swelled     legs,    some    mange,    and 

some   grease.      All    are    spiritless,    lazy         1402.  Here  are  data  furnished   of  the 

at  work,  and  soon  fatigued.     They  may  quantity  of  air  required  to  be   admitted 

have  the  best  of  food,  and  plenty  of  it,  into  a  byre,  for  the  necessary  use,  daily,  of 

and   their  work  may  not  be    very  labo-  a  single  cow  of  ordinary  size.     How,  then, 

rious,    yet  they    always    look    as  if  hatf  is  this    large  quantity  of  fresh  air  to  be 

starved,      or     shamefully     overwrought,  admitted  into  a  byre,  when  all  the  doors 

When  the  influenza  comes  among  them,  it  and  window^s   are    shut?     This    question 

spreads  fast,  and  is  difficult  to  treat.    Every  involves  and  presupposes  another,  namely, 

now  and  then  one  or  two  of  the  horses  be-  How  is  as  large  a  quantity  of  vitiated  air 

come  glandered  and  farcied."  to   be  expelled  from  the  byre  ? — for  this 

must    first  take    place  ere   a    ventilation 

1401.  In  order  to    show   in  a  striking  through  the  byre  can  be  maintained.    The 

light  the  necessity  there  exists  of  using  popular  notions,  however,  regarding  veu- 

means    to    promote     ventilation     in    all  tilation  are  very  indefinite;  as  Mr  Stewart 

places    occupied    by    animals,     it     may,  observes,     "Most  people  do  not  imagine 

perhaps,  be   done  in  the  best  manner  by  that  one   set  of  apertures  is  required  to 

stating    the    estimated    quantity    of    air  carry  away  the  foul,  and  another  to  admit 

wdiich  is  vitiated   every  day  by  a  cow  of  the  pure  air.     Even  those  who  know  that 

ordinary  size.     Dr  Robert  D.   Thomson,  one  set  cannot  answer  both  purposes  in  a 

after  showing  that  the  large  quantity  of  perfect  manner,  are  apt  to  disregard  any 

carbon,    6,172  lbs.,  daily  taken   by  a  cow  provision  for  admitting  fresh  air.     They 

in   its  food,  is  employed    for    a   purpose  say  there  is  no  fear  but  sufficient  will  find 

totally    distinct    from    proper    nutrition,  its  way  in  somehow,  and  the  bottom  of  the 

proceeds    to   say, — "We  are  at    present  door  is  usually  pointed  to  as  a  very  good 

acquainted  with  only  one  other  purpose  inlet.     It  is  clear  enough,  that  while  air 

for  which  the  carbon  of  the  food  can  be  is  going  out,  some  also  must  be  coming  in, 

employed,  viz.,  the  generation  of  animal  and  that  if  none  go  in,  little  or  none  can 

heat  tiiroughout  the  body,  a  function  un-  go  out.      To  make  an  outlet  without  any 

doubtedly    carried    on,   not   only   in    the  inlet   betravs    ignorance    of  the    circura- 

lungs,  but  also  througimut  the  entire  ca-  stances  which  produce  motion  in  the  air. 

pillary  system  of  tlie  skin,  at  least  in  man  To  leave  the  inlet  to  chance,  is  just  as  much 

and  perspiring  animals.     If  this  view  be  as  to  say  that  it  is  of  no  consequence  in  what 

correct,  then    it  follows  that  upwards  of  direction     the    fresh   air  is  admitted,   or 

6  lbs.  of  carbon  are  expended  by  a  cow  whether  any  be  admitted.      The  outlets 

daily  in  the  production  of  animal  heat,  niay  also   serve  as  inlets ;  but  then  they 

And  as    1  lb.   of  carbon,  when   combined  must   be   much    larger    than    when   they 

with  the  necessary  amount  of  oxysen  to  serve  only  one  purpose,   and   the  stable, 

form  carbonic  acid,  gives  out  as  much  heat  without  having  purer  air,  must  be  cool  or 

as  would  melt  104-2  lbs.  of  ice,  it  is  evi-  cold.     Wlien  the  external   atmospi:ere  is 

dent  that  the  quantity  of  ice   capable  of  colder  than  that  in  the  stable,  it  enters  at 

being  melted  by  the  heat  generated  by  a  the  bottom  of  the  door,  or  it  passes  through 

cow,  in  one  day,  would  amount  to  upwards  the  lowest  apertures,  to  supply  and  fill  the 
*   Thomson's  liesearches  into  the  Food  of  Animals,  p.  113-114. 


304 


PRACTICE— WDsTER. 


place  of  that  which  is  escaping  from  the 
higli  apertures.  If  there  be  no  low  open- 
ings, tlie  cooler  air  will  enter  from  above — 
it  willform  acurrentinwardsat  theoue  side, 
while  the  warmer  air  forms  another  cur- 
rent, setting  outwards  at  the  other  side. 
But  when  tiie  upper  apertures  are  of  small 
size,  this  will  not  take  place  till  the  air 
inside  becomes  very  warm  or  hot."*  So 
little  do  many  people  see  the  necessity  of 
ventilation,  that  they  cannot  distinguish 
between  the  warm  air  and  the  foul  air  of 
a  stable  ;  and,  consequently,  if  the  admis- 
sion of  fresh  air  is  wanted  to  expel  the 
foul,  they  immediately  conclude  it  must  be 
cold,  and  do  harm.  Now,  it  is  the  proper 
action  of  ventilation  to  let  away  all,  and 
no  more  of  the  warm  air  of  a  stable,  than 
■what  is  foul,  and  then,  of  course,  no  more 
than  the  same  quantity  of  fresh  air  can 
find  its  way  into  it. 

1403.  A  ready  means  of  letting  out  the 
foul  air  from  a  stable,  is  by  a  number  of 
ventilators,  such  as  is  described  at  fig.  81, 
situate  on  the  ridge  of  the  roof;  and  one 
means  of  admitting  fresh  air  below,  is  by 
the  windows  when  they  are  open  ;  but 
when  they  are  shut,  other  means  must  be 
supplied.  As  doors  and  windows  are 
usually  situated  in  farm-stables,  the  fresh 
air  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  by  them 
through  the  night ;  they  should  therefore 
be  made  tight.  Fresh  air  coming  directly 
from  the  doors  or  windows  towards  the 
nostrils  of  a  horse,  must  pass  either  over 
his  body,  or  first  strike  against  his  limbs — 
in  either  case  doing  more  injury  than  good. 
The  fresh  air  should  come  in  near  the 
horses'  nostrils,  where  it  is  really  required 
to  be  breathed  in.  An  opening  through 
the  head  wall  of  the  stable,  a  ie'w  feet 
above  the  horse's  head,  seems  the  tnost 
convenient  and  proper  place  for  the  air  to 
find  its  way.  For  the  supply  of  every 
horse  alike,  an  opening  should  be  made 
above  the  head  of  each  horse  ;  and  being 
so  numerous,  they  should  be  small.  I 
cannot  particularise  the  size,  as  that  must 
depend  on  many  circumstances,  —  the 
number  of  horses,  contents  of  the  stable, 
tightness  of  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
suchlike.  The  air,  on  entering,  being 
colder  than  that  in  the  stable,  will  fall 
downwards,  and  so  retard  the  velocity  of 
its  entrance ;  the  openings  should  be  pro- 


vided with  a  covering  of  perforated  plates 
of  zinc;  and  should  the  current  be  still  too 
strong,  let  it  strike  against  a  board  fastened 
to  the  wall,  and  so  ])laced  as  to  cause  the 
air  to  be  reflected  upwards  before  it  de- 
scends. Experience  will  soon  adjust  the 
various  parts  of  the  means  of  ventilation 
to  their  proper  relative  proportions. 

1404.  The  windows  of  steadings  should 
be  of  tlie  form  for  the  purpose  they  are 
intended  to  be  used.  On  this  account 
the  windows  of  stables,  and  of  other  apart- 
ments, should  be  of  ditferent  forms.  I 
have  already  given  the  forms  of  those  for 
byres,  &c.,  in 
Fig.  107.  figs.  77  and  78. 

Fig.  ]  07  repre- 
sents a  window 
for  a  stable.  The 
opening  is 4|feet 
in  height  by  3 
feet  in  width. 
The  frame-work 
is  composed  of  a 
dead  part  a,  of  1 
foot  in  depth,  2 
shutters  b  b  to 
open  on  hinges, 
and  fasten  in- 
side with  a  thumb-catch,  and  c  a  glazed 
sash  2  feet  in  height,  with  3  rows  of 
panes.  The  object  of  this  form  of  win- 
dow is,  that  generally  a  number  of  small 
articles  are  thrown  upon  tlie  sole  of  a 
work-horse  stable  window,  such  as  short- 
ends,  straps,  &c.,  which  are  only  used 
occasionally,  and  intended  to  be  at 
hand  when  wanted.  The  consequence 
of  this  confused  mixture  of  things,  which 
it  is  not  easy  for  the  farmer  to  prevent, 
especially  in  a  busv  season,  is,  that  wlren 
the  shutters  are  desired  to  be  opened,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  do  it  without  first 
clearing  the  sole  of  every  thing ;  and, 
rather  than  find  another  place  for  them, 
the  window  remains  shut.  A  cupboard  in 
a  wall  sug'gests  itself  for  containing  such 
small  articles ;  but  in  the  only  wall, 
namely,  the  front  one  of  the  stable,  in 
which  it  would  be  convenient  to  make 
such  a  cupboard,  its  surface  is  occupied 
by  the  harness  hanging  against  it  ;  and 
besides,  no  orders,  however  peremptory, 
will  prevent  such  articles  being  at  busy 
times  thrown  upon  the  window-soles;  and 


A  STABLE  WINDOW. 


*  Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  pp.  35,  43,  and  51. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  STEADING  FOR  FARM-HORSES. 


305 


where  is  the  harm  of  their  lying  there  at 
hand,  provided  the  windows  ai"e  so  con- 
structed as  to  admit  of  being  opened  when 
desired  ?  When  a  dead  piece  of  wood,  as  a, 
is  put  into  such  windows,  small  things  may 
remain  on  tlie  sole,  while  tlie  shutters  b  b 
may  be  easily  opened  and  shut  over 
them. 

1405.  The  harness  should  all  be  hung 
against  the  wall  behind  the  horses,  and 
none  on  the  posts  of  the  stalls,  against 
which  it  is  too  frequently  placed,  to  its 
great  injury,  in  being  constantly  kept  in  a 
damp  state  by  the  horses'  breath  and  per- 
spiration, and  apt  to  be  knocked  dov/u 
among  their  feet.  A  good  way  is  to  sus- 
pend harness  upon  stout  hardwood  pins 
driven  into  a  strong  narrow  board,  fastened 
to  the  wall  with  iron  holdfasts;  but  per- 
haps the  most  substantial  way  is  to  build 
the  pins  into  the  wall,  when  a  new  stable 
is  building.  The  harness  belonging  to 
each  pair  of  horses  should  just  cover  a 
space  of  the  wall  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
the  two  stalls  which  they  occupy,  and 
when  windows  and  doors  intervene,  and 
which  of  course  must  be  left  free,  this 
arrangement  requires  some  consideration. 
I  have  found  this  a  convenient  one  :  A 
spar  of  hardwood  nailed  firmly  across 
the  upper  edge  of  the  batten  d^  fig.  ]  05, 
that  supports  both  posts  of  the  stall,  will 
suspend  a  collar  on  each  end,  high  enough 
above  a  person's  head,  immediately  over 
the  passage.  One  pin  is  sufficient  for  each 
of  the  cart-saddles,  one  will  support  both 
the  bridles,  while  a  fourth  will  suffice  for 
the  plough,  and  a  fifth  for  the  trace 
harness.  Thus  5  pins  or  6  spaces  will  be 
required  for  each  pair  of  stalls ;  and  in  a 
stable  of  12  stalls — deducting  a  space  of 
13  feet  for  2  doors  and  2  windows  in  such 
a  stable — there  will  still  be  left,  according 
to  this  arrangement,  a  space  for  the  har- 
ness of  about  18  inches  between  the  pins. 
Iron  hooks  driven  into  the  board  betwixt 
the  pins  will  keep  the  cart-ropes  and 
plough-reins  by  themselves.  The  curry- 
comb, hair-brush,  and  foot-picker,  may  be 
conveniently  enough  hung  up  high  on  the 
hind-post,  betwixt  the  pair  of  horses  to 
which  they  belong,  and  the  mane-comb  is 
usually  carried  in  the  ploughman's  pocket. 
When  the  hind-posts  are  of  cast-iron,  as 
recommended  already,  these  small  articles 
cannot  be  hung  upon  them  ;  and  in  such  a 

VOL.  I. 


case,  there  being  no  batten  to  suspend  the 
collars  from,  hooks  must  be  suspended 
from  the  couple  legs  to  hang  the  collars 
upon. 

140(5.  Each  horse  should  be  bound  to 
his  stall  with  a  leather  stall-collar,  hav- 
ing an  iron-chain  collar-shank  to  play 
through  the  ring  i  of  the  hay-rack,  fig. 
105,  with  a  turned  wooden  sinker  at  its 
end,  to  weigh  it  to  the  ground.  Iron 
chains  make  the  strongest  stall  collar- 
shanks,  though  certainly  noisy  when  in 
use  ;  yet  work-horses  are  not  to  be  trusted, 
with  the  best  hempen  cords,  which  often 
become  affected  with  dry  rot,  and  are,  at 
all  events,  soon  apt  to  wear  out  in  running 
through  the  smoothest  stall-rings.  A 
simple  stall-collar  with  a  nose-band,  and 
strap  over  the  head,  is  sufficient  to  secure 
most  horses ;  but  as  some  acquire  the  trick 
of  slipping  the  strap  over  their  ears,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  either  a  throat-lash  in 
addition,  or  a  simple  belt  around  the  neck. 
Others  are  apt,  when  scratching  their 
neck  with  the  hind-foot,  to  pass  the  fet- 
lock joint  over  the  stall  collar-shank,  and, 
finding  themselves  entangled,  to  throw 
themselves  down  in  the  stalls,  bound  neck 
and  heel — there  to  remain  unreleased  until 
the  morning,  when  the  men  come  to  the 
stable.  By  this  accitlent  I  have  seen 
horses  get  injured  in  the  head  and  leg  for 
some  time.  A  short  stall  collar-shank  is 
the  only  preventive  against  such  an  acci- 
dent, and  the  low  rack  admits  of  its  being 
constantly  in  use. 

1407.  Besides  the  ordinary  stalls,  a 
loose-box  will  be  found  a  useful  adjunct  to 
a  work-horse  stable.  A  space  equal  to 
two  stalls  should  be  railed  off  at  one 
end  of  the  stable,  as  represented  in  the 
plan,  Plate  II.  It  is  a  convenient  place 
into  which  to  put  a  work-mare  when  ex- 
pected to  foal.  Some  mares  indicate  so 
very  faint  symptoms  of  foaling,  that  they 
frequently  are  known  to  drop  their  foals 
under  night  in  the  stable — to  the  great 
risk  of  the  foal's  life — where  requisite 
attention  is  not  directed  to  the  state  of 
the  mare,  or  where  there  is  no  spare 
apartment  to  put  her  in.  It  is  also  suit- 
able for  a  young  stallion,  when  first 
taken  up  and  preparing  for  travelling 
the  road ;  as  also  for  any  young  draught- 
horse,  taken    up  to    be   broke  for  work. 


306 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


nntil  lie  becmiie  accustomed  to  the  stable. 
Itniiirlit  also  be,  when  unfortunately  so  re- 
quired, converted  into  a  temporary  hos- 
pital for  a  horse,  which,  when  seized 
with  complaint,  might  be  put  into  it 
until  it  is  ascertained  whether  or  not 
the  disease  is  infectious,  and  if  so,  removed, 
to  the  proper  hosj)ital.  Some  peoj»le 
object  to  having  a  loose-box  in  the 
stable,  and  would  rather  have  it  out  of 
it ;  but  the  social  disposition  of  the  horse 
renders  such  a  place  useful  on  such 
occasions.  It  is,  besides,  an  excellent 
place  to  rest  a  fatigued  horse  for  a  few 
days.  It  is  also  a  good  place  for  a  foal 
when  its  mother  is  obliged  to  be  absent 
at  work  in  the  fields,  until  both  are  turned 
out  to  grass. 

1408.  The  hay-house  should  be  adjoin- 
ing the  work-horse  stable,  as  at  H,  Plate 
II.  It  is  18  feet  in  length,  17  feet  in 
width,  and  its  roof  is  formed  of  the  floor 
of  the  granary  above.  Its  floor  should  be 
flagged  with  a  considerable  cpiautity  of 
sand  to  keep  it  dry,  or  with  asphaltutn. 
It  should  have  a  giblet-checkod  outer 
door  to  open  outwards,  with  a  hand-bar  to 
fasten  it  on  the  inside  ;  it  should  also  have  a 
partly  glazed  window,  witli  shutters,  to 
aftord  light,  when  taking  out  the  hay  to 
the  horses,  and  air  to  keep  it  sweet.  As 
the  hav-house  communicates  immediately 
with  the  work-horse  stable  by  a  door,  it 
may  find  room  for  the  work-horse  corn- 
chest,  which  may  there  be  conveniently 
supplied  with  corn  from  the  granary  above, 
by  means  of  a  spout  let  iiitotlie  fixed  part 
of  the  lid.  For  facilitating  tlie  taking  out 
of  the  corn,  the  end  of  the  chest  should  be 
placed  against  the  wall  at  the  side  of  the 
door  which  opens  into  the  stable,  and  its 
back  jiart  boarded  with  thin  deals  up 
to  the  granary  floor,  to  prevent  the 
hay  coming  upon  the  lid  of  the  chest. 
The  walls  of  the  hay-house  should  be 
plastered. 

1409.  The  form  of  the  corn-chest  is 
more  convenient,  and  takes  up  less  room 
on  the  floor  when  high  and  narrow  than 
when  low  and  broad,  as  in  fig.  108,  which 
is  5  feet  long  and  4.^  feet  higii  at  the  back 
above  the  feet.  A  part  of  the  front  b  folds 
down  with  hinges,  to  give  easier  access  to 
the  corn  as  it  gets  low  in  the  chest.  Part 
fo  the  lid  is  made  fast,  to  receive  the  spout 


rf,  for  conveying  the  corn  into  it  from  the 
granary,  and  to  render  its  movable  part  a 
lighter,  and  this  is  fastened  with  a  hesp 
and  padlock,  the  key  of  which  should  be 

Fig.  108. 


THE   CORN-CHEST  FOR  THE  WORK-HOIISES. 

constantly  in  the  custody  of  the  farm- 
steward,  or  of  the  person  who  gives  out 
the  corn  to  the  ploughmen,  where  no  farm- 
steward  is  kept :  c  is  the  corner  of  the 
doorway  into  the  work-horse  stable,  and 
e  is  the  boarding  behind  to  prevent  the  hay 
falling  on  the  lid.  A  fourth  ])art  of  a  peck 
measure  is  always  kept  m  the  chest  for 
mea-suring  out  tlie  corn  to  the  horses.  You 
must  not  imagine  that  because  the  spout 
snp})lies  corn  from  the  granary  when  re- 
(]uired,  that  it  supplies  it  without  measure. 
The  corn  ajipiopriated  for  the  hoi-ses  is 
jireviouslv  measured  ofi"  on  the  granary 
floor,  in  any  convenient  quantity,  and  then 
shovelled  down  r,he  spout  at  times  to  fill 
the  cliest.  A  way  to  ascertain  the  quan- 
tity of  corn  at  any  time  in  the  chest  is  to 
mark  lines  on  the  inside  of  the  client  indi- 
cative of  every  quarter  of  corn  which  it 
contains.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
tlie  corn  for  the  horses  is  put  into  small 
corn  chests,  one  of  which  is  given  in  charge 
to  every  })loiiglinian,  who  kee])S  the  key, 
and  supplies  his  lua-ses  with  corn  at  state<l 
times.  The  small  chests  are  generally 
jilaced  at  hand  in  the  stable  within  the 
bays  of  the  windows,  and  in  reoe.-<se8 
made  on  purpose  in  the  wall.  A  certain 
quantity  of  corn  is  put  into  each  chest  at 
the  same  time,  which  is  to  last  the  ])air 
of  horses  a  certain  uumber  of  days.     This 


treat:mext  of  farm-horses  ix  winter. 


307 


plan  may  save  the  steward  or  some 
other  person  the  trouble  of  giving  out  corn 
to  the  horses  every  day,  but  it  places  it 
too  rauch  in  the  power  of  the  ploughmen 
to  defraud  the  horses  of  their  corn,  and 
appropriate  it  for  their  own  purposes  ;  and 
it  is  an  inconvenient  plan  when  at  any 
time  it  is  proper  to  give  a  particular  horse, 
or  pair  of  horses,  a  little  more  corn  than 
usual,  for  some  extra  work  performed  by 
them.  There  cannot  be  a  safer  measure 
in  conducting  any  farm,  than  to  confine 
every  class  of  work-people  to  the  perform- 
ance of  their  own  proper  duties. 


ON  THE  TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES  IN 
WINTER. 

1 410.  Farm-horses  are  under  the  imme- 
diate charge  of  the  ploughmen,  one  of 
wiiora  works  a  pair,  and  keeps  possession 
of  them  generally  during  the  whole  period 
of  his  engagement.  This  is  a  favourable 
arrangement  for  the  horses,  working  more 
steadily  under  the  guidance  of  the  same 
driver  than  when  changed  into  different 
hands  ;  and  it  is  also  better  for  the  plough- 
man himself,  as  he  performs  his  work  most 
satisfactorily  to  himself,  as  well  as  his 
employer,  with  horses  familiarised  to  him. 
In  fact,  the  man  and  his  horses  must  be- 
come acquainted  before  they  can  under- 
stand each  other;  and  when  the  peculiar 
temj)ers  of  each  party  are  mutually  under- 
stood, work  becomes  more  easy  to  both, 
and  more  attention  is  bestov,-ed  upon  it. 
Some  horses  show  great  atta.chment  to 
their  driver,  and  will  do  whatever  he  de- 
sires without  hesitation  ;  others  show  no 
particular  regard:  and  great  ditierences 
may  be  remarked  of  ploughmen  towards 
their  horses.  Upon  the  whole,  there  exists 
a  good  understanding  in  this  country  be- 
tween the  ploughman  and  his  horses;  and, 
independently  of  this,  few  masters  are  dis- 
posed to  allow  their  horses  to  be  ill  treated, 
and  there  is  no  occasion  for  it ;  as  horses 
which  have  been  brought  up  on  a  farm,  in 
going  through  the  same  routine  of  work 
every  year,  become  so  well  acquainted 
with  what  they  have  to  do,  that,  when  a 
misunderstanding  arises  between  them  and 
their  driver,  you  may  safely  conclude  that 
the  driver  is  in  the  wrong. 

1411.  The  treatment  which  farm-horses 


usually  receive  in  winter  is  this:  —  The 
ploughmen,  when  single,  get  up  and  break- 
fast before  day-break,  and  then  go  to  the 
stable,  where  the  first  thing  they  do  is  to 
take  out  the  horses  to  the  water.  The 
usual  place  at  which  horses  drink  is  at  the 
horse-pond  ;  and  should  ice  prevent  them, 
it  must  be  broken.  To  horses  out  of  a 
warm  stable,  water  at  the  freezing  point 
cannot  be  palatable ;  and  yet  it  is  not 
easy  to  devise  a  better  plan — for  though 
the  purest  water  were  provided  in  a  trough, 
it  would  be  as  liable  to  freeze  as  in  a  pond; 
and  to  have  twopailfuls  of  water  thawing 
all  night  in  the  stable,  for  each  pair  of 
horses,  is  an  expense  which  no  farmer  will 
incur,  and  which,  besides,  would  limit  the 
drink  to  the  horses.  The  only  other  plan 
is  to  have  a  cistern  within  the  stable,  from 
which  the  water  could  be  dravrn  in  pail- 
fuls  in  the  morning;  but  still  the  giving 
every  pair  of  iiorses  water  fi-om  a  cistern 
from  the  same  pails  would  cause  some  loss 
of  time,  and  the  cistern  would  become 
useless  in  mild  v.eather.  As  matters  are 
arranged  at  present,  the  horses  are  taken 
to  the  pond  to  drink,  and  brought  back  to 
the  stable  to  receive  their  morning  allow- 
ance of  corn.  From  habit,  however,  the 
horses  do  not  require  to  be  led  to  and  from 
the  pond,  one  of  the  men  only  seeing  they  do 
not  wander  or  hiiter  away  their  time  :  and 
while  the  horses  are  out  of  the  stable,  the 
rest  of  the  men  take  the  opportunitj'  of 
removing  the  dung  and  soiled  litter  made 
daring  the  night  into  the  nearest  court- 
yard, with  their  shovels,  fig.  S3,  wheel- 
barrow, fig.  S7,  and  besom. 

1412.  While  the  horses  are  still  absent, 
one  of  the  ploughmen  supplies  each  manger 
with  corn  from  the  corn-chest,  where  the 
steward  is  ready  to  deliver  him  the  feed 
appointed  for  each  horse;  or  every  man 
takes  to  him  his  pair  of  nose-bags,  and 
receives  the  supply  of  corn  for  his  own 
horses  before  beginning  to  clean  out  the 
stable  ;  or  the  steward  himself  puts  the 
corn  into  the  mangers  while  the  men  are 
employed  in  cleaning  the  stable.  This 
last  plan,  if  the  steward  is  provided  with 
a  ligiit  box  beside  the  corn-measure,  to 
carry  two  feeds  at  a  time,  saves  most  time, 
which,  in  a  short  winter's  morning,  is  of 
some  consequence.  On  the  return  of  the 
horses  to  the  stable  from  the  water,  they 
find   their  mangers  plenished  with  corn — 


308 


PRACTICE— TVIXTER. 


and  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  binding 
them  with  the  stall-collars,  if  the  men  re- 
main in  the  stable,  and  go  to  work  when- 
ever the  horses  have  finished  their  corn  ; 
but  this  seems  the  best  time  for  the  men 
to  take  their  breakfast,  ami  which  married 
men  usually  do— and  in  quitting  the  stable, 
they  put  the  stall-c(dlars  on  the  horses, 
and  leave  them  in  quietness  to  eat  their 
com.  It  is  not  an  unusual  practice  to 
curry  and  wisp  the  horses,  and  to  put 
the  harness  on  them  while  engaged  with 
their  corn ;  but  this  should  never  be  al- 
lowed. Let  the  horses  eat  their  food  in 
peace,  and  many  of  them,  from  sanguine 
temperament  or  greed,  cannot  divest  them- 
selves of  the  feeling  that  they  are  about  to 
be  taken  from  their  corn  when  handled 
during  the  time  of  feeding.  The  harness 
can  be  quickly  enough  put  on  after  the 
feed  is  eaten,  as  well  as  the  curry-comb 
and  brush  used,  and  the  mane  and  tail 
combed.  An  allowance  of  a  little  time 
between  eating  their  com  and  going  to 
work  is  of  advantage  to  the  horses,  as 
work,  especially  when  severe,  undertaken 
with  a  distended  stomach,  is  apt  to  bring 
on  an  attack  of  batts  or  colic. 

1413.  Men  and  horses  continue  at  work 
until  12  noon,  when  they  come  home — the 
horses  to  get  a  drink  of  water  and  a  feed 
of  Corn,  and  the  men  their  dinner.  Some 
keep  the  harness  on  the  horses  during  this 
short  interval,  but  it  should  be  taken  off, 
to  allow  both  horses  and  harness  to  cool — 
and  at  any  rate  the  horses  will  be  much 
more  comfortable  without  it  —  and  it 
can  be  taken  off  and  put  on  again  in  a  few 
seconds,  and  the  oftener  the  men  are 
exercised  in  this  way  they  will  become  the 
more  expert  in  putting  it  on  and  taking 
it  off. 

1414.  When  the  work  is  in  a  distant 
field,  rather  than  come  home  between 
yokings,  it  is  the  practice  of  some  farmers 
to  feed  the  horses  in  the  field  out  of  the 
nose-bags,  and  the  men  to  take  their  din- 
ners with  them,  or  be  carried  to  them  in 
the  field  by  their  own  people.  This  plan 
may  do  for  a  day  or  two  in  good  weather, 
on  a  particular  occa.sion  ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  a  good  one  for  the  horses,  as  no 
mode  gives  them  a  chill  more  readily  than 
to  cause  them  to  stand  on  a  head-ridge  for 
even  half  an  hour  in  a  winter  dav,  after 


working  some  hours.  A  smart  walk  home 
can  do  them  no  harm ;  and  if  time  really 
presses  for  the  work  to  be  done,  let  the 
horses  remain  a  shorter  time  in  the 
stable.  Tlie  men  themselves  will  be  infi- 
nitely more  comfortable  to  have  dinner  at 
home. 

1 415.  A  practice  exists  in  England,  con- 
nected with  this  subject,  which  I  think 
highly  objectionable — that  of  doing  a  day's 
work  in  one  yoking.  For  a  certain  time, 
horses,  like  men,  will  work  with  spirit; 
but  if  the  work  endures  beyond  that  time, 
they  not  only  lose  strength,  but  spirit,  and 
in  the  latter  i)art  of  the  yoking  work  in  a 
careless  manner.  Horses  kept  for  7  or  8 
hours  at  work  must  be  injured  in  their 
constitution,  or  execute  work  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  yoking  badly,  or  receive  extra- 
ordinary feeding,  any  of  which  conse- 
quences is  symptomatic  of  bad  manage- 
ment. Common  sense  tells  a  man  that  it 
is  much  better  for  a  horse  to  be  worked  a 
few  hours  smartly,  and  have  his  hunger 
satisfied  before  feeling  fatigue,  when  he 
will  again  be  able  to  work  v»ith  spirit, 
than  to  be  worked  the  entire  number  of 
hours  of  the  day  without  feeding.  I  see 
no  possible  objection  to  horses  receiving  a 
little  rest  and  food  in  the  middle  of  a  long 
day's  work,  but  I  perceive  many  and 
serious  ones  to  their  working  all  day  long 
without  rest  and  food. 

1416.  The  men  and  horses  come  home 
at  mid-day,  the  usual  dinner  hour  of  agri- 
cultural labourers,  and  the  first  thing  done 
is  to  give  the  horses  a  drink  at  the  pond 
on  the  way  to  the  stal)le,  and  no  washing 
of  legs  should  be  allowed.  From  the  water 
the  horses  j)roceed  to  the  stable,  where.the 
harness  is  taken  off;  and  as  the  men  have 
nothing  else  to  do,  every  one  gets  the  corn 
for  his  horses  from  the  steward,  at  the 
corn-chest,  in  nose-bags  or  a  small  box. 
Of  these  two  modes  of  carrying  horse  corn 
in  the  stable,  I  prefer  the  trough,  as  being 
most  easily  filled  and  emptie<l.  The 
horses  are  bound  up,  the  stable  door  shut, 
and  the  men  go  to  their  dinner,  which 
should  be  ready  for  them.  After  dinner 
they  return  to  the  stable,  when  the  horses 
will  have  finished  their  feed,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  fresh  straw — for  at  this  tinie 
farm-horses  get  no  hay — will  be  well 
relished.    The  men  have  a  ievf  minutes  to 


TREATMENT  OP  FARM-HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


S09 


spare  until  1  p.m.,  when  they  should  wisp 
down  the  horses,  put  on  the  harness, 
comb  out  the  tails  and  manes,  and  be 
ready  to  put  on  the  bridles  the  moment  1 
o'clock  strikes,  which  is  announced  by  the 
steward. 

1417.  The  afternoon  yoking  is  short, 
not  lasting  longer  than  sunset,  which  at 
this  season  is  before  4  p.m.,  when  the 
horses  are  brought  home.  After  drinking 
again  at  the  pond,  they  are  gently  passed 
through  it  below  the  knee,  to  wash  oiF  any 
mud  from  their  legs  and  feet,  which  they 
can  hardly  escape  collecting  in  winter. 
In  thus  washing  the  horses,  the  men  should 
be  prohibited  wetting  them  above  the 
knees,  which  they  are  ready  to  do  when 
mud  reaches  the  thighs  and  belly;  and  to 
render  the  prohibition  effectual,  the  liorse- 
pond  should  not  be  deeper  than  to  take  a 
horse  to  the  knee.  In  wetting  the  belly 
at  this  season,  there  is  danger  of  contract- 
ing inflammation  of  the  bowels  or  colic  ; 
and  to  treat  mares  in  foal  in  such  a  way 
is  highly  imprudent.  If  the  feet  and 
shanks  are  cleared  of  mud,  it  is  all  that  is 
requisite  for  washing  in  winter.  On  the 
horses  entering  the  stable,  and  having  their 
harness  taken  off,  they  should  be  well 
strapped  down  by  the  men  with  a  wisp  of 
straw.  Usually  two  wisps  are  used,  one 
in  each  hand ;  but  the  work  is  better  done 
with  one,  shifting  the  hand  as  occasion  re- 
quires. A  couple  of  wisps  may  be  used 
to  rub  down  the  legs  and  clean  the  pas- 
terns, rendering  them  as  dry  as  a  moderate 
length  of  time  will  admit.  The  work 
usually  done  at  this  time  in  the  stable  is 
nearly  in  the  dark,  and  farmers  either 
think  there  is  no  occasion  for  light  in  a 
stable  at  this  hour,  or  grudge  the  expense; 
but  either  excuse  is  no  justification  for 
doing  any  work  in  the  stable  in  the  dark. 
In  fact  the  steward  ought  to  have  a  light 
ready  when  the  horses  enter  the  stable, 
and  then  every  thing  would  be  seen  to  be 
done  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  than 
they  generally  are. 

1418.  After  the  horses  are  rubbed  down, 
the  men  go  to  the  straw-barn,  and  bundle 
each  4  windlings  of  fodder-straw,  one  to 
be  given  to  each  horse  just  now,  and  the 
other  two  to  be  put  across  the  small  fillets 
/?,  fig.  105,  in  the  stable,  when  the  stable 
is  fitted  up  as  in  this  figure ;  but  if  con- 


strncted  as  in  fig  106,  the  windlings  may 
remain  in  the  straw-barn  till  wanted. 
This  preparation  is  made  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  cattle-man  stowed  away 
his  windlings  for  the  cows  in  the  byre — 
that  the  straw-barn  may  not  be  entered 
with  a  light ;  but  the  steward  may  enter  it 
safely  with  such  a  lantern  as  fig  89,  to  let 
the  men  see  to  get  the  straw  required  just 
now,  both  for  fodder  and  litter  The  stable 
has  been  without  litter  all  day,  since  its 
cleansing  out  in  the  morning,  and  the 
horses  have  stood  on  the  stones  at  mid-day. 
This  is  a  good  plan  for  purifying  the  stable 
during  the  day,  and  is  not  so  much  at- 
tended to  as  it  deserves.  Sufficient  litter- 
straw  is  now  brought  in  by  the  men  from 
the  straw-barn,  and  shaken  up  to  make 
the  stalls  comfortable  for  the  horses  to  lie 
down.  Leaving  the  horses  with  their 
fodder,  and  shutting  the  stable  doors,  the 
men  retire  to  their  homes,  to  whatever 
occupation  they  please,  until  8  p.m., 
the  hour  at  which  horses  receive  their 
suppers. 

1419.  When  8  p.m.  arrives,  the  steward, 
provided  with  light  in  the  lantern,  sum- 
mons the  men  to  the  stable  to  give  the 
horses  a  grooming  for  the  night,  and  their 
suppers.  The  sound  of  a  horn,  or  ringing 
of  a  bell,  are  the  usual  calls  on  the  occa- 
sion, which  the  men  are  ready  to  obey. 
I  may  remark,  In  passing,  that  the  sound 
of  a  horn  is  pleasing  to  the  ear  in  a  calm 
winter  night — recalling  to  my  mind  the 
goatherd's  horn  in  Switzerland,  pour- 
ing out  its  mellow  and  impressive  strains 
at  sunset  —  the  time  for  gathering  the 
flock  and  herd  together  from  the  moun- 
tain sides  to  their  folds  in  the  neighbour- 
ing village.  Lights  are  placed  at  con- 
venient distances  in  the  stable,  to  let  the 
men  see  to  groom  the  horses.  The  groom- 
ing consists  first  in  currying  the  horse  with 
the  curry-comb  ^,  fig.  109.  to  free  him  of 
the  dirt  adhering  to  his  skin,  and  which, 
being  now  dry,  is  easily  reraoA'ed.  A  wisp- 
ing  of  straw  removes  the  roughest  of  the 
dirt  loosened  by  the  curry-comb.  The 
legs  ought  to  be  thoroughly  wisped — not 
only  to  make  them  clean,  but  dry  of  any 
moisture  that  may  have  been  left  in  the 
evening;  and  at  this  time  the  feet  should 
be  picked  clear,  by  the  foot-picker  a,  of 
any  dirt  adhering  between  the  shoe  and  the 
foot.    The  brush  c  is  then  used,  to  remove 


310 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  remaining  and  finer  portions  of  dust 
from  tbe  hair,  and  it  is  cleared  from  tlie 
brush  by  a  few  rasj)s  along  the  curry-comb. 
The  wisj/mg  and  brushing,  if  done  with 
some  force  and  dexterity,  with  a  coml)ing 
of  the  tail   and  mane   with  the  comb  </, 

Fig.  109. 


iMg.    111. 


wmr 


THE  CURRY-COMB,  BRUSH,   FOOT-PICKER,  AND 
MANE-COMB. 

should  render  the  horse  pretty  clean  ;  but 
there  are  more  ways  than  one  of  grooming 
a  horse,  as  may  be  witnessed  by  the  skim- 
ming and  careless  way  in  which  some 
ploughmen  do  it.  It  is  true  that  the 
rough  coat  of  a  farm-horse  in  winter  is  not 
easily  cleaned,  and  especially  in  a  work- 
Fig.  110.  stable  where  much  dust 
floats  about  and  no 
horse-clothes  are  in  use; 
but,  rough  as  it  is,  it 
should  be  clean  if  not 
sleek;  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  steward  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  groom- 
ing has  been  efficiently 
done.  A  slap  of  the 
hand  upon  the  horse  will 
soon  letyou  know  the  ex- 
istence of  the  loose  dust 
in  the  hair.  Attendance 
at  this  time  will  give 
you  an  insight  into  the 
manner  in  which  farm- 
horses  ought  to  bo 
THE  COMMON  STRAW  clcancd  and  generally 
FORK.  treated    in    the    stable. 

1420.  The    straw   of  the  bedding   is 


then  shaken  up  with  a  fork,  such  as  in 
fig.  110.  This  figure  has  ratlier  longer 
jiroiigs,  and  too  sharp 
for  a  stable  fork,  which 
is  most  handy  for  shak- 
ing up  straw  when  about 
5  feet  in  longtli,  and  least 
1  dangerous  of  injuring 
the  legs  of  the  hor.'^es  by 
puncture  when  in  a 
bluntedstate.  The  united 
prongs  terminate  at  tiieir 
nj)])er  end  in  a  sort  of 
spike  or  tine,  as  seen  in 
fig.  Ill,  which  is  a  steel 
j)ronged  fork  of  tlie  form 
used  in  Lincolnshire, 
and  is  an  excellent  in- 
strument for  working 
amongst   straw,    driven 

THE  LINCOLNSHIRE     j^to   ^  hoopcd    ash   shaft. 
STEEL  STRAW  FORK,   rr,,   .  i  <• 

lliis  mode  or  mounting 
a  fork  is  much  better  than  with  socket  and 
nail,  which  are  apt  to  become  loose  and 
catch  the  straw. 

1421.  The  hf)rses  then  get  their  feed  of 
oats,  after  which  tiic  lights  are  removed 
and  the  stable  doors  barred  and  locked  by 
the  stev/ard,  who  is  custodier  of  the  key. 
In  some  stables  abed  is  j)rovided  for  a  lad, 
that  lie  may  be  present  to  relieve  any  ac- 
cident or  illness  that  may  befall  any  of  the 
horses;  but,  where  the  stalls  are  properly 
constructed,  there  is  little  chance  of  any 
horse  strangling  himself  with  the  collar, 
or  of  any  becoming  sick  where  a  proper 
ventilation  is  established. 

1422.  In  winter  it  is  customary  to  give 
farm-horses  a  mash,  once  at  least,  and 
sometimes  thrice  a-week.  The  mash  con- 
sists of  steamed  potatoes  or  boiled  turnips, 
boiled  barley,  oats  or  beans,  mixed  some- 
times with  bran,  and  seasoned  with  salt. 
The  articles  are  pre])ared  in  the  stable 
boilerd)ouse,  Plate  II.,  in  the  afternoon, 
by  the  cattle-man,  a  field-worker,  or 
other  person  a]i]K)inted  to  do  it,  and  put 
into  tubs,  in  which  it  is  carried  to  the 
stable  by  the  men,  and  dealt  out  with  a 
shovel,  for  supper  at  night,  in  the  troughs 
used  to  carry  the  corn  to  the  horses.  It 
is  warm  enough  when  the  hand  can  bear 
the  heat.  The  (plant ity  of  coin  put  into 
the  boiler  is  as  mncli  as  when  given  raw, 
and  in  its  preparation  swells  out  to  a  con- 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


311 


siderable  bulk.  The  horses  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  mash,  and,  when  the  night  arrives 
for  its  distribution,  show  unequivocal 
symptoms  of  impatience  to  receive  it. 

1423.  The  quantity  of  raw  oats  given  to 
farm-horses,  when  on  full  feed,  is  3  lippies 
a-day,  by  measure,  and  not  by  weight ;  but 
taking  horse-corn  at  almost  the  greatest 
■weight  of  40  lb.  per  bushel,  each  feed  will 
weigh  2  j  lbs.,  the  daily  allowance  amount- 
ing to  11 J  lbs.;  but  the  lippy  measure,  when 
horse-corn  is  dealt  out,  is  most  frequently 
not  striked,  but  heaped,  or  at  least  hand- 
waved,  so  that  the  full  allowance  will 
weigh  even  more  than  this.  As  horses 
work  only  7  or  8  hours  a-day  in  winter, 
their  feeding  is  lessened  to  perhaps  2  full 
feeds  a-day  or  7^  lbs.,  divided  into  three 
portions — namely,  a  full  feed  in  the  morn- 
ing, ^  a  feed  at  mid-day,  and  ^  a  feed  at 
night;  and  on  the  nights  the  mash  is 
given,  the  evening  ^-feed  of  raw  oats  is 
lot  given.  Some  small  farmers  withdraw 
the  corn  altogether  from  their  horses  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  giving  theui  mashes 
of  some  sort  instead ;  whilst  others  only 
give  them  one  feed  a-day,  divided  at  morn- 
ing and  noon,  and  a  mash  at  night,  or 
raw  turnips  or  potatoes  at  night.  One  of 
the  sorts  of  mash  alluded  to  consists  of 
barley,  or  oat  or  wheat  chafi",  steeped  for 
some  hours  in  cold  water  in  a  large  cistern, 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  a  little  light 
barley  or  oats  sometimes  put  in,  to  give  the 
appearance  of  corn.  But  a  greater  decep- 
tion than  such  a  mess,  in  lieu  of  corn,  cannot 
be  practised  upon  poor  horses, — for  what 
support  can  be  derived  from  chaff  steeped 
in  cold  water  ?  As  well  might  the  mess 
be  mixed  up  at  once  in  the  manger.  No 
doubt  horses  eat  it,  but  only  from  hunger; 
and  when  obliged  to  live  upou  it,  exhibit 
thin  ribs,  pot  bellies,  and  long  hair — charac- 
teristics which  bespeak  poverty  of  condi- 
tion. A  neighbour  farmer  to  myself, 
faithfully  as  the  winter  came  round,  fed 
his  horses,  as  he  phrased  it,  upon  this 
steep,  and  the  consequence  was,  that  they 
went  like  snails  at  their  work ;  and  when 
returning  home  from  delivering  a  load  of 
corn  at  the  market-town,  with  even  the 
support  of  a  half-feed  of  corn,  one  leg  was 
like  to  knock  over  another.  A  farm- 
steward  recommended  this  steep  to  me,  as 
effecting  a  great  saving  in  corn,  and  showed 
me  a  fine  set  of  cisterns,  made  of  pavement, 


which  he  had  advised  his  master,  a  landed 
proprietor,  to  erect  for  the  purpose  of 
making  it.  Instead  of  eulogising  his  fine 
cisterns,  I  jtrojiosed  to  do  any  number  of 
days'  work  of  any  sort  he  pleaded  with  my 
horses  against  his, on  their  res})ective  modes 
of  feeding,  and  it  would  then  be  seen 
which  v.-as  best  able  to  support  the  horses  in 
working  condition.  He  declined  the  trial, 
as  he  had  frequent  opportunities  of  seeing 
my  horses  pass  his  way  with  single  carts, 
stepping  out  at  4  miles  an  hour,  with  a 
load  out  and  home.  No  doubt  the  steep 
is  economical,  in  as  far  as  saving  in  corn 
is  concerned  ;  but  the  saving  is  effected  in 
substituting  bad  food  for  good,  and  at  the 
expense  of  the  horses'  condition.  One 
season,  as  a  mash,  I  tried  steamed  potatoes, 
with  salt  alone,  of  which  the  liorsus  were 
excessively  fond,  and  received  three  times 
a- week,  and  on  which  they  became  sleek 
in  the  skin,  and  fat,  notwithstanding  much 
heavy  work  ;  but  in  spring,  when  the  long 
days'  field-work  was  resumed,  they  were 
all  affected  by  shortness  of  wind.  Should 
cooked  potatoes  necessarily  have  this  effect 
upon  horses  ?  I  may  mention  that  oats 
and  barley,  and  every  other  species  of 
grain,  when  desired  to  be  cot)ked,  must 
at  least  be  nmcerated,  and  to  do  this  effec- 
tually icarni  water  nmst  be  used,  so  that 
cold  water  cann<jt  effectually  draw  out  the 
nourishing  portion  of  grain. 

1424.  The  price  of  a  curry-comb  ranges 
from  8d.  to  Is.  6d.  a-piece:  brush,  3s. 
6d. :  mane-comb,  6d. :  foot-jjicker.  Is.,  and 
one  to  fold  for  the  pocket.  Is.  6d.  Shears 
to  trim  the  mane  and  tail,  od.  to  Is.  4d. 
Plain  nose-bags.  Is.  6d.,  with  leather  bot- 
toms, 7s.  each. 

1425.  I  have  often  thought  that  the 
usually  careless  manner  of  placing  the 
lights  in  the  stable  in  the  evening  is  highly 
dangerous  to  the  safety  of  the  bi'ilding  ; 
and  yet,  in  the  most  crowded  and  dirty 
stables,  no  accidents  of  fire  almost  ever 
happen.  Sometimes  the  candle  is  stuck 
against  a  wall  by  a  bit  of  its  own  melted 
grease ;  at  other  times,  it  hangs  by  a 
string  from  the  roof  in  an  open  lantern, 
set  apparently  on  purpose  to  catch  straws. 
A  good  stable  lantern  is  still  a  det-ideratum; 
and  it '  should  hold  a  candle,  and  not  an 
oil-lamp,  as  being  the  most  cleanly  mode 
of  carrying  about  light ;  and  if  the  candle 


812 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


could  be  made  to  require  no  snuffing,  it 
would  be  perfect.  A  tin-lantern,  with  a 
horn  glass,  is  what  is  commonly  in  use  to 
carry  the  candle  in  the  air;  but  wlien  it 
becomes  blackened  with  smoke  in  the  in- 
side, it  is  of  little  use  to  give  light  outside. 
The  globe  lantern  of  glass,  made  very 
strong  for  use  on  board  of  ship,  has  an  oil 
lamp  in  it,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  best  yet 
contrived.  It  has  one  invaluable  property, 
that  of  perfect  safety.     It  is  fig.  89. 

1426.  From  the  stable  the  steward 
takes  the  lantern,  and,  accompanied  by  a 
few  of  the  men,  or  by  all  —  and  of 
necessity  by  the  cattle-man  —  inspects 
all  the  courts  and  hamraels  to  see  if  the 
cattle  are  well ;  and  if  it  be  moonlight, 
and  any  of  the  cattle  on  foot,  appa- 
rently desirous  of  more  food,  gives  them  a 
few  turnips.  The  byres  in  which  cattle 
are  feeding  are  also  visited,  and  the  fresh 
windlings  of  straw,  laid  up  in  reserve  by 
the  cattle-man,  are  now  given  them,  any 
dung  in  the  stalls  drawn  into  the  gutter, 
and  the  bedding  shaken  up  with  a  fork. 
The  cows,  both  the  farmer's  and  servants', 
are  visited  and  treated  iu  like  manner. 
The  bulls,  heifers  in  calf,  and  young  horses, 
all  are  visited  at  this  time,  to  satisfy  the 
mind,  before  retiring  to  rest,  that  every 
creature  is  well  and  in  safety. 

1427.  This  is  the  usual  routine  of  the 
treatment  of  farm- horses  in  winter,  and, 
■when  followed  with  a  discernment  of  the 
state  of  the  weather,  is  capable  of  keeping 
them  in  health  and  condition.  The  horses 
are  themselves  the  better  of  being  out 
every  day;  but  the  kind  of  work  they 
should  do  daily  must  be  determined  by  the 
state  of  the  weather  and  the  soil.  In  wet, 
frosty,  or  snowy  weather,  the  soil  cannot 
be  touched ;  and  the  thrashing  and  carry- 
ing of  com  to  market  are  then  conducted 
to  advantage.  In  frost,  the  dnng  from  the 
courts  may  be  taken  out  to  the  fields  in 
■which  it  is  proposed  to  make  dungliills. 
When  heavy  snow  falls,  nothing  can  be 
done  out  of  doors  with  horses,  except 
thrashing  corn,  when  the  machine  is  im- 
pelled by  horse-power.  In  very  heavy 
rain  the  horses  should  not  be  exposed  to  it, 
as  every  thing  about  them,  as  well  as  the 
men,  become  soaked ;  and  before  they  be- 
come again  in  a  comfortable  state,  the 
germs  of  future  disease  may  be  engendered. 


When  it  is  fair  above,  however  cold  the 
air  or  wet  the  soil,  one  of  the  out-door 
works  mentioned  above  should  be  done  by 
the  horses;  and  it  is  better  for  them  to 
work  only  (me  yoking  a-day  than  to  stand 
idle  in  the  stable.  Work-horses  soon  show 
symptoms  of  impatience  when  confined  in 
the  stable  even  for  a  day — on  Sundays,  for 
example ;  and  when  tlie  confinement  is 
much  prolonged,  the'v  even  become  trouble- 
some. When  such  occasions  happen,  as  in 
continued  snow-storms,  the  horses  should 
be  ridden  out  for  some  time  every  day, 
and  groomed  as  carefully  as  when  at  work. 
Exercise  is  necessary  to  prevent  thicken- 
ing of  the  heels,  a  shot  of  grease,  or  a 
common  cold.  Fat  horses,  when  unaccus- 
tomed to  exercise,  are  liable  to  molten 
grease.  Such  weather  affords  a  favourable 
opportunity  forcleaning  harness,  the  bushes 
of  cart-wheels,  the  implement-house,  or 
any  neglected  place  in  the  steading. 

1428.  It  is  advisable  for  a  farmer  to 
breed  his  own  horses;  and,  on  a  farm 
which  employs  6  pairs,  two  mares  might 
easily  bear  foals  every  year,  and  perform 
their  share  of  the  work  at  the  same  time, 
without  injury  to  themselves.  The  advan- 
tage of  breeding  working  stock  at  iiome  is, 
that,  having  been  born  and  brought  up  upon 
the  ground,  tliey  not  only  become  natural- 
ised to  the  products  of  its  particular  soil, 
and  thrive  the  better  upon  them,  but 
also  become  familiarised  with  every  person 
and  field  upon  it,  and  are  broke  into 
work  without  trouble  or  risk.  Tiie  two 
marcs  should  work  together,  and  be  driven 
by  a  steady  ploughman  ;  and  their  work 
should  be  confined  to  plougliing  in  winter 
and  spring,  wlien  they  are  big  with  yoimg, 
for  the  shaking  in  tlie  sliafts  of  a  cart,  or 
going  roimd  in  the  horse-course,  is  nothing 
in  their  favour.  Their  driver  should  plough 
with  them,  when  ever  that  operation  can 
be  performed ;  and  when  it  cannot,  he 
should  assist  the  other  men  at  their  carts 
with  manual  labour. 

1429.  There  is  a  good  arrangement  as 
regards  the  horses  adopted  by  some  fanners, 
as  well  as  being  adapted  to  married  plough- 
menofdifterentstrengthsandages,  whichis, 
thekeepingapairortwoof  the  horsesalways 
at  home,  ploughing  and  doing  other  works 
at  home,  and  never  bearing  cart-loads  upon 
the  high-way.     Old  horses,  mares  in  foal. 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  m  WINTER. 


318 


and  ploughmen  advancing  in  life,  are  kept 
at  home ;  and  the  others,  consisting  of  the 
youngest  of  the  horses,  and  the  most  ac- 
tive of  the  men,  are  appointed  to  drive  all 
the  loads  to  and  from  the  farm.  This  sub- 
division of  labour  has  the  advantage  of 
causing  the  sorts  of  work  best  adapted  for 
the  capacities  of  the  men  to  be  executed 
most  perfectly. 

1430.  Supposing,  then,  that  one  or  two 
mares  bear  a  foal  every  year,  these,  with 
the  year-olds  and  two-year-olds,  should  be 
accommodated  in  the  hammels  N,  Plates 
I.  and  II.,  according  to  age — where  there 
are  more  than  one  of  the  same  age,  the 
older  being  apt  to  knock  the  younger  about ; 
but  where  one  only  of  every  age  is  brought 
up,  they  may  be  placed  together  for  the 
sake  of  companionship,  and  horses,  being 
social  auimals,  learn  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  one  another's  tempers.  AVhere 
blood  foals  are  bred  as  well  as  draught, 
they  should  have  separate  hammels,  the 
latter  being  rough  and  overbearing,  though 
the  bloods  generally  contrive  in  the  end  to 
obtain  the  mastery.  Young  horses  never 
receive  any  grooming,  and  are  even  sel- 
dom handled ;  but  they  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  be  led  in  the  halter  from  the 
period  they  leave  their  mothers. 

1431.  The  food  usually  given  to  young 
horses  in  winter  is  oat-straw  for  fodder, 
and  a  few  oats;  and  where  they  are  win- 
tered among  the  young  cattle  in  a  large 
court,  they  have  only  the  chance  of  pick- 
ing up  a  little  corn  from  the  corn-barn,  or 
the  refuse  of  hay  from  the  litter  of  the 
work-horse  stable  in  spring — when  they 
seldom  get  corn.  The  fact  is,  young  horses 
are  unjustly  dealt  with ;  they  are  too  much 
stinted  of  nourishing  food,  and  the  conse- 
quences are  smallness  of  bone,  which  de- 
prives them  of  the  requisite  strength  for 
their  work,  and  dulness  of  spirits  which 
renders  their  work  a  burden  to  them.  I 
speak  of  what  I  have  seen  of  the  way  in 
which  a  large  proportion  of  the  farm-horses 
of  this  country  are  brought  up  when  young. 
Their  treatment  seems  to  be  derived  from 
the  opinion  that  little  nourishing  meat 
should  be  given  to  young  horses.  Instead 
of  this,  they  should  receive  a  stated  allow- 
ance of  corn, — and  if  bruised,  so  much  the 
better, — according  to  their  ages ;  and  when 
a  mash  is  given  to  the  work-horses,  the 


young  ones  should  always  have  a  share. 
For  the  purpose  of  receiving  corn  and 
mash,  mangers  should  be  put  up  in  the  in- 
side of  each  hammel,  apart  from  each  other. 
Attempts  at  domineering  will  be  made  by 
the  artful  over  the  simple  colt  or  filly ;  biit 
proper  correction  administered  at  times, 
and  justice  done  to  all  on  every  occasion, 
will  put  an  end  to  OA'erbearing  conduct. 
The  steward  cannot  be  better  employed 
than  in  giving  corn  to  the  young  horses ; 
and  the  cattle-man  should  attend  to  their 
fodder  and  litter :  and  were  the  mash  for 
the  horses  prepared  before  daylight  departs, 
the  messes  could  be  gi^'en  to  the  young 
horses  immediately  after  the  men  leave  the 
stable  in  the  twilight.  Should  a  mash  be 
deemed  too  expensive  for  young  horses, 
they  should  get  Swedish  turnips  or  carrots 
every  day — moist  food  being  as  requisite 
for  them  as  dry  fodder  and  corn. 

1432.  The  names  commonly  giA'en  to  the 
different  states  of  the  horse  are  these  : — 
The  new-born  one  is  called  a  foal,  the 
male  being  a  colt  foal,  and  the  female  cijillf/ 
foal.     After  being  weaned,  the   foals  are 

called  simply  colt  or  y?//y,  according  to  the 
sex,  which  the  colt  retains  until  broken  in 
for  work,  when  he  is  a  horse  or  (/elding, 
which  he  retains  all  his  life  ;  and  the  filly  is 
then  changed  into  mare.  When  the  colt  is 
not  castrated  he  is  an  entire  colt ;  which 
name  he  retains  until  he  serves  mares,  when 
he  is  a  stallion  or  entire  horse;  when  cas- 
trated he  is  a  gelding ;  and  it  is  in  this 
state  that  he  is  chiefly  worked.  A  mare, 
when  served,  is  said  to  be  covered  by  or 
stinted  to  a  particular  stallion;  and  after 
she  has  borne  a  foal  she  is  a  brood  mare, 
until  she  ceases  to  bear,  when  she  is  a 
barren  mare  or  eill  mare  ;  and  when  dry 
of  milk,  she  is  yeld.  A  mare,  while  big 
with  young,  is  iw  foal.  Old  stallions  are 
never  castrated. 

1433.  There  are  various  ways  of  em~ 
ploj'ing  ploughmen  in  winter,  when  the 
horses  happen  to  be  laid  idle  from  the  state 
of  the  weather.  Some  farmers  always 
employ  them  to  dress  the  corn  for  the 
market,  with  a  view  to  economy.  Plough- 
men may  certainly  be  employed  in  thrash- 
ing corn  with  tlie  mill,  when  not  engaged 
with  their  horses ;  but  to  lay  horses  idle 
for  the  sake  of  employing  their  drivers  at 
barn-work,  is  poor  economy.     Men  gene- 


8U 


PRACTICE— AVINTER. 


rally  cannot  r'uUlle  corn  \\ell,  and  in  every 
other  respect  are  too  roii^h  in  tlieir  nio<le 
of  Work  fur  tiie  nicer  work  of  tlie  barn.  In 
deep  snow,  when  all  the  roads  of  the  farm 
are  blown  up,  the  men  may  be  usefully 
eniploN-ed  in  cutting  open  roads  to  the 
most  freijuented  place  for  the  time,  such  as 
to  the  field  of  turnips,  to  the  one  where  the 
sheep  are  feeding  on  turnips,  to  that  in 
which  it  is  proposed  to  make  a  dunghill. 
Their  services  of  this  sort  niay  even  be 
ret|uired  on  the  public  highway,  to  the 
extent  it  passes  through  the  farm,  when  it 
is  determined  to  cut  open  the  road  for  the 
public  convenience.  In  the  severe  snow- 
stoi'm  of  1823  this  had  to  be  done  oftener 
than  once;  and  unless  the  farm -servants  had 
rendered  assistance  upon  that  occasion,  the 
o])ening  of  the  roads  would  have  cost  more 
money,  and  taken  a  lonirer  time  to  be 
opened,  than  they  did.  In  that  state  of 
the  weather,  the  men  are  usefully  employed 
in  assisting  the  shepherd  to  open  channels 
in  the  snow,  among  the  stripped  turnif^s, 
to  allow  the  sheep  to  get  at  them,  and  in 
carrying  hay  to  the  ewes.  In  heavy  falls 
of  rain,  and  sudden  breaking  up  of  snow- 
storms, rivulets  and  ditches  often  become 
more  full  of  water  than  they  can  conveni- 
ently contain,  and  are  therefore  apt  to 
overflow  the  arable  ground  on  each  side, 
to  the  injury  of  new  wheat,  or  souring  of 
the  ploughed  land,  as  the  case  maybe.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  hedger  to  attend  to  the 
state  of  the  ditches,  and  see  that  no  injury 
arises  from  the  water,  in  its  course  through 
the  farm  ;  but  the  exertions  of  one  man, 
in  such  an  emergency,  are  quite  inadequate 
to  stem  the  torrent  of  water.  The  men, 
therefore,  all  turn  out,  with  suitable  im- 
plements, and  assist  in  removing  the  ob- 
structions the  water  may  have  raised 
against  its  own  course,  and  cut  gaws,  where 
necessary,  for  leading  off  the  water  from 
the  ploughed  soil.  Small  rivers,  on  the 
sudden  breaking  up  of  a  season  of  frost, 
bring  down  shoals  of  ice,  which,  on  accu- 
mulating at  the  sharp  turns  of  the  river, 
form  dammings  there,  obstructing  the  ]>as- 
sage  of  the  water,  which,  only  finding  a  vent 
over  the  banks  or  embankment, destroysthe 
soil  on  either  side.  AVhere  such  an  incident 
is  likely  to  happen,  the  men  should  be  pre- 
pared with  proper  instruments,  a^  poles, 
long  forks,  sledge-hammers,  and  mallets,  to 


break  and  guide  the  shoals,  and  prevent 
their  accumulation  at  any  place.  A  timely 
preparation  of  this  kind  may  be  themeauo 
of  averting  much  damage.  Such  occujia- 
tions  as  I  have  mentioned,  are  quite  befit- 
ting stout  men  ;  and  if  the  stewar-i  be  on 
the  outlook  for  every  casualty  whicli  may 
reasonably  happen,  and  take  the  lead  to 
avert  them,  he  will  feel  the  satisfaction 
of  having  been  the  means,  by  the  exer- 
cise of  forethought  and  ju<lgnient,  of 
saving  much  valuable  property  to  his 
master. 

1434.  The  horse  thrives  well  on  cooked  food. 
He  lias  a  single  or  simple  stomach,  which  must 
be  filled  at  once  with  well  mastic:;ted  food,  be- 
fore the  gastric  juice  can  act  upon  it  in  a  proper 
manner;  and  should  any  food  which  enters  it  in 
an  insufficiently  masticatod  state,  escape  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  juice  into  the  bowels,  it  may 
decompose  there,  generate  gas,  and  produce  the 
analogous  disease  of  horen  in  cattle,  namely, 
flatulent  colic  or  baits.  To  render  food  in  such  a 
state  at  first  as  shall  save  the  horse  the  trouble 
of  mastication,  is  therefore  to  do  him  a  good 
service;  and  hence  cooked  food  is  in  a  proper 
state  for  feeding  a  horse,  and  hasbeen  proved  to 
be  economical.  Still,  the  cooking  will  be  carried 
to  an  injurious  degree,  if  it  shall,  by  dint  of  ease 
of  deglutition,  prevetit  the  flow  of  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  saliva  into  the  stomach,  which  is 
necessary  to  complete  digestion,- — "  the  quantity 
of  which,'' says  Professor  Dick,  "is  almost  in- 
credible to  those  who  liave  not  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  ascertaining  it,  but  which  tlie  following 
fact  will  testify.  A  black  horse  had  received  a 
wound  in  the  parotid  duct,  which  bi  came  fistu- 
lous. When  his  jaws  were  in  motion,  in  the  act 
of  eating  hay,  1  had  the  curiosity  to  collect  in  a 
glass  measure  the  quantity  which  flowed  dnrnig 
1  minute,  by  a  stop-watch;  and  it  amounted  to 
nearly  '2  drachms  more  than  2  oz.  in  that  time. 
Now,  if  we  calculate  that  the  paiotid  glaiid  on  tiie 
opposite  cheek  poured  into  the  mouth  tlie  same 
quantity  in  the  same  time,  and  allow  that  the 
sub-lingual  and  sub-maxillary  glands  on  each 
side  combmei!,  pour  into  the  mouth  a  quantity 
equal  to  the  two  parotids,  we  then  have  no  less 
than  8  oz.  of  saliva  passing  into  the  mouth  of  a 
horse  in  1  minute,  for  the  purpose  of  softening 
the  food  and  preparing  it  for  digestion."*  Yet 
it  is  impossible  for  any  horse  to  swallow  food,  in 
the  most  favourable  state  it  can  be  made  for 
swallowing,  without  moving  his  jaws  to  a  certain 
degree,  and  this  insures  a  certain  quantity  of 
saliva  entering  his  stomach. 

1435.  But  more  than  this,  cooked  food  may  be 
presented  in  too  nutritious  a  state  for  tlie 
stomach  ;  and  there  may  be,  on  the  other  hand, 
too  little  nutriment  in  the  food  given  :  For  "  the 
digestive  organs  of  the  horse,  like  those  of  the 
ox,"  says  Professor  Dick,  "  are  very  capacious, 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  1025. 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


815 


and  are  evidently  intended  to  take  in  a  large 
proportion  of  matter  containing  a  small  propor- 
tion of  nutriment;  and  if  the  food  upon  which 
they  are  made  to  live  is  of  too  rich  a  quality, 
there  is,  by  the  excitement  produced,  an  increase 
of  the  peristaltic  motion,  in  order  to  throw  off 
the  superabundant  quantity  which  has  been 
taken  into  the  stomach  and  bowels.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  give,  therefore,  a  certain  quantity  of 
hulk,  to  separate,  perhaps,  the  particles  of  nutri- 
tious matter,  that  the  bowels  may  be  enabled  to 
act  upon  it  properly.  A  horse  could  not  live  so 
well  on  oats,  if  fed  entirely  upon  them,  as  when 
a  portion  of  fodder  is  given  ;  with  them  a  certain 
quantity  is  required.  But  this  may  be  carried 
too  far,  and  the  animal  may  have  his  bowels 
loaded  with  too  large  a  quantity  of  unnutritious 
food," — -as  witness  the  nature  of  the  steep  before 
alluded  to  (1423)  —  "and  nothing  less  than 
such  a  mass  as  will  render  him  incapable  to  per- 
form any  active  exertion,  will  be  sufficient  to 
afford  him  even  a  scanty  degree  of  nourishment. 
A  horse  living  ou  straw  in  a  straw-yard  becomes 
pot-bellied.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  proper  arrange- 
ment in  the  properties  and  proportions  of  his 
food  becomes  a  matter  of  important  considera- 
tion."* These  and  the  preceding  remarks  com- 
prehend all  the  rationale  of  feeding  horses,  and, 
if  carefully  considered,  may  conduct  you  to 
adopt  such  an  appropriate  mixture  of  materials 
in  your  possession,  as  may  serve  to  maintain  the 
strength,  good  health,  and  condition  of  your 
horses,  and  to  do  so  economically.  Mean  time  I 
shall  enumerate  a  few  of  the  attempts  that  have 
hitherto  been  made  of  making  comparative  mix- 
tures of  food  for  horses,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining whether  cooked  or  raw  food  maintains 
horses  in  the  best  order. 

1436.  The  most  careful  set  of  experiments 
that  have  yet  been  recorded  in  supporting /«»•*«- 
horses  ou  boiled  and  raw  grain,  and  on  raw  grain 


prepared  and  in  a  natural  state,  was  made  by 
Mr  James  Cowie,  Halkerton  Mains,  Kincardine- 
shire. He  subjected  no  fewer  than  12  horses  to 
the  experiment,  dividing  them  into  3  sets  of  4 
each,  and  keeping  each  set  on  a  separate  fare. 
The  horses  were  weighed  on  Ist  March,  when 
the  expeiiment  began,  and  their  weights  varied 
from  9  cwt.  3  qrs.  to  1 2  cvvt.  1  qrs.  4  lbs. ;  and 
they  were  again  weighed  on  1st  May,  at  the  end 
of  the  experiment,  and  their  weights  varied  from 
9  cwt.  2  qrs.  23  lbs.,  to  12  cwt.  1  qr.  14  lbs. 
Thus  the  entire  weights  did  not  vary  much  at 
both  the  periods,  though  individual  weights  did. 
The  ages  of  the  horses  ranged  from  4  to  12  years. 
They  were  fed  as  follows  ; — 

First  Set. — 2  on  cut  barley  and  beans,  mixed,  rau\ 
''  2  ...  ...  boiled. 

Second  Set. — 2  on  oats  and  beans,  7'av: 
"  2  ...  boiled. 

Third.  Set. — 2  on  oats  rare. 
"  2       ...      boiled. 

Each  horse  got  1  peck  =  4  lippies  =  4  feeds  = 
about  16  lbs.  of  grain  daily,  with  oat  straw.  The 
weight  of  the  barley  was  50  lbs.,  and  of  the  oats 
42  lbs.  per  bushel.  The  horses  were  not  put 
suddenly  upon  a  change  of  food,  for  Mr  Cowie 
had  been  in  the  practice  of  giving  them  daily 
raw,  cut,  and  boiled  grain  alternately.  The  ex- 
periment having  been  conducted  at  a  season  of 
heavy  work,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  horses 
lost  some  weight  upon  the  whole  ;  thus  their 
gross  weights  on  1st  March  was  130  cwt.  2  qrs. 
26  lbs.,  and  on  1st  May  it  had  decreased  to  124 
cwt.  3  qrs.  22  lbs.— a  difference  of  5  cwt.  3  qrs. 
4  lbs. ;  but  as  one  horse  only  lost  5  lbs.,  another 
kept  his  weight,  and  a  third  gained  10  lbs.— 3  out 
of  the  12  thus  proving  themselves  quite  able  to 
stand  heavy  work— the  remaining  9  had  to  bear 
almost  the  entire  loss  of  weight,  which  varied 
individually  from  1  qr.  23  lbs.  to  3  qrs.  12  lbs. 
The  result  of  the  losses  and  gains  stand  thus  : — 


Total  loss  of  weight  of  6  horses  on  boiled  grain, 
Total  loss  of  weight  of  6  horses  on  raw  grain, 


Deduct  gain  by  1  horse, 

same  state  of  1  horse, 


Average  loss  on  each  horse  on  boiled  grain,  nearly, 

raxv,  bruised  and  unb raised,  nearly. 


Cwt.  qr.    lbs. 

,              , 

3    2    27 

Cwt.  qr.  lbs. 

. 

2    0  15 

Cwt.  qr.  lbs. 

0     0   10 

0     0     0 

, 

0     0  10 

sed,  nearly. 

2    0    5' 
0    2  14 
0    1  12 

In  the  course  of  the  experiment  it  was  observed, 
that  one  or  two  of  the  horses  fed  on  boiled  grain 
perspired  more  freely  at  their  work  than  the 
others,  drank  less  water,  and  voided  softer  dung, 
but  with  no  tendency  to  purge. 

1437.  The  facts  brought  out  in  this  experiment 
were,  that  the  horses  fed  on  unhruised  raw  and 
on  boiled  grain,  gave  results  so  nearly  alike, 
that  it  seems  inexpedient  to  incur  the  expense  of 
covkinq  food  for  horses,  as  that  costs  about  1  gd. 
ou  two  feeds  for  each  horse.     This  is  a  rather 


remarkable  result,  for  one  s-hould  have  expected 
that  the  boiled  grain  would  have  had  the  advan- 
tage. Bruised  raw  grain  seems  the  most  nourish- 
ing, and,  in  not  requiring  cooking,  the  most 
economical  mode  of  feeding  work-horses.  For 
all  the  horses  that  had  boiled  and  unhruised  raw 
grain  lost  70  lbs.  each — and  6  or  7  per  cent  of  loss 
in  an  animal  is  considerable;  while  those  which 
had  brnised  grain,  though  raw,  either  gained 
weight  or  lost  none.  And  as  to  economy  in  using 
bruised  grain,  besides  the  cooking,  it  is  alleged  that 
boiled  whole  grain  passes  through  the  horse  uudi- 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  1031. 


816 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


gested,as  well  as  raw  whole  grain,  and  the  quan- 
tity which  thus  escapes  is  equal  to  one-sixth  of 
what  a  horse  consumes;  whereas,  the  bruised  grain 
undergoes  a  considerable  degree  of  digestion  be- 
fore passing  away.  If  the  loss  is  a  sixth  part  on 
a  horse  which  gets  12  lbs.  of  whole  oats  daily,  a 
yearly  saving  may  be  effected  of  more  than  2 
quarters  of  corn,  by  giving  him  10  lbs.  of 
bruised. 

1438.  Many  economical  forms  of  mixtures 
have  been  recommended  for  farm-horses,  and 
these  are  among  them  : — 

10  lbs.  of  chaffed  straw,  at  £1  per  ton,  Id. 

10  lbs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel,     .         .  9 

16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  10s.  per  ton,  .  1 

Expense  of  cutting  and  chaffing,  .  0^ 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day,  1 1  ^d. 

1 6  lbs.  of  hay,  at  3s.  6d.  per  cwt.,  .        6d. 

5  lbs,  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel,  .         4^ 

16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  10s.  per  ton,  .         l' 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day,  1 1  ^d. 

28  lbs.  of  steamed  turnips,  .        .  3^d. 

7  lbs.  of  coals  at  Is.  per  bushel,  .  1 

Expenses  of  steaming,  ...  0,^ 

-6  lbs.  of  straw,  at  £1  per  ton,      .        .  l| 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day,  6^d. 


This  last  mixture,  containing  no  corn  of  any 
kind,  is  said  to  "  succeed  remarkably  well — and 
although  the  horses  perspired  considerably  while 
at  work,  they  kept  their  condition  exceedingly 
well" — and  has  been  adopted  by  some  farmers  in 
the  south  of  England,  and  by  Mr  Karkeek,  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  as  having  been  "  highly 
recommended  by  several  practical  farmers."* 
No  doubt  horses  can  live  on  turnips  as  well  as 
grass,  without  corn,  and  they  may  be  said  to 
work  upon  them;  but  I  agree  with  Mr  Stewart, 
when  he  observes, — "  What  the  owner  might  call 
work  is  not  known.  In  this  country,  grass  alone 
will  not  produce  workable  horses ;"  and  the  same 
may  more  truly  be  said  of  turnips  and  straw. 
"If  food  is  not  given,"  continues  Mr  Stewart, 
"  work  cannot  be  taken.  Every  man  who  has  a 
horse  has  it  in  his  power  to  starve  the  animal  ; 
but  that,  I  should  think,  can  afford  little  matter 
for  exultation."t 

1439.  Turnips  are  frequently  given  to  farm- 
horses  in  the  evening  in  lieu  of  a  feed  of  corn,  and 
even  of  a  hot  mash  at  night ;  and  horses  are  very 
fond  of  Swedish  turnips,  which,  on  being  washed, 
are  set  before  them  whole,  unless  some  of  the 
men  take  the  trouble  of  slicing  them  with  their 
knives ;  but  the  best  way  is  to  slice  them  with 
Wallace's  turnip- slicer,  fig.  86;  and  those  turnips 
are  also  much  relished  by  horses  when  boiled, 
along  with  oats,  or  barley  and  beans. 


1440.  Potatoes  are  given  to  horses  in  a  raw 
state,  and  they  seem  to  relish  them,  but  not  so 
much  as  Swedish  turnips. 

1441.  But  of  food  of  the  root  kind,  none  de- 
lights horses  so  much  as  the  carrot.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  this  root  can  only  be  cultivated 
successfully  on  very  light  soil,  otherwise  it  would 
be  worth  wliile  to  raise  as  many  as  would  sup- 
port the  horses,  with  corn,  all  winter.  Stewart 
says,  that  "  for  slow-working  horses,  carrots  may 
supply  the  place  of  corn  quite  well,  at  least  for 
those  employed  on  the  farra."+  They  might  be- 
come fat  enough  on  70  lbs.  of  carrots  a-day,  but 
would  want  stamina  without  corn.  Carrots  are 
easily  and  successfully  grown  in  the  island  of 
Guernsey  ;  but  are  not  given  to  horses  on  account 
of  an  allegation,  that  "  when  on  this  food  their 
eyes  are  injured." 

1442.  A  writer  mentions  a  similar  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  parsnip  at  a  certain  season  of  the 
year.  "  To  horses,"  he  says,  "  parsnips  are  fre- 
quently given,  and  have  the  property  of  making 
them  sleek  and  fat;  but  in  working  they  are 
observed  to  sweat  profusely.  If  new,  and  cut 
sufficiently  small,  no  other  ill  effect  results — 
except,  indeed,  at  one  period  of  the  year,  towards 
the  close  of  February,  when  the  root  begins  to 
shoot;  if  then  given,  both  horses  and  horned 
cattle  are  subject,  on  this  food,  to  an  inflamma- 
tion in  the  eye,  and  epiphora  or  watery  eye — in 
some  subjects,  perhaps,  producing  blindness. "§ 
The  boiling  of  both  carrots  and  parsnips  might 
have  the  effect  of  removing  this  dangerous 
tendency  evinced  by  those  roots  when  eaten 
raw. 

1443.  Horses  are  very  fond  of  bread;  with  a  piece 
of  bread,  and  especially  oat-cake,  a  horse  will  be 
captured  in  the  field,  when  a  feed  of  corn  will  not 
induce  him  to  be  taken.  It  is  common  in  Holland 
to  see  travellers,  at  a  village  inn, slice  down  bread 
with  a  knife  in  a  trough  for  their  horse.  Upon 
the  principle  of  economy,  M.  Longchamp  pro- 
posed to  feed  the  cavalry  of  France  with  a  bread 
composed  of  j  of  boiled  potatoes  and  5  oat- 
meal, properly  baked  in  an  oven.  The  usual 
allowance  of  oats  for  a  horse,  at  10  lbs.,  costs  13 
sous;  but  10  lbs.  of  this  bread  would  only  cost 
5  sous. 

1444.  But  independent  of  all  succedanea, 
which  may  be  given  to  horses  at  times  as  a  treat, 
and  as  a  beneficial  change  of  food,  there  should 
be  a  regular  feed  prepared  for  farm-horses,  and 
administered  every  day.  I  shall  give  two  for- 
mulae which  have  been  found  to  make  good  pre- 
pared food  for  farm-horses,  and  they  may  be 
prepared  without  much  trouble,  provided  the 
proper  apparatus  is  erected  for  the  purpose. 
One  is  the  following,  which  is  given  in  quantities 
suitable  for  several  periods  of  the  day  for  one 
horse: — 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  H{(/hland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.  p.  347. 
+  Stewart's  6'«a6/e  Economy, -p.  281.       '  X  Jbid.p.  193. 

§  Q,\ia.yle^s  Ag7-iculture  of  the  Channel  Islatids,  p.  103. 


TREATIklENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


817 


\ 


15 


In  the  morning. 
3^  lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal )    i  ,  i  ,, 

11  lbs.  of  chopped  straw        '        - 

At  mid-day. 
3  lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal 

12  lbs.  of  chopped  straw 

At  night. 
1^  lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal  "j 
Vi  lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes    >  14J 
2  lbs  of  chopped  straw  J 

44  lbs. 


This  quantity  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  strongest 
farm-horses,  and  less  will  be  consumed  by 
ordinary  ones;  but  that  can  be  regulated  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  by  withdrawing  a  little 
meal  and  straw,  still  retaining  the  proportions. 
The  usual  allowance  of  oats,  as  you  have  seen, 
(1423,)  is  11|  lbs.  a-day,  when  the  grain  is  of  the 
finest  quality  ;  but  horses  seldom  receive  the 
finest  oats,  and  are  usually  supported  on  the 
kind  called  common  oats,  which  do  not  weigh 
heavy.  The  allowance  may  betaken  at  10  lbs.; 
and  when  hay  is  given  them  in  spring,  they  eat 
at  least  1^  stone  of  22  lbs.  =  33  lbs.  every  day. 
This  mixture  contains  no  hay,  and  only  8  lbs.  of 
oat  and  bean  meal,  and  11  lbs.  of  steamed 
potatoes,  which  cannot  be  estimated  beyond  the 
cost  of  steaming.*  The  value  of  the  ordinary 
and  of  the  prepared  food  can  thus  be  easily 
estimated;  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  prepared 
is  the  cheapest,  and  better  for  the  liorses'  health, 
and  equally  good  for  condition  and  spirit.  The 
mixture  is  made  in  this  way:  The  meal  and 
chopped  straw  are  mixed  together  in  a  tub,  a 
little  salt  sprinkled  over  them,  the  steamed 
potatoes,  or  23  lbs.  of  Swedish  turnips  boiled, 
poured  hot  into  the  tub,  and  then  the  whole  is 
stirred  into  a  mess  with  a  shovel,  let  stand  to 
acquire  an  equal  temperature  throughout,  and 
to  render  the  meal  pulpy  with  the  potatoes. 

1445.  A  formula  given  by  Professor  Low  con- 
sists of  chopped  straw,  chopped  hay,  bruised  or 
coarsely  ground  grain,  and  steamed  potatoes  by 
weight,  in  equal  parts,  with  2  oz.  of  salt ;  and  of 
this  from  30  lbs.  to  35  lbs.,  or  32-2-  lbs.  on  an 
average,  is  given  to  a  horse  every  day.+  This 
mixture,  including  hay,  is  more  expensive  than 
the  above  ;  and  I  am  doubtful  that  35  lbs.  of  it 
will  satisfy  a  farm-horse  on  active  work  in  spring, 
when  he  can  eat  33  lbs.  of  unchopped  hay  a-day, 
besides  corn. 

1446.  It  appears  surprising  that  preparing 
food  for  farm-horses  should  only  have  been 
recently  practised;  but  the  practice  of  the  tiTtf 
and  the  road,  of  maintaining  horses  on  large 
quantities  of  dry  oats  and  rye-grass  hay,  had 
doubtless  a  powerful  influence  in  retaining  it  on 
farms.  But  now  that  a  more  natural  treatment 
is  adopted  for  horses  on  fast  work,  farmers  may 
easily  be  persuaded  that  their  horses,  on  slow 
work,  would  derive  greater  benefit  from  prepared 


food.  How  prevalent  was  the  notion  at  one 
tima  that  horses  could  not  be  expected  to  do 
work  at  all,  unless  there  was  hard  meat  in  them! 
"  This  is  a  very  silly  and  erroneous  idea,  if  we 
inquire  into  it,"  Professor  Dick  truly  observes; 
"  for  whatever  may  be  the  consistency  of  the 
food  when  taken  into  the  stomach,  it  must,  before 
the  body  can  possibly  derive  any  substantial 
support  or  benefit  from  it,  be  converted  into 
chyme — a  puUacious  mass;  and  this,  as  it  passes 
onward  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestinal 
canal,  is  rendered  still  more  fluid  by  the  admix- 
ture of  the  secretions  from  the  stomach,  the 
liver,  and  tlie  pancreas,  when  it  becomes  of  a 
milky  appearance,  and  is  called  chyle.  It  is  then 
taken  into  the  system  by  the  lacteals,  and  in  this 
fluid,  this  soft  state — atid  in  this  state  only  — 
mixes  with  the  blood,  and  passes  through  the 
circulating  vessels  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
system. "J  Actuated  by  rational  principles,  Mr 
John  Croall,  the  enterprising  coach-proprietor  in 
Edinburgh,  supports  his  coach-horses  on  8  lbs.  of 
chopped  hay,  and  16  lbs.  of  bruised  oats;  and  the 
late  Captain  Cheyne  found  his  post-horses  work 
well  on  the  following  mixture,  in  the  proportions 
given  to  each  horse  every  day  ;  and  this  consti- 
tutes the  second  formula  I  referred  to  above: — 

(  8  lbs.  of  bruised  oats. 
In  the  day  <.  3  lbs.  of  bruised  beans. 

(  4  lbs.  of  chopped  straw. 


At  night 


15  lbs. 

22  lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes. 

1  ^,  lb.  of  fine  barley  dust. 
2"lbs.  of  chopped  straw. 

2  oz.  of  salt. 

25h  lbs.     In  all  37 s  lbs. 


Estimating  the  barley-dust  at  lOd.  per  stone ; 
chopped  straw,  6d.  per  stone;  potatoes,  steamed, 
at  7s.  6d.  per  cwt.;  and  the  oats  and  beans  at 
ordinary  prices,  the  cost  of  supper  was  6d.,  and 
for  daily  food,  Is.  with  cooking — in  all  Is.  6d.  a 
horse  each  day.§  46  lbs.  of  Swedish  turnips 
boiled  would  afford  equal  nourishment  to  the  22 
lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes. 

1447.  The  late  Mr  James  Carmichael,  Raploch 
Farm,  Stirling,  while  remarking  on  some  of  the 
inflammatory  complaints  whicli  farm-horses  are 
most  subject  to  from  their  treatment,  contrasts 
that  of  the  harness-horse  as  being  more  favour- 
able to  health.  The  harness  horse  "  is  chiefly 
fed  on  corn  and  hay,  and  is  regularly  supplied 
at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours  at  most, 
according  to  his  work  or  stages;  while  the  farm- 
horse  has  his  consecutive  yokings,  extending  to 
10  or  12  hours  a-day — often  more,  with  but 
little  intermission  for  baiting  or  rest — has  less 
corn,  and  in  general  subsists  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  year  on  coarser  fodder,  (oat  or  bean  straw,) 
which  fills  the  stomach  without  afi'ording  much 
real  nourishment.  Let  it  not  however  be  said," 
he  observes,  "  that  the  fresh  straw  of  tlie  common 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iv.  p.  383. 
"t"  Low's  Elements  of  Practic<d  Agriculture,  p.  497. 
X  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  1033. 


§  Ibid.  p.  1029. 


318 


PRACTICE— AVINTER. 


crops  of  the  farm,  together  with  the  ordinary 
feeds  and  mashes  duly  served,  are  insufficient  to 
maintain  the  horses  in  proper  condition,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  without  the  aid  of  much 
or  any  hay.  Nothing  is  so  easy  and  obvious 
than  to  prepare  the  food  of  horses  in  a  proper 
manner,  although  it  certainly  requires  some  care, 
activity,  and  arrangement,  on  the  part  of  both 
master  and  servant.  If,  for  example,  in  com- 
mencing with  the  fodder  of  the  new  crop,  and 
until  the  system  of  steaming  becomes  more 
general — if  the  new  straw  were  mixed  with  some 
sweet  dry  straw  of  the  previous  season,  or 
sprinkled  with  a  few  handfulsof  salt,  as  it  comes 
from  the  thrasliing  floor,  it  would  greatly  pro- 
mote the  health  of  the  horses,  as  well  as  of  the 
other  stock;  and  provident  farmers  always 
reserve  one  or  two  stacks  of  corn  or  pulse  for 
the  purpose  of  being  so  mixed,  or  used  alone, 
until  the  straw  of  the  new  crop  becomes  seasoned, 
by  a  few  weeks  in  the  stack — as  pease  or  bean 
straw,  of  beans  especially,  is  very  flatulent  if 
taken  new  or  in  a  soft  state,  but  excellent  fodder 
thereafter,  and  is  much  relished  by  horses  accus- 
tomed to  it.  And  when  the  leaves,  pods,  and 
chopped  stems,  or  chaff  of  beans,  and  the  small 
corn  from  the  winnowing -machine  are  mixed  and 
boiled  or  steamed  together,  with  some  turnips  or 
potatoes,  seasoned  with  salt,  and  given  lukewarm 
in  lieu  of  oats,  to  jaded  horses  as  they  return 
from  work  in  the  evening,  the  benefits  are  appar- 
ent in  their  plumper  forru  and  glossy  coats.  It 
is  by  means  of  ruch  mashes,  or  by  combining  the 
corn  with  the  chopped  hay,  that  old  and  weary 
hordes  are  enabled  to  masticate  so  easily,  and  lie 
down  more  readily  to  repose;  whilst  others  must 
stand  several  hours  gnawing  their  ill-suited 
ration,  or  hastily  swallow  it  in  a  crude  state,  to 
stifle  the  cravings  of  hunger,  and  lie  down  to  die 
ofcolic.  Carrots  and  Swedish  turnips,  well 
cleaned  and  dried,  may  safely  be  given  in  an 
unprepared  state  when  the  horse  is  cool,  and  not 
attenuated  with  hard  work;  and  the  second  crop 
of  clover,  if  early  made  into  hay,  and  slightly 
salted,  with  or  without  a  mixture  of  old  hay  or 
straw,  might  be  made  greatly  more  available  for 
all  kinds  of  stock,  instead  of  remaining  inert 
until  late  in  the  season,  bleaching  under  every 
change  of  weather,  and  then  given  to  the  horses 
in  a  half-rotted  green  state."* 

1448.  Mr  Marshall,  Holme  Lodge,  Bedale, 
supports  his  draught-horses  on  a  mixture  of 
bruised  linseed  and  ground  oats,  in  the  propor- 
tions specified  (13,54)  when  speaking  of  the 
fattening  of  cattle  on  the  same  mixture.  "  The 
draught-horses,"  observes  Mr  Marshall,  "  had 
their  allowance  of  prepared  food  on  coming  from 
work.  When  at  constant  work,  and  long  days, 
each  horse  was  supplied  with  about  5  lbs.  of 
ground  oats  or  split  beans,  divided  into  two 
portions,  and  given  morning  and  evening,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  5  lbs.  contained  in  the  prepared  food. 
During  the  three  winter  and  othei  months  in  the 
year  that  my  horses  have  had  this  provender, 


they  have  improved  in  their  condition,  have  been 
free  from  disease,  and  capable  of  performing  any 
work  that  horses,  kept  for  agricultural  purposes, 
could  reasonably  be  required  to  do.+ 

1449.  Mr  Warnes  says,  "  Were  horses,  both  ia 
town  and  country,  fed  on  linseed,"  using  little 
water  and  plenty  of  linseed-meal,  "  one  half  at 
least  of  the  corn  now  consumed  in  stables  would 
then  find  its  way  to  the  dwellings  of  the  poor 
In  some  cases  three  parts  of  the  oats,  in  others 
the  whole,  might  be  superseded  by  linseed  ;  and 
expense,  at  the  same  time,  be  considerably 
reduced.  Linseed-meal,  sprinkled  in  small  quan- 
tities upon  grains  hot  from  the  brewery  and 
intimately  incorporated  with  a  rammer,  is  excel- 
lent food,  when  mixed  with  chaif,  for  horses 
employed  in  slow  work.  Nor  will  the  compound 
turn  sour  if  properly  consolidated. '"+  I  have 
hoard  of  no  instance  in  Scotland  of  farm-horses 
being  fed  on  this  compound  of  linseed. 

1450.  That  horses  will  thrive  on  bruised 
ickins  or  furze,  I  had  considerable  experience  in 
the  winter  of  1826,  to  which  expedient  I  was 
impelled  in  consequence  of  the  heat  of  that 
summer  having  burned  up  the  straw  of  all  .-orts 
of  grain  on  light  soil.  Old  whins,  growing  in  a 
fir  plantation,  supplied  young  shoots  from  1  foot 
to  3  feet  in  length,  which  were  cut  by  a  field- 
worker  with  a  hook,  and  led  to  the  steadin;^, 
where  it  was  biuised  with  a  rammer,  rig.  112, 

having  a  shank  a,  3 
Fig.  112.  feet     8     inches     in 

length,  a  bulged  out 
part  6,  to  give  ilia  in- 
strument weight, and 
shod  with  an  iron 
cutter  c,  4  inches 
square  and  3  inches 
deep,  having  its  low- 
er edges  sharpened, 
and  furnished  with  3 
parallel  cutters,  ri- 
veted to  it  by  their 
ends.  Every  man 
bruised,  with  this 
implement,  as  much 
furze  in  the  morning, 
on  a  stone  floor,  in 
20  minutes,  as  served 
his  pair  of  horses  for 
the  day.  The  horses 
relished  the  whins 
better  than  hay,  and 
became  remarkably 
fine  in  condition  and 
coat.  Machines,  to 
bruise  or  beat,  have 
been  invented  for  the 
preparation  of  whins ; 
but  the  simple  ram- 
mer represented 
above,  and  used  by  hand,  is  better  than  any 
other  for  bruising  young  whins  ;  and  no   large 


THE  WHIN-BRUISER. 


*  Trati^actlonx  of  the  Hhjhland  avd  Agriadtural  Society  for  March  1848,  p.  220-1. 
+  Marshall  On  Fe-diiuj  titock  icHh  Prepared  Food.  p.  5. 
i  Warnes  On  the  Culliration  of  FUix,  2d  edition,  p.  317. 


TREAT^IENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


319 


quantityof  whins  at  any  age  should  be  bruised 
at  once,  else  the  mass  will  heat,  and  ferment,  and 
become  unpalatable  food.  But  when  the  older 
sprays  of  whins  are  used,  one  of  the  more  power- 
ful machines  is  required  to  bruise  them  into  a  fit 
state  to  be  eaten  by  horses.  1  have  seen  au  old 
cart-wheel,  placed  on  its  ring,  and  made  to  re- 
volve in  a  circular  trough  ;  but  better  is  an  old 
mill-stone  shipped  by  the  hole  through  its  centre, 
upon  a  r2-feet  horizontal  axle  of  wood,  attached 
by  one  end  to  a  swivel  on  the  top  of  a  stout  post, 
driven  into  the  ground,  round  which  the  stone 
revolves  on  a  paved  circular  bed,  8  feet  in  dia- 
meter ;  and  a  horse  is  yoked  with  a  swing-tree 
at  the  other  end  of  the  axle,  to  draw  the  stone 
round  on  its  edge  in  the  trough,  into  which  the 
fresh  whins  are  thrown,  and.  when  bruised,  taken 
out  ready  for  use  ;  but  young  whins  are  at  all 
times  much  preferable  to  old  ones  for  food. 

1451.  In  the  southern  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Italy,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  the  horses  in  winter  are  fed  on  Indian 
corn,  instead  of  any  otlier  species  of  grain,  and  it 
maintains  them  in  fine  condition.  This  grain  be- 
comes as  hard  as  our  beans,  and  horses  would 
find  as  great,  and  perhaps  greater  difficulty  in 
breaking  it,  were  it  not  steeped  in  water  for  a 
number  of  hours  before  it  is  used,  when  it  is 
easily  masticated. 


besides.  Now,  when  I  first  changed  my  mode 
of  fseding  from  corn  and  hay  to  cut  sheaf,  the 
horses  improved  in  condition  wonderfully,  thus 
showing  that  it  suits  them  well.  In  very  busy 
seasons,  when  they  are  very  hard  worked,  1 
allow  them  half  a  peck  of  oats  at  dinner-time, 
besides  the  cut  sheaf.  Last  winter  I  had  only 
18  acres  of  oats  ;  these  kept  \'2  draught-horses, 
besides  4  young  horses  occasionally.  This  quan- 
tity of  oats  would  not  have  served  through  the 
year,  had  I  not  pursued  this  system  of  feeding. 
The  mode  I  have  adopted  of  preparing  the  cut 
sheaf  is  this:  — 1  have  my  straw-cutter  to  work 
from  the  horse-wheel  of  my  thrashing-machine, 
and  I  generally  have  as  much  cut  in  one  day  as 
will  serre  1*2  draught-horses  for  nearly  a  mouth. 
One  man  attends  to  and  feeds  the  cutter  with  the 
oat  sheaves,  whilst  another  man  carries  the  cut 
sheaf  into  the  granary  ready  for  use,  when  it  is 
taken  to  the  stable  in  bags  as  required." 

1454.  Cooking  apparatus. — The  means  em- 
ployed for  cooking  food  for  horses  and  cattle  are 
either  boiling  or  steaming.  In  the  first,  au  open 
vessel  is  employed,  in  which  the  roots  or  other 
substances  are  placed  with  a  sufncicnt  quantity 
of  water.  In  the  second,  either  a  partially  closed 
vessel  is  employed,  or  a  perfectly  closed  one,  in 
which  the  steam  is  generated,  and  conveyed  ia 
pipes  to  a  partially  closed  one. 


1452.  Machines  for  cutting  straw  and  hay 
have  already  been  given  in  figs.  91  and  92,  as 
also  those  for  bruising  linseed  and  corn  in  figs. 
97  and  98,  while  treating  on  thj  feeding  of 
cattle. 

1453.  As  the  maintenance  of  horses  is  a  serious 
expense  to  farmers,  any  treatment  that  proffers 
a  probable  reduction  of  the  cost  of  their  keep, 
while  thf-  animals  are  sustained  in  health  and 
condition,  deserves  attention  and  even  a  trial. 
With  this  view  I  relate  a  method  of  feeding 
horses  quite  in  the  power  of  any  farmer  to  follow. 
It  is  that  practised  by  .Mr  Trotter  near  Darlington, 
which  is  this : — "  I  have  paid  some  attention  to 
the  subject  of  keeping  draught-hoises  during 
winter  for  some  years  past,  bat  for  the  last 
three  years  I  have  adopted  quite  a  different 
mode  to  what  I  previously  followed.  My  method 
formerly  was,  to  allow  my  draught-horses  each  2 
bushels  of  oats  per  week,  together  with  1  bushel 
of  beans,  and  as  much  hay  as  they  could  eat, 
generally  clover-hay  ;  but  for  the  last  three  win- 
ters I  have  fed  them  almost  entirely  on  cut  oat- 
sheaf,  cut  into  half-inch  chafi",  which  to  me  has 
been  a  very  great  saving.  In  an  oat  crop  of 
about  40  stooks  per  acre,  which  might  yield 
near  60  bushels,  the  feed  of  a  draught-horse 
averages  2  sheaves  per  day,  or  14  sheaves  per 
week,  which  would  be  about  1  bushel  and  3  pecks 
of  corn  Der  week,  if  it  had  been  thrashed  out, 
which  is  a  saving  of  1  peck  of  oats  per  week 
each  horse,  from  what  1  formerly  gave  them ; 
besides,  I  save  the  bushel  of  bran  per  week,  and 
the  clover-hay,  which  latter  was  a  very  consider- 
able item  ;  for  draught-h^^rses,  when  they  get 
three  feeds  of  clean  oats  in  a  day,  when  at  work 
they   will   eat   a  great    quantity  of  clover-hay, 


1455.  Steaming  in  a  separate  vessel  has  been 
followed  in  a  variety  of  forms  ;  but  these  may  be 
ranked  under  two  distinct  kinds.  The  first  is 
an  open  vessel,  a  boiler,  generally  of  cast-iron, 
having  a  channel  or  groove  of  1  inch  wide  and  2 
inches  deep,  formed  round  its  brim.  Tlie  vessel 
is  placed  over  a  furnace  properly  constructed, 
and  is  partly  filled  with  water.  The  groove  is 
also  filled  with  water.  A  sheet-iron  cvlindrical 
pan.  of  3  or  4  feet  in  depth,  and  of  a  diameter 
suited  to  pass  into  the  groove  of  the  water-vessel, 
(which  is  generally  about  3  feet  diameter.)  is 
also  provided.  The  pan  has  a  perforated  bottotn, 
to  admit  steam  freely  from  the  lower  vessel.  It 
is  also  furnished  ^^'ith  an  iron  bow,  by  which  it 
can  be  suspended,  and  by  which  it  can  be  conve- 
niently tilted  while  suspended.  This  is  the 
steaming  pan  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  moving  it 
to  and  from  the  boiler,  a  crane,  mounted  with 
wheel  and  pinion,  and  a  chain,  couiplptes  the 
apparatus.  To  put  this  in  operation,  the  pan  is 
Vlled  with  the  substances  to  be  ^teamed,  and 
covered  over  either  with  a  deal  cover  or  with  old 
canvass  bags.  It  is  then  placed  upon  the  boiler 
by  means  of  the  crane,  and  the  fire  is  pietty 
strongly  urged  till  the  water  in  the  boiler  gives 
off  its  steam,  \vhich,  passing  up  through  the 
bottom  of  the  pan,  and  acting  upon  the  co;itents, 
produces  in  a  few  hours  all  the  results  of  boiling. 
The  water  in  the  groove  of  the  boiler  serves  as 
a  sealing,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam  without 
passing  through  th.e  pan.  But  noMvithstanding 
this,  It  is  evident  that  the  steam  can  hardly  ever 
reach  the  tempeiature  of  212"  :  and  hence,  this 
apparatus  is  always  found  to  be  very  tardy  ia 
it<  effects.  When  the  contents  or  the  pan  have 
been  found  sufficieiitly  done, the  whole  is  removed 
from  the  boiler  by  means  of  the  crane,  and  tilted 


330 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


into  a  large  trough  to  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
from  thence  served  out  to  the  stock.  A  general 
complaint  has  been  urged  against  this  construc- 
tion of  apparatus,  arising  from  the  slowness  of 
the  process  of  cooking  by  it,  and  consequent 
expense  of  fuel.  Boilers  of  the  form  here 
described  are  not  well  calculated  to  absorb  the 
maximum  of  calori«  that  may  be  afforded  by  a 
given  quantity  of  fuel,  neither  is  the  apparatus 
generally  the  best  adaptation  for  the  application 
of  steam  to  the  substances  upon  which  the  steam 
has  to  act.  Such  boilers,  as  already  observed, 
can  never  produce  steam  of  a  higher  temperature 
than  212°.    If  they  did,  the  shallow  water-luting. 


formed  by  the  marginal  groove,  would  be  at  once 
thrown  out  by  the  steam-pressure  ;  for  it  is  well 
known,  that  the  addition  of  P  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  steam  increases  its  elasticity  equal  to 
the  resistance  of  a  column  of  water  about  7 
inches  high.  A  groove,  therefore,  of  7  inches  in 
depth  would  be  required  to  resist  the  pressure 
which  would  even  then  be  only  one-fifth  lb.  of 
pressure  on  the  square  inch.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  temperature  in  the  steaming-iian  will 
always  be  under  2\'2°  :  hence  the  tedious  nature 
of  the  process  by  using  this  apparatus. 


1456.  The  apparatus  which  deserves  the  pre- 


Fig.  113. 


THB  CLOSBD-BOILER  STEAMIXG  APPARATUS. 


cedence  of  the  above  is  represented  in  fig.  113. 
The  principle  of  its  construction  is  that  of  a 
closed  boiler,  in  which  the  steam  is  produced 
under  a  small  pressure  of  3  to  4  lbs.  on  the  inch. 
It  is  then  delivered  through  a  pipe  to  one  or 
more  separate  vessels  containing  the  substances 
that  are  to  be  cooked  ;  and  these  vessels  are  so 
arranged  as  to  be  readily  engaged  or  disengaged 
with  the  conducting  steam-pipe.     The  ouiliue 


a  b  c  d  o(  the  figure  represents  a  section  of  the 
steaming-house,  with  the  apparatus  in  due  order 
of  arrangement,  and  of  the  extent  that  may  be 
capable  of  supplying  an  establishment  of  from 
10  to  16  horses.  The  boiler  e  is  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  '20  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  in  length. 
It  is  set  on  brick-work/,  over  a  furnace  of  14 
inches  in  width,  with  fire-grate  and  furnace-door. 
The  brick  building  requires  to  be  6  feet  6  inches 


TREATIklENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


321 


in  length,  4  feet  6  inches  in  breadth,  and  the 
height  about  3  feet  6  inches.  The  furnace  is 
built  with  a  circulating  flue,  passing  first  to  the 
further  end  of  the  boiler,  then  turning  to  right 
or  left,  according  as  the  chimney  may  be  situ- 
ated, returns  to  the  front  of  the  boiler,  and 
terminates  in  the  chimney  on  the  side  opposite 
to  the  first  turning.  The  flues  should  not  be  less 
in  width  at  the  upper  part  than  one-fourth  the 
diameter  of  the  boiler  ;  and  their  height  will  be 
about  one-third  the  diameter.  The  steam-pipe 
is  attached  to  the  boiler  at  its  crown,  takes  a 
swan-neck  bend  downwards  to  within  12  inches 
of  the  floor  at  g,  and  terminates  at  p  ;  it  is  fur- 
nislied  with  as  many  branch  nozzles  as  there  are 
intended  to  be  steaming-vessels.  The  steam- 
pipe  may  be  either  cast-iron  or  lead,  and  2  inches 
diameter  in  the  bore.  The  receptacles  or  steam- 
ing-vessels h  h  are  usually  casks  of  from  50  to 
100  gallons  contents.  They  are  mounted  with 
2  iron  gudgeons  or  pivots,  placed  a  little  above 
mid-height ;  they  are,  besides,  furnished  with  a 

false  bottom,  supported  about  3  inches  above  the 
true  one  ;  the  former  being  perforated  with  a 
plentiful  number  of  holes,  to  pass  the  steam 
Tvlvich  is  introduced  between  the  two  bottoms. 
The  connexion  between  the  steam-pipe  and  the 
receptacle  may  be  either  by  a  stop-cock  and 
coupling-screw — which  is  the  most  perfect  con- 
nexion— or  it  may  be  by  the  simple  insertion  of 
the  one  nozzle  within  the  other,  in  the  form  of  a 
spigot  and  faucet.  In  this  latter  case,  the  nozzle 
that  leads  from  the  steam-pipe  is  stopped  with  a 
wooden  plug,  when  the  receptacle  is  disengaged. 
Besides  the  steam-pipe,  the  boiler  is  furnished 
with  a  pipe  i,  placed  in  connexion  with  a  cistern 
of  water  k,  the  pipe  entering  into  it  by  the 
bottom,  and  its  orifice  closed  by  a  valve  opening 
upward,  the  lower  extremity  of  tlie  pipe  passing 
within  the  boiler  to  within  3  inches  of  its  bottom. 
A  slender  rod  I  passes  also  into  the  boiler  through 
a  small  stuffing-box  ;  and  to  its  lower  end, 
within  the  boiler,  is  appended  a  float,  which  rests 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  within  the  boiler. 
The  upper  end  of  this  rod  is  jointed  to  a  small 
lever,  which  has  its  fulcrum  supported  on  the 
edge  of  the  cistern  a  little  above  k ;  the  opposite 
end  of  the  lever  being  jointed  to  a  similar  but 
shorter  rod,  rising  from  the  valve  in  the  bottom 
of  the  cistern.     This  forms  the  feeding  apparatus 

.  of  the  boiler,  and  is  so  adjusted  by  weights,  that 
when  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  at  a  proper 
height,  the  float  is  buoyed  up  so  as  to  shut  the 
valve  in  the  cistern,  preventing  any  further 
supply  of  water  to  pass  iuto  the  boiler,  until,  by 
evaporation,  the  surface  of  the  water  has  fallen 
so  far  as  to  leave  the  float  unsupported,  to  such 
extent  as  to  form  a  counterpoise  to  the  valve, 
which  will  then  open,  and  admit  water  to  de- 
scend into  the  boiler,  until  it  has  again  elevated 
the  float  to  that  exteut  that  will  shut  the  valve 
in  the  cistern.  By  this  arrangement,  it  will  be 
perceived  that  the  water  in  the  boiler  will  be 
kept  nearly  at  a  uniform  height  ;  but  to  accom- 
plish all  this,  the  cistern  must  be  placed  at  a 
certain  fixed  height  above  the  water  in  the 
boiler,  and  this  heightyis  regulated  by  the  laws 
which  govern  the  expansive  power  of  steam. 
This  law,  without  going  into  its  mathematical 
VOL.  I. 


detaills,  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers  as 
follows  : — That  the  height  of  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  cistern  must  be  raised  above  the 
surface  of  that  in  the  boiler,  3  feet  for  every 
pound-weight  of  pressure  that  the  steam  will 
exert  on  a  square  inch  of  surface  in  the  boiler. 
Thus,  if  it  is  estimated  to  work  with  steam  of  1 
lb.  on  the  inch,  the  cistern  must  be  raised  3  feet  ; 
if  2  inches,  6  feet  ;  3  inches,  9  feet  ;  and  so  on. 
If  the  steam  is  by  any  chance  raised  higher  than 
the  height  of  the  cistern  provides  for,  the  whole 
of  the  water  in  the  boiler  may  be  forced  up 
through  the  pipe  into  the  cistern,  or  until  the 
lower  orifice  of  the  pipe,  within  the  boiler,  is 
exposed  to  the  steam,  which  will  then  also  be 
ejected  through  the  pipe  ;  and  the  boiler  may  be 
left  dry.  Such  an  accident,  however,  cannot 
occur  to  the  extent  here  described,  if  the  feeding 
apparatus  is  in  proper  working  order  ;  and  its 
occurrence  to  any  extent  is  sufficiently  guarded 
against  by  a  safety-valve. 

1457.  The  safety-valve  of  the  steam-boiler  is 
usually  a  conical  metal  valve,  and  always  open- 
ing outward  ;  it  ought  always  to  be  of  a 
diameter  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  boiler 
and  steam-pipe,  so  as  to  insure  the  free  egress  of 
any  rapid  generation  of  steam.  For  a  boiler  of 
the  size  under  consideration  it  should  be  2  inches 
in  diameter  on  its  under  surface — that  being  the 
surface  acted  upon — this  gives  an  area  of  fully 
3  square  inches  ;  and  if  loaded  directly,  or 
without  the  intervention  of  a  lever,  for  steam  of 
a  pressure  of  1  lb.  on  the  inch,  it  will  require 
3  lbs.;  if  2 lbs.  on  the  inch,  6  lbs.;  if  3  lbs.  on  the 
inch,  9  lbs.,  and  so  on.  With  these  adjustments, 
the  steam,  should  it  rise  above  the  proposed 
pressure,  will,  instead  of  forcing  the  water 
through  the  feed-pipe,  raise  the  safety- valve,  and 
escape  into  the  atmosphere  until  the  pressure  is 
reduced  to  the  intended  equilibrium. 

1458.  Another  precautionary  measure  in  the 
use  of  the  steam-boiler  is  the  gauge-cock,  of 
which  there  are  usually  two,  but  sometimes  one, 
a  two-way  cock  ;  they  are  the  common  stop- 
cock, with  a  lengthened  tail  passing  downward, 
the  one  having  its  tail  terminating  about  IJ 
inch  below  the  proper  water-level  in  the  boiler, 
the  other  terminating  Hindi  above  that  level, 
which  allows  a  range  of  3  inches  for  the  surface 
of  the  water  to  rise  or  fall.  The  first,  or  water- 
cock,  when  opened,  will  throw  out  water  by  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  upon  its  surface,  until  the 
surface  has  sunk  1 1  inch  below  its  proper  level, 
when  steam  will  be  discharged,  thus  indicating 
the  \vater  in  the  boiler  to  be  too  low,  and  that 
measures  should  be  taken  to  increase  the  supply. 
When  the  second,  or  steam-cock  is  opened,  it 
will  always  discliarge  steam  alone,  unless  the 
water  shall  have  risen  so  high  as  to  come  above 
its  orifice,  in  which  (!ase  the  cock  will  discharge 
water,  indicating  a  too  large  .-upply  of  water  to 
the  boiler,  and  that  it  should  be  reduced ;  for  this 
purpose  the  feed-pipe  i  is  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock wi,  whereby  the  admission  of  water  can  be  en- 
tirely prevented  at  the  pleasure  of  the  attendant. 

1459.  The  foregoing  description  refers   to  a 


823 


PRACTICE— T\aNTER. 


Bteamin.ff  npnuvatiis  of  the  best  description,  and 
implies  that  ih^  water-cistern  can  be  supplied 
eitlier  from  a  fountain-head,  or  that  water  can 
be  pumped  up  to  the  cistern.  But  tliere  may  be 
cases  wliere  neitlier  of  these  are  easily  attainable. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  feed-pipe  may  rise 
to  the  )u"ght  of  4  i'r4i  feet,  and  be  surmounted 
by  a  fuiiin  1.  aid  nnler  it  a  stop-cock.  Iii  this 
case,  also,  a  float  with  a  wire  stem, rising  '.nrough 
a  stufSug-box  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  must  be 
employed—  the  r:ttf-tri  may  r\?e  ^  fev  inches  above 
the  stuffing-box,  in  hvi.'.  ot  \  graduated  scale — 
having  the  z^ro  in  its  middle  point.  When  the 
■water  is  at  the  j.roper  hinght  in  the  boiler,  the 
top  of  the  stem  should  point  at  zero,  and  any 
rise  or  fail  i:i  the  water  will  be  indicated,  accord- 
ingly, by  the  i  o-^ition  of  the  stem.  To  supply  a 
boiler  nDin.ted  after  this  fashion,  the  first  thing 
to  be  att'^nded  to,  before  setting  the  fire,  is  to  fill 
up  the  boiler,  tliri>ugh  the  funnel,  to  the  proper 
level,  wl'iii-h  niil  be  indicated  by  tlie  float  point- 
ing to  zero  ;  but  it  s-hould  be  raised,  in  this  case, 
two  or  till 03  inches  higher.  In  tliis  stage  the 
gauge-cock*!  are  non-effective  ;  but  when  the 
steam  has  been  got  up,  they,  as  well  as  the  float, 
must  be  consulted  freq.iently  ;  and  should  the 
water,  by  evaporation,  fall  so  low  as  3  inches 
below  zero,  a  sup;)ly  must  be  introduced  through 
the  funnel.  Tn  i  tfeot  a  supply,  in  these  circum- 
Btaiicei>,  the  steam  must  be  allowed  to  fall  rather 
low;  ami  ihe  fur.ui'l  being  filled,  and  the  stop- 
cock open"d.  t'.,e  >vater  in  the  former  will  sink 
down  iliro.igh  the  tube,  provided  the  steam  be 
sufficiently  low  to  admit  its  entrance;  but  the 
first  portior  •>f  water  that  can  be  tlius  thrown 
in  will  go  iar  it?  effect  this,  by  sinking  the  tem- 
perature. The  sinking  of  the  temperature  by 
the  adciltio;<  u*'  a  l:irge  quantity  of  cold  water, 
is  the  ohjection  to  tl  is  mode  of  feeding  ;  b>it  this 
is  obviited  tf  .lome  extent  from  the  circum- 
stance that,  Tnii^-s  the  steaming  receptacles  are 
large  or  iimnerius,  the  first  charge  of  water 
will  generally  serve  to  cook  the  mess,  wh'-'U  a 
fresh  charge  can  be  put  in  for  the  next. 

1460.  In  r.sing  tliis  steaming  apparatus,  it  has 
been  noticed  that  the  casks  are  fnrnish'jd  with 
gudgeons,  which  piay  in  the  posts  n  n  ;  these  are 
kept  in  pjsiiim  by  the  collar-beam  o  to  which 
they  are  H'tached— the  casks  being  at  liberty  to 
be  tilted  upon  the-'f  gudgeons.  They  are  charged 
when  in  the  i.piii;lit  position,  and  tlie  connexion 
being  forni.'d  with  the  steam-pipe,  as  described, 
they  are  ccvered  at  top  with  a  clo.-e  lid  or  a  thick 
cloth,  and  the  process  goes  on.  When  the  sub- 
stances are  sr.tficlently  cooked,  the  coni>liiigs  r  r 
are  diseiigMi>,ed,  the  upper  part  of  the  cask  is 
swung  forw.ird,  and  their  contents  discharged 
into  a  troiig'i,  -.v'ach  is  brought  in  front  of  thtm 
for  that  purpose. 

1461.  The  connexions  with  the  steam-pipe  are 
sometimes,  for  cheapness,  formed  by  a  slidiiig 
tube  of  copper  or  brass,  about  4  inches  in  length, 
which,  alter  the  nozzle  of  the  cask  and  that  pro- 
jecting from  the  sieam-pipe  are  brought  directly 
opposite  to  each  other,  is  slid  over  the  junction, 


and  as  a  moderate  degree  of  tightness  only  is 
requisite  in  such  joints,  a  strip  of  sacking 
wrapped  round  the  ends  of  the  slider  is  found 
sufficient.  On  breaking  the  connexion,  and 
opening  the  exit  nozzles,  the  steam  will  of  course 
flow  out.  but  this  is  checked  by  a  wooden  plug, 
or  even  a  potato  or  slice  of  turnip,  thrust  into 
the  orifice,  may  be  sufficient.  It  is  advisable, 
however,  that  a  main  stop-cock  should  be  placed 
in  the  steam-pi [le  any  where  between  the  boiler 
and  the  first  receptacle. 

1462.  The  most  perfect  mode  of  connexion 
between  the  steam-pipe  and  the  receptacles  is  a 
stop-cock  and  coupliiui-fcnic.  These  should  be 
of  Ij  iiicli  bore:  they  are  more  certain  in  tlieir 
effect,  and  more  convenient  in  their  application, 
though  attended  with  more  expense  in  the  first 
cost  of  the  apparatus.  In  this  case  no  main- 
cock  is  required.  The  extremity  of  the  steam- 
pipe  should,  ill  all  cases,  be  closed  by  a  small 
stop-cock,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  off  any 
water  that  may  collect  in  the  pipe  from  con- 
densation. A  precaution  to  the  same  effect  is 
requisite,  in  the  bottom  of  each  cask,  to  draw  off 
the  water  that  condenses  abundantly  in  it  ;  or  a 
few  small  perforations  in  the  bottom  will  effect 
the  purpose. 

14615.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  regard  to 
steaming,  that  where  grain  of  any  kind  is  given 
in  food  in  a  cooked  state,  that  dry  grain  cannot 
be  cooked,  or  at  least  boiled  to  softness  in  dry 
steam,  the  only  effect  produced  being  a  species 
of  parching  ;  and  if  steam  of  high  temperature 
is  employed,  the  parching  is  increased  nearly  to 
cirbonisation.  If  it  is  wished,  thercfove,  to  boil 
grain  by  steam,  it  must  be  duiie  by  one  of  the 
two  following  methods.  The  grain  must  either 
be  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours,  and  then 
exposed  to  the  direc-t  action  of  the  steam  in  the 
receptacle— or  it  may  be  put  into  the  rei'cptacle 
with  as  much  water  as  will  cover  ii — and  then, 
by  attaching  tlie  receptacle  lo  the  steam-pipe 
by  the  coupliiig  step-cock,  or  in  the  absence  of 
Slop-cocks,  by  passing  a  bent  leaden  i>ipe  from 
the  steam-pipe  over  the  upper  edge  of  the 
receptacle,  and  descending  again  iusule — to  the 
space  between  the  false  and  the  true  bottoms — 
the  steam  discharged  thus,  by  either  method, 
will  shortly  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water  to 
the  boiling  point,  and  produce  the  desired  effect.* 

1464.  The  time  required  to  prepare  food  in 
this  way  varies  considerably,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  ajqiaratus,  and  the  principle  of  its 
construction.  With  the  apparatus  just  described, 
potatoes  can  be  steamed  in  casks  of  from  32  to 
50  gallons  contents,  in  30  to  45  minutes.  In 
ca':ks  extending  to  }iO  gallons,  an  hour  or  more 
may  be  required.  Turnips  require  considerably 
longer  time  to  become  fully  ready,  especially  if 
subjected  to  the  process  in  thick  masses  :  the 
time  may  be  stated  at  double  that  of  potatoes. 
When  tlie  apparatus  is  ill  constructed,  the  time, 
in  some  cases,  required  to  cook  turnips,  extends 
to  5  hours.     And,  with  reference  to  the  appa- 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vi.  p.  33. 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


323 


ratus  first  described,  (1455,)  the  time  is  seldom 
under  5  hours. 

1465.  The  prices  of  steaming  apparatus  vary 
according  to  quality  and  extent  ;  but,  on  an 
average,  the  open  boiler  and  pan  apparatus,  in- 
cluding a  power-crane,  vrill  range  from  £7  to 
£10  ;  and  of  tlie  other,  fig.  113,  the  price  ranges 
from  £8  to  £16.  The  e.x;pense  of  building  the 
furnace,  and  supplying  mixing  troughs,  will  add 
about  £2,  10s.  to  each. 

1466.  Experience  is  every  day  discovei-ing  the 
trouble  and  inconvenience  felt  in  the  use  of  a 
steaming  apparatus  of  tlie  perfect  construction 
even  of  the  one  just  described,  and  far  more  of 
others  of  less  ingenious  construction  ;  and  the 
consequence  is,  that  many  are  abandoning  the 
steaming  process  altogether,  and  returning  to 
the  once  contemned  open  boiler.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  more  fuel  is  required  in  the  boiler  than 
in  tlie  steaming  apparatus  to  produce  the  same 
efiects  ;  but  tlie  former  is  so  simple  in  its  use, 
so  ready  at  all  times,  so  free  from  danger  and 
accident,  and  so  efficient  in  its  results,  that  it 
will  ultimately  be  the  only  apparatus  in  a  farm 
that  will  be  used  to  prepare  food  for  either  cattle 
or  horses.  I  liave  had  opportunities  of  witness- 
ing the  use  of  both  apparatus  in  extensive  farms 
where  food  is  constantly  prepared,  and  has  been 
for  many  years  past ;  and  my  conviction  is  now 
entirely  in  favour  of  the  boiler.  And  now  that 
potatoes,  which  are  best  cooked  by  steaming, 
cannot  now  be  depended  on  as  a  ci-op,  and  may, 
in  future,  Lear  a  high  price  —and,  on  the  cuitrary, 
as  turnips  are  best  cooked  by  boiling,  and  ^vhose 
culture  is  extending  every  year — the  boiler  pro- 
mises to  become  the  more  useful  apparatus  of 
the  two. 

1467.  Fig.  114  represents  a  common  large  boiler, 
Fig.  114. 


BOILER  A.N'U  FURNACE. 


fitted  up  in  the  best  manner,  where  a  is  the  cast- 
iron  boiler,  from  3  J-  to  4  feet  diameter  across  the 
top  ;  h  the  furnace-grate  for  containing  the  fire, 
with  its  door ;  and  c  the  damper,  in  the  flue  for 
regulating  the  draught  upon  the  fire.  Its  use  is 
so  well  known  to  country  people  that  nothing 
need  be  said  on  it  here. 

1468.  But  the  boiler  is  not  always  properly 
built  upon  its  seat  in  the  furnace.  It  is  furnished 
with  two  or  three  studs  or  ears,  projecting  from 
under  theflange  around  its  mouth,  by  which  it  may 
easily  be  suspended.  A  not  unfrequent,  but  im- 
proper way  of  setting  the  boiler  upon  the  furnace, 
is  to  cause  the  edge  of  its  bottom  to  rest  upon  the 
building  from  both  sides  of  the  furnace-door  to 
the  back  part  of  the  building,  where  the  flue  is 
formed  in  connexion  with  the  chimney.  The 
effect  of  tliis  mode  of  setting  is  to  cause  the  entire 
force  of  the  fire  in  the  furnace  to  strike  against 
the  bottom  only  of  the  boiler,  and  the  greatest 
force  will  affect  that  part  of  the  bottom  which  is 
nearest  the  furnace-door — the  heat  from  whence 
must  cook  the  entire  contents  of  the  boiler,  and 
where  at  times  the  bottom  must  be  so  greatly 
heated — as  when  the  contents  of  the  boiler  are 
removed  immediately  after  they  are  sufficiently 
cooked,  and  cold  water  is  poured  into  the  boiler, 
in  preparation  for  the  cooking  of  another  mess — 
thai  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  is  c'ther  cracked 
by  tlie  sudden  cooling  of  tlic  water,  or  is  honey- 
combed by  the  fire,  when  the  liquid  in  tlie  boiler 
oozes  gradually  through  the  corroded  metal  into 
the  fire. 

1469.  Now,  the  proper  way  of  setting  a  boiler 
is  this: — When  the  building  has  proceeded  so 
far  as  to  have  formed  the  ash-pit,  and  received 
the  grate  and  dumb  plate  and  furnace-door,  to 
the  height  of  the  latter,  let  a  circular  basin 
be  built  of  the  form  of  and  a  few  inciies 
larger  than  the  boiler,  to  contain  the  boiler  itself; 
and  let  it  be  so  contracted,  as  it  comes  nearer  to 
its  height,  as  to  suspend  the  entire  boiler  within 
the  basiu  by  its  ears  ;  and  let  a  flue  be  built  from 
behind,  or  at  one  side  of  the  basin,  as  the  case 
may  be,  into  tlie  chimney.  The  advantage  of 
this  mode  ot  setting  is,  that  the  heat  of  the 'fire  is 
not  confined  to  one  part  of  the  boiler,  but  is  dif- 
fused over  the  whole  of  its  under  surface;  and 
though  the  heat  may  not  be  so  great  at  any  one 
part,  it  cooks  the  contents  moi-e  equally,  and  pre- 
serves the  boiler  from  overheating  and  injury. 

1470.  In  any  case  a  damper  is  a  requisite 
part  of  a  boiler  and  furnace,  to  regulate  the 
draught  through  the  fire,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  air.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  regu- 
lator is  little  attended  to  after  the  first  time  it  has 
been  adjusted;  and  the  consequence  is,  when  the 
fire  does  not  burn  so  briskly  as  desired,  more 
coals  or  wood  are  put  into  the  furnace  ;  and 
when  it  burns  too  fiercely,  it  is  regarded  as  a 
happy  incident,  instead  of  the  draught  of  air 
being  reguhited  by  means  of  the  damper,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

1471.  The  horse  is  an  intelligent  animal,  and 
seems  to  delight  in  the  society  of  man.     It  is 


S24 


PRACTICE— T^^XTER. 


remarked  by  those  who  hare  much  to  do  with 
blood-horses,  that,  when  at  liberty,  and  seeing 
two  or  more  people  standing  conversing  together, 
they  will  approach,  and  seem,  as  it  were,  to  wish 
to  iisten  to  the  conversation.  The  farm-horse 
will  not  do  this ;  but  he  is  quite  obedient  to  call, 
and  distinguishes  his  name  readily  from  that  of 
his  companions  and  will  not  stir  when  desired 
to  stand  until  his  ofr«  name  is  pronounced.  He 
discriminates  between  the  various  sorts  of  work 
he  is  put  to,  and  will  apply  his  strength  and  skill 
in  the  best  way  to  effect  his  purpose,  whether  in 
the  thrashing-mill,  the, cart,  or  the  plough.  He 
soon  acquires  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  his  work.  I  have  seen  a  horse  walk  very 
steadily  towards  a  feering  pole,  and  halt  when 
he  had  reached  it.  He  seems  also  to  have  an 
idea  of  time.  I  have  heard  a  horse  neigli  al- 
most daily  about  10  minutes  before  the  time  of 
loosening  from  work  in  the  evening,  whether 
in  summer  or  winter.  He  is  capable  of  distin- 
guishing the  tones  of  the  voice,  whether  spoken 
iu  anger  or  otherwise,  and  can  even  distinguish 
between  musical  notes.  There  was  a  work- 
horse of  my  own,  even  when  at  his  corn,  would 
desM'  eating,  and  listen  attentively,  with  pricked 
and  moving  ears  and  steady  eyes,  the  instant  he 
heard  the  note  of  low  G  sounded,  and  would 
continue  to  listen  as  loug  as  it  was  sustained ; 
and  another  was  similarly  affected  by  a  particu- 
lar high  note.  The  recognition  of  the  sound  of 
the  bugle  by  a  trooper,  and  the  excitement  occa- 
sioned in  the  hunter  when  the  pack  give  tongue, 
are  familiar  instances  of  the  extraordinary  power 
of  particular  sounds  on  horses,  in  recalling  old 
associations  to  their  memory.  The  horse's  me- 
mory is  very  tenacious,  as  is  evinced  in  the  re- 
cognition of  a  regarded  stable  after  a  lengthened 
absence. 

1472.  As  to  the  names  of  farm-worses,  I  may 
mention  that  they  should  be  short  and  emphatic, 
not  exceeding  two  syllables  in  length,  for  longer 
words  are  difficult  of  ready  pronunciation,  and 
inconvenient  to  utter  when  quick  or  sharp  action 
is  required  of  the  horse  ;  and  are  almost  always 
corrupted  into  short  ones.  For  geldings,  Tom, 
Brisk,  Jolly,  Tinker,  Dragon,  Dobbin  ;  for  mares, 
Peg,  Rose,  Jess,  Molly,  Beauty,  Mettle,  seem 
good  names ;  and  as  to  those  of  stallions,  they 
should  be  indicative  of  more  importance,  as 
Lofty,  Farmer,  Plough-boy,  Matchem,  Diamond, 
Blaze,  Sampson,  Champion — which  last  is  the 
name  of  the  black  stallion  pictured  in  Plate  IV. 
— are  all  names  which  have  distinguished  prize 
draught  stallions. 

1473.  Diseases  of  Horses. —  In  respect  to  the 
diseases  of  the  horse,  if  we  were  to  regard  in  a 
serious  light  the  list  of  frightful  maladies  inci- 
dent to  this  animal,  which  every  work  on  veteri- 
nary science  contains,  the  farmer  would  never 
purchase  a  horse  ;  but,  fortunately  for  him,  his 
horses  are  exempt  from  the  largest  proportion  of 
those  maladies,  which  chiefly  relate  to  the  foot 
and  leg.  Nevertheless,  many  serious  and  fatal 
disorders  do  overtake  farm-horses  in  their  usual 
work,  with  the  symptoms  of  which  you  should 
be  60  far  acquainted  as  to  recognise  the  nature 


of  the  disease  ;  and  as  you  should  be  able  to  per- 
form some  of  the  simpler  operations  to  assist  the 
animal  in  serious  cases,  until  the  arrival  of  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  a  short  account  of  these  may 
prove  useful.  One  or  more  simple  remedies, 
when  timely  exercised,  may  have  the  effect  of 
quicklyremovingthesymptomsof  less  serious  com- 
plaints. They  consist  of  bleeding,  giving  physic 
and  drenches,  applying  fomentations,  poultices, 
injections,  and  the  like. 

1474.  Bleeding. — "  In  the  horse  and  cattle, 
sheep  and  dog,  bleeding,  from  its  greater  facility 
and  rapidity,"  says  Professor  Dick,"  is  best  per- 
formed in  the  jugular  or  neck  vein,  though  it 
may  also  be  satisfactorily  performed  in  the  }'late 
and  saphena  veins,  the  former  coming  from  the 
inside  of  the  arm,  and  running  up  directly  in 
front  of  it  to  the  jugular ;  the  latter,  or  thigh-vein, 
running  across  the  inside  of  that  lin.b.  Either 
the  fleam  or  lancet  may  be  used.  When  blood 
is  to  be  drawn,  the  animal  is  blindfolded  on  the 
side  to  be  operated  uj  on,  and  the  head  held 
to  the  other  side ;  the  hair  is  smoothed  along 
the  course  of  the  vein  by  the  moistened  finger, 
the  point  selected  being  about  2  inches  below 
the  angle  of  the  jaw.  The  progress  of  the  blood 
toward  the  heart  is  to  be  obstructed,  and  the 
vein  thus  made  sufficiently  permanent  and  tense. 
A  large-bladed  fleam,  and  a  good  sized-lancet, 
are  preferable,  as  the  benefit  of  the  operation  is 
much  increased  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
blood  is  drawn.  From  8  to  10  pints  imperial  is 
a  moderate  bleeding  for  the  horse  and  ox,  regu- 
lated in  some  degree  by  the  size.  From  12  to 
1 6,  or  even  20  pints,  is  a  large  one  ;  &nd  some- 
times, in  skilful  hands,  it  is  expedient  to  bleed 
till  fainting  is  induced,  and  the  animal  drops 
do^vn  under  the  operation.  The  vessel  in  which 
the  blood  is  received  should  be  such  that  the 
quantity  cau  be  readily  ascertained.  When  this 
is  sufficient,  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  to  be 
brought  accurately  together,  and  kept  so,  by  a 
small  sharp  pin  being  passed  throngh  them,  and 
retained  by  a  little  tow.  It  is  of  importance,  in 
closing  the  wound,  to  see  it  quite  clo.^e,  and  that 
no  hairs  or  other  fureign  i-orfiM  interpose.  For 
a  time  the  head  should  be  tied  up,  and  care 
taken  that  the  horse  does  not  injure  the  part." 

1475.  Tlie  dangers  arising  from  carelessness 
in  blood-letting  are  not  nnmerons ;  and  "  the 
first  of  which,  thoiiirh  it  may  alarm  the  inexpe- 
rienced, is  very  trifling.  It  is  a  globular  swell- 
ing, thrombus,  sometimes  as  large  as  the  fist, 
arising  immediately  around  the  new-made  in- 
cision. The  filtrating  of  the  blood  from  the 
veiu  into  the  cellular  membrane,  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  is  rarely  very  copious. 
Gentle  pressure  may  be  used  at  first,  and  should 
be  maintained  with  a  well-applied  sponge  and 
bandage,  kept  cool  with  cold  lotion.  Occa.«ion- 
ally  there  is  inflummation  of  Oie  jugviar  from 
bleeding.  .  .  .  The  cause  is  usually  referred 
to  the  use  of  a  foul  fleam,  or  from  allowing  hairs 
to  interfere  with  the  accurate  adjustment  of  the 
edges  of  the  wound.  The  first  appearance  indi- 
cative of  the  disease  is  a  separation  of  the  cut 
edges  of  the  integuments,  which  become  red  and 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


325 


somewhat  inverted.  Suppuration  soon  follows, 
and  the  surrounding  skin  appears  tumefied,  tight, 
and  hard,  and  the  vein  itself,  above  the  orifice, 
feels  like  a  hard  cord.  After  this  the  swelling 
of  the  neck  increases,  accompanied  with  extreme 
tenderness,  and  now  there  is  constitutional  irri- 
tation,with  tendency  to  inflammatory  fever.  .  .  . 
In  the  first  stage  we  must  try  to  relieve  by  evapo- 
rating lotions  or  by  fomentation.  If  these  fail, 
and  as  soon  as  the  disease  begins  to  spread  in  the 
vein,  the  appropriate  remedy  is  to  touch  the 
spot  with  the  actual  cautery,  simply  to  sear  the 
lips  of  the  wound,  and  apply  a  blister  over  it, 
which  may  be  repeated.  Purgatives  in  full  doses 
must  be  administered,  and  the  neck,  as  much  as 
possible,  kept  steady  and  upright." 

1476.  Blistering.  —  "Blistering  plasters  are 
never  applied  to  horses.  An  ointment  is  always 
used,  of  which  rather  more  than  half  is  well 
rubbed  into  the  part  to  be  blistered,  while  the 
remainder  is  thinly  and  equally  spread  over  the 
part  that  has  been  rubbed.  When  there  is  any 
danger  of  the  ointment  running,  and  acting  upon 
places  that  should  not  be  blistered,  they  must 
be  covered  with  a  stiif  ointment  made  of  hog's 
lard  and  bees'-wax,  or  kept  wet  with  a  little 
water.  .  .  .  The  horse's  head  must  be 
secured  in  such  a  way  that  he  cannot  reach  the 

blister  with  his  teeth When  the 

blister  has  become  quite  dry,  the  head  may  be 
freed.  Sometimes  it  remains  itchy,  and  the  horse 
rubs  it ;  in  that  case  he  must  be  tied  up  again. 
.  .  .  .  When  the  blister  is  quite  dry,  put 
some  sweet-oil  on  it,  and  repeat  it  every  second 
day.  Give  time  and  no  work,  otherwise  the 
horse  may  be  blemished  by  the  process." 

1477.  Physicking. — "  Physicking,  which  in 
stable  language  is  the  term  used  for  purging,  is 
employed  for  improving  the  condition  when  in 
indifferent  health,  and  is  a  remedy  for  disease. 
The  medicines  chiefly  used  are,  for  hurses,  Bar- 
badoes  aloes,  dose  from  3  to  9  drachms ;  croton 
bean,  from  1  scruple  to  5  drachm,  or  cake,  from 
I  drachm  to  1  drachm,  to  which  may  occasionally 
be  added  calomel,  from  1  to  I5  drachm.  For 
cattle,  aloes,  in  doses  somewhat  larger  than 
for  the  horse ;  Epsom  salts,  or  common  salt, 
dose  from  1  lb.  to  1^  lb.,  with  some  stimulus,  as 
ginger,  anise,  or  carraway-seed  ;  also  linseed-oil, 
dose  1  lb.,  and  croton  oil,  15  to  20  drops,  or  the 
bean  or  cake,  the  same  as  in  the  horse.  For  dogs, 
jalap,  dose  1  drachm,  combined  with  2  grains  of 
calomel ;  croton  oil,  dose  2  drops  ;  bean,  5  grains  ; 
and  syrup  of  buckthorn,  dose  I  oz. 

1478.  "  These,  it  will  be  observed,  are  average 
doses  for  full-grown  animals ;  in  the  young  and 
small  they  may  be  less,  in  the  large  they  may 
require  to  be  greater;  but  much  injury  has  often 
been  done  by  too  large  doses  too  frequently  re- 
peated. To  the  horse,  physic  is  usually  adminis- 
tered in  the  form  of  a  bolus  or  ball;  to  cattle  by 
drinking  or  drenckithj,  though  for  both  either  way 
may  be  employed.  A  ball  is  conveniently  made 
of  linseed-meal,  molasses,  and  the  active  ingre- 


dieat,  whether  purgative,  diuretic,  or  cordial ;  it 
should  be  softish,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pullet's 
egg.  In  administering  it,  the  operator  stands 
before  the  horse,  which  is  generally  unbound, 
and  turned  with  its  head  out  of  the  stall,  with  a 
halter  on  it.  An  assistant  stands  on  the  left  side, 
to  steady  the  horse's  head,  and  keep  it  from 
rising  too  high  ;  sometimes  he  holds  the  mouth, 
and  grooms  generally  need  such  aid.  The  ope- 
rator seizes  the  horse's  tongue  in  his  left  hand, 
draws  it  a  little  out  and  to  one  side,  and  places 
his  little  finger  fast  upon  the  under  jaw ;  with 
his  right  hand  he  carries  the  ball  smartly  along 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  leaves  it  at  the  root 
of  the  tongue  ;  the  mouth  is  closed,  and  the  head 
is  held,  till  the  ball  is  seen  descending  the  gullet 
on  the  left  side.  When  loath  to  swallow,  a  little 
water  may  be  offered,  and  it  will  carry  the  ball 
before  it.  A  hot,  troublesome  horse  should  be 
sent  at  once  to  a  veterinary  surgeon.  Instru- 
ments should,  if  possible,  be  avoided,  and  adding 
croton  farina  to  the  mash  often  answers  the 
purpose." 

1479.  "The  horse  must  xmAergo preparation 
for  physic,  which  is  done  by  gently  relaxing  the 
bowels.  During  the  day  previous,  his  food  should 
be  restricted  to  bran  mashes — a  quarter  peck 
being  sufficientfor  afeed— and  this  with  his  drink, 
should  be  given  warm  ;  corn  should  be  withheld, 
and  hay  restricted.  He  may  have  walking  and 
trotting  exercise  morning  and  evening.  The 
physic  is  given  on  an  empty  stomach  early  in  the 
morning  ;  immediately  after,  a  bran  mash  is 
given  ;  that  over,  the  horse  goes  to  exercise  for 
perhaps  an  hour,  and  is  watered  when  he  returns. 
The  water  should  be  as  warm  as  he  will  take  it ; 
and  he  should  take  as  much  as  he  pleases 
throughout  the  day  ;  bran  mash  should  be  given 
as  often  as  corn  usually  is,  and  better  warm  than 
cold  ;  if  both  are  refused,  bran  may  be  tried,  but 
no  corn,  and  but  little  hay.  Sometimes  gentle 
exercise  may  be  given  in  the  afternoon,  and  also 
next  day.  The  physic  usually  begins  to  operate 
next  morning,  though  it  rarely  takes  effect  in  12 
hours,  frequently  not  for  30.  Wlien  the  physic 
begins  to  operate,  the  horse  should  stand  in  the 
stable  till  it  sets,  which  may  be  in  1 2  hours."  * 
The  stable  should  be  well  littered  behind  the 
stall,  to  receive  the  discharge. 

1480.  Drenches  should  be  given  with  caution 
either  to  horse  or  ox  ;  "  that  no  unnecessary 
force  be  used,  that  they  be  never  given  by  the 
nostrils,  and  especially  that,  if  the  slightest  irri- 
tation is  occasioned  in  the  windpipe,  the  animal 
shall  immediately  be  set  at  liberty,  that,  by 
coughing,  he  may  free  himself  of  the  offending 
matter." 

1481.  "  Many  practitioners  and  horse  pro- 
prietors," says  Mr  Youatt,  "  have  a  great  objec- 
tion to  the  administration  of  medicines  in  the 
form  of  drinks.  .  .  .  There  are  some  medi- 
cines, however,  which  must  be  given  in  the  form 
of  drink,  as  in  colic.  ...  An  ox  horn,  the 
larger  end  being  cut  slantingly,  is  the  usual  and 


Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  8. 


386 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


best  iDstrument  for  administering  drinks.  The 
noose  of  a  halter  is  introduced  int»  tlie  mouth, 
and  then,  by  means  of  a  stable-fork,  the  head  is 
elevated  by  an  assistant  considerably  higher  than 
for  the  delivery  of  a  ball.  The  surgeon  stands 
on  a  pail  on  the  offside  of  the  horso,  and  draws 
out  the  tongue  with  the  left  hand.  He  then,  with 
the  right  hand,  introduces  the  horn  gently  into 
the  mouth  and  over  the  tongue,  and  by  a  de.v- 
terous  turn  of  the  horn,  empties  the  whole  of  the 
drink — not  more  than  about  G  oz. — into  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth.  The  horn  is  now  quickly  with- 
drawn, and  the  tongue  loosened,  and  the  greater 
portion  of  the  fluid  will  be  swallowed.  A  por- 
tion of  it,  however,  will  often  be  obstinately  held 
in  the  month  for  a  long  time,  and  the  head  must 
be  kept  up  until  the  whoTe  is  got  rid  of,  which 
a  quick,  hut  noc  violent,  slap  on  the  muzzle  will 
generally  compel  the  horse  to  do.  The  art  of 
giving  a  drink  consists  in  not  putting  too  much 
in  the  horn  at  once  ;  introducing  the  horn  far 
enough  into  the  mouth  ;  and  quickly  turning 
and  withdrawing  it  without  bruising  or  wonnd- 
iig  the  mouth,  the  tongue  being  loosened 
at  the  same  moment.  A  bottle  is  a  disgrace- 
ful instrument  to  use,  except  it  be  a  flat 
pint  bottle,  with  a  long  and  thick  neck."* 
The  nearside  horn  has  the  most  handy  twist  for 
administering  a  driuk  with  the  riglit  baud. 

1482.  Fomentations. — "  Clean  water  is  the 
best  fomentation.  It  should  be  as  hot  as  the 
hand  can  bear  it,  yet  not  hot  enough  to  pain  the 
animal.  In  fomenting  the  horse,  the  groom  lias 
rarely  enough  water,  and  he  does  not  continue 
the  bath'.ng  long  enough  to  do  any  good.  If  the 
leg  is  to  be  fomented,  get  a  pailful  of  water  as 
hoc  as  the  hand  can  bear  it ;  put  the  horse's  foot 
into  it,  and,  with  a  large  sponge,  lave  the  water 
well  above  the  afiected  part,  and  keep  it  con- 
stantly running  down  the  whole  limb.  Foment 
for  half  an  hour,  and  keep  the  water  hot  by 
adding  more." 

1483.  Poultices. — "  Poultices  should  be  formed 
of  those  materials  which  best  maintain  heat  and 
moisture,  and  they  should  be  applied  as  warm 
as  possible,  and  can  be  safely  borne.  They  are 
usually  made  of  bran  mash,  turnips,  or  oatmeal 
porridge.  Linseed  meal  alone  makes  the  best  of 
poultices,  and  some  of  it  should  always  be  added 
to  the  other  ingredients.  Wet  bandages  act  as 
poultices." 

1484.  Lotions. — "  Of  cooling  lotions,  cold  water 
is  the  menstruum.  It  may  be  made  colder  by 
the  introduction  of  a  little  salt  or  ice.  Sal-am- 
moniac and  vinegar  may  be  added  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  object  is  to  reduce  heat,  and  pro- 
mote evaporation.  The  addition  of  a  little  spirits 
is  made  with  the  same  object." 

1485.  The  Pidse.—"  0{  the  /io?-sc,  the  natural 
pulse  is  from  35  to  45  beats  in  the  minute  ;  under 
fever,  it  rises  to  80,  90,  and  100.  The  most 
convenient  spot  to  examine  it  is  at  the  edge  of 
the  lower  jaw,  a  little  before  the  angle,  where 


the  maxillary  comes  from  the  neck  to  be  distri- 
buted over  the  face.  The  pulse  is  one  of  the 
most  important  indications  iu  all  serious  dis- 
orders." 

1486.  Injections. — "  Injections,  tliongh  easily 
administered  by  means  of  the  old  ox-bladder  and 
pipe,  are  still  more  conveniently  given  with  a 
syringe.  For  laxative  clysters  for  the  lior.->e  or 
cow,  from  1  gallon  to  12  pints  imperial  of  warm 
water  or  gruel,  at  the  temperature  of  96^  P'ahr., 
with  a  couple  of  handfuls  of  salt  or  2  oz.  of  soft 
soap,  prove  most  useful.  Stronger  ones  may  be 
obtained  by  adding  a  few  ounces  of  aloes  to  the 
mixture.  In  cases  of  diarrhcea  or  over-purging, 
the  injection  should  consist  of  a  few  pints  of 
warm  gruel,  to  which  is  added  1  oz.  of  catechu 
electuary,  or  from  ^  drachm  to  1  drachm  of  pow- 
dered opium.  The  only  art  in  administering  a 
clyster, — where,  however,  there  is  often  bung- 
ling, and  even  injury,  by  wounding  tlie  rectum, — 
is  to  aruitl  fritjhteninij  the  animal,  auoiututg  the 
pipe  well,  and  gently  insinuating  it  before  thejlnid 
is  forced  uj}.'' 

1487.  "  In  general, bran  mashes,  carrots,  green 
meat,  and  hay,  form  the  sitk  horse's  diet  ;  gruel 
and  tepid  water  his  driuk."  +  Of  the  diseases 
themselves,  I  shall  only  notice  those  at  present 
which  usually  atfect/ar//(-horses  in  winter. 

1488.  Horse-louse  [Trichodecles  Eyiii.)— The 
horse  is  infested  by  a  louse  as  well  as  the  ox,  and 
which  is  represented  in  fig.  115.     It  will  be  found 

referred  to  by  the  older 
writers  on  natural  liistory, 
under  the  name  of  Ptiicu- 
lus  Equi.  Colour  of  the 
head  and  thorax  bright 
chestnut,  the  former  very 
large  and  somewhat  square, 
the  surface  with  a  longitu- 
dinal black  line  towards 
each  side,  forming  an  angle 
near  the  middle  ;  antennae 
with  the  third  joint  longest; 
abdomen  pale,  tawny  yel- 
low, with  fine  pubescence, 
the  first  eight  segments  hav- 
ing a  dusky  transverse  band 
on  the  upper  half,  the  late- 
ral margins  also  with  a 
dusky  band ;  legs  pale  chest- 
nut; length  1  line.  Com- 
mon in  the  tail-head  and  neck  of  the  horse, 
especially  when  fresh  from  pastv.re  iu  autumn. 
Found  also  on  the  ass.  A  little  oil  will  destroy 
this  animal  when  it  first  appears;  but  if  allowed 
to  establish  itself  for  some  time,  mercurial  oint- 
ment will  be  necessary,  but  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time. 

1489.  Besides  being  infested  by  this  species,  the 
ass  has  a  louse  peculiar  to  itself,  the  Jlemato- 
pimis  Jsini  ;  of  a  rusty  red  ;  abdomen  whitish, 
tinged  with  yellow,  and  having  a  row  of  dark 
horny  excrescences  on  each  side;  head  long,  with 


THE  HORSE-LOUSE, 
TRICHODECTES  EQUI, 


*  Youatt  On  the  Horse,  p.  507,  edition  of  1843.  •{-  Dick's  Manual  if  Veterinary  Science,  p.  9. 


treat:ment  of  farm  horses  in  winter. 


327 


a  deep  sinuosity  behind  the  antennse;  length  1  to 
If  line.  It  frequents  the  mane  and  neck,  and  is 
common.* 

1490.  Batts. — One  of  the  most  common  com- 
plaints amongst  farm-horses  is  the  flatulent  colic, 
gripes,  or  batts.  It  arises  from  indigestion, 
which  again  is  occasio-aed  by  various  causes,  such 
as  hard  work  immediately  after  feeding,  drinking 
water  largely  after  a  feed  of  corn,  bad  state  of 
the  food,  fast  eating,  and,  in  consequence,  a 
paucity  of  saliva,  an  overloaded  stomach,  a  sud- 
den change  of  food  from  soft  to  hard  and  dry, 
and  more  likely  to  occur  after  eating  turnips, 
potatoes,  carrots,  and  grass,  than  hay  and  oats, 
and  after  pease  than  barley.  The  indigestion 
arises  in  two  forms;  the  food  either  undergoing 
no  change,  or  running  rapidly  to  fermentation. 
In  the  former  case  acute  foot-founder  is  apt  to 
arise,  and  its  treatment  is  purgatives,  drenches, 
and  injections.  In  the  latter  case,  the  symptoms 
are  most  alarming — the  horse  falls  down,  rolls 
over,  starts  up,  paws  the  ground  with  his  fore- 
foot, strikes  his  belly  with  the  hind-foot,  perspi- 
ration runs  down,  and  agony  appears  extreme. 
Relief  may  be  obtained  from  this  dose  : — Linseed 
oil,  raw,  1  lb.  ;  oil  of  turpentine  from  2  to  3  oz. ; 
laudanum  from  1  to  2  oz.,  or  hartshorn  from  ^  to 
I  oz.  The  following  tincture  may  be  kept  in 
readiness  :  In  2  lbs.  of  whisky  digest  for  8  days 
3  oz.  of  ginger,  3  oz.  of  cloves,  and  then  add  i  oz. 
of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre.  Half  a  pint  iiuperial  of 
this  tincture  is  a  dose,  in  a  quart  of  warm  water. 
The  abdomen  should  be  rubbed,  the  horse  walked 
slowly  about,  and  supplied  with  a  good  bed,  and 
with  room  to  roll  about.  If  there  is  no  relief  in 
half  an  hour,  a  second  dose  may  be  given,  and,  ere 
long,  if  still  required,  a  third.  Farm-horses 
that  have  keen  appetites  and  devour  their  food 
greedily,  and  when  they  have  been  long  in  the 
yoke,  are  most  apt  to  this  disease. 

1491.  Inflammation  of  the  bowels. — The  symp- 
toms of  the  batts  are  very  similar  at  first  to  those 
of  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and,  if  mistaken, 
seriousconsequences  may  arise,  as  the  treatment  of 
the  two  complaints  is  very  diff"erent..  The  sy  niptoms 
may  be  distinguished  thus  :  In  batts,  the  pulse 
remains  nearly  unaltered,  whereas  in  inflamma- 
tion it  is  quickened;  all  the  extremities,  the  ears, 
and  feet,  feel  cold  in  batts,  hot  in  inflammation. 
Whenever  inflammation  is  appreliended,  blood 
maybe  taken;  in  batts  this  is  not  necessary;  but, 
under  such  an  apprehension,  the  assistance  of  the 
veterinary  surgeon  should  be  obtained  as  speedily 
as  possible.  I  have  cured  many  horses  of  the 
batts  by  administering  stimulating  drinks  with  a 
handy  cow's  horn.  I  remember  of  one  horse 
being  seized  with  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  on 
its  arrival  home  from  delivering  corn  at  the 
market  town  ;  and  thougli  the  usual  remedies  of 
bleeding  and  blistering  were  resorted  to,  they 
proved  ineifectual — no  doubt  from  being  dispro- 
portioned  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case — and  the 
horse  sunk  in  five  days  in  excruciating  agony. 
There  was  no  veterinary  surgeon  in  the  district 
at  that  time,  which  was  many  years  ago.     Now, 


however,  thanks  to  the  Veterinary  College  of 
Edinburgh,  tlirough  the  really  practically  useful 
tuition  of  its  indefatigable  principal,  Professor 
Dick,  there  is  not  a  populous  district  or  the  coun- 
try in  which  a  skilful  veterinarian  is  not  settled. 
To  the  surgeun,  therefore,  in  a  sevious  case  such  as 
this — and,  indeed,  in  all  cases  of  cxteu&ive  infiam- 
ination,  and  especially  in  the  interioi  of  the  body 
— recourse  should  immediately  bj  hsd.  i  say 
immediately,  for  it  is  but  fair  to  give  the  surgeoa 
the  chance  of  treating  the  case  correctly  from  its 
commencement,  and  not  to  impose  upon  him  the 
task  of  amending  your  previous  bungling.  In- 
flammation of  the  lunjs,  as  well  as  intlaiumatiou 
of  the  A-ic?/(<?_i/s— both  of  which  the  larm-horse  is 
subject  to — should  always  be  trei^ted  by  the  vete- 
rinarian; but,  fortunately,  these  foi'niiaable  mala- 
dies may,  almost  with  certainty,  be  evaded  with 
well-timed  Avorking,  discrimination  of  M'ork  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  by  good 
food,  supplied  with  regularity,  and  proper  quan- 
tity. 

1492.  Common  colds  frequently  occur  among 
farm-horses  at  the  commencemeut  of  winter,  and 
when  not  entirely  unheeded,  but  treated  with  due 
care,  seldom  leave  serious  effects.  "  A  cold  re- 
quires nothing  more  but  confinement  in  a  mode- 
rately warm  stable  for  a  few  dayt;  with  clothing, 
brau  mashes  instead  of  corn,  and  a  little  laxative 
and  diuretic  medicine."  The  evil  lies  not  so 
much  in  the  complaint  as  in  its  ordinary  treat- 
ment ;  it  is  seldom  thought  seriously  of  by  far- 
mers— "  It  is  on/y  a  cold,"  is  the  usual  remark — 
and,  in  consequence,  the  horse  goes  out  every  day, 
feels  fatigued,  gets  wet,  becomes  worse,  and  then 
the  lungs  not  unfreciueutly  become  affected,  or  a 
chronic  discharge  is  established  from  one  of  the 
nostrils.  One  season  9  horses  out  of  12  in  one 
stable  were  affected,  one  after  another,  by  a 
catarrhal  epidemic,vfhic\i  required  bleednig, poul- 
ticing, or  blistering  under  the  jaw,  besides  the 
medical  remedies  mentioned  above.  These  I  was 
obliged  to  take  cliarge  of  myself,  tliere  being  no 
veterinarian  in  the  district,  and  all  fortunately  re- 
covered. Ihe  remaining  3  were  slightly  afl'ected 
afterwards,  and  easily  brought  throu^li ;  but  had 
the  cases  been  unlieeded  from  the  first,  very  seri- 
ous loss  might  have  been  incurred  by  death. 

1493.  Grease. — "  The  well-known  and  unsight- 
ly disease  called  grease,"  says  Professor  Dick, 
"is  a  morbid  secretion  of  the  cutaneous  pores  of 
of  tlie  heels  and  neighbouring  parts,  of  a  peculiar 
greasy  oifensive  matter,  attended  with  irritation 
and  increased  vascular  action.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently seen  in  coach  and  cart  horses,  but  often 
also  in  young  colts  which  are  badly  cared  for ; 
and  it  is  most  common  in  the  hind-feet,  but 
occurs  in  all.  Its  main  cause  seems  to  be  sudden 
changes  in  tlie  condition  of  the  foot  from  dry  to 
wet,  and  from  heat  to  cold,  greatly  augmented, 
of  course,  by  evaporation."  Hence  the  evil 
effects  of  wasliiiig  tlie  legs  at  night  without 
thoroughly  drying  them  afterwards.  "The  first 
appearance  of  grease,"  continues  the  Professor, 
"  is  a  dry  state  of  the  heels,  with  heat  and  itchi- 


Denny's  3£onoyraphia  Anoplurorum  Britannice. 


328 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


ness.  Swelling  succeeds,  with  a  tendency  to 
lameness  ;  the  discharge  augments  in  quantity, 
the  hair  begins  to  fall  off.  .  .  .  In  the  early 
stage  the  parts  should  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  and  sul- 
phate of  zinc  applied;  this  may  not  be  chemically 
scientific,  but  we  have  found  it  superior  to  any 
thing  else.  Even  in  old  and  aggravated  cases  it 
is  very  efficacious.  .  .  .  If  the  horse  be  strong 
and  full  of  flesh,  laxatives  should  be  given,  fol- 
lowed by  diuretics  ;  if  weak,  tonics  may  be  added 
to  these  last.  The  feeding,  too,  must  be  varied 
with  the  condition  : — green  meat  and  carrots 
should  be  given,  and  mashes  frequently,  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  corn.  During  convalescence,  exercise 
should  be  given,  and  bandages  and  pressure 
hasten  the  cure."  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  it  is  a  disgrace  for  any  steward,  and  in  the 
want  of  such  a  functionary,  it  is  so  in  the  farmer 
himself,  to  allow  his  horses  to  become  greasy. 

1494.  There  is  a  complaint  called  a  shot  of 
grease,  arising  from  a  different  cause  from  the 
common  grease.  "  In  the  horse,  plethora,"  says 
Professor  Dick,  "  creates  a  strong  disposition  to 
inflammation  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  lungs,  and 
sometimes  to  an  eruption  which  is  called  s^ir/eit, 
or  the  nettle-rush.  The  hair  falls  off  in  patches, 
and  the  skin  is  raw  and  pimpled.  There  is  also 
a  tendency  to  grease,  and  to  what  has  been  de- 
signated a  weed  or  shot  of  grease  in  the  heavy 
draught-horse.  One  of  the  legs,  generally  a  hind 
one,  suddenly  swells  ;  the  animal  becomes  lame; 
there  is  pain  in  the  inside  of  the  tliigh;  increased 
upon  pressure ;  and  fever  supervenes.  .  .  . 
We  have  seen  it  occur  chiefly  during  continued 
rest  after  hard  work  and  exposure  to  weather,  in 
animals  which  were  highly  fed.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  large  blood-letting,  scarifying  the  limb, 
fomenting,  and  applying  hay,  straw,  or  flannel 
bandages,  with  purgatives  and  diuretics.  The 
pressure  of  a  bandage  will  expedite  the  reduction 
of  the  part  to  its  natural  dimensions. 

1495.  Stomach  staggers. — "The  most  promi- 
nent symptoms  of  this  disease  are  the  horse's 
hanging  his  head,  or  resting  it  on  the  manger, 
appearing  drowsy,  and  refusing  food;  the  mouth 
and  eyes  being  tinged  witli  a  yellowish  colour ; 
there  is  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  and 
the  fore-legs  appear  suddenly  to  give  way,  though 
the  horse  sehioni  falls.  Inflammation  of  lungs  or 
bowels,  or  lock-jaw,  may  supervene.  Its  cause 
is  long  fasting  and  over- work;  but  the  quality  of 
the  food  acts  as  a  cause.  Its  treatment  is  reliev- 
ing the  stomach  and  bowels  with  searching  laxa- 
tives, such  as  croton,  also  aloes  and  calomel,  with 
ginger.  Clysters  should  also  be  given,  and  after- 
wards cordials.  Blood-letting  from  the  jugular 
vein  will  be  attended  with  advantage.  Finally, 
steady  exercise  and  careful  feeding  will  prevent 
a  recurrence  of  the  disorder."  *  I  had  a  year-old 
draught  colt  that  was  affected  with  this  disease. 
He  was  a  foul-feeding  animal,  delighting  to  eat 
the  moistened  litter  from  the  stable  and  byre. 
He  was  bled  and  physicked  by  a  veterinarian, 
who  had  established  himself  in  the  neiijrhbour- 


hood,  and  the  front  of  his  head  blistered.  He 
quite  recovered,  and  having  been  removed  from 
the  temptation  of  foul-feeding,  he  was  never 
again  similarly  affected. 

1496.  The  practice  of  keeping  he-goats  in  the 
stables  of  inns,  and  of  those  persons  who  have 
extensive  studs,  is  supposed,  by  the  common 
people,  to  act  as  a  charm  against  the  mad  stag- 
gers ;  but,  as  Marshall  judiciously  observes,  the 
practice  may  be  explained  on  physiological  prin- 
ciples. "  The  staggers  are  a  nervous  disorder,"  he 
remarks;  "and  as  odours,  in  many  cases,  operate 
beneficially  on  the  human  nerves,  so  may  the 
strong  scent  of  the  goat  have  a  similar  effect  on 
those  of  the  horse.  The  subject,"  he  adds,  "  is 
worthy  of  inquiry."  -f-  And  he  gives  a  striking 
instance  of  the  good  effects  of  the  practice. 

1497.  Thrush. — I  have  said  that  the  feet  of 
the  farm-horse  are  not  liable  to  so  many  diseases 
as  those  of  horses  subjected  to  high  speed  on 
hard  roads.  Farm-horses,  however,  are  liable  to 
thrush  and  corns  in  the  feet.  The  former  is 
situate  at  the  hind  part  of  the  cleft  of  the  frog, 
originating  principally  from  continued  applica- 
tiou  of  moisture  and  dirt;  and  hence  it  may  be 
most  expected  to  be  seen  in  dirty  stables,  of 
which  there  are  not  a  few  in  the  country.  After 
being  thoroughly  cleaned  out,  the  hollow  may 
be  filled  with  calomel,  which  generally  cures;  or 
with  pledgets  of  tow  dipped  in  warm  tar,  or 
spirit  of  tar,  applied  at  night,  and  retained  during 
the  day.  The  general  health  of  the  horse  should 
be  attended  to. 

1498.  Corns  arise  from  undue  pressure  of  the 
shoes  upon  the  sole. 

1499.  Broken  wind.  —  Besides  natural  com- 
plaints, farm-horses  are  liable,  in  the  execution 
of  their  work,  to  accidents  which  may  produce 
serious  complaints.  Thus  over-work,  in  a  pecu- 
liar state  of  condition,  may  produce  broken  wind, 
which  is  the  common  phrase  given  to  all  dis- 
organised affections  of  the  lungs,  though  the 
term  is  defined  by  veterinarians  to  be  "  the 
rupture  of  some  of  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs, 
whereby  air-vesicles  are  produced  on  the  surface, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  air  is  rendered  less 
direct  and  easy.  It  is  usually  produced  b}-,  ani- 
mals being  urged  to  over-exertion  wlieu  in  bud 
condition,  though  a  horse  may  become  broken- 
winded  in  a  straw-yard."  There  are  many 
degrees  of  broken  wind,  which  receive  ai>pella- 
tions  according  to  the  noise  emitted  by  the  horse; 
and  on  this  account  he  is  called  a  piper,  trum- 
peter, whistler,  wheezer,  roarer,  high-blower, 
grunter,  with  thick  wiud,  and  with  broken  wind. 
I  had  two  uncommonly  good  horses  affected  in 
the  wind  by  working  much  in  the  traces  of  a 
four-horse  plough,  which  was  employed  to  rip 
up  old  turf-walls,  intermixed  with  large  stones, 
and  to  break  up  rough  ground.  Those  serious 
effects  arising  from  that  sort  of  work,  gave  me 
the  hint  to  relinquish  them,  and  to  betake  myself 
to  the  spade,  which  1  soon  fouud  did  the  work 


*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  55. 

+  Marshall's  Rural  Economy  of  Gloucestershire,  vol.  ii.  p.  34. 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM  HORSES  IN  WINTER. 


329 


much  better,  and  in  the  end  cheaper.  The 
horses  got  gradually  worse  under  the  disease,  and 
at  length,  being  unable  to  maintain  their  step 
with  the  rest,  were  disposed  of  as  broken-winded 
horses. 

1500.  Sprains. — "A  sprain,  or  strain,  is 
violence  inflicted,  with  extension,  often  rupture 
and  displacement,  upon  the  soft  parts  of  a  joint, 
including  cellular  membrane,  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  all  other  parts  forming  the  articulation. 
The  dislocation  or  disruption  may  be  complete, 
or  it  may  be  a  mere  bruise  or  stress;  and  innumer- 
able are  the  shades  of  difference  between  these 
extremes.  Effusion  of  the  fluids  is  an  attendant 
consequence.  Parts  of  vital  importance,  as  in 
the  neck  or  back,  may  be  implicated,  and  the 
accident  be  immediately  fatal,  or  wholly  irre- 
mediable; on  the  contrary,  they  may  be  to  that 
extent  only  that,  with  time  and  ease,  restoration 
may  be  accomplished.  They  constitute  a  serious 
class  of  cases.  The  marked  symptoms  are,  pain 
in  the  injured  parts,  and  inability  of  motion  some- 
times complete.  The  treatment  is  at  first  rest, 
a  regulation  of  the  local  action  and  constitutional 
disturbance,  according  to  circumstances,  by  vene- 
section, general  and  local,  the  antiphlogistic 
regimen,  fomentation,  bandages,  and  other  sooth- 
ing remedies;  and  when  the  sprain  is  of  an  older 
date,  counter-irritation,  friction,  and  gentle 
exercise."  Farm-horses  are  not  unfrequently 
subject  to  strains,  especially  in  doing  work  con- 
nected  with  building,  draining,  and  other  heavy 
work;  and  they  are  most  apt  to  occur  in  autumn, 
when  geldings  are  generally  in  a  weak  state. 
For  rough  work  of  this  kind,  old  seasoned  horses 
are  best  adapted,  and  such  may  often  be  procured 
for  little  money  at  sales  of  stock. 

1501.  Saddle-galls. — When  yonng  horses  are 
first  put  to  work,  the  parts  covered  by  the  saddle 
and  collar  are  apt  to  become  tender,  heated,  and 
then  inflamed,  and  if  the  inflammation  is 
neglected,  the  parts  may  break  out  into  sores. 
Washing  with  a  strong  solution  of  salt  in  water, 
with  tincture  of  myrrh,  is  a  good  lotion,  while 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  packing  of  both 
saddle  and  collar,  until  they  assume  the  form  of 
the  horse  intended  to  wear  them.  "  Tumours, 
which  sometimes  result  from  the  pressure  of  the 
saddle,  go  by  the  name  of  warbles,  to  which,  when 
they  ulcerate,  the  name  of  sitfasts  is  applied, 
from  the  callous  skin  which  adheres  to  the  centre. 
Goulard  water  may  be  used  to  disperse  the 
swelling;  a  digestive  ointment  will  remove  the 
sitfast;  and  the  sore  should  be  healed  with  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc." 

1502.  Crih-hiting  and  wind-sucking.  —  These 
practices  are  said  to  increase  the  tendency  to  indi- 
gestion and  colic,  and  to  lower  condition,  render- 
ing the  horses  which  practise  them  unsound. 
"  A  crib-biter  derives  his  name  from  seizing  the 
manger,  or  some  other  fixture,  with  his  teeth, 
arching  his  neck,  and  sucking  in  a  quantity  of 
air  with  a  peculiar  noise.  .  .  .  Wind-suck- 
ing consists  in  swallowing.air,  without  fixing  the 
mouth.  The  horse  presses  his  lip  against  some 
hard   body,  arching   his    neck,    and   gathering 


together  his  feet."  Both  vices  are  said  to  be 
prevented  by  fastening  a  strap  round  the  neck, 
studded  with  one  or  more  sharp  points  or 
prickles  opposite  the  lower  jaw;  but  this  means 
will  not  avail  in  all  cases,  for  I  had  a  year-old 
colt  which  first  began  crib-biting  in  the  field  by 
seizing  the  gate  or  any  other  object  he  could 
find.  Being  prevented  using  the  gate  by  a  few 
thorns,  he  pressed  his  mouth  against  any  object 
that  would  resist  him,  even  against  the  sides  or 
rumps  of  his  companions,  and  he  then  became 
a  regular  wind-sncker.  A  strap  of  the  above 
form  was  put  on,  recommended  to  me  by  an 
artillery  officer;  but  though  it  remained  upon 
the  colt  for  more  than  a  twelvemonth,  night  and 
day,  and  as  tight  as  even  to  affect  his  appearance, 
he  continued  to  crib-bite  or  wind-suck  in  spite  of 
it,  even  to  the  laceration  of  his  skin  by  the  iron 
prickles.  Growing  largely  to  the  bone,  though 
very  thin,  he  was  taken  up  to  work  at  the  early 
age  of  two  years,  solely  with  the  view  of  seeing  if 
the  yoke  would  drive  him  from  the  practice;  but 
it  had  no  such  effect.  Whenever  he  came  into 
the  stable,  he  set  to  with  earnestness  to  bite  and 
suck  with  the  strap  on,  until  he  would  become 
puffed  up  as  if  to  bursting,  and  preferred  sucking- 
wind  to  eating  his  corn.  At  length  1  was  so 
disgusted  with  the  habit  of  the  brute  that  I  sold 
him  to  a  carrier,  to  draw  a  heavy  single  cart, 
and  being  a  powerful  animal  and  good  worker, 
got  a  fair  price  for  him,  though  sold  as  a  crib- 
biter.  I  may  mention  that  the  constant  practice 
of  the  vice  neither  retarded  his  growth  nor 
injured  his  health. 

1503.  Dust-ball.— M'Mers'  horses  are  most 
liable  to  be  affected  with  this  disease.  Dust-ball 
is  composed  of  corn  and  barley-dust,  saved  in 
grinding  meal  and  used  as  food,  and  occurs 
sometimes  in  the  stomach,  but  more  frequently 
in  the  intestinal  canal.  "  In  an  advanced  stage, 
no  doubt  can  remain  as  to  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
order. The  countenance  is  haggard,  the  eye 
distressed,  the  back  up,  tlie  belly  distended,  the 
respiration  becomes  hurried,  bowels  habitually 
costive,  and  sometimes  the  horse  will  sit  like  a 
dog  on  his  haunches.  Relief  may  frequently  be 
afforded.  Strong  purgatives  and  large  injections 
must  be  given,  and  under  their  continued  action 
the  offending  body  is  sometimes  removed."  On 
using  barley-dust  as  food  for  horses,  it  would  be 
well  to  mix  it  thoi-oughly  with  other  prepared  in- 
gredients, instead  of  using  it  in  the  dry  state. 

1504.  Worms. — Farm-horses  are  sometimes 
affected  with  worms.  These  are  of  three  kinds: 
the  round  worm,  teres;  the  thread-worm,  ascaris; 
and  the  tape-worm,  tnenia.  "In  the  horse  the 
taenia  is  very  rare;  in  the  dog  exceedingly  com- 
mon. When  the  horse  is  underfed,  his  bowels 
are  full  of  teres  and  ascaris;  and  the  appearance 
of  his  staring  coat,  want  of  flesh,  and  voracious 
appetite,  betoken  it.  They  occasion  gripes  and 
diarrhoea,  but  the  mischief  they  produce  is  not 
great.  The  principal  habitat  of  the  ascaris  is 
the  ccecum,  although  tliey  are  sometimes  found 
in  countless  multitudes  in  the  colon  and  rectum. 
Turpentine  is  a  deadly  poison  to  all  these  worms; 
but  this  medicine,  so  harmless  in  man,' acts  most 


330 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


disagreeably  in  the  lower  animals.  Hence  it  must 
not  be  given  to  ^hem  pure,  or  in  large  quantities, 
but  mixed  in  sma'l  proportion  with  other  oils,  as 
linseed,  or  in  a  pill;  and,  with  these  precautions, 
it  may  be  found  at  once  safe  and  efficacious." 

1505.  Nf'jtiloF,  or  specks  in  the  eye. —  Farm- 
horses  are  not  subject  to  the  more  violent  dis- 
eases of  the  eye;  but  being  liable  to  accidents, 
the  effects  of  inflammation — nebula?  or  specks  — 
do  sometime?  appear.  "  The  former  are  super- 
ficial, the  latter  dip  more  deeply  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  part.  Directly  in  the  sphere  of 
yision,  these  of  course  impede  it,  and  cause 
obscurity  of  virion.  Even  here  we  must  proceed 
gently.  These  blemishes  are  the  pure  conse- 
quences of  inflammation,  and,  this  subdued,  their 
tendency  is  to  disappear.  Time  and  nature  will 
do  much,  and  the  duty  of  the  practitioner  con- 
sists in  helping  forward  the  salutary  process, 
where  necessary,  by  gently  stimulating  washes, 
whilst  irritating  powders  should  be  avoided."* 
With  these  sensible  remarks  of  Professor  Dick, 
I  shall  conclude  what  I  have  to  say  of  the  dis- 
eases of  the  farm-horse  at  this  time. 

1506.  The  offals  of  the  horse  are  not  of  great 
value.  His  hide  is  of  most  value  when  free  of 
blemishes.  It  tans  well  and  forms  a  good 
leather,  which,  on  being  japanned,  is  chiefly  used 
for  covering  carriages.  I  was  informed  by  a 
friend  who  settled  in  Buenos  Ayres  as  a  mer- 
chant, that  he  once  bought  a  lot  of  horses,  con- 
taining no  fewer  than  20,000,  for  the  sake  of 
their  hides  alone,  and  that  some  of  them  would 
have  fetched  good  prices  in  England.  They  were 
all  captured  with  the  lasso.  Hides  sent  from 
Buenos  Ayres  have  merely  been  dried  in  the  sun. 

1507.  "  Hair,  horn,  and  wool,"  says  Profesi^or 
Johnston,  "  are  distinguished  from  the  muscular 
parts  of  the  animal  boiiy  by  the  large  proportion 
— about  5  per  cent — of  sulphur  which  they  con- 
tain. They  consist  of  a  substance  which,  in 
other  respects,  closely  resembles  gluten  and 
gelatin  in  its  chemical  composition.  When 
burned,  they  leave  from  1  to  2  per  cent  of  ash. 
.  .  .  The  inorganic  matter  contained  in  hair 
is,  generally  speaking,  the  same  in  kind  as  that 
which  exists  in  the  muscular  fibre  and  in  the 
bone.  It  contains  the  same  phosphates  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  the  same  sulphates  and  the  same 
chlorides,  among  which  latter  common  salt  is 
most  abundant.  The  absolute  quality  of  ash  or 
inorganic  matter  varies,  as  well  as  the  relative 
proportii-i.?  in  which  the  several  substances  are 
mixed  together  in  the  different  solid  parts  of  the 
body;  but  the  substances  themselves  of  which  the 
inorganic  matter  is  composed  are  nearly  the 
same,  whether  they  be  obtained  from  the  bones, 
from  the  muscle,  or  from  the  hair."t 

1508.  "Hair,  of  all  animal  products,  is  the 
least  liable  to  spontaneous  change.     It  can  be         

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science,  p.  104. 

+  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  1013. 

t  Thom^^on"s  Animal  Chtmistry,  p.  .'^Oi. 

§  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,—  &Tt».  If  air,  Button. 

II  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  1012. 


dissolved  in  water  only  at  a  temperature  some- 
what above  230°  Fahr.  in  Papln's  digester,  but 
it  appears  to  be  partially  decomposed  by  this 
heat,  since  some  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  tli^en- 
gaged.  By  dry  distillation,  hair  gives  off  several 
sulphuretted  ga£es,  while  the  residuum  contains 
sulphate  of  lime,  common  salt,  much  silica,  and 
some  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that  fair  hair  affords  magnesia 
instead  of  these  latter  two  oxides.  Horte-hair 
yields  about  12  per  cent  of  the  phosphate  of 
lime.  Hair  also  yields  a  bituminous  oil,  which 
is  black  when  the  hair  is  black,  and  yellowish- 
red  when  the  hair  is  red. "J 

1509.  "  Hairs  are  tubular,  their  cavities  being 
filled  with  a  fat  oil  having  the  same  colour  with 
themselves.  Hair  plunged  m  chlorine  gas  is 
immediately  decomposed,  and  converted  into  a 
viscid  mass;  but  when  immersed  in  weak 
aqueous  chlorine  it  undergoes  no  change,  except 
in  a  little  bleaching." 

1510.  "Hair,  as  an  object  of  manufacture,  is 
of  two  kinds — the  curly  and  the  straight.  The 
former,  which  is  ."^hort,  is  spun  into  a  cord,  and 
boiled  in  this  state,  to  give  it  the  tortuous 
springy  form.  The  long  straight  hair  is  woven 
into  cloth  for  sieves,  and  also  for  ornamental 
purposes,  as  in  the  damask  hair-cloth  of  chair 
bottoms.  For  this  p.irpose  it  is  dyed  of  various 
colours."  Horse -hair  is  also  used  for  fishing- 
lines,  and  horse-tails  for  cavalry  caps. 

1511.  "Button  moulds  are  made  of  the  bones 
of  the  horse,  ox,  aud  sheep.  The  shavings,  saw- 
dust, a:id  more  minute  fragments  in  making  these 
moulds,  are  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  cutlery 
and  iron  toys,  in  the  operation  of  case-hardening, 
so  that  not  the  smallest  waste  takes  place. '§ 
The  bones  of  all  these  animals,  when  reduced 
small,  make  the  valuable  manure  bone-dust, 
well  known  to  every  farmer. 

1512.  "The  bones,  like  the  muscles, consist  of 
a  combustible  and  an  incombustible  portion;  but 
in  tiie  bones  the  inorganic  or  inconlbn^tible  part 
is  by  much  the  greater.  .  .  .  The  incombus- 
tible portion  consists,  for  the  most  j'art,  of 
phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  relative 
proportions  of  these  two  earthy  compounds.also 
vary  with  the  kind  of  animal,  with  its  age,  its 
condition,  its  luod,  and  its  state  of  health.  To 
form  100  lbs.  of  bone,  the  animal  will  usually 
require  to  incorporate  with  its  own  substance 
about — 

^o  lbs.  of  gelatin. 

55  phosphate  of  lime. 

4  carbon:.te  of  lime. 

3  phosjihate  of  magnesia. 

'A  of  soda,  potash,  and  common  Ba!k**| 


100  lbs. 


THE  FARMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNi:SS  HORSE. 


331 


1513.  M'Queen  estimated  in  1836  the  number  latter  case.     But  Mr  Bell,  in  his  Commentaries, 

of  horses  employed   in  agriculture,  in  the  whole  vol.  i.'p.  242,  says  that   "  when  the  faults   are 

kingdom,   a.    l,60i),178,  and   valuing   these   at  such  as  the  buyer  can  only  learn  from  the  seller's 

£25  each,  the  amount  would  be  £40,229,450.  information,  the  concealment  is  fraud."l| 


1514.  If  we  take  his  estimate  of  the  annual 
increase  of  agricultural  horses  at  8000,  at  £25 
each,  their  value  is  £200,000;  and  supposing  that 
this  number  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  tear  and 
wear  occasioned  by  work,  the  yearly  estimate  of 
the  wear  aud  tear  may  thus  be  taken  at  one- 
twentieth  of  the  entire  value,  or  £2,000,000  a- 
year.  Marshall,  and  the  Agricultural  Committee 
of  1821,  estimated  the  wear  and  tear  of  farm- 
horses  at  one-tenth  ;  but  if  the  annual  increase  is 
correct,  as  given  by  M'Queen,  this  cannot  be  the 
proportion,  and  I  should  say,  from  ordinary  expe- 
rience, that  it  is  above  the  mark. 

1515.  To  test  the  value  of  the  labour  of  the 
farm-horse,  M'Queen  offers  these  data — the 
labour  of  1  horse  is  equal  to  that  of  5  able-bodied 
men,  and  as  the  yearly  charge  of  a  man  is  £29, 
it  follows  that  the  value  of  the  labour  of  1,609,178 
farm-horses  should  be  yearly  of  the  prodigious 
sum  of  £233,330,810.* 

1516.  Since  1822,  farm-horses  have  been  ex- 
empted from  duty,  aud  brood-mares  have  always 
been  so.  The  numbers  entered  for  the  duty  were 
832,726, — Ireland  being  always  exempt.f  The 
duty  was  1 7s.  6d.  each,  and  the  sum  thus  remitted 
was  £728,435  yearly. 

1517.  By  the  customs  tariff  of  1846,  horses, 
mares,  geldings,  colts,  foals,  may  be  imported 
free.J 

1518.  Dealers  in  horses  must  procure  a  license, 
for  which  they  pay  yearly  £12,  10s.  if  out  of, 
and  £25  if  in  London.  In  1831,  the  number  of 
horse-dealers  licensed  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom 
was  1037. 

1519.  Slaughterers  of  horses  must  also  procure 
a  license.! 

1520.  The  stealing  of  horses  is  not  now  a 
capital  crime. 

1521.  "By  cases,  it  is  seen  that  it  is  not 
necessary,  by  the  law  of  Scotland,^that  a  horse 
should  be  warranted  sound  at  the  period  of  sale, 
as  is  generally  thought,  to  entitle  the  buyer  to 
return  it,  should  it  prove  unfit  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  sold.  By  the  law  of  England, 
warrandice  is  necessary  to  entitle  the  buyer  to 
return  an  unsound  horse.  By  the  law  of  both 
Scotland  aud  England,  the  buyer  of  a  subject 
sold  with  all  faults,  has  no  right  to  question  the 
sale,  when  he  has  not  been  drawn  into  it  by 
fraud,  (Shaw,  Deo.  1594,  M.  14229;  Baglehole,  3 
Camp.  154.)     See  Lord  Eldon's  judgment  in  the 


ON  THE  TREATMENT  OF  THE  FARMERS* 
SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE  IN  WIN- 
TER. 

1.522.  I  Lave  said  (9)  that  the  agri- 
cultural pupil  should  have  no  horse  of  his 
own  at  first,  to  tempt  him  to  leave  home 
and  neglect  his  own  training  ;  and  before 
he  is  entitled  to  one,  he  should  know  how 
to  groom  it,  to  be  able  to  correct  the 
groom  when  he  neglects  his  duty,  or  per- 
forms it  in  an  improper  manner.  I  would 
advise  the  pupil  himself  to  undertake  the 
charge  of  a  horse  for  some  time — not  merely 
to  superintend  its  keeping,  but  to  clean  it 
himself,  to  water  and  corn  it  at  stated 
times  at  morning,  noon,  and  night,  and  to 
keep  the  saddle  and  bridle  in  jjroper  order. 
I  groomed  a  new-broke-iu  blood  tilly  for 
four  months  one  winter,  and  got  more  in- 
sight into  its  form,  temper,  management, 
and  wants,  than  I  could  have  obtained 
by  observation  alone  in  a  much  longer 
time.  On  coming  home  even  at  night, 
from  visiting  a  friend,  I  made  it  a  point 
with  myself  to  make  tlie  mare  comf(ntable 
for  the  night  before  indulging  in  my  own 
rest. 

1523.  Usually  a  young  lad,  a  groom, 
is  hired  by  the  farmer  to  take  charge  of 
his  saddle  or  harness  horse,  or  of  both,  to 
go  errands  and  to  the  post-office,  and 
otherwise  to  make  himself  serviceable  in 
the  house.  Sometimes  the  hedger  or 
shepherd  acts  the  part  of  groom.  My 
shepherd  acted  as  grooyi,  and  his  art  in 
grooming  was  so  skilful,  that  many  friends 
would  have  been  glad  could  their  pro- 
fessed grooms  have  turned  out  the  saddle- 
horse  or  drag  in  as  good  a  style.  Besides 
being  useful  in  carrying  the  farmer  to 
market,  or  other  short  distances,  a  roadster 
is  required  to  carry  him  over  the  farm 
when  it  is  of  large  extent,  and  the  work- 
people require  pretty  constant  superinten- 


*  M'Queen's  General  Statisficit  of  the  British  Empire,  p.  15  and  37.       1836. 

+  Porter's  Proijress  o/the  Nation,  p.  163.     1847.  t  The  Ciistums  Act,  26th  June  1846. 

§  M'CuUoch's  Commercial  Dictionary, — arts.  Horse,  Horse-dealers. 

II   llie  Farmers  Lawyer,  p.  142. 


332 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


dence  in  the  important  operations  of 
eeed-tinie  and  barvest.  A  liarness-horse 
is  useful  to  a  family  at  all  times,  and  to  the 
farmer  himself  when  he  visits  his  friends ; 
and  many  farmers  now  prefer  riding  to 
market  in  a  gig  or  drosky  to  horseback. 

1524.  A  saddle  or  harness-horse  is  treated 
somewhat  differently  in  the  stable  from  a 
work-horse.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
early  in  the  morning  is  to  shake  up  the 
litter  nearest  the  strand  with  a  fork,  re- 
moving the  dung  and  soiled  straw  to  a 
court-yard,  and  sweeping  the  floor  clean. 
Then  give  the  horse  a  drink  out  of  the 
pail,  which  is  constantly  kept  full  of  water 
in  the  stable.  The  usual  practice  is  to 
offer  the  water  immediately  before  giving 
the  corn  ;  but  I  conceive  it  more  conducive 
to  the  health  of  the  horse  to  slake  his 
thirst  a  while  before  giving  him  corn,  to 
allow  the  water  time  to  reach  its  destina- 
tion, and  acquire  the  temperature  of  the 
body.  Should  the  horse  have  to  under- 
take a  longer  journey  than  walking  about 
the  farm,  the  allowance  of  water  should 
be  stinted  to  10  gluts;  but  if  he  is  to  be 
at  home,  he  may  drink  as  much  as  he 
pleases. 

1525.  The  grooming  is  begun  by  first 
removing  the  sheet,  and  gently  going  over 
the  whole  body  with  the  currycomb,  fig.  10.9, 
to  remove  any  particles  of  mud  that  may 
possibly  have  escajjcd  the  former  night's 
grooming,  and  also  to  raise  the  scurf  from 
the  skin ;  and  then  wispiug  down  with 
straw,  to  clear  off  what  the  currycomb 
may  have  raised  to  the  surface.  The 
brush  follows,  to  clear  the  hair  of  its  scurf, 
the  currycomb  being  used  to  clean  the 
brush.  Of  wisping  and  brushing,  wisping 
is  the  more  beneficial  to  the  legs,  where 
the  hair  is  short  and  the  tendons  and 
bones  are  but  little  covered,  because  it 
excites  warmth  and  cleans  sufficiently. 
Both  wisping  and  brushing  should  be  be- 
gun at  the  head  and  terminated  at  the 
other  end  of  the  body,  along  the  lie  of  the 
hair,  which,  notwithstanding  different 
swirls,  tends  from  the  upper  to  the  lower 
jiart  of  the  body.  Many  a  groom  rests 
content  with  a  brushing  only;  but  it  does 
not  effectually  remove  the  dust  raised  to 
the  surface,  and  a  wisping  is  required  to 
do  it.  The  horse  sliould  be  turned  round 
in  the  stall,  to  have  his  head,  neck,  coun- 


ter, and  fore-legs,  wisped,  which,  when 
done,  he  is  again  turned  to  his  former 
position,  to  have  the  body,  (juarters,  and 
hind-legs,  wisped  over;  and  when  the  whole 
of  this  has  been  accomj^lished,  the  iiorse  may 
be  considered  clean.  All  this  grooming 
implies  the  bestowal  of  nmch  more  labour 
than  most  farmers'  riding-horses  receive. 
They  are  usually  scuffled  over  in  the 
morning  with  the  currycomb,  and  skimmed 
with  the  brush,  and  with  a  hasty  combing 
of  the  mane  and  tail  the  job  is  considered 
finished.  The  mane  and  tail  ought  to  be 
carefully  combed  out,  and  wetted  over  at 
the  time  of  combing  with  a  half-dry 
water-brush.  The  sheet  should  then  be 
thrown  over  the  horse,  and  in  putting  it 
on,  it  should  be  thrown  more  towards  the 
neck  of  the  horse  than  where  it  is  intended 
to  remain,  and  from  thence  drawn  gently 
down  the  hair  with  both  hands,  to  its 
proper  position,  while  standing  behind 
the  horse.  It  is  kept  in  its  place  by 
means  of  the  roller,  which  should  be 
buckled  on  tightly.  The  litter  is  then 
neatly  shaken  up  with  a  fork,  taking  care 
to  raise  the  straw  so  far  up  the  travis  on 
each  side  as  to  form  a  cushion  for  the  side 
of  the  horse  to  rest  against  wheu  he  lies 
down. 

1526.  The  feed  of  corn  is  then  given 
him,  and  a  little  hay  thrown  into  the 
rack ;  and  on  the  stable-door  being  shut, 
he  is  permitted  to  enjoy  his  meal  in  peace. 
At  mid-day  he  should  have  another  drink 
of  water  from  the  pail,  the  dung  removed, 
the  litter  shaken  up,  and  another  portion 
of  oats  given  him.  At  8  o'clock  at  night 
the  sheet  should  again  be  taken  off,  the 
currycomb  and  brush  used,  and  the  entire 
dressing  finished  again  with  a  wisjjiing. 
The  sheet  is  then  thrown  over  him  as  in 
the  morning,  the  litter  shaken  up  and 
augmented,  water  given,  and  the  sup2)er 
of  oats,  or  a  mash,  finishes  the  day's  treat- 
ment of  the  saddle-horse. 

1527.  The  wisp  for  this  purpose  is  best 
made  of  Russia  mat,  first  Avetted  and  then 
beaten  to  a  soft  state,  and  after  being 
dried  is  rolled  up  in  the  form  of  a  wisp, 
just  large  enough  to  fill  the  hand.  This 
wisp  cleanses  the  surface  of  the  hair  most 
effectually  when  it  is  damped  with  a  little 
water  and  dried  by  being  beaten  against 
a  stone  wall. 


THE  FARMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE. 


833 


1528.  A  wisp  of  horse-hair  cloth  makes 
a  horse's  skiu  very  clean;  but  in  dry 
weather  it  is  apt  to  excite  such  a  degree 
of  electricity  in  the  hair  of  the  horse  as 
to  cause  it  to  attract  much  dust  to  it. 

1529.  The  treatment  just  described  is 
most  strictly  applicable  to  the  horse  re- 
maining all  day  in  the  stable ;  but  when 
he  is  ridden  out,  a  somewhat  diflerent 
procedure  is  required.  When  he  comes 
home  from  a  dirty  ride,  the  first  thing  is 
to  get  clear  of  the  mud  on  the  belly  and 
legs.  A  very  common  practice  is  to  wade 
the  horse  through  the  pond,  as  the  farm- 
horses  are ;  but  this  should  not  be  done, 
since  wading  through  a  pond  cannot 
thoroughly  clear  the  legs  of  mud  to  the 
skin,  and  there  still  remains  the  belly  to 
be  cleaned  by  other  means  than  wading. 
The  plan  is,  in  winter,  to  bring  the  horse 
into  the  stable  upon  the  pavement,  and, 
on  taking  oif  the  saddle  and  bridle  and 
putting  on  a  halter,  scrape  all  the  mud 
as  clean  off  the  belly  and  legs  as  can  be 
done  with  a  blunt  knife.  With  a  pailful 
of  lukewarm  water  wash  down  the  legs, 
outside  and  inside,  with  a  water-brush, 
fig.     116,    then     each     foot     separately, 

Fig.  116. 


THE  WATKR-BRUSH. 


picking  out  the  mud  with  the  foot-picker, 
fig.  105,  and  washing  the  mud  clean 
from  the  belly  with  the  water-brush.  A 
scrape  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  after 
the  washing,  will  bring  out  all  the  super- 
fluous water  from  amongst  the  hair  in  the 
belly,  and  a  stroke  down  the  legs  with  the 
hands  will  clear  them  of  most  of  the  water. 
On  going  into  the  stall  the  liorse  should  be 
wisped  lirmlv  with  straw,  rubbing  the 
belly  first,  and  then  both  sides  of  each  leg 
until  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  dry  the  belly  at  once,  so  it  should 
get  another  good  wisping  with  dry  clean 
straw  after  the  legs  are  dry.  The  head, 
neck,  and  body  are  then  thoroughly 
cleaned   with    the  currycomb,  brush,  and 


wisp,  as  above  described.  On  combing 
out  the  mane  and  tail,  putting  on  the  sheet, 
and  bedding  plentifully  with  dry  straw, 
the  horse  will  be  placed  out  of  danger,  and 
feel  pretty  comfortable  even  for  the  night; 
but  should  he  have  arrived  some  time 
before  the  evening  time  for  grooming,  the 
currycomb  and  wisp  reapplied  then  will 
remove  any  moisture  or  dust  that  may 
have  escaped  before. 

1 530.  Considerable  apprehension  is  felt 
in  regard  to  wetting  the  abdomen  of  horses, 
especially  at  night — and  the  apprehension 
is  not  ill  founded,  for  if  the  moisture  is 
allowed  to  remain,  even  to  a  small  degree, 
its  quick  evaporation  ensues  from  the  ex- 
cited state  of  the  body  consequent  on 
exercise,  and  rapidly  reduces  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  skin.  The  consequence  of 
such  a  cooling  tends  to  irritate  the  skin, 
and  bring  grease  into  the  legs,  and  this 
is  the  danger  attending  the  wetting  of  the 
bellies  of  farm-horses  with  coW water;  but 
warm  water  cleanses  the  hair  and  makes  it 
dry  sooner,  even  on  the  abdomen,  where  it  is 
generally  much  longer  than  on  the  legs. 
Unless,  however,as  much  labour  is  bestowed 
as  will  dry  the  skin,  and  which  is  usually 
more  than  may  be  expected  from  ordinary 
country  grooms,  it  is  safer  for  t!ie  horse 
to  remain  in  a  somewhat  dirty  state  all 
night,  than  to  risk  the  consequences  of  an 
attack  of  grease  and  inflammation  by 
neglected  wet  limbs  and  abdomen.  If 
the  requisite  labour  s/mll  be  bestowed 
to  render  the  skin  comjiletely  dry,  less 
risk  is  incurred  in  wetting  the  belly  than 
the  legs,  inasmuch  as  the  legs,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  magnitude,  expose  a  much 
larger  surface  for  evaporation,  and  are  not 
so  near  the  source  of  animal  heat  as  the 
body. 

1531.  Clipping  the  hair  close  to  the 
body  of  saddle  and  harness-horses,  has 
been  recommended  and  practised  pretty 
extensively  within  the  last  few  years. 
The  effects  likely  to  arise  from  this  opera- 
tion may  be  collected  from  these  remarks 
of  a  veterinary  surgeon  : — "If  the  owner,'' 
says  he,  "cannot  suffer  a  long  coat  of 
hair,  and  will  have  it  shortened,  he  must 
never  allow  the  horse  to  be  motionless 
while  he  is  wet  or  exposed  to  a  cold  blast. 
He  must  have  a  good  groom  and  a  jrood 
stable.      Those  who    have    both,    seldom 


834 


PRACTICE— -^^TNTER. 


have  a  horse  that  requires  clipping,  but, 
when  clipped,  lie  must  not  want  either. 
A  long  coat  takes  up  a  deal  of  moisture, 
and  is  difficult  to  dry ;  but,  whether  wet 
or  Jrr,  it  afforus  some  defence  to  the  skin, 
which  is  laid  bare  to  every  breath  of  air 
when  deprived  of  its  natural  covering. 
Everyone  must  know  from  himself  whether 
wet  clothing  and  a  wet  skin,  or  no  cloth- 
ing and  a  wet  skin,  is  the  most  disagree- 
able and  dangerous.  It  is  true  that 
clipping  saves  the  groom  a  great  deal  of 
labour.  He  can  dry  the  horse  in  half  the 
time,  and  with  less  than  half  the  exertion 
■which  a  long  coat  re4uires ;  but  it  makes 
his  attention  and  activity  more  necessar}', 
for  the  horse  is  almost  sure  to  catch  cold 
if  not  dressed  immediately.  When  well 
clothed  with  hair  he  is  in  less  danger, 
and  not  so  much  dependent,  upon  the  care 
of  his  groom."*  These  observations  con- 
lain  the  whole  rationale  of  clipping,  and 
show  it  is  inapplicable  to  farm-horses,  aad, 
as  country  grooms  are  usually  qualified, 
clipping  would  prove  but  problematically 
beneficial  to  the  saddle  or  harness  horse  of 
the  farmer. 

1532.  Saddle-horses  receive  oats  in 
proportion  to  the  work  they  have  to  per- 
form, but  the  least  quantity  supposed  to 
keep  them  in  such  condition  as  to  enable 
them  to  do  a  day's  work  at  any  time,  is 
three  half-feeds  a-day — one  in  the  morn- 
ing, another  at  mid-day,  and  a  third  at 
night.  When  subjected  to  daily  exercise, 
riding-horses  require  three  feeds  a-day, 
and  an  extra  allowance  for  extra  work, 
such  as  a  long  journey.  A  mash  once  a- 
week,  even  when  on  work  daily,  is  re- 
quisite ;  and  when  comparatively  idle,  a 
part  of  the  mash  prepared  for  the  work- 
horses, may  be  aduiinistered  with  much 
advantage.  I  am  no  advocate  of  a  bran 
ma-h  to  a  horse  in  good  health,  as  it  serves 
only  to  loosen  the  bowels  without  bestow- 
ing much  nourishment.  Boiled  barley  is 
better.  A  riding-horse  should  have  hay, 
and  not  straw,  in  winter ;  and  he  will  eat 
from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  stone  of 
22  lbs.  daily. 

1533.  A  method  of  feeding  harness- 
horses  is  practised  by  Mr  R.  O.  Durham. 
Turnham  Green,  London,  on  his  omnibus 


horses.  They  are  now  partly  fed  on 
carrots,  instead  of  wholly  on  oats  as  for- 
merly, and  the  results  deserve  the  attention 
of  the  fanner  in  supporting  his  own  saddle- 
horse.  Mr  Durham  observes: — "I  make 
b(dd  to  ofter  to  the  keepers  of  horses  a 
plan  which  I  have  successfully  practised 
for  the  last  three  years,-  to  save  a  large 
consumption  of  oats  ;  and,  having  had  the 
management  of  upwards  of  200  horses  be- 
hmging  to  the  Hammersmith  Conveyance 
Company,  I  can  confiilently  state  that  the 
plan  is  not  only  a  great  saving  in  expense, 
but  is  in  tiic  highest  degree  conducive  to 
the  health,  and  the  development  of  the  ca- 
pabilities of  the  horse.  In  autumu  I  lay  in 
a  sufficient  store  of  either  white  or  red 
carrots,  (white  preferred,)  to  last  till  the 
spring,  and  from  every  stud  of  8  horses  I 
deduct  from  their  daily  allowance  of  '>ats, 
(which  is  4  bushels,  or  152  lbs.,)  1  bushel, 
or  38  lbs.,  in  place  of  which  I  substitute 
about  72  lbs.  of  carrots  sliced  thin,  and 
then  mixed  with  the  chaff  and  oats — thus 
saving  one  bushel  of  oats  in  every  stud 
per  day ;  a  ton  of  carrots  being  e(j[ual  to 
4  quarters  of  oats.  Now,  taking  the 
number  of  horses  working  in  the  omni- 
buses round  London  at  8  per  omnibus,  and 
the  number  of  omnibuses  at  1400,  the 
saving  in  the  consumption  of  oats  by 
omnibus  horses  only  would  be  1,4UU 
bushels,  or  175  quarters,  per  day.  But 
almost  all  descriptions  of  horses  do  well 
upon  thi?  food.  Blaine,  in  his  Veterinari/ 
Art,  says  of  carrots  that  'agricultural 
horses  may  be  supported  on  them  wholly, 
when  sliced  and  mixed  with  chatF;  the 
sweet  jiarsnip  has  similar  pn^perties,  and 
may  be  used  with  almost  equal  success ; 
and  the  Swedish  turnip  has  proved  an  ex- 
cellent food,  the  sugar  jnedominating  in 
all  these  to  an  eminent  degree ; '  and  he 
adds,  'but  carrots  stand  foremost,  and 
hardly  too  much  can  be  said  on  their  ex- 
cellent qualities.  'J'hey  appear  jjarticularly 
favourable  to  condition,  as  the  skin  and 
hair  always  look  well  uuder  their  use ; 
they  are  highly  nutritious,  and  so  favour- 
able are  they  to  the  free  exercise  of  the 
lungs  that  horses  have  been  found  even 
to  hunt  on  them,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
a  certain  portion  of  corn,  would  form  as 
good  a  fooil  as  could  be  devised  for  our 
coach  and  machine  horses  and  our  hack- 


•  Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  p.  120. 


THE  FARMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE. 


835 


neys.'  And  further  on  he  states,  '  that  in 
very  many  cases  of  horsts  In  fair  work, 
carrots  may  be  wholly  substituted  for  corn, 
provided  the  quantity  be  doubled  or 
trebled — and  with  additional  advantage  to 
the  health  and  condition  of  the  animals.'  " 

1 534.  Of  harness  there  should  be  two 
pairs  of  girths  in  use  with  the  saddle,  when 
the  horse  has  much  work  to  do,  to  allow 
one  pair  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
dried  while  the  other  is  in  use.  The  best 
way  to  clean  girths  is  first  to  scrape  off 
the  mud  with  a  knife,  and  then  to  wash 
thorn  in  cold  water,  and  hang  them  up  to 
a  fire  or  bright  sun  to  dry  quickly.  Warm 
water  makes  them  shrink  rapidly,  and  so 
does  long  exposure  to  wet.  If  there  is 
time,  they  should  be  washed  the  same  day 
they  have  been  dirtied ;  and  if  not,  on 
being  scraped  at  night,  they  should  be 
washed  in  the  following  morning,  and 
hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry;  and  if  the  air  is 
damp,  liang  them  before  the  kitchen  fire. 
Girths  allowed  to  dry  with  the  mud  on 
soon  become  rotten  and  unsafe. 

1535.  The  stirrup  leathers  should  be 
taken  off  and  sponged  clean  of  the  mud, 
and  dried  with  a  cloth  ;  and  the  saddle- 
flaps  should  also  be  sponged  clean  of  mud, 
and  the  seat  spongt-d  with  a  wrung  S|;>onge, 
and  rubbed  dry  with  a  cloth. 

1  536.  The  stirrup-irons  and  bit  should 
be  washed  in  water,  and  rubbed  dry  with 
a  cloth,  immediately  after  being  used. 
Fine  sand  and  water,  on  a  thick  woollen 
rag,  clean  these  irons  well,  and  a  dry  rub 
afterwards  with  a  cloth  makes  them  bright. 
Some  smear  them  with  oil  on  setting  them 
past,  to  prevent  rust ;  but  oil,  on  evapora- 
tion, leaves  a  resinous  residuum  to  which 
dust  readily  and  strongly  adheres.  The 
curb-chain  is  best  cleaned  by  washing  in 
clean  water,  and  rubbed  dry  with  a  cloth, 
and  made  bright  by  friction  between  the 
palms  of  both  hands. 

1537.  Carriage  harness  should  be 
sponged  clean  of  mud,  kept  soft  and 
pliable  with  fine  oil,  and,  when  not  ja- 
panned, blackened  with  the  best  shoe 
black,  Everington's  being  excellent.  There 
should  be  no  plating  or  brass  ornaments 


on  a  farmer's  harness  ;  plain  iron  japanned, 
or  iron  covered  with  leather,  forms  the 
neatest,  most  easily  kept,  and  serviceable 
mounting.  Bright  metallic  mountings  of 
every  kind  soon  assume  the  garb  of  the 
shabby  genteel  iuthe  hands  of  an  ordinary 
rustic  groom. 

1538.  The  wheels  of  a  carriage  are  best 
cleaned  v/ith  a  worsted  mop  and  water, 
and  made  dry  with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  and 
finished  with  chamois  leather.  The  body 
should  be  washed  with  a  wet  sponge,  and 
rubbed  dry  with  chamois  leather.  In  rak- 
ing off"  mud  from  the  body  of  a  carriage 
with  a  wet  sponge,  care  should  be  taken 
to  let  the  loose  mud  run  off  of  itself  with 
the  water  from  the  sponge,  and  to  keep  the 
sponge  clean  by  wringing  out,  to  avoid 
scratching  the  varnishing. 

1539.  On  choosing  a  spunge  to  be  used 
for  carriage  cleaning,  the  form  should  be 
of  a  hollow  cup  about  the  size  of  the  hand, 
this  form  having  the  finest  and  most 
delicate  edge  for  cleaning  a  smooth  surface 
such  as  a  carriage  panel.  The  substance 
should  have  a  fresh  appearance  and  fair 
colour,  tough,  and  free  of  sand  and  grits. 
Never  buy  a  sponge  ofiered  at  a  small 
price  for  its  size,  as  it  will  be  sure  to  be 
rotten,  and  most  likely  of  a  dead  brown 
colour.  Before  using  any  new  sponge,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  and  repeatedly 
washed  with  suap  and  warm  water. 

1540.  In  selecting  a  chamois  skin,  it 
should  be  ecpially  thick  tliroughout,  feel 
delightfully  smooth,  be  large,  and  free  of 
hard  s])ots.  Chamois  leather  as  sold  in  the 
s'lops  is  not  all  made  of  the  skin  of  the 
chamois  of  the  Alps,  that  of  the  common 
goat  and  the  doe  being  manufactured  as 
that  of  the  real  chamois.* 

1541.  A  saddle-horse  stable,  when  more 
than  one  horse  is  kept,  should  be  provided 
with  2  pails  for  water,  and  one  for  washing 
the  feet  in,  or  the  carriage  wheels.  It  is 
a  dirty  habit  to  give  the  horse  his  di'iuk  of 
water  out  of  the  same))ail  in  which  his  feet 
is  usually  washed,  which  shouh!  never  be 
allowed  to  be  used  for  any  other  purpose. 
The  other  furniture  of  such  a  stable  con- 
sists of  a  fork  to  shake  up  the  s+raw,  a 


Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts, — art.  Leather,  p.  767. 


336 


PRACTICE— WINTER, 


broom,  a  mop  to  wash  tne  floor  when  of 
India  rubber  pavement,  or  the  carriage- 
wlieels,  and  a  box  for  holding  stuffing  of 
cow-dung  for  the  feet.  The  corn- chest 
should  be  provided  with  a  sieve  to  purge 
out  the  dust  and  sand  from  the  corn. 

1542.  The  horse  should  be  provided 
with  a  rug  and  roller,  the  wearing  of 
which  serves  to  keep  his  skin  free  of  dust, 
A  rug  costs  13s.  6d.,  and  a  roller  5s.  6d.; 
a  riding-saddle  £4,  10s. ;  double  bridle, 
30s.  ;  stall  collars,  6s.  6d. ;  water-brush, 
fig.  116,  3s.  6d. ;  and  a  set  of  harness  for 
gig  or  carriage  for  one  horse,  £8 — all  of 
the  best  materials  and  workmanship. 

1543.  Wax  lights  are  best  aud  cleanest 
for  carriage  lamps,  and  for  all  the  number 
a  farmer  will  require  in  a  season  he  should 
not  hesitate  on  using  them.  The  reflectors 
are  now  made  large  and  bright,  and  are 
best  cleaned  with  a  soft  clean  muslin  rag. 

1544.  Besides  all  the  diseases  mentioned  as 
incidental  to  the  farm-horse,  the  saddle-liorse  is 
liable  to  many  more,  arising  from  afiections  in 
the  foot.  When  we  consider  the  violence  of  the 
action  of  the  horse  in  trotting,  and  that  he  has 
to  trot  not  only  with  a  load  on  his  back,  bearing 
a  large  proportion  to  his  own  weight,  but  upon 
a  hard  road,  which  yields  but  in  a  very  slight 
degree  to  his  Weight,  and  at  times  for  several 
hours  at  a  stretch,  we  need  not  be  surprised  to 
find  his  feet  become  much  heated,  and  even  in- 
jured. So  used,  without  protection,  his  feet,  in 
a  natural  state,  would  soon  be  so  seriously  injured 
as  to  be  incapable  of  re^sisting  the  concussion  of 
a  hard  road  ;  and  the  only  protection  capable  of 
resisting  so  hard  a  substance  as  an  artificial  road, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  be  so  light  as  not  mate- 
rially to  interfere  witli  his  action,  is  a  plate  of 
iron  fastened  upon  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  com- 
monly denominated  a  shoe.  Were  this  shoe 
fastened  upon  the  foot  so  as  to  allow  the  foot  its 

■  natural  freedom  when  in  action,  we  might  easily 
believe  that  the  protection  afforded  by  so  tena- 
cious and  obdurate  a  substance  as  iron  would  be 
most  effectual  to  the  feet  ;  but,  alas  !  so  far  is  the 
shoe,  as  ordinarily  made  and  fastened  on,  from 
giving  the  foot  its  natural  freedom,  there  is  great 
reason  to  believe,  that  all  the  variety  of  lame- 
ness exhibited  by  the  saddle-horse  may  truly  be 
ascribed  to  the  manner  in  which  his  feet  are 
shod.  This  statement  is  highly  important  to 
every  one  who  has  a  horse  to  feel  interested  in  ; 
and  that  it  is  founded  on  observation  and  reason, 
a  recent  publication  enables  me  to  prove  con- 
vincingly to  the  agricultural  student, 

1545.  The  horse's  foot  is  not  circular,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  but  is  curved  considerably 
and  abruptly  outwards  ;  while  the  inner  quarter 
is  carried  back  in  a  gradual  and  easv  curve  as  is 


shown  in  fig.  1 1 7,  where  the  outer  crust  from  a  to 
b  is  more  curved  than  the  inner  one  from  6  to  e  J 

Fig.  117. 


THE  HORSE  S  FOOT  IN  THE  NATURAL  STATE, 

and  the  outer  crust  is  also  thicker  than  the 
inner,  as  is  also  shown  in  the  figure.  "  There  are 
very  few  things  so  little  varied  in  nature  as  the 
form  of  the  ground  surface  of  the  horse's  foot," 
says  Mr  Miles  of  Dixfield,  near  Exeter  ;  "  for, 
whether  the  hoof  be  high-heeled  and  upright  or 
low-heeled  and  flat,  large  or  small,  broad  or  nar- 
row, the  identical  form  of  the  ground  surface  is 
maintained  in  each,  so  long  as  it  is  left  to  nature's 
guidance.  The  advantage  of  this  form  is  so  ob- 
vious, that  it  is  matter  of  wonder  it  should  be  inter- 
fered with.  The  enlarged  outer  quarter  extends 
the  base,  and  increases  the  hold  of  the  foot  upon 
the  ground ;  while  the  straighter  inner  quarter 
lessens  the  risk  of  striking  the  foot  against  the 
opposite  leg.  It  should  surely  be  our  object  to 
retain  these  valuable  qualities  as  long  as  we  can, 
and  not  lightly  sacrifice  either  of  them  to  a  false 
notion  of  what  may  be  considered  a  prettier 
form.  Whenever  we  observe  nature  steadily 
persevering  in  one  plan,  depend  upon  it,  it  is  not 
within  the  range  of  man's  ingenuity  to  amend 
it  ;  and  he  will  better  secure  his  own  interest  in 
accommodating  his  views  to  her  laws,  than  in 
attempting  to  oppose  them."  Instead,  therefore, 
of  attempting  to  alter  the  form  of  the  foot  to  the 
circular  one  given  to  the  shoe,  the  shoe  onght  to 
be  made  to  fit  the  form  of  the  natural  foot. 

1546.  In  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe,  both 
judgment  and  skill  are  requisite.  The  outer 
crust  «  6  c,  as  well  as  the  sole  d,  should  be  well 
rasped  down  ;  and  the  operator  mostly  errs  in 
taking  away  too  little  than  too  much.  The 
quantity  depends  on  the  form  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  foot,  which  varies  considerably  in  different 
horses.  In  upright  feet  and  high  heels  horn 
grows  abundantly,  especially  towards  the  toe, 
and  such  feet  are  benefited  by  having  the  toe 
shortened,  the  heels  lowered,  and  the  sole  well 
pared  out  ;  while  with  flat  feet  and  low  heels 


FAEMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE. 


337 


the  horn  grows  sparingly,  and  such  will  admit  of 
very  little  shortening  in  the  toe,  being  always 
weak,  and  the  heels  are  already  too  low  for  the 
rasp  ;  and  the  sole  presents  so  little  dead  horn, 
that  tlie  drawing-knife  should  be  used  with  great 
discretion.  Perfect  and  tolerably  well  formed 
feet,  with  a  fair  growth  of  horn,  should  have  the 
toe  shortened,  the  heels  lowered,  and  the  sole 
■well  pared  out — that  is,  all  the  dead  hurn  re- 
moved, and,  if  need  be,  some  of  the  living  too — 
until  it  will  yield,  in  some  small  degree,  to  hard 
pressure  from  the  thumb.  Besides  the  form  of 
the  foot,  other  circumstances  regulate  the  degree 
of  paring  to  which  the  foot  should  be  subjected  ; 
such  as,  it  is  manifestly  unwise  to  pare  the  sole 
as  thin  in  a  hot  dry  season,  when  the  roads  are 
strewed  with  loose  stones,  as  in  a  moderately 
wet  one,  when  they  are  well  bound  and  even 
— the  most  favourable  surface  that  most  of  our 
horses  ever  have  to  travel  upon — when  advantage 
should  be  taken  to  give  the  sole  a  thorough 
paring,  in  order  that  the  internal  parts  of  the 
foot  may  derive  the  full  benefit  arising  from  an 
elastic  and  descending  sole — a  state  of  things  very 
essential  to  the  due  performance  of  their  separate 
functions. 

1547.  The  corners  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  crust  and  bars,  as  at  a  and  c,  fig.  117,  the 
bars  being  a  d  and  c  d,  should  be  well  pared 
out,  as  this  is  the  seat  of  corn  ;  and  no  accumu- 
lation of  horn  should  be  allowed  to  take  place, 
to  increase  the  pressure  on  the  particular  part. 
The  bars  should  be  pared  down  to  the  level 
of  the  sole.  "  I  prefer  paring  them  down  to 
the  level  of  the  sole,"  observes  Mr  Miles,  "  or 
very  nearly  so,  avoiding,  however,  any  approach 
to  what  is  called  'opening  out  the  heels' — a  most 
reprehensible  practice,  which  means  cutting 
away  the  sides  of  the  bars,  so  as  to  show  an 
apparent  increase  of  width  between  the  heels, 
which  may  for  a  time  deceive  the  eye  ;  but  it  is  a 
mere  illusion,  purchased  at  the  expense  of  im- 
paired power  of  resistance  in  the  bars,  and 
ultimate  contraction  of  the  foot.  It  is  self- 
evident,  that  the  removing  any  portion  from  the 
sides  of  the  bars  must  diminish  their  substance, 
and  render  them  weaker,  and  consequently  less 
able  to  resist  contraction." 

1548.  With  respect  to  the  frog  a,  fig.  117,  Mr 
Miles  observes,  that  "the  layer  of  horn  that 
covers  the  frog  is  thinner  in  substance,  and  more 
delicate  in  texture,  than  that  of  any  other  part  of 
the  foot,  and,  when  once  destroyed,  is  very  im- 
perfectly and  sparingly  reproduced.  The  first 
stroke  of  the  knife  removes  this  thin  horny 
covering  altogether,  and  lays  bare  an  undue  sur- 
face, totally  unfitted,  from  its  moist,  soft  texture, 
for  exposure  either  to  the  hard  ground  or  the 
action  of  the  air  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  such 
unnatural  exposure,  it  soon  becomes  dry  and 
shrinks  ;  then  follow  cracks,  the  edges  of  which, 
turning  outwards,  form  rags  ;  these  rags  are 
removed  by  the  smith  at  the  next  shoeing, 
whereby  another  such  surface  is  exposed,  and 
another  foundation  laid  for  other  rags  ;  and  so 
on,  until  at  last  the  protruding  plump  elastic 
cushion,  interposed  by  nature  between  the  navi- 


cular joint  and  the  ground,  and  so  essential  to 
its  preservation  from  injury,  is  converted,  by  the 
mischievous  interference  of  art,  into  the  dry, 
shrunk,  unyielding  apology  for  a  frog  to  be  seen 
in  the  foot  of  almost  every  horse  that  has  been 
regularly  shod  for  a  few  years."  This  shrinking 
of  the  frog  is  produced  by  the  shoeing  without 
the  additional  assistance  of  the  knife.  Indeed, 
shoeing  seems  almost  to  check  its  growth  en- 
tirely in  the  generality  of  feet  ;  for,  if  we  compare 
the  size  of  tiie  frog  with  the  circumference  of 
the  foot  in  a  horse  being  accustomed  to  be  shod, 
we  shall  find  the  space  occupied  by  it  will  not 
exceed  one-tenth,  or  even  one-twelfth,  of  the 
whole  circumference,  whereas  in  the  natural  and 
unshod  foot  it  occupies  about  one  sixth.  The 
evident  practice,  then,  should  be  to  leave  the  frug 
alone,  and  never  allow  a  knife  to  approach  it. 
Nature  will  remove  the  superfluous  horn,  and  the 
rags  can  do  no  harm,  and,  if  unmolested,  will  soon 
disappear  altogether. 

1549.  The  shoe  should  not  be  too  light,  be- 
cause it  is  then  liable  to  be  bent,  and  becomes  an 
insufiicient  covering  to  the  foot.  The  web  of  the 
shoe  should  be  broad,  and  continued  through  the 
whole  shoe  to  the  heels,  to  give  increased  cover- 
ing and  protection  to  the  sole  of  the  fobt.  The 
outside  of  the  shoe  should  exactly  fit  the  crust  of 
the  hoof,  thereby  giving  the  entire  foot  an  equal 
bearing  on  all  its  parts  from  the  toe  to  the  heel. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  have  a  portion  of  the 
shoe  projecting  outwards,  along  both  the  outer 
and  inner  quarters  of  the  hoof ;  aud  when  this 
form  of  shoe  is  connected  with  a  narrowing  of 
the  web  at  the  heel,  the  eff"ect  is  to  place  the 
heel  upon  the  inside  line  of  the  web,  thereby 
producing  an  unequal  bearing  upon  the  ground 
surface  of  the  foot.  The  setting  off  of  the  shoe 
at  the  heels  is  a  great  inconvenience  to  the  horse 
when  his  foot  sinks  into  the  ground,  inasmuch  as 
the  part  set  oft"  forms  a  base  for  the  ground  to 
resist  the  foot  when  pulled  up  ;  and  doubtless  it 
is  in  this  way  that  most  of  the  shoes  are  pulled 
off  and  lost  in  the  ground.  It  is  evident, 
when  the  shoe  fits  the  foot  of  the  horse  exactly, 
that  when  the  foot  is  pulled  up  through  the 
ground  after  sinking,  the  !-hoe  must  follow  the 
foot  without  detriment  or  difficulty.  "  I  always 
employ,"  remarks  Mr  Miles,  "a  tolerably  wide- 
webbed  shoe,  and  bring  in  the  heels  of  it  almost 
close  to  the  frog,  so  as  to  reduce  the  opening 
between  the  heels  as  much  as  I  conveniently 
can  ;  and  if  in  fitting  the  shoe  I  observe  a  corner 
pressing  upon,  or  in  any  way  interfering  with  the 
frog,  I  cause  it  to  be  cut  ofl"  rather  tlian  have  a 
shoe  opened  out  to  let  in  the  frog — for  in  open- 
ing out  the  shoe  a  portion  equal  to  the  objec 
tiouable  corner  must  be  thrust  out  beyond  the 
hoof,  which  is  very  undesirable,  as  presenting  a 
ready  hold  for  stiff  ground  to  pull  the  shoe  by. 
This  plan  of  bringing  in  the  heels,  while  it  covers 
and  protects  the  angles  where  the  bars  are 
reflected,  at  the  same  time  draws  the  sides  of 
the  shoe  nearer  together,  and  opposes  in  a  stoney 
road  a  surface  of  iron  instead  of  the  unprotected 
foot,  warding  off,  thereby,  many  a  blow  that 
would  otherwise  prove  injurious."  Suppose  such 
a  shoe,  aud  so  put  on,  were  made  of  glass,  it 


338 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


would  s-liow  the  pnrts  of  the  foot  through  it  as 

reprcseuted  in  fif.  118,  where  a  b  c  is  the  crust 

Fig.  113. 


THE  THA'.-i  AKKNT  SHOE,  SHOWING  THE  CLOSE 
FITTING  OF  THE  SHOE  TO  THE  FORE- FOOT. 

with  the  shoe  closely  fitted  on  ;  at  a  and  c  the 
angles  formed  by  the  bars  and  crust  are  protected 
and  supported  by  the  shoe.  The  shoe  is  made 
sufficiently  long,  fully  to  support  the  entire  struc- 
ture of  the  heels. 

1550.  Fig.  119  shows,  by  a  transparent  shoe, 
Fig.  119. 

b 


THE    TRANSPARENT    RHOE,    SHOWING    THE    USUAL 
SEAT  GIVEN  TO  THE  SHOE  UPON  THE  FORE- FOOT. 

the  usual  seat  given  to  the  shoe  a  b  c  upon  the 
foot,  wliere  it  is  obvious  that  the  heels  oftlieshoe 
at  'I  and  c  are  made  to  project  a  considir.ibie 
distance  on  the  outside  of  the  crust  of  tlie  hoof,  at 
both  heels  of  the  foot  -the  consequence  of  ^^•hi(•h 
:arr:ingenieut  must  be,  that,  when  the  hor.-'c's  foot 
sink's  into  the  ground,  espwvially  in  soft  toiigli 
clay,  the  force  reqtiisrte  io  draw  it  out  uf  the 
ground,  while  the  ground  pvcs.Je.-^  wiiliconsiJcrabie 


weight  upon  the  projecting  portions  of  the  shoe 
at<(  and  c,  will  not  only  bring  an  undue  strain 
upon  the  nails  of  tlie  shoe,  but  most  pro- 
bably draw  the  shoe  off  the  foot  altogether, 
accompanied  with  a  severe  sprain  of  the  fetlock 
joint  ;  and  the  effects  of  such  an  accident  will  be 
in  proportion  to  the  speed  the  horse  is  running, 
and  the  weight  he  baa  to  carry. 

1551.  The  shoe  should  be  of  equal  thickness 
throughout,  and  the  toe  turned  a  little  up  out  of 
the  line  of  wear,  thereby  impartini;  to  tlie  toe  of 
a  new  shoe,  when  placed  on  a  flat  surfice,  the 
same  elevation  from  the  ground  line  as  that  of 
an  old  one.  The  common  practice  is  to  have  the 
shoe  thickest  at  the  heels,  whereby  tlie  toe  is 
thrown  forward,  and  is  caused  to  strike  against 
every  projection  which  comes  in  its  way  ;  and  a 
lump  of  steel  is  welded  on  the  toe,  which  not 
only  increases  its  thickness  and  the  number  of 
obstacles  it  necessarily  encounters,  but,  being  of 
a  harder  texture,  is  longer  in  wearing  down,  and 
consequently  exposes  the  foot  to  the  greatest 
amount  of  concussion.  A  small  clip  at  the  point 
of  the  toe  is  very  desirable  to  prevent  the  dis- 
placement of  the  shoe  backward  :  it  need  not  be 
driven  up  hard,  being  merely  required  as  a  stay 
or  check.  The  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  should 
be  perfectly  flat,  witli  a  fullering  or  groove  run- 
ning round  the  outer  edge,  just  under  the  plain 
surface  on  which  tlie  crusf  bears.  Tiie  groove 
protects  the  heads  of  the  nails;  and  as  it  .urther 
increases  the  hold  of  the  shoe  on  the  ground,  it 
should  be  always  carried  back  to  the  heels. 

15w2.  No  shoe  should  ever  be  nailed  to  the 
foot  until  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  pres- 
sure of  the  hands  is  sufficient  to  keep  it  steadily 
in  its  place,  and  preclude  any  appearance  of  day- 
light between  it  and  the  foot.  A  hct  shoe,  to 
scorch  any  part  that  bears  unevenly  upon  it,  is 
the  only  way  by  which  tlie  even  bearing  neces- 
sary to  a  ])ert'ect  fitting  of  the  shoe  can  be  insured. 
A  notion  prevails  that  the  shoe  gives  the  particu- 
lar form  to  the  foot.  This  is  a  mistake,  for  no 
foot  can  possibly  be  affected  by  any  form  of  slioe 
it  may  stand  upon.  It  is  the  sitnari-n  of  the 
nails  which  alters  the  form  of  the  foot,  by  pre- 
venting its  expansion,  and  such  prt-veiitiou  of 
expansion  is  tlie  sole  cause  of  all  the  lameness 
affecting  the  foot;  and  as  long  as  the  preseixt  luode 
of  placing  the  nails  shall  be  per.'-evered  in,  so  long 
will  the  foot  of  the  horse  be  liable  to  be  affected 
by  lameness.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  nails  are 
placed  on  the  outside  quarter  and  toe,  leaving 
the  heels  and  quarters  in  the  insiJc,  which  are 
the  most  expansive  parts,  fre<',  the  form  of  the 
foot  will  in  no  degree  be  iiffected  by  the  .*hoe,  for, 
supposing  the  shoe  to  be  too  coiitraci»d,  liie  foot 
will  expand  out  over  it.  The  n"ii3  should  be 
li;;htly  driven  before  their  clenches  sre  turned  up. 
The  cleiu-hes  should  not  be  rasped  a-vay  too  fine, 
nor  should  tiie  covering  of  the  lioof  be  r'llowed  to 
be  rasped  away,  as  it  destroys  the  ci-vering  pro- 
vided by  nature  as  a  protection  agiinst  ili<;  too 
rapid  eva|)oration  of  the  moisture  of  the  hoof, 
which  causes  the  horn  to  become  dry  and  brittle. 

1553.  Wlien  the  foot  has  thus  ;iced>ni  to  play 


FARMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE. 


339 


with  outside  nailing,  and  the  strain  upon  the 
nails  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
hoof  removed,  the  i^hoe  may  be  held  in  its  place, 
as  long  as  it  should  be  at  a  time,  with  a  much 
fewer  number  of  nails  than  is  the  common  prac- 
tice. By  a  series  of  experiments  conducted  for 
years,  with  a  number  of  horses  doing  both  fast  and 
slow  work,  Mr  Miles  has  been  enabled  to  demon- 
strate that  3  nails  will  keep  on  a  shoe  as  firmly 
as  8,  the  common  number.  "  Since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  preceding  edition  of  this  treatise,"  ob- 
serves Mr  Miles,  ''  I  have  had  seven  months' 
additional  experience  in  the  use  of  3  nails,  during 
the  whole  of  which  time  all  my  horses  have  been 
shod  with  that  number.  .  .  .  These  last  ex- 
periments are  not  recorded  with  a  desire  of  in- 
ducing others  to  trust  to  such  slender  fastening  ; 
for,  however  desirable  it  may  have  been  to  ascer- 
tain with  precision  the  smallest  number  of  nails 
indispensable  to  the  security  of  a  shoe,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  it  is  therefore  either  prudent 
or  expedient  to  adapt  it  fur  general  use.  The 
chief  value  of  such  knowledge  is  the  unanswer- 
able argument  it  supplies  ag-iinst  the  supposed 
necessity  for  7  or  8  nails.  I  do  not  know  that 
any  very  great  advantage  is  to  be  expected  from 
3  to  4  nails  over  5,  further  than  the  confirmation 
of  the  valuable  and  im[)ortant  fact  that  a  shoe 
can  be  securely  retained  by  a  few  nails;  and,  that 
being  the  case,tlie  fewer  we  employ,  iu  reason,  the 
better,  because,  thy  smaller  the  number  the  larger 
the  intervening  space  of  sound  horn  to  nail  to  at 
the  next  shoeing."  The  practical  conclusion  1 
would  draw  from  all  that  has  just  been  said  on 
this  interesting  and  important  subject,  is,  that  5 
nails  are  sufficient  for  a  saddle-horse,  and  4  quite 
so  for  a  farm-horse  in  the  fore  feet,  1  inside  the 
toe,  3  outside,  the  quarters  being  free. 

1554.  In  illustration  of  the  nailing,  fig.  120 
represents  a  foot  shod  with  5  nails,  where  4  are 
Fig.  120. 


crust  ate,  leaving  the' entire  space  from  it  to 
the  heel  free.  The  small  turn  up  clip  on  the 
shoe  is  shown  at  h.  Tiie  fullering  is  carried  dowu 
to  the  heels,  but  not  across  the  toe. 

1555.  In  comparison  with  this  nailing,  fig.  121  is 
given  to  show  an  ordinary  mode  of  nailing  with 
Fig.  121. 


SHOBING  THE  FORE-FOOT  WITH  FIVE  NAILS. 

spread  over  the  outside  cfust  at  a,  from  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  toe  b  to  near  the  heel,  and  1  is 
placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  toe  in  the  inside 


'^^iW^ 


SHOEING  THE  FORE- FOOT  WITH  SEVEN  NAILS. 

7  nails,  4  in  the  outside  at  a  and  3  in  the  inside 
crust  at  c,  dispersed  equally  over  both  the  out- 
side and  inside  quarters,  with  the  fullering 
carried  round  the  toe  b,  and  terminating  at  each 
quarter,  while  the  heels  of  the  shoes  expose  the 
angles  formed  by  the  crust  and  bars  of  the  foot. 

1556.  With  respect  to  the  hind  foot,  Mr  Miles' 
experience  recommends  the  employment  of  7 
nails  for  security,  4  in  the  outside  and  3  in  the 
inside  crust,  with  the  latter  placed  closer  and  as 
far  removed  from  the  quarter  as  jiostible.  In- 
stead of  the  mischievous  practice  of  turning  dowu 
the  outer  heel  of  the  shoe,  to  tlirow  an  uncomfort- 
able strain  upon  the  fetlock  joint  alone,  he  recom- 
mends the  hind  shoes  for  saddle  and  Iianiess 
horses  to  be  made  thicker  for  the  last  two 
inclies  towards  the  heels,  the  last  inch  being  flush 
with  the  ground  to  prevent  strain  upon  the  back 
sinews  when  the  horse  is  suddenly  stopped  with 
his  hind  foot  far  under  him,  as  when  he  has  to  hold 
back  against  a  steep  hill.  For  this  last  reason, 
calkins,  if  both  turned  down  equally,  which  they 
seldom  are,  may  be  useful  to  farm  horses  that  are 
much  upon  the  road  ;  but  if  much  at  home,  thick 
heels  to  the  hind  shoes  will  suffice  for  this  ))ur- 
pose.  Clips,  however,  on  the  toes  of  the  b.ind 
shoes  will  tend  miidi  to  keep  the  shoes  secure  in 
their  place,  and  ease  the  pressure  on  the  liiud 
heels  in  going  down  hill  with  a  load. 

1557.  In  connexion  with  the  proper  shoeing 
of  the  foot  is  the  nature  of  the  accouunudation 
afforded  the  saddle-horse  for  giviu,;;  the  hoofs  of 
his  feet  liberty  to  expand  and  contract ;  and 
such  liberty  can  only  be  awaided  him,  off  the 
road,  in  a  loose  box  instead  of  a  stall.  Mr 
Miles'    observations    on   this    subject    at   cue* 


840 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


show  the  utility  and  rationale  of  employing 
I'nise  lioxes  inste;iil  of  stalls.  "  The  almost  per- 
petual movement  of  a  horse  in  a  state  of  nature, 
wJiile  grazing',  greatly  tends  to  preserve  the 
different  elastic  parts  of  his  foot  in  a  sound  and 
healthy  condition,  by  the  regular  compression 
and  expansion  they  undergo,  according  as  his 
weight  is  tlirown  njion  or  removed  from  them ; 
but  if  we  chain  hiiu  to  a  post  for  tweuty-two  out 
of  every  twenty-four  hours,  we  can  scarcely  won- 
der that  so  unnatural  a  proceeding  should  de- 
range an  organ  that  requires  motion  to  preserve 

it  in  health Let  us  see  how  luose 

boxes  are  to  prevent  evils.  When  a  horse  is 
free  to  move,  he  very  rarely  remains  long  in  the 
same  place  or  the  same  position  ;  he  is  perpe- 
tually tiiruiug  himself  about,  either  to  catch  a 
distant  sound,  or  observe  an  approaching  foot- 
step,—  every  thing  attracts  him,  every  thing  in- 
terests him  ;  and,  what  is  of  far  greater  moment, 
every  thing  causes  him  to  move,  whereby  each 
foot  is  beneftted  to  the  extent  of  some  four  or 
five  expansions  and  contractions,  and  the  sound 
of  the  corn-bin  at  feeding  time  will  produce  at 
least  fifty  such.  It  is  far  otherwise  with  the 
poor  beast  chained  up  in  a  stall :  he  is  attracted 
by  the  same  sounds,  hears  the  same  step  approach, 
and  feels  the  same  interest ;  he  pricks  his  ears, 
bsuds  his  head,  and  strains  his  neck  !  but,  alas,  he 
dois  not  move, — his  feet  are  not  expanded, — • 
turning  about  he  knows  to  be  impossible,  and 
therefore  he  does  not  attempt  it.  Even  the  sound 
of  the  corn-bin,  though  it  excite  him  to  jump  and 
play,  will  scarcely  cause  him  to  expand  his  feet : 
the  excitement  inclines  him  to  rush  forward, 
while  the  wall  forbids  him  to  comply,  and  he 
18  forced  to  collect  himself,  so  as  to  throw 
his  weight  on  his  hind  quarters,  almost  to 
the  entire  exclusion  of  the  fore  feet.  Horses 
accustomed  to  a  loose  box  generally  acquire  a 
slow  deliberate  movement  in  it,  allowing  their 
weight  to  dwell  evenly  and  fully  upon  each  fore 
foot ;  whilst  those  kept  in  the  stalls  for  the  most 
part  move  in  it  with  a  quick,  sudden,  catching 
motion,  scarcely  ever  intrusting  their  whole 
weight  to  either  foot  for  more  than  a  moment." 
Loose  boxes  are  not  so  useful  to  farm  as  to  saddle 
horses,  as  they  have  regular  exercise  every  day, 
and  they  consequently  have  more  need  of  rest 
than  of  motion  in  the  stable. 

1558.  Fig.  122  gives  a  very  convenient  ar- 
rangement of  sn<!li  loose  boxes,  where  a  is  a 
large  one,  18  feet  by  8  feet,  for  a  large  har- 
ness horse,  or  a  mare  with  a  foal  for  a  time  ;  e 
is  the  next  largest,  1 3  feet  by  8  feet  ;  and  b  is 
the  smallest  one,  10  feet  by  8  feet  ;  h  are  the 
corn  mangers  ;  i  the  hay  racks ;  d  the  harness- 
room,  8  feet  by  5  feet,with  a  window  ;  and  (7  a  space 
to  contain  the  pails,  fork,  shovel,  and  broom.  The 
doors  of  the  loose  boxes,  and  the  outer  d-^r  /'/',  ,ire 
eo  made  to  open  as  to  leave  a  clear  passage  efor  ilie 
horses  to  go  out  and  come  in  with  freedom;  while 
the  door  of  the  harness-room  and  the  various  uten- 
sils are  covered  by  these  doors,  and  placed  out  of 
reach  of  the  horses.  The  parlition-walls  between 
the  horses  should  be  made  of  brick,  and  lined 
with  deal  4  feet  high,  and  carried  to  6  feet  at  the 
hay-racks,  and  iron  rails  should  surmount  the 


walls  to  the  height  of  8  feet.     The  rails  sepa- 
rate, while  they  allow  the  horses  to  associate. 

Fiir.  122. 


PL.\N  OF  LUOSli  liOXES  FOR  SAUDLE-HUK^KS. 

1559.  Objections  have  been  made  against  loose 
boxes,  on  the  ground  that  they  occupy  mnch 
larger  space  than  stalls  ;  but  this  objection  should 
bear  little  weight  in  a  set  of  offices  iu  the  coun- 
try, where  space  is  no  object.  It  is  also  said 
that  horses  are  always  dirty  in  loose-boxes,  by 
their  moving  about  casting  up  dust,  and  lying 
down  upon  their  own  dung.  Such  an  objection 
is  most  likely  to  be  urged  by  an  indolent  coun- 
try groom.  They  are  also  said  to  allow  foul- 
feeding  horses  to  eat  their  litter.  This  is  true, 
but  any  horse  can  be  prevented  doing  so  by 
means  of  a  muzzle. 

1560.  A  light  muzzle  of  iron  is  given  by  Mr 
Miles,  as  in  fig.  1 23,  the  construction  of  which 

Fig.  123. 


THE  HORSE  MUZZLE  FOR  SADDrK-IIORSES. 

explains  itself,  the  frame-work  a  b  being  made 
of  flat  iron  rod,  supported  with  iron-wire,  and 
the  muzzle  is  suspended  from  the  horse's  head 
by  means  of  leather  straps  c  c  ;  the  nose  and 
jaws  being  protected  by  cushion  d  d.  "  It  is 
not  necessary,"  says  Mr  Miles,  "  that  the 
head    should    go    farther   into    it    than    thies 


FARMERS'  SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  HORSE. 


341 


inches  above  the  angle  of  the  mouth ;  but 
it  is  essential  that  the  bottom  of  the  muzzle 
should  hang  fully  three  inches  below  the  lips, 
because  the  horse  is  thus  obliged  firmly  to  deposit 
the  muzzle  before  he  can  be  able  to  reach  the 
bottom  of  it  with  his  lips,  in  doing  which  the 
weight  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  pressure  thus  made 
upon  it,  will  effectually  flatten  the  straw  out  of 
his  reach  ;  and,  by  disappointing  his  hopes,  soon 
cause  him  to  discontinue  his  fruitless  efforts. 
But  if  the  bottom  of  the  muzzle  be  brought  tight 
up  against  the  lips,  the  head  and  muzzle  will  act 
together,  and  the  horse  will  eat  just  as  much  of 
his  bed  as  he  pleases.  Its  whole  utility  depends 
upon  the  horse's  nose  being  so  free  of  the  muzzle 
that  he  shall  not  be  able  to  reach  any  part  of  it 
with  his  lips  without  putting  it  down,  when  he 
instantly  defeats  his  object."  *  With  such  aa 
instrument  as  this  muzzle,  any  horse  may  be 
prevented  eating  the  litter  in  a  loose-box. 

1561.  The  horse  having  liberty  to  move  freely 
about  in  a  loose  box,  it  is  necessary  that  its  floor 
be  level  and  smooth,  entirely  free  from  inequali- 
ties. Common  causewaying  is  neither  even  nor 
smooth.  A  pavement  of  flags  makes  a  floor  both 
even  and  smooth  ;  but  it  is  very  hard,  not  yield- 
ing in  the  least  to  the  weight  of  the  horse's  foot. 
It  would  be  desirable  could  a  subatance  be  found 
to  make  a  floor  even,  smooth,  and  elastic,  and 
such  a  substance  is  India  rubber  pavement,  which 
has  already  been  described  (1121.) 

1562.  The  saddle  and  harness  horse  are  sub- 
ject to  all  the  diseases  incidental  to  the  farm 
horse,  and  to  many  more,  from  which  the  latter 
is  almost  always  exempt.  The  parts  of  the  body 
of  the  saddle  horse  and  harness  horse  most  sus- 
ceptible of  disease  are  the  feet  and  legs,  and  the 
diseases  affecting  these  arise  from  the  peculiar 
treatment  received  by  the  horse,  whether  from 
idleness,  or  excess  of  work. 

1563.  When  a  horse  obtains  more  rest  than 
his  work  requires,  he  is  idle.  Absolute  idleness 
is,  when  he  suffers  close  confinement  in  a  stable 
or  loose-box.  He  soon  becomes  weak,  fat,  short- 
winded,  and  stiff.  If  well  fed,  he  may  retain 
healih  and  spirits  two  or  three  months;  but  in 
this  time  he  almost  loses  the  use  of  his  legs,  and 
his  skin  becomes  foul  and  itchy.  "  I  am  unable 
to  say  "  observes  Stewart,  "  how  soon  absolute 
repose  will  entirely  destroy  working  condition. 
The  time  must  vary  with  the  horse's  employment 
and  the  manner  in  which  he  is  fed.  Those  of 
slow  work  may  suffer  confinement  for  six  or 
eight  weeks  before  they  become  as  feeble  as  idle- 
ness can  make  them.  If  half  starved,  or  fed  so 
poorly  that  the  horse  loses  flesh,  less  than  a 
month  will  produce  the  effect.  If  fully  fed,  he 
accumulates  a  load  of  fat,  which  makes  him 
weaker  than  idleness  with  moderate  feeding 
would  make  him.  Fast  workers  lose  their  con- 
dition much  sooner;  one  week  of  superfluous  rest 
impairs  the  condition  of  a  hunter  ;  he  loses 
wind,  but  he  is  still  able  for  much  work.     To 

*  Miles  On  the  Horse's  Feet,  6th  edition,  p.  14, 
of  which  being  the  result  of  extensive  experience 
to  the  mind  of  the  reader. 


destroy  his  condition  entirely,  he  would  in  most 
cases  require  about  four  weeks  of  close  confine- 
ment; some  would  need  less,  and  some  would  per- 
haps retain  a  portion  of  their  condition  nearly 
eight  weeks.  A  great  eater  degenerates  fastest. 
Comparative  idleness  is  that  in  which  the  horse 
gets  exercise,  or  perhaps  some  work,  yet  not 
sufficient  to  maintain  his  condition.  The  owner 
may  not  use  him  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a 
fortnight,  and  he  receives  exercise  from  a  groom 
in  the  intervals.  Horses  kept  for  work  of  this 
kind  rarely  have  good  grooms  to  look  after  them. 
They  are  generally  in  the  charge  of  men  who 
seem  to  think  exercise  is  of  no  use  but  to  keep 
the  horse  in  health.  A  daily  walk,  with  a  smart 
trot,  will  keep  the  horse  in  condition  for  moderate 
work ;  hut  if  the  owner  ride  or  drive  fast  and  far,  and 
at  irregular  intervals,  as  much  exercise  as  keeps 
the  horse  in  health  is  not  sufficient.  Every 
second,  third,  or  fourth  day,  the  exercise  should 
resemble  the  work.  The  horse  should  go  nearly, 
or  quite  as  far,  and  as  fast,  as  the  owner  usually 
rides  him.  It  may  be  too  much  to  do  every  day, 
or  every  second  day;  but,  keeping  always  within 
safe  bounds,  the  horse  should  have  work  or 
exercise  equal  to  his  work,  at  regular  intervals. 
Many  people  work  a  horse  on  Sunday,  as  if  they 
thought  six  days  of  idleness  should  enable  him 
to  perform  a  week's  work  in  one  day.  When 
the  horse  lias  much  to  do  on  Sunday,  he  should 
in  general  do  nearly  as  much  on  Wednesday,  and 
on  other  days  he  may  have  walking  exercise. 

1564.  A  single  day  of  severe  exertion  may 
destroy  the  horse's  working  condition.  Wxslungs 
may  be  injured,  a  disease  may  succeed,  and 
require  many  days  to  cure  it.  Between  the 
disease,  the  cure,  and  the  idleness,  the  condition 
may  be  wholly  gone  before  any  thing  can  be  done 
to  keep  or  restore  it.  This  is  termed  over-work- 
ing, and  is  not  the  excess  I  here  mean.  That 
to  which  I  allude  is  not  the  excess  of  one  day. 
The  horse  may  perform  the  work  for  several 
days,  or  even  weeks,  quite  well,  yet  it  may  be 
too  much  to  be  done  long.  One  of  two  things 
will  happen,  or  both  may  occur  together.  The 
horse  will  lose  flesh  and  become  weak,  or  his 
legs  fail,  and  he  will  become  lame.  Emaciation, 
the  loss  of  flesh  from  excess  of  work,  is  easily 
explained.  The  work  is  such  as  to  consume 
more  nutriment  than  the  digestive  apparatus  can 
supply.  The  horse  may  have  as  much  of  the 
best  food  as  he  will  eat,  yet  tlie  power  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  is  limited.  They  can  furnish 
only  a  certain  quantity  of  nutriment.  When  the 
work  demands  more,  it  is  procured  from  other 
parts  of  the  body.  The  fat,  if  there  be  any,  is 
consumed  first;  it  is  converted  into  blood;  a  little 
is  taken  away  every  day;  by  and  by  it  is  all 
removed,  and  the  horse  is  lean.  Should  the 
demand  still  continue,  other  parts  are  absorbed; 
the  cellular  tissue,  and  ultimately  every  particle 
of  matter  which  the  system  can  spare,  is  converted 
into  nutriment.  When  the  whole  is  consumed, 
the  supply  must  be  wholly  furnished  by  the 
digestive  apparatus;  and  if  that  were  unable  to 
et  seq. — a  valuable  practical  work,  every  sentence 
,  carries  conviction  of  the  sentiments  of  the  author 


342 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


meet  tlie  demand  .it  first,  it  is  still  less  able  now. 
By  this  time  tiie  horse  is  \ery  lean:  his  bones 
stare  through  tlie  skin,  he  is  spiritless,  stitf  and 
slow,  .ind  his  belly  is  tucked  up  almost  to  his 
baok-bone.  The  horse  becomes  unfit  for  work. 
Rest  and  tf'od  food  soon  restore  him;  but  if  the 
■work  be  still  exacted,  the  solidsand  fluids  change, 
the  system  f:ilis  into  decay,  and  a  disease,  such 
as  a  common  cohl.  or  the  influenza,  from  which 
a  horse  in  ordinary  condition  would  soon  recover, 
produces  in  this  worn-out  animal  ijh-mdiTS  or 
f'lrni.  Work  is  sometimes  exacted  till  the 
horse  is  ruined:  but  the  owner  rarely  escapes, 
for  when  glanders  once  appears,  it  seldom  stays 
where  it  begins.  General  stiffness  usually 
accompanies  emaciation.  When  first  taken  from 
the  stable,  the  horse  seems  to  l)e  stiff  all  over:  he 
obtains  greater  freedom  of  motion  after  he  is 
tolerably  well  warmed  by  exertion;  but  he  never 
has  great  speed.  In  racers  and  hunters,  the 
extent  of  stride  is  perceptibly  contracted  towards 
the  close  (if  their  working  season.  They  are 
termed  stale,  and  require  some  repose,  and  green 
meat  or  carrots,  and  sometimes  a  little  physic  to 
refresh  them. 

1S6.5.  The  leijs  are  often  so  ill  formed,  that 
they  fail  without  excess  of  work.  But  fast 
paces,  long  journeys,  and  heavy  weights,  ruin 
the  very  best.  A  single  journey  may  produce 
lameness;  it  may  give  the  horse  spariu, or  qroijiji- 
vess,  or  some  other  lameness  may  be  the  result  of 
one  day's  work.  Biittliisis  more  than  excess.  The 
horse  may  have  to  perform  it  twice  or  thrice  in 
his  lifetime,  but  if  it  be  such  as  to  make  him 
lame,  it  is  too  much  to  form  regular  work.  The 
excess  to  which  I  allude  does  not  produce  lame- 
ness till  after  the  horse  has  done  the  journey 
several  times  in  succession.  When  in  two  or  three 
he  becomes  lame,  it  is  high  time  to  make  arrange- 
ments for  preventing  more.  The  distance  may 
be  shortened,  the  drauglit  or  weight  lightened, 
or  the  pace  retarded.  The  legs  often  show  that 
the  work  is  in  excess,  thou^'h  the  horse  may  not 
be  lame.  The  fore  legs  suffer  most,  but  the  hind 
are  not  exempt.  When  there  is  much  up-hill 
work,  or  much  gallo()ing,  the  hind  fail  as  often 
as  the  fore.  The  fiasterns  become  straight,  and, 
in  extreme  cases,  the  fetlock  joint  is  bent  forward: 
this  is  termed  A-/(McA:/(»«/-or('r.  At  a  later  period, 
the  knees  bend  forward.  The  whole  leg  is 
crooked,  deformed,  tottering.  Besides  these, 
the  legs  become  tumid,  round,  puffy.  There  is  a 
general  tumefaction,  and  the  legs  are  said  to  be 
(jourdy,  fleshy,  or  stale.  The  deformity  produces 
unsteadiness  of  action;  the  limbs  tremble  after 
the  least  exertion,  and  the  horse  is  easily  thrown 
on  the  ground.  The  tumefaction  produces  a 
tendency  to  cracked  heels  and  to  grease.  Some- 
times the  pasterns  descend  backward,  instead  of 
inclining  forward.  Very  often  the  back  tendons 
suffer  enlargement,  which,  in  some  cases,  depends 
entirely  upon  accumulation  of  the  fluid  by  which 
they  are  lubricated,  not  upon  any  enlargement 
of  the  tendons  themselves.  The  back  and  fetlock 
joints  are  always  large  and  puffy.  These  enlarge- 
ments are  termed  irhid-galls,  bog-sparin,  and 
thorough-pin.  They  are  little  bags  containing  joint- 
oil,  which  prevents  friction.     Rapid  and  lasting 


motion  increases  the  quantity  of  the  fluid,  and 
dilates  the  bags  which  contain  it.  Tlie  legs  of 
racers  and  hunters  are  always  more  or  less  the 
worse  of  wear  towards  the  close  of  their  working 
season.  If  these  horses  were  wanted  all  the 
year  through,  the  legs  would  demand  rest,  though 
the  body  might  not.  Hunters  rest  all  summer, 
racers  all  winter,  and  during  repose  their  legs 
regain  their  original  integrity  and  form.  The 
legs  of  horses  are  very  differently  construc'ed. 
Some  are  so  well  formed  that  they  suffer  a  gnat 
deal  before  they  begin  to  fail;  others  are  so  de- 
fective tliat  they  will  not  stand  hard  work.  With 
racers  and  hunters,  much  may  be  done  to  save 
them:  fomentations,  hand-rubbing,  and  bandages, 
are  of  much  service  after  severe  work,  bat  tliey 
require  too  much  time  and  attendance  to  be 
employed  for  inferior  horses.  It  is  the  fashion 
at  present  to  dispense  with  breech-bands;  and 
where  the  road  is  pretty  level,  or  the  carriage 
light,  they  are  of  little  use.  But  it  seems  to  me 
they  have  been  too  generally  discarded.  With- 
out breech-bands,  the  whole  weight  of  the  car- 
riage in  going  down  hill  is  thrown  upon  the  neck, 
and  from  the  neck  to  the  fore-legs,  llilly  ground 
is  destructive  to  both  f'ure  and  hind  legs,  but  the 
fore  ones  always  fail  first. 

1.566.  The  feet  are  often  injured  by  excess  of 
work.  The  fore-feet  are  liable  to  one  disease, 
which  has  been  emphatically  denominated  *  the 
curse  of  good  horses.'  I  mean  the  narlcular 
disease,  or  gruggiiiess.  It  is  very  common  among 
all  kinds  of  fast  workers.  Bad  shoeii/g,  neglect 
of  stable  care  to  jireserve  the  feet,  hard  roads, 
and  various  other  agents,  have  been  blamed  for 
producing  it.  But  it  seems  to  me  the  most  com- 
mon and  the  most  certain  cause  has  been  too  little 
considered.  Long  journeys  at  a  fast  pace  will 
render  almost  any  horse  groggy.  Bad  shoeing 
and  want  of  stable  care  both  help,  but  I  am 
sure  they  alone  never  produce  grogginess.  The 
horse  must  go  far  and  fast:  if  his  feet  be  neglected, 
or  bad  shoeing,  a  slower  pace  and  a  shorter  dis- 
tance will  do  the  mischief;  but  1  believe  there  is 
nothing  in  the  world  will  make  a  horse  groggy, 
except  driving  him  far  enough  and  fast  enough 
to  alter  the  synovial  secretion  of  the  navicular 
joint.  Cart  horses  are  quite  exempt;  those  work- 
ing in  the  omnibuses,  always  on  the  stones,  and 
often  at  10  miles  an  hour,  but  never  more  than  a 
mile  without  stopping,  are  nearly  exempt.  The 
horses  most  liable  are  those  which  work  long  and 
fast.  Founder  is  sometimes,  though  very  rarely, 
the  result  of  excessive  work,  but  in  most,  if  not 
in  every  case,  there  is  also  some  error  in  feeding 
or  watering  in  operation  at  the  same  time.  Of  all 
these  evils,  it  most  frequently  haj>pens  that  the 
horse  is  affected  in  more  ways  than  one.  In 
general,  emaciation,  stiffness,  and  staleness  of  the 
legs,  go  together. 

1  ^G7.  Horses  that  are  doing  full  work,  as  much 
as  they  are  able  to  do,  can  hardly  have  an  excess 
of  food.  Some  kinds  of  work,  such  as  that  given 
to  mail  and  stage  horses,  require  an  unlimited 
allowance.  If  the  horse  have  good  legs,  or  legs 
equal  to  the  pace,  distance,  and  weight,  he  can- 
not perform  all  the  work  of  which  he   is  capable 


THE  FATTENING  OF  SWINE  IN  WINTER. 


343 


without  as  much  corn  as  he  will  eat.  But  there 
are  some  kinds  of  work,  such  as  racing  and  hunt- 
ing, and  especially  steeple-chasing,  vvliich  are  so 
injurious  to  the  legs  that  long  intervals  of  repose 
are  necessary — sometimes  eight  or  ten  days  must 
elapse  before  the  horse  can  repeat  his  task.  In 
this  time,  a  great  eater  will  become  fit  and 
short-winded  upon  a  full  allowance  of  food,  or  his 
skin  will  itch  and  rise  in  pimples.  In  such  a 
case,  bran  mashes  or  a  few  carrots  should  be 
given  now  and  then,  instead  of  corn.  Alteratives, 
diuretics,  and  suchlike  evacuants,  may  be 
given;  but  I  think  more  economy  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  food  would  render  them  less  necessary. 
Deficiency  of  food  impairs  condition  ranch 
sooner,  and  more  certainly,  than  excess.  It  pro- 
duces emaciation  and  stiffness,  dulness  and 
weakness,  in  less  time  than  excess  of  work. 
The  food  is  deficient  when  the  horse  loses  flesh, 
and  gets  less  corn  than  he  could  eat.  The  work 
is  in  excess  when  he  loses  flesh,  and  has  all  the 
corn  he  will  consume."* 

1568.  You  thus  clearly  perceive  that,  as  re- 
gards the  saddle  and  harness  horse,  idleness, 
excess  of  work,  excess  of  food,  and  deficiency 
of  food,  are  one  and  all  fruitful  sources  of 
disease,  affecting  both  the  legs  and  feet,  and 
the  hind- legs  as  well  as  the  fore. 

1569.  Trimmin(f  the  heels. — Cart-horses,  how- 
ever much  hair  they  may  have  on  the  heels,  are 
never  trimmed  ;  blood-horses  never  require 
trimming;  and  saddle-horses,  having  now  more 
blood  in  breeding  than  formerly,  their  heels 
are  not  so  rough,  and  do  not  require  so  much 
trimming — so  that  trimmed  heels  are  rarely  to  be 
seen.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make 
a  few  remarks  on  the  effects  of  trimming  on  the 
constitution  of  the  horse. 

1570.  "  There  has  been  considerable  difference 
of  opinion,"  observes  Mr  Stewart,  "  as  to  the 
propriety  of  trimming  the  heels.  Some  contend 
that  the  long  hair  soaks  up  the  moisture,  keeps 
the  skin  long  wet  and  cold,  producing  grease, 
sores,  cracks,  and  scurfiness.  By  otliers  this  is 
denied  :  they  afiirm  that  the  long  hair,  far  from 
favouring  the  production  of  tliese  evils,  has  a 
tendency  to  prevent  them.  But  there  is  another 
circumstance  to  be  taken  into  consideratiou,  and 
that  accounts  sufficiently  for  the  difference  of 
opinion.  When  the  horse  is  carefully  tended 
after  his  work  is  over,  his  legs  quickly  and  com- 
pletely dried,  the  less  hair  he  has  about  them 
the  better.  The  moisture  which  that  little  takes 
up  can  be  easily  removed  ;  both  the  skin  and  the 
hair  can  be  made  perfectly  dry  before  evapora- 
tion begins,  or  proceeds  so  far  as  to  deprive  the 
legs  of  their  heat.  It  is  the  cold  produced  by 
evaporation  that  does  all  the  mischief,  and  if 
there  be  no  moisture  to  create  evaporation,  there 
can  be  no  cold,  no  loss  of  heat  save  that  which 
is  taken  away  by  the  air.  If  there  were  more 
hair  about  the  heels,  they  could  not  be  so  soon 
nor  so  easily  dried.  If  the  man  requires  ten 
minutes  to  dry  one  leg,  the  last  will  have  thirty 


minutes  to  cool;  if  he  can  dry  each  in  two 
minutes,  the  last  will  only  have  six  minutes  to 
cool,  and  in  that  time  cannot  become  so  cold  as 
to  be  liable  to  grease.  Whenever,  therefore, 
the  legs  must  be  dried  by  manual  labour,  they 

should  have  little  hair  about  them 

During  two  very  wet  winters,  I  have  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  subject  ;  my  practice 
has  brought  it  before  me,  whether  i  would  or 
not;  I  have  had  opportunity  of  observing  the 
results  of  trimming  and  no  trimming  among 
upwards  of  500  horses.  Nearly  300  of  these  are 
enijiloyed  at  coaching  and  posting,  or  work  of  a 
similar  kind,  and  about  150  are  cart-horses. 
Grease,  and  the  other  skin  diseases  of  the  heels, 
have  been  of  most  frequent  occurrence  where  the 
horses  were  both  trimmed  and  washed;  they  have 
been  common  where  the  horses  were  trimmed, 
but  not  washed;  and  there  have  been  very  few 
caseswhere  washing  and  trimming  were  forbidden 
or  neglected.  I  du  not  include  horses  that  al- 
ways have  the  best  of  grooming  ;  they  naturally 
have  little  hair  about  the  legs,  and  some  of  that 
is  often  removed;  their  legs  are  always  washed 
after  work,  but  they  are  always  dried  be/ore 
they  hare  time  to  cool.  If,  then,  the  horse  have 
to  work  often  and  long  upon  wet  or  muddy 
roads,  and  cannot  have  his  legs  completely  dried 
immediately  after  work,  and  kept  dry  in  the 
stable,  and  not  exposed  to  any  current  of  cold 
air,  he  must  not  have  his  heels  trimmed.  In 
most  well  regulated  coaching  stables,  this  opera- 
tion and  washing  are  both  forbidden."  f 

1571.  The  saddle  and  harness  horse  is  subject 
to  many  complaints  of  the  legs  and  feet.  It  is 
not  my  province  to  treat  of  all  these  fully.  Suf- 
fice it  to  nominate  the  most  common  complaints 
in  those  members,  and  you  may  consult  the 
works  of  veterinarians  on  their  origin,  symptoms, 
and  treatment. 

1572.  In  the  fore  legs  and  feet  are  oone-spavin 
mallenders,  founders,  grogginess,  broken-knees, 
sprains,  wind-galls,  corns,  sand-cracks,  quitters, 
ring-bone,  laminites,  navicular  disease,  contracted 
hoof. 

1573.  In  the  hind-legs  and  feet,  spring-halt, 
curb,  knapped  hough,  sprains,  bone-spavin,  bog- 
spavin,  thorough-pin,  sallenders. 


ON  THE  FATTENING  OF  SWINE  IN  WINTER. 

1574.  There  should  be  no  litter  of 
young  pigs  in  winter  on  an  ordinary  farm, 
because  young  pigs  are  very  susceptible 
of  cold  ;  and  as  a  cliance  of  being  exposed 
to  it  will  frequently  occur  in  the  most 
comfortable  sty,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
avert  its  injurious  effects — which  are,  red- 
dening of  the  skin,  staring  of  the  coat, 
and,  if  not  actually  killing,  chilling  them 


Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  p.  378-84. 


f  Ibid.  p.  113. 


844 


PRACTICE— WDJTER. 


to  such  a  decree  as  to  prevent  tlieir 
growth  uutil  the  return  of  a  more  genial 
temperature  in  spring.  If  circumstances, 
however,  render  it  prufitable  to  raise  suck- 
ing pigs  at  Christmas, — and  a  roast  pig  at 
that  merry  season  is  a  favourite  dish  in 
England,  —  tiie  matter  may  be  accom- 
plished as  easily  as  the  raising  of  house 
lamb,  by  having  sties  for  the  sows  under 
a  close  roof,  with  doors  and  windows  to 
shut  out  cold  and  admit  light. 

1575.  But  as  few  pigs  are  so  accommo- 
dated, the  usual  practice  is  the  best,  of 
refraining  from  the  breeding  of  young 
pigs  in  winter,  and  of  letting  those  which 
are  able  to  provide  for  themselves  have 
the  liberty  of  the  courts;  but  still  that 
liberty  should  be  guarded  with  discretion. 
Of  several  litters  on  foot  at  the  same  time, 
the  youngest  should  receive  more  nourish- 
ing food  than  the  older;  and  the  reason 
for  giving  them  better  treatment  is 
founded  on  the  general  princijde,  that 
creatures  when  stinted  of  fuod,  so  long  as 
they  are  growing  to  the  bone,  never  attain 
the  largest  size  of  frame  they  are  capable 
of.  Those  growing  to  the  bone,  until  it 
is  capable  of  carrying  as  much  flesh  as  is 
best  suited  to  the  market,  ueeil  not  be 
fattened.  Those  which  have  attained  the 
full  size  of  bone  require  but  a  short  time 
to  fatten  into  a  ripe  state.  This  mode  of 
treatment,  which  delays  the  fattening,  is 
peculiarly  applicable  to  swine,  which, 
having  at  all  times  a  ready  disposition  to 
fatten,  can  be  made  to  lay  on  fat  almost 
to  any  degree,  at  any  time,  at  any  age, 
and  upon  any  size  of  bone. 

1576.  That  the  youngest  pigs  may  re- 
ceive better  treatment,  they  should  have 
a  court  and  shed  for  themselves.  These 
pigs  consist,  probably,  of  the  last  litters  of 
the  season  of  as  manv  brood  sows  as  are 
kept.  Here  they  should  be  provided  daily 
with  turnips  as  their  staple  food — of  the 
sort  given  for  the  time  to  the  cattle,  and 
sliced  as  small  as  for  sheep  ;  and  they 
should,  besides,  have  a  portion  of  the  warm 
mash  maile  for  fhe  horses,  with  such  other 
pickings  from  the  farm-house  which  the 
kitchen  affords.  They  should  also  be  ]>ro- 
vided  with  a  trough  of  clean  water,  and 
plentj'  of  litter  under  the  shed  every  day. 
Their  court-yard  should  be  cleaned  out 
every  da}'.      Pigs   are  accused  of  dirty 


habits,  but  the  fact  is  otherwise;  and  the 
accusation  really  applies  more  to  their 
owners,  who  keep  them  dirty,  than  to  the 
animals  themselves.  When  constrained 
to  lie  amongst  dirt,  and  eat  food  only  fit 
for  the  dunghill,  and  dealt  out  with  a 
grudging  hand,  how  can  they  exhibit  other 
than  dirty  propensities  ?  But  let  them  have 
room,  choice  of  clean  litter,  and  plenty  of 
food,  and  they  will  soon  be  seen  to  keep 
their  litter  clean,  place  their  droppings  in 
one  corner  of  the  court,  and  preserve  their 
bodies  in  a  wholesome  condition.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  cattle-man  to  supply  the 
store  pigs  with  food,  and  clean  out  their 
court-yard  ;  and  this  part  of  his  duty  should 
be  conducted  with  as  much  regularity  as  the 
feeding  of  the  cattle.  Whatever  food  or 
drink  may  be  obtained  from  the  farm- 
house is  brought  to  their  court  by  the 
dairy-maid. 

1577.  The  older  pigs  have  the  liberty 
of  the  large  courts,  amongst  the  cattle, 
where  they  make  their  litter  in  the  open 
court,  when  the  weather  is  mild,  and  in 
the  shed  when  it  is  cold.  Though  thus  left 
at  liberty,  they  should  not  be  neglected  of 
food,  as  is  too  often  the  case.  They  should 
have  sliced  turnips  given  them  every  day, 
in  troughs,  and  they  should  also  have 
troughs  of  water.  Pigs,  when  not  sup- 
plied with  a  sufficiency  of  food,  will  leap 
into  the  troughs  of  the  cattle,  and  help 
themselves  with  turnips;  but  such  dirty- 
ing of  the  cattle's  food  and  troughs  should 
not  be  tolerated,  and  it  arises  from  their 
keeper  neglecting  to  give  the  pigs  food. 
The  cattle-man  attends  upon  those  pigs, 
and  should  give  them  turnips  and  water 
at  regular  times. 

1578.  I  have  seen  in  England  a  hand- 
some pigs'  trough  adapted  for  standing  in 
the  middle  of  a  court.  It  c<msists  of  cast- 
iron  in  one  entire  piece,  and  is  represented 
in  perspective  by  lig.  124.  Its  external 
ajij^earrance,  when  viewed  as  it  stand.-*  on 
the  grouud,  approaches  to  that  of  a  hollow 
hemisphere,  with  the  apex  flattene<l  ;  and 
interiorly  the  flattened  part  rises  up  in  the 
centre,  in  the  form  of  a  central  pillar — thus 
converting  the  hemisphere  into  an  annular 
trough,  whose  transverse  section  ])resents 
two  troughs  in  the  form  of  two  semicircles 
conjoined.  The  diameter  a  A  of  this  trough 
is  30  inches,  the  edge  is  finished  with  a 


THE  FATTENING  OF  SWINE  IN  WINTER. 


345 


round  baton,  serving  both  for  strength  and 
for  comfort  to  the  animals  who  eat  out  of 
it ;  the  depth  is  about  9  inches,  and  it  is 
divided  into  8  compartments  by  the  divi- 

Fig. 


sions  c,  which  are  formed  with  a  con- 
vexity on  the  upper  edge,  to  prevent  the 
food  being  thrown  from  one  compartment 
into  the  other.     This  trough  stands  upon 

124. 


THE  RING  PIGS'-TROUGH,  TO  STAND  IN  A  COURT. 


the  top  of  the  litter,  is  not  easily  over- 
turned, —  the  cattle  cannot  hurt  them- 
selves upon  it, — while  it  is  easily  pushed 
about  to  the  most  convenient  spot  for  it 
to  stand. 

1 579.  It  is  seldom  that  farmers  take  the 
trouble  of  fattening  pigs  for  the  market, 
because,  if  tlie  breed  has  a  kindly  dispo- 
sition, the  pigs  are  generally  sufficiently 
fat  for  converting  into  pickled  pork  by  the 
time  they  have  attained  the  weight  most 
desirable  for  that  method  of  curing, 
— namely,  from  4  to  6  stones  imperial. 
Dealers  and  butchers  purchase  pork- 
lings  of  those  sizes;  and  finer  meat  of 
the  kind  cannot  be  obtained  than  what  is 
thus  brought  up  at  liberty  in  a  farm-yard, 
being  firm,  sweet,  tender,  well  propor- 
tioned in  lean,  and  sufficiently  fat  for  the 
table.  Pork-curers  buy  from  farmers  and 
dealers  in  the  carcass,  and  none  alive. 
But  the  farmer  should  once  a-year  fatten 
a  few  pigs  for  his  own  use  as  ham.  These 
should  be  at  least  a-year  old,  attain  the 
weight  of  18  or  20  stones,  and  be  slaugh- 
tered about  Christmas.  Castrated  males 
or  spayed  females  are  in  the  best  state  for 
this  purpose  ;  and  are  placed  in  separate 
sties.  Four  pigs  of  20  stones  each  every 
year,  will  supply  a  pretty  good  allowance 
of  ham  to  a  farmer's  family.  Up  to  the 
time  of  being  placed  in  these  sties,  tlie  pigs 
have  been  treated  as  directed  above  ;  but 
when  confined,  and  intended  to  be  fattened 
to  ripeness,  they  receive  the  most  nourish- 
ing food. 


1580.  Piggeries  or  pig-sties  are  highly 
useful  structures  at  the  farm-stead.  They 
are  of  three  kinds — 1.  Those  for  a  hroo'/- 
sow  tcitk  a  lifter  of  i/oung  pigs.  This 
kind  should  have  two  apartments  :  one  for 
the  sow  and  litter  to  sleep  in,  covered 
with  a  roof,  and  entered  by  an  opening; 
the  other  an  open  court,  in  v/hich  the  feed- 
ing-trough is  placed.  For  a  breeding-sty 
each  apartment  should  not  be  less  than 
0  feet  square.  2.  lihosQ  ^ox  feeding  pigs. 
These  should  also  nave  two  apartments  rone 
with  litter  for  sleeping  in,  covered  with  a 
roof  and  entered  by  an  opening  ;  the  other 
an  open  court  for  the  troughs  fur  food.  A 
sty  of  4  feet  square  in  each  apartment, 
will  accommodate  2  feeding  pigs  of  20 
stones  each.  These  two  sorts  of  sties  may 
each  have  a  roof  of  its  own,  or  a  number 
of  them  may  have  one  roof  over  them  in 
common.  The  former  is  the  common  plan ; 
but  the  latter  is  the  most  convenient  for 
cleaning  out,  and  inspecting  the  internal 
condition  of  the  sties,  and  the  state  of  the 
pigs.  3.  The  third  kind  of  sty  is  for  the 
accommodation  of  weaned  young  pigs, 
when  they  are  confined,  to  receive  better 
treatment  than  the  older  ones.  It  should 
have  a  shed  and  court  of  from  20  to  25 
feet  square. 

1581.  As  swine  have  very  powerful 
necks,  and  are  apt  to  push  open  doors  of 
Cdunnon  construction,  a  form  of  one  such 
as  is  represented  in  fig.  125  is  very  secure. 
The  door  slips  up  and  down  in  grooves  in 
the  masonry,  and  the  contrivance  is  such 


846 


PRACTICE— '\VINTER, 


as  to   elude  the   ingenuity  of  the  most 
Fig.  125. 


DOOR  FOR  A  PIG-STY. 

cunning  old  brood-sow  to  discover  a  mode 
of  escape. 

1582.  A  very  convenient  trough  for  a 
piggery  containing  a  number  of  pigs — such 
as  the  young  ones,  as  above,  or  others  con- 
fined in  summer  from  roaming  aliout — lias 
been  long  manufactured  by  the  Shotts  Iron 
Company,  of  which  fig.  126  is  a  view  in 

Fig. 


perspective  from  the  interior  of  the  court. 
It  is  nearly  all  made  of  cast-iron,  and  pos- 
sesses the  great  convenience  of  allowing 
the  troughs  to  be  filled  witli  food  from  the 
outside  of  the  building,  the  feeder  being  at 
the  same  time  free  of  any  annoyance  from 
the  inmates.  Troughs  of  tliis  kind  are 
placed  in  proper  sized  openings  in  the  ex- 
ternal wall  of  the  piggery  court,  in  the 
manner  shown  in  the  figure,  wliere  a  marks 
the  wall  on  one  side  of  the  opening — that 
on  the  hither  side  being  left  out  of  the 
figure,  in  order  to  exhibit  the  form  of  the 
trough.  Tlie  trough,  part  of  which  is  seen 
at  i,  is  4  feet  in  length,  16  inches  wide 
at  top,  and  8  inches  at  bottom,  and  is  D 
inches  deep.  The  two  ends  c  and  d  rise 
in  a  triangular  form  to  the  height  of  3^ 
feet,  and  arc  connected  at  the  toj)  by  the 
stretcher-bolt  e.  The  lower  part  of  each 
end  extends  inward  to  f  ff^  making  a 
breadth  of  3  feet  4  inches  when  complete ; 
but  this  part  of  the  end  g  in  the  figure  is 
broken  oH'.  to  show  part  of  the  trough  h. 
Two  intermediate  divisions  h  h  divide  the 
trough  into  3  compartments — these  divi- 
sions extend  to  the  same  length  as  the 
ends /'y,  and  are  all  21  inches  in  height. 
By  means  of  these  divisons,  each  animal, 
when  there  are  more  than  one  together, 
has  its  own  stall,  and  can  take  its  food  undis- 

1-26. 


THE  PIGS'  TROUGHS,  WITH  SUBDIVISIONS,  TO  STAND  IN  AN  OPKNINi!  OF  THE  OUTKR  WALL  OF  THE  STT. 


THE  FATTENING  OF  SWINE  IN  'WINTER. 


347 


turbed  bv  its  neiofhbours.  A  swintr-door 
?  IS  jointed  on  the  pivots  ^  ^,  to  complete 
the  form,  by  filling  up  the  opening  of  the 
wall.  In  the  figure  this  door  is  thrown 
to  the  full  extent  outward,  where  it 
always  stands  during  the  time  the  animals 
are  feeding,  and  is  fixed  there  by  a  slide- 
bolt  on  the  outside.  When  food  is  to  be 
introduced  the  bolt  is  withdrawn,  and  the 
door  moved  from  that  position  to  I,  and 
there  bolted  until  the  compartments  of  the 
trough  are  cleaned  and  filled,  when  the 
door  is  again  swung  back  to  its  original 
position,  and  the  food  is  placed  before  the 
animals.  The  door  has  slits  formed  in  it 
corresponding  to  the  divisions  hh,  to  allow 
of  its  swinging  freely,  and  yet  have  depth 
snfScieut  to  close  the  entire  opening  down 
to  the  outward  edge  of  the  trough.  A 
dowel  or  stud  m  is  let  into  the  wall  at 
each  end,  to  secure  the  upper  part  of  the 
trough.  On  several  visits  to  the  Duke  of 
Buccleuch's  home-farm  at  Dalkeith  Park, 
which  is  conducted  by  Mr  Black,  I  have 
been  much  interested  with  tlie  piggery, 
where  the  stock  is  of  the  finest  quality, 
and,  amongst  other  things  of  interest,  saw 
what  is  very  probably  the  original  of  tlie 
trough  here  described.  The  troughs  in 
this  piggery  are  composed  of  wood,  but 
precisely  on  the  same  principle  as  here 
figured  and  described,  and  their  introduc- 
tion there  dates  as  far  back  as  the  time  of 
the  late  Duke  Henry  of  Bnccleuch,  whose 
invention  they  are  supposed  to  be,  and 
which  must  be  at  least  more  than  40  years' 
standing. 

15S3.  By  direct  expei'iment,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  pigs  fatten  much  better 
on  cooked  than  on  raw  food.  This  being 
the  case,  it  is  only  waste  of  time  and  ma- 
terials, as  also  loss  of  flesh,  to  attempt  to 
fatten  pigs  on  raw  food  of  whatever  kind  ; 
for  although  some  sorts  of  food  fatten 
better  than  others  in  the  same  state,  yet 
the  same  sort,  when  cooked,  fattens  much 
faster  and  better  than  in  a  raw  state.  The 
question,  tlierefore,  simply  is — what  is  the 
best  sort  of  food  to  coolc  for  the  purpose  of 
fattening  ])\gi\  Boots  and  grains  of  all 
kinds,  when  cooked,  will  fatten  pigs.  Po- 
tatoes, turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  mangold- 
wurtzel,  as  roots;  and  barley,  oats,  pease, 
beans,  rice,  Indian  corn^  as  grain,  will  all 


fatten  them  when  prepared.  WI)ich,  then, 
of  all  these  ingredients  should  be  selected 
as  the  most  nourishing,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  most  economical  ?  Carrots  and 
parsnips  amongst  roots  are  not  easily 
attainable  in  this  country,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  regarded  economical  food  ;  and 
as  to  the  other  sorts  of  roots,  when  cooked, 
potatoes  doubtless  contain  more  nourish- 
ment than  turnips,  even  in  proportion  to 
their  former  prices — for  it  M-as  as  easy  to 
obtain  ]  Os.  for  a  ton  of  Swedish  turnips  as 
Ss.  for  a  boll  of  40  stones  of  potatoes  ;  and 
yet  potatoes  contained  solid  matter  in  the 
proportion  of  25  to  lOg  as  regards  tur- 
nips. It  is  now,  however,  questionable 
whether  potatoes  can  be  depended  on  as 
a  crop  at  such  a  price  as  to  fatten  pigs  on 
economically.  But  mangold-wurtzel  pre- 
sents properties  for  supporting  animals 
which  are  worthy  of  attention.  It  con- 
tains 15  per  cent  of  solid  matter,  potatoes 
having  25  per  cent;  but  it  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  protein  compounds 
— those  ingredients  which  supply  the  ma- 
terials of  muscle,  than  potatoes.  Thus 
they  contain  respectively,  when  dried  at 
212^Fahr.  :  — 

Portein  com-     Other  niitri- 
poiind.         tive  matter. 

The  dried  potato         .  8   per  cent.       82 

yellow  turnip        9^ 80 

mangold-wurtzel  15  J 75 

So  that  the  proportion  of  the  protein  com- 
pounds in  the  mangi.ld-wurtzel  is  nearly 
twice  as  great  as  in  the  potato.  "  Tliis  is 
a  very  important  fact,"  observes  Professor 
Johnston,  "  and  worthy  of  further  investi- 
gation. If,  as  at  present  supposed,  the 
jirotein  compounds  serve  the  purpose,  when 
eaten,  of  supplying  to  animals  the  mate- 
rials of  their  muscle,  the  mangold-wurt- 
zel ought  to  be  considerably  superior  in 
this  respect  to  the  potato.  Even  in  their 
natural  state  this  should  be  the  case,  for 
100  lbs.  of  mangold-wurtzel  contain  of 
these  protein  comjiounds,  according  to  the 
above  determination,  2^  lbs.  ;  while  the 
potato  contains,  on  an  average,  only  2 
lbs."*  As  to  grains,  I  have  never  heard 
of  wheat  or  wheat-flour  being  given  to 
pigs — it  would  certaily  not  be  economical — 
barley  or  oat-meal  being  usually  emjrdoyed. 
Pease  and  beans,  whether  raw  or  cooked, 
are  proverbially  excellent   food  for  pigs. 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  916. 


348 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


And  a?  t.)  rice  and  Indian  corn,  they  will 
both  fatten  well  if  cooked.  Amidst  all 
these  ingredients  for  choice,  regarding  the 
question  of  economy  alone,  it  may  be  as- 
sumed that  entire  feeding  on  grain,  of 
whatever  kind,  would  be  too  expensive; 
so  that  as  boiled  roots  are  of  themselves 
nourishing  food,  a  proportion,  with  any 
of  the  grains,  should  furm  a  moderately 
priced  food  which  will  insure  fatness.  It 
has  been  ascertained  in  England,  that  2 
pecks  of  steamed  potatoes,  mixed  with  9 
lbs.  of  barley-meal  and  a  little  salt,  given 
every  day  to  a  pig  weighing  from  24  to 
28  stones,  will  make  it  ripe  fat  in  9  weeks. 
Taking  this  proportion  of  food  to  weight 
of  flesh  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  and  as- 
suming that  2  months  will  fatten  a  pig 
sufficiently  well,  provided  it  has  all  along 
received  its  food  regularly  and  fully,  I 
have  no  doubt  that  feeding  with  steamed 
potatoes  and  barley-meal,  for  the  first 
month,  and  in  the  second  with  steamed 
potatoes  and  pease-meal,  (both  seasoned 
with  a  little  salt,)  and  lukewarm  water, 
with  a  little  oatmeal  stirred  in  it,  given 
by  itself  twice  a-day  as  a  drink,  will  make 
any  pig,  from  15  to  30  stones,  ripe/at  for 
hams.  The  food  should  be  given  at  stated 
hours^  3  times  a-day — namely,  in  the 
morning,  at  noon,  and  at  nightfall.  One 
boiling  of  potatoes,  or  turnips,  where  these 
are  used,  in  the  day,  at  any  of  the  feeding 
hours  found  most  convenient,  will  suffice ; 
and  at  the  other  hours  the  boiled  roots 
should  be  heated  with  a  gruel  made  of 
barley  or  pease-meal  and  boiling  water — 
the  mess  being  allowed  to  stand  a  while 
to  incorporate  and  cool  to  blood-heat.  It 
should  not  be  made  so  thin  as  to  spill  over 
the  feeding-trough,  or  so  thick  as  to  choke 
the  animals;  but  of  that  consistence  which 
a  little  time  will  soon  let  the  feeder  know 
the  pigs  best  relish.  Tlie  ijuantityof  food 
given  at  any  time  should  be  apportioned 
to  the  appetite  of  the  animals  fed,  which 
should  be  ascertained  by  the  person  who 
feeds  them ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  less 
food,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the 
animal,  will  be  required  as  it  becomes 
fatter.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  dairy-maid  to 
fatten  the  bacon-pigs,  and  that  of  the  cattle- 
man to  keep  them  clean  and  littered. 

1584.  Washing  pigs  with  warm  water 


and  soap  rapidly  promotes  their  fattening ; 
and,  after  the  first  trial,  they  delight  in  the 
scrubbing. 

1585.  When  pigs  are  fattening  they 
lie,  and  rest,  and  sleep  a  great  deal,  no 
other  creature  showing  "  love  of  ease"  so 
strongly  in  all  their  actions;  and,  in  truth, 
it  is  tliis  indolence  wliich  is  the  best  sign 
of  their  thriving  condition.  The  opposite 
effects  of  activity  and  indolence  on  tlie 
condition  of  animals  is  thus  contrasted 
by  Liebig : — "  Excess  of  carbon,"  says  he, 
"  in  the  form  of  fat,  is  never  seen  in  the 
Bedouin  or  in  the  Arab  of  the  desert,  who 
exhibits  with  pride,  to  the  traveller,  his 
lean,  muscular,  sinewy  limbs,  altogether 
free  from  fat.  But  in  prisons  and  jails,  it 
appears  as  a  pufiiness  in  the  inmates,  fed 
as  they  are  on  a  poor  and  scanty  diet; 
it  appears  in  the  sedentary  females  of 
oriental  countries  ;  and,  finally,  it  is  pro- 
duced under  the  well-known  conditions  of 
the  fattening  of  domestic  animals ;"  *  and, 
amongst  these  last,  the  pig  may  be  in- 
stanced as  the  most  remarkable. 

1586.  In  some  parts  of  England,  as  well 
as  on  the  Continent,  such  as  Holstein,  the 
food  given  to  pigs  is  always  in  a  sour  state. 
Arthur  Young  recommends  the  construc- 
tion of  tanks,  fur  the  express  purpose  of 
containing  mixtures  of  5  bushels  of  meal 
to  100  gallons  of  water  until  they  become 
acid,  and  says  they  are  not  ready  to  be 
given  until  in  that  state.  "  Two  or  three 
cisterns,"  he  says,  "  should  be  kept  fer- 
menting in  succession,  that  no  necessity 
may  occur  of  giving  it  not  duly  prepared. 
The  ditFerence  in  profit  between  feeding 
in  this  manner,  and  giving  the  grain  whole 
or  only  ground,  is  so  great  that  whoever 
tries  it  once  will  not  be  apt  to  change  it 
for  tlie  comm(m  method."  The  acid  thus 
produced  by  the  fermentation  of  vegetable 
matter  is  the  lactic  acid.  It  is  not  deemed 
necessary  in  Scotland  to  make  the  food  of 
pigs  acid  ;  and  although  pigs  no  doubt  do 
relish  an  acid  diet,  it  does  not  follow  it 
should  necessarily  be  in  that  state  to 
render  it  tlie  more  wholesome.  But  he 
seems  to  entertain  some  doubt  on  the  sub- 
ject, for  he  says, — "  Pease-soup,  however, 
is  an  excellent  food  for  hogs,  and  may, 
for  what  I  know — but  I  have  not  sutti- 


Liebig's  Animal  Chemistry,  p.  89. 


THE  FATTENING  OF  SA\TLNE  IN  WINTER. 


349 


ciently  compared  them— equal  the  above, 
especially  if  given  in  water  milk-warm." 
After  mentioning  that  the  food  of  pigs  is 
warmed  in  Gascony,  and  that  tlie  practice 
has  long  been  discontinued  in  England,  he 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  "  warm  food 
in  water,  regularly  given,  I  should  suppose, 
must  be  more  fattening  than  that  which 
is  cold,  and,  in  bad  weather,  half  frozen."* 
In  Mexico,  pigs  are  fattened  entirely  on 
Indian  corn  moistened  in  water. 

1 587.  The  denominations  of  pigs  are 
the  following: — When  new  born,  they  are 
Gsdled  sucking  pi(/s,  or  s'imi)\y  pi c;s  ;  and 
the  male  is  a  boar  j)ig^  the  female  soicpvj. 
A  castrated  male,  after  it  is  weaned,  is  a 
shot  or  hog.  Hog  is  the  name  mostly  used 
by  naturalists,  and  very  frequently  by 
writers  on  agriculture ;  but,  as  it  sounds 
so  like  the  name  given  to  young  sheep, 
(hogg,)I  shall  always  use  the  terms  pig  and 
swine  for  the  sake  of  distinction.  The 
terra  hog  is  said  to  be  derived  fr<mi  a 
Hebrew  noun,  signifying  "  to  have  narrow 
eyes,"  a  feature  quite  characteristic  of  this 
species  of  animal.  A  spayed  female  is  a  cut 
sow  pig.  As  long  as  both  sorts  of  cut 
pigs  are  small  and  young,  they  arepoT-kers 
Qv  porklings.  A  female  that  has  not  been 
cut,  and  before  it  bears  young,  is  an  open 
sow ;  and  an  entire  male,  after  being 
weaned,  is  always  a  hoar  or  hraicn.  A 
cut  boar  is  a  bratcner.  A  female  that  has 
taken  the  boar  is  said  to  be  lined ;  when 
bearing  young  she  is  a  hroo/l  sotc  ;  and 
when  she  has  brought  forth  pigs  she  has 
littered  or  farroiced.,  and  her  family  of 
pigs  at  one  birth  form  a  litter  ov  farrow  of 
pigs. 

15S8.  Of  judging  of  a'fat  pig,  the  back 
should  be  nearly  straight ;  and  though 
arched  a  little  from  head  to  tail,  that  is  no 
fault.  The  back  should  be  uniformly  broad, 
and  rounded  aoross  along  the  whole  body. 
The  touch  all  along  the  back  should  be 
firm,  but  springy,  the  thinnest  skin  spring- 
ing most.  The  shoulders,  sides,  and  hams, 
should  be  deep  perpendicularly,  and  in  a 
straight  line  from  shoulder  to  ham.  The 
closing  behind  should  be  filled  up  ;  the  legs 
short,  and  bone  small ;  the  neck  short, 
thick,  and  deep ;  the  cheeks  round  and 
lilled  out;    the  face  straight,    nose  fine, 


eves,  bright,  ears  pricked,  and  the  head 
small  in  proportion  to  the  body.  A 
curled  tail  is  indicative  of  a  strong  back. 
All  these  characters  may  be  observed  in 
the  figure  of  the  brood  sow  in  Plate  V ; 
though,  of  course,  the  sow  is  not  in  the 
fattened  state. 

1589.  A  black-haii'ed  pig  is  always 
black  in  the  skin,  and  a  white  one  white — 
which  latter  colour  gives  to  it  a  cleaner 
appearance  than  the  black. 

15i)0.  The  breed  which  shows  the 
greatest  disposition  to  fatten  is  the  pure 
Chinese;  but  as  it  lays  on  too  large  a 
proportion  of  fat,  it  is  not  bred  for  its  own 
sake,  and  only  for  crossing  with.  I  never 
saw  a  breed  to  equal  that  originated  by 
the  late  Lord  Western,  in  Essex,  for  lay- 
ing on  a  due  proportion  of  lean  and  fat, 
and  I  believe  it  to  be  a  cross  between  the 
Essex  and  Chinese  breeds.  I  received  a 
present  of  a  young  boar  and  sow  of  that 
breed  from  Lord  Panmure,  and  had  the 
breed  as  long  as  I  farmed  ;  and  such  was 
the  high  condition  constantly  maintained 
by  the  pigs,  on  what  they  could  pick  up 
at  the  steading,  besides  the  feed  of  tur- 
nips supplied  them  daily,  that  one  could 
be  killed  at  any  time  for  the  table,  as  a 
porkling.  They  were  exceedingly  gentle, 
indisposed  to  travel  far,  not  very  prolific, 
could  attain,  if  kept  on,  to  a  great  weight  ; 
and  so  compact  in  form,  and  small  of  bone 
and  offal,  that  they  invariably  yielded  a 
larger  vtcight  of  pork  than  was  judged  of 
before  being  slaughtered.  Though  the 
less  valuable  ofl'al  was  small,  the  propor- 
tion of  loose  seam  was  always  great,  and 
more  delicious  ham  than  they  afforded 
was  never  cured  in  Westphalia. 

1591.  An  experiment  on  the  comparative  ad- 
vantages of  feeding  pigs  on  raw  and  boiled  food 
was  UKide  111  \iVio  by  iMr.Iohn  Dudgeon,  Spylaw, 
Roxburghshire.  He  put  up  6  Ae-pigs  in  one  lot, 
and  5  shi;  ones  in  another,  and  they  were  all  care- 
fully cut,  and  9  weeks  old.  The  he-pigs  were 
put  on  builed  food,  namely,  potatoes  and  hashed 
beans  ;  the  she  ones  on  raw  of  the  same  sort. 
The  6  he-pigs  increased  in  live-weight,  from  •2d 
July  to  r2tli  October,  38  stones,  6  lbs.  4  oz.,  or  6 
stones,  5  lbs.  11  oz.  each  ;  whereas  the  5  she  ones 
only  increased,  in  the  same  time,  17  stones,  11 
lbs.  8  oz.,  or  3  stones,  7  lbs.  14  oz.  each.  Other 
3  pigs  were  fed  at  the  same  time  on  boiled  and 
raw  food  indiscriminately,  as  it  happened  to  be 


Young's  Farmer's  Calendar,  p.  518  and  560. 


860 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


left  over  after  serving  the  other  two  lots.  The 
facts  brought  out  in  this  experiment  are,  that  the 
pigs  "  fed  exchirively  upon  boiled  meat  did 
thrive  in  a  superior  manner  to  tlie  others,  and 
even  to  those  which  had  an  occasional  mixture 
of  raw  and  boiled  meat  ;  thus  showing  that 
boiled  meat  is  at  all  times  more  nutritive  thau 
raw."  The  "  pigs  were  repeatedly  washed  with 
soap  and  water,  which  refreshed  them  greatly, 
and  caused  them  to  relish  their  food."  Those 
"  which  got  a  mixture  of  food  both  prepared  and 
raw,  approached  nearer  to  those  which  were  fed 
on  boiled  to  their  feeding  properties  ;  hut  they 
appeared  occasionally  shy  at  having  tlieir  meat 
so  mixed.  It  is  therefore  better,  in  general,  to 
continue  for  some  time  only  one  description  of 
food  ;as,wliateverthe  animals becomeacctistomed 
to  they  begin  to  relish,  and  thrive  upon  it  accor- 
dingly."* 

1592.  Mr  Robert  Walker,  Ferrygate,  East 
Lothian,  also  made  an  experiment  on  the  same 
subject  in  the  same  year.  He  put  5  pigs  on 
steamed  potatoes  and  prei)ared  broken  barley, 
and  other  5  on  raw  potatoes  and  raw  broken 
barley.  The  pigs  were  "2=  months  old.  On  the 
4th  March  1333,  the  live- weight  of  the  5  pigs 
fed  on  raw  food  was  7  st.  10  lbs.  ;  on  the  Ist 
June  following,  it  was  16  st.  13  lbs.,  showing  an 
increase  of  8  st.  3  lbs.  or  on  each  pig  of  1  st.  9  lbs. 
On  the  4th  March  the  live-weight  of  those  fed 
on  steamed  food  was  7  st.  8  lbs.,  and  on  the  1st 
June  it  was  19  st.  13  lbs.,  showing  an  increase 
of  12  St.  5  lbs.,  or  on  each  pig  of  2  st.  6i  lbs. 
The  increase  in  the  time  was  C7  lbs.  more  than 
double  the  original  live-weight  of  the  pigs  fed  on 
steamed  food  ;  whereas,  in  those  fed  ou  raw,  the 
increase  was  only  7  lbs.  more  than  the  double  ; 
"  so  that  there  can  be  very  little  doubt,"  as  Mr 
Walker  concludes,  "  that  steamed  food  is  more 
profitable  for  feeding  pigs  than  raw  food.  In 
fact,  I  do  not  think  it  possible  to  make  pigs  fat 
on  raw  potatoes,  without  other  food,  wheu  con- 
fined to  them  alone. "+ 

1593.  The  late  Mr  James  Scott,  Beauchamp, 
Forfarshire,  on  converting  potatoes  into  tapioca, 
whicii  he  raised  in  great  fiuantities  on  that  large 
farm,  used  part  of  the  refuse  for  his  liorses,  and 
purt,  assisted  by  peas,  for  feeding  pigs,  to  the 
number  of  400  every  year. 

1594.  Dairy  farms  are  well  suited  for  rearing 
pigs  ou  the  dairy  refu.se  in  summer  ;  but  in  winter 
the  mo-t  that  can  be  done  is  to  keep  the  brood 
sows  in  pig  in  fair  condition  for  littering  in  spring. 
On  carse  and  pastoral  farms,  no  more  pigs  can 
conveniently  be  roared  than  to  scrvi;  the  farmer's 
family.  On  mixed  farms,  pigs  constitute  a  por- 
tion of  the  regular  stock. 

1595.  With  regard  to  the  diseases  of  swine, 
they  are  fortunately  not  numerous,  as  it  is  no 
easy  matter  to  administer  medicine  to  them.  The 
safest  plan,  iu  most  cases,  I  believe,  is  to  slaugh- 


ter them  whenever  any  symptoms  of  internal 
disease  show  themselves.  Swine  are  infested 
with  a  louse  {Iloeniatopinut  sltis,^  like  all  domes- 
ticated animals.  It  was  described  by  the  old 
naturalists  under  the  name  of  Pediculus  /u'u.  It 
is  represented  in  fig.  127.  Head  and  thorax  of 
Fig.  127.  a  dull  rusty  colour,  the 

,  former    pear-shaped  and 

narrow,  with  an  angular 
black  line  at  the  apex, 
and  one  on  each  side  be- 
fore the  eyes  ;  abdomea 
large,  flat,  and  oval,  of 
a  bluish  or  yellowish 
ash-gray  colour,  most  of 
the  segments  with  a 
black  horny  prominence 
at  each  side,  surrounding 
a  white  breathing-hole  ; 
legs  pale  ochre-yellow, 
the  thigh  marked  with 
dusky  bands  ;  length  1^ 
THE  sow-LutsE,  (Hffi-  j^  ja  ijne.  This  speciea 
M.iToPiNis  sns.)  j^  generally  very  plen- 
tiful on  swiue,  more  particularly  on  those  fresh 
imported  from  Ireland.  It  appears  to  abound 
most  on  lean  animals.  "  In  walking,"  says  Mr 
Denny,  "  it  uses  the  claw  and  tibial  tooth  with 
great  facility  (which  act  as  a  finger  and  thumb) 
■in  taking  hold  of  a  single  hair  ;  the  male  is 
much  smaller,  sub-orbicular,  and  the  segments 
lobate.  The  egg  or  nit  is  f  of  a  line  in  length, 
of  a  cream  colour,  and  elegantly  shagreened, 
oblong,  and  slightly  acuminated,  surrounded  by 
a  lid  which,  wheu  the  young  insect  is  ready  to 
emerge,  splits  circularly — or,  as  a  botanist  would 
say,  has  a  circumeisile  dehiscence."^  Oil  iu  the 
first  stage,  and  mercurial  ointment  iu  after  stages, 
will  destroy  this  insect. 

1596.  Consumption  is  a  disease  which  affects 
pigs.  It  is  brought  on  by  "  neglect  and  expo- 
sure to  cold  and  damp.  The  animal  becomes 
thin,  the  coat  staring,  the  skin  appearing  as  if 
glued  to  the  ribs  ;  obstinate  cough  supervenes  ; 
discharge  is  frequent  from  the  nose,  and  glandu- 
lar swellings  appear  about  the  netk.  Ou  dis- 
section, the  lings  are  studded  with  tubercles." 
"  It  is  in  the  «arly  stage  alone  of  the  complaint," 
observes  Professor  Dick,  "that  any  thing  can  be 
done,  and  the  prospect  of  cure  is  but  taint.''§  In 
alluding  to  the  lungs,  I  may  mention  a  remrirk- 
able  instance  of  their  state  I  ouce  observed  in  a 
sow  of  my  own.  She  had  borne  several  litters, 
and  became  asthmatic,  which  inoreasii.g  so  as  to 
appear  distressing  to  the  animal,  she  was  killed  ; 
and  one  lobe  of  the  lungs  was  found  to  be  so 
completely  ossifiel,  that  its  surface  was  con- 
verted into  a  shell  nearly  as  hard  as  the  crust  of 
a  crab,  and  was  filled  with  a  thick  yellow  fluid. 
Having  understood  afterwards  tha'  this  was  a 
remarkable  case,  I  regret  that  the  lobe  was  not 
examined  by  a  veterinarian.  I  take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  suggesting  to  every  farmer,  who  may 
happeu  to  meet  with  au  instance  of  structural 


*  Piizc  Essai/s  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x.  p.  275-9. 
'flbid.  vol.  X.  p.  279-JlO.  X  Denny's  Motuxjiajihui  Anuplurorum  Britannia. 

§  Dick's  Manual  of  Vtterinary  iScience.  p.  84. 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS  IN  WINTER. 


351 


disorganisation,  whether  external  or  internal,  in 
a  part  of  any  animal  he  owns,  to  have  it  ex- 
amined by  a  competent  veterinarian. 

1597.  Pigs  are  subject  to  a  cutaneous  disease 
called  measles,  which  is  supposed  to  render  the 
flesh  unwholesome.  "  The  measles,"  says  a 
writer,  "  are  very  prevalent,  though  seldom 
fatal,;  and  if  not  checked,  affect  the  grain  of  the 
meat,  which  may  be  commonly  seen  in  the  shops 
of  a  faded  colour,  and  the  flesh  punctured,  as  it 
were,  with  small  holes,  or  distensions  of  the 
fibre.  The  commencement  of  the  disease  appears 
in  languor  and  decline  of  appetite,  followed  by 
small  pustules  in  the  throat,  together  with  red 
and  purple  eruptions,  more  distinct  after  death 
than  during  the  life  of  the  animal  ;  but  may,  it 
is  said,  be  removed  in  this  stage  by  giving  small 
quantities  of  levigated  crude  antimony  in  .the 
food.  Generally  speaking,  even  if  the  animals 
be  in  health,  a  small  quantity  of  nitre  and  sul- 
phur, occasionally  mixed  up  with  their  food, 
besides  stimulating  their  appetite,  will  frequently 
prevent  disease  :  neither  can  we  too  much  insist 
on  cleanliness,  nor  upon  the  punctual  regularity 
of  feeding  at  stated  times."*  The  injunction 
contained  in  the  last  words,  if  followed,  will  do 
more  for  the  preservation  of  health  in  pigs,  than 
the  administration  of  any  specific  after  disease 
has  once  shown  itself.  I  can  truly  say,  that, 
with  the  simple  means  here  enjoined,  I  never 
had  %  pig  in  the  least  affected  in  the  skin  by 
disease  or  vermin. 


ON  THE  TREATMENT  OP  FOAVLS  IN  WINTER. 

1598.  Of  all  the  animals  reared  on  a 
farm,  none  are  so  much  neglected  by  the 
farmer,  both  as  regards  select  ion  of  their  kind 
and  disposition  to  fatten,  as  every  sort  of 
domesticated  fowl.  Indeed,  the  supposition 
that  any  farmer  should  devote  a  part  of 
his  time  to  the  consideration  of  poultry,  is 
regarded  by  him  as  an  unpardonable  affront 
on  iiis  manhood.  Women  only,  in  his 
estimation,  are  fit  for  such  a  charge— and 
doubtless  they  are,  and  would  do  it  well 
too,  v.'ere  they  not  begrudged  of  every 
particle  of  good  food  they  niay  bestow 
on  pjultry.  Tiie  consequence  is,  as 
might  be  expected  in  ev^ery  farmstead, 
the  surprise  to  find  a  single  fowl  of  any 
description  in  _^oo(/ condition — that  is,  such 
as  it  might  be  killed  at  the  instant  in  a  fit 
state  for  the  table.  The  usual  objection 
againsc  feeding  fowls  is,  that  they  do  not 
pay — and  no  doubt  the  market  price  receiv- 
ed for  lean,  stringy-fieshed,  sinewy degged 
fowls  is  far  from  remunerative  ;  but  whuse 
fault  is  it  they  are  sent  to  market  iu  that 
state,  but  the  rearer  of  them?   aijd  why 


should  purchasers  give  a  high  price  for 
fowls  in  such  a  coudition  ?  tSome  excuse 
might  be  made  for  having  lean  fowls,  were 
any  difiiculty  experienced  in  fattening 
them  :  but  there  is  none ;  and  the  idea  of 
expense  is  a  bugbear,  and,  like  all  other 
fears,  would  vanish  were  a  plan  adopted 
for  rearing  fowls  more  consonant  with 
common-sense  than  the  one  usually  pur- 
sued, which  seems  to  be  founded  upon  the 
notion  that  fowls  can  never  be  ill  off  if 
they  are  at  liberty  to  shift  for  themselves. 
Such  a  sentiment  involves  a  grievous  error 
in  the  rearing  of  any  kind  of  live  stock. 
Better  keep  no  stock  at  all  than  rear  them 
on  such  a  principle.  Fowls  may  be  deemed 
a  wortldess  stock,  and  so  they  generally 
arc  ;  but  tliey  are  so  only  on  account  of 
the  mode  of  managing  them.  Apart  from 
every  consideration  of  profit  to  be  derived 
from  sales  in  market  towns,  a  desire  sliould 
exist  in  the  farmer  to  have  it  in  his  power, 
at  all  timf.s,  to  present  a  well-fed  fowl  at 
bis  own  table  ;  but  he  cannot  feel  such  a 
desire,  while  he  grudges  the  food  required 
to  make  tliem  so.  He  may  rest  assured 
that  economy  would  attend  good  feeding 
in  the  long  run,  us  f/ood  poultry  always  at 
command  would  save  a  long  butcher's  bill 
now  and  then,  which  must  be  settled  with 
cash — and  cash  cannot  be  connnanded  by 
the  farmer  except  by  sale  at  market  of 
some  commodity  of  the  farm.  Few  far- 
mers kiil  their  own  mutton,  tliat  is,  keep 
fat  sheep  for  tlieir  oun  use:  lamb,  they 
do  kill  in  the  season  ;  but  as  to  beef,  it 
is  always  purchased  — so  that,  situate  as 
the  farmer's  family  usually  is,  tlie  produce 
of  the  poultry-yard  ami  pig-sty  should 
constitute  the  principal  fare  upon  their 
board.  And  why  should  tliey  not  have 
these  in  tlie  highest  perfection  ? 

1  5n9.  In  winter,  no  fowls  are  brought 
forth  iu  Great  Britain.  The  ciiuuite  is 
ton  severe  for  them  ;  the  cohl  would  either 
kill  chickens  outright,  or  prevent  their 
grov.'th  so  as  to  render  them  unprofitable 
f(/r  the  rearing  they  would  require.  None 
of  the  fowls  lay  many  eggs  iu  winter.  But 
notwithstanding  these  natural  barriers, 
both  chickens  and  eggs  may  be  obtained 
in  that  season  by  good  management. 

ICOO.  The  ordinary  fowls  on  a  farm 
are, — the  cock  (^Phasianus  gallus^ — the 


British  Husbandry,  vol,  ii.p.  5?0. 


352 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


turkey  (^Meleagris  gaUopavai), — the  goose 
(^Anas  miser), — the  duck  (^Anas  domes- 
tica) — jukI  the  pi;rcf>n  {('oIudiUi  Hc'ki), — 
the  whitt'-backed  or  rock-dove,  whicli  \v;is 
loiii''  confounded  with  the  blue -hacked 
dove  (Columba  crnas).  In  re::anl  to 
all  the-se,  I  shall  first  state  their  condition 
in  winter,  and  then  describe  tiie  mode  in 
•which  they  should  all  be  fed  ou  nearly  the 
same  ingredients. 

1601.  And  first,  in  reirard  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  /ipfi.  As  hatchings  of  chickens 
are  brought  out  from  April  to  September, 
there  will  be  broods  of  chickens  of  differ- 
ent ages  in  winter — some  as  old  as  to  be 
capable  of  laying  their  first  egirs,  and 
others  mere  chickens.  The  portion  of 
the  broods  taken  for  domestic  use  are 
the  young  cocks  and  the  older  hens,  there 
being  a  natural  reluctance  to  kill  young 
hens,  which  will  lay  egji^s  largely  in  the 
following  season.  At  all  events,  of  the 
hen-chickens,  the  most  likely  to  become 
good  layers  should  be  preserved.  The 
marks  of  a  chicken  likelv  to  become  a 
good  hen  are,  a  sinnll  head,  brii,'-lit  eyes, 
tapering  neck,  ful!  brea-st,  straight  back, 
plump  ovoidal-shaped  body,  and  moderate- 
ly long  grey-coloured  legs.  Every  yel- 
low-legged chicken  slinuldbe  used,  wluaher 
male  or  female,  tlieir  flesh  never  being 
so  fine  as  the  others.  As  to  the  cnlour 
of  the  feathers,  that  is  not  a  matter  of 
much  importance,  some  preferring  to  have 
them  all  white,  others  all  black;  but  I 
believe  there  is  none  better  for  every 
useful  purpose  than  the  mottled  grey. 
Young  fowls  may  either  be  roasted  or 
boiled,  the  male  making  the  best  roasted, 
and  the  female  the  neatest  boiled  dish. 
The  older  birds  may  be  boiled  by  them- 
selves, and  eaten  with  bacon,  or  assist 
in  making  broth,  or  that  once  favourite 
wintor-soap  in  Scotland — cockiclcekie.  A 
chicken  never  eats  more  tenderly  than 
•when  killed  a  short  time  before  being 
dresseil ;  but  if  not  so  soon  used,  it  should 
hang  in  the  hirder  for  three  or  four  days 
in  winter.  An  old  fowl  will  become  the 
move  tender  on  being  kept  for  a  week 
before  being  used.  The  criterion  of  a 
fat  hen,  when  alive,  is  a  plump  breast, 
and  the  rump  feelij^g  thick,  fat,  firm,  on 
being  handled  laterally  between  tlio  finger 
and  thumb.  The  skin  of  the  abdomen 
should  be  thick  and  fat,  and    fat  iljould 


be  found  under  the  •wings.  ^V^lite  flesh 
is  always  preferable,  though  poulterers 
insist  that  a  yellow-,<f|///»('</  chicken  makes 
the  most  delicate  roast,  which  I  very 
much  doubt.  A  hen  is  dejtrived  of  life 
by  dislocation  of  the  neck  on  being  over- 
drawn, and  there  the  blood  collects  and 
coagulates. 

Ifi02.  T'wrXvv/f,  being  hatched  in  -May, 
will  be  full  grown  in  stature  bv  \.  inter, 
and,  if  they  have  been  well  fed  in  the 
interval,  will  be  ready  for  u>e.  Indeed, 
the  Christnuis  season  never  fails  to  create 
a  large  demand  for  turkeys;  and  it  must 
be  owned  there  are  few  ni<ire  delicate 
and  beautiful  dTshes  presented  at  table, 
or  a  more  acceptable  present  to  a  friend, 
than  a  well-fed  turkey.  Y<iung  cocks 
are  selected  for  roasting,  and  young  hens 
for  boiling,  and  both  are  most  relished 
with  a  slice  of  ham,  or  of  pickled  ox- 
tongue. The  varieties  in  comm<m  use  are 
white,  black,  or  mottled  grey;  and  of 
these  the  white  yields  the  fairest  and 
most  tender  flesh.  The  criterion  of  a  good 
turkey,  when  alive,  is  the  great  fulness  of 
the  muscles  covering  the  breast-bone, 
thickness  of  the  rump,  and  existence  <»f 
fat  under  the  winus;  though  the  turkey 
does  not  yield  much  fat,  its  greatest  pr - 
perty  being  abundance  of  tender  wliite 
flesh.  Young  turkeys  attain  to  great 
weights.  I  have  had,  year  after  year, 
young  cocks  weighing,  at  Christmas,  18 
lbs.  each  in  their  feathers,  ^s'orfolk  has 
long  been  noted  for  its  turkeys,  where 
they  are  fed  on  buck-wheat,  and  large 
droves  are  annually  sent  to  the  Loudon 
market.  A  turkey  is  deprived  of  life  by 
cutting  its  thmat,  when  it  becomes  com- 
pletely bled.  The  barbarous  practice  of 
cutting  out  the  tongue,  and  hanging  by 
the  feet  to  bleed  slowly  to  death,  for  the 
alleged  purpose  of  rendering  the  flesh 
white,  ought  to  be  strictly  forbidden. 

160.3.  Geese,  having  been  hatched  in  the 
e-'riy  part  of  summer,  will  also  be  full 
grown  and  fit  for  use  in  winter.  I  liclievo 
little  diflercnce  in  flavour  (»r  apj)earancc, 
as  a  dish,  exists  between  the  young  male 
and  female  goose,  though  there  may  be  of 
si7.e.  The  criteritm  of  a  fat  gix.se  is 
plumpness  of  muscle  over  the  breast,  and 
thickness  of  rump,  when  alive  ;  ainl,  in 
addition,    when  dead   and  plucked,   of  a 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS  IN  WINTER. 


353 


uniform  covering  of  ichite  fat  under  a  fine 
skin  on  the  breast.  It  is  a  good  young 
goose  that  weighs  in  its  feathers  1 2  lbs.  at 
Christmas.  The  goose  is  a  favourite  dish 
at  Michaelmas  in  England,  and  at  Christ- 
mas in  Scotland ;  but  people  tire  sooner 
of  goose  than  of  turkey,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, it  is  not  so  frequently  served  at 
table.  A  green  goose,  however,  is  con- 
sidered a  greater  delicacy  in  England  than 
a  turkey-poult.  Geese  are  always  roasted 
in  Britain,  though  a  boiled  goose  is  not  an 
uncommon  dish  in  Ireland ;  and  their  flesh 
is  certainly  much  heightened  in  flavour  by 
a  stuffing  of  onions,  and  an  accompani- 
ment of  apple-sauce.  A  goose  should  be 
kept  a  few  days  before  being  used.  It  is 
bled  to  death  by  an  incision  across  the 
back  of  the  head,  which  completely  frees 
it  of  blood.  Large  flocks  of  geese  are 
reared  in  Lincolnshire,  and  from  thence 
driven  to  the  London  market,  and  many 
more  find  their  way  from  Ireland  to  this 
country.  It  is  rare  to  see  a  grey  gander, 
and  as  rare  a  white  goose.  I  remember 
seeing  large  flocks  of  geese  on  the  islands 
in  the  Elbe  near  Hamburg,  where  they 
were  reared  chiefly  for  their  quills,  their 
carcasses  being  salted  and  sent  to  Holland. 
The  invention  of  the  steel  pen  has  much 
injured  the  quill-dressing  trade,  and,  in 
consequence,  good  quills  are  now  not 
easily  obtained.  Geese  have  long  been 
proverbially  good  watchers.  I  have  seen 
a  gander  dispute  the  approach  of  beggars 
towards  the  kitchen  door,  as  pertinaciously 
as  a  watch- dog. 

1604.  Ducks,  being  also  early  hatched, 
are  in  fine  condition  in  winter,  if  they 
have  been  properly  fed.  Ducklings  soon 
become  fit  for  use,  and  are  much  relished 
with  green  peas  in  summer.  I  believe 
there  is  no  difference  in  ffavour  and  deli- 
cacy betwixt  a  young  male  and  female 
duck.  They  are  most  frequently  roasted, 
and  stuffed  with  sage  and  onions — though 
often  stewed ;  and  if  smothered  among 
onions  when  stewed,  few  more  savoury 
dishes  can  be  presented  at  a  farmer's  table. 
A  duck  never  eats  better  than  when  killed 

*   MacGillivray's  History  of  British  Birds,  vol. 

+  I  ascertained  the  result  by  weight;  and  as  the  facts  may  be  worth  recording,  I  may  mention 
that,  in  an  average  of  three  drachms,  there  were  75  grains  of  chevalier  barley  in  each  drachm,  of  a 
sample  weighing  065  lbs.  per  bushel;  and  97  grains  of  Siberian  early  oat  in  1  drachm  of  a  sample 
weighing  46  lbs.  per  bushel.  Of  Chidham  white  wheat,  a  favourite  food  of  the  pigeon,  weighing  65 
lbs.  per  bushel,  there  were  86  grains  in  the  drachm. 

J  Venables'  Tour  in  Russia — Appendix. 

VOL.  I.  Z 


immediately  before  being  dressed.  It  ia 
deprived  of  life  by  chopping  off'  the  head 
with  a  cleaver,  which  completely  drains 
the  body  of  the  blood. 

1 605.  Hens  and  turkeys  are  most  easily 
caught  on  their  roosts  at  night  with  a  light, 
which  seems  to  stupefy  them  ;  and  geese 
and  ducks  may  be  caught  at  any  hour,  in 
the  out-house  they  may  be  driven  into. 

1606.  As  young  pigeons  alone  are  used, 
and  as  pigeons  do  not  hatch  in  winter, 
they  require  no  other  notice  at  present 
than  what  regards  their  feeding ;  and  to 
give  an  idea  of  their  gastronomic  powers, 
of  three  rock-doves  sent  to  Professor  Mac- 
Gillivray,  "  the  number  of  oat-seeds  in 
the  crop  of  the  second  amounted  to  1000 
and  odds,  and  the  barley-seeds  in  that  of 
another  were  510.  Now  supposing,"  he 
observes,  "  there  may  be  5000  wild  pigeons 
in  Shetland,  or  in  Fetlar,  which  feed  on 
grain  for  6  months  every  year,  and  fill 
their  crops  once  a  day,  half  of  them  with 
barley  and  half  with  oats,  the  number  of 
seeds  picked  up  by  them  would  be 
229,500,000  grains  of  barley,  and 
450,000,000  grains  of  oats, — a  quantity 
which  would  gladden  many  poor  families 
in  a  season  of  scarcity.  I  am  unable,"  he 
adds,  "  to  estimate  the  number  of  bushels, 
and  must  leave  the  task  to  the  curious."* 
I  was  curious  enough  to  undertake  the 
task,  and  found  the  result  to  be  422 
bushels,  or  52  quarters  6  bushels  of  barley, 
and  786  bushels,  or  98  quarters  2  bushels 
of  oats,  or  151  quarters  of  grain  in  all.t 

]  6O7.  The  prices  of  poultry  in  towns 
are  pretty  high.  In  Edinburgh,  for  in- 
stance, in  winter  a  couple  of  chickens  are 
2s.  6d. ;  hens  from  Is.  to  Is.  9d.  each; 
ducks  3s.  per  couple;  turkeys,  3s.  6d.  to 
8s.  a-piece ;  geese,  3s.  6d.  to  5s.  each  ;  and 
eggs  are  from  Is.  2d.  to  Is.  8d.  per  dozen. 
In  the  country  towns,  the  prices  are  fully 
one-third  below,  though  in  London  the 
highest  prices  are  not  above  these.  In 
Eussia,  fat  turkeys  are  Is.  lOd. ;  geese,  2s. , 
and  fowls  and  ducks,  Is.  Sd.  per  couple t")^ 
i.  p.  285. 


854 


PRACTICE— WINTER, 


In  Ireland,  ponltryof  all  kinds  are  cheap, 
but  not  so  cheap  as  in  Russia. 

1608.  Farmers  usually  sell  poultry  alive, 
exceptin?  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 
such  as  the  Borders,  where  geese  are  killed 
and  plucked,  for  the  sake  of  their  feathers, 
before  being  sent  to  market.  Poulterers 
in  towns,  on  the  other  hand,  kill  and  pluck 
every  sort  of  fowl  for  sale — so  that  the 
purchaser  has  it  in  his  power  to  judge  of 
the  carcass;  and  if  he  buys  an  inferior 
article  at  a  high  price,  the  fault  is  his 
own.  It  is  easy  to  judge  of  a  plucked 
fowl,  whether  old  or  young,  by  the  state 
of  the  leys.  If  a  hen's  spur  is  hard,  and 
the  scales  on  the  legs  rough,  she  is  old, 
whether  or  not  you  see  her  head ;  but  the 
head  will  corroborate  your  observation,  if 
the  under  bill  is  so  stitF  that  you  cannot 
bend  it  to  a  curve,  and  the  comb  is  thick 
and  rough.  A  young  hen  has  only  the 
rudiraenta  of  spurs,  tlie  scales  on  the  legs 
smooth,  glossy,  and  fresh-coloured,  what- 
ever the  colour  may  be,  the  claws  tender 
and  short,  the  under  bill  soft,  and  the 
comb  thin  and  smooth.  An  old  hen- 
turkey  has  rough  scales  on  the  legs, 
callosities  on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and 
long  strong  claws ;  a  young  one  has  none 
of  these.  When  the  feathers  are  on,  an 
old  turkey-cock  has  a  long  beard,  a  young 
cock  but  a  sprouting  one  ;  and  when  oli', 
the  smooth  scales  on  the  legs  decide  the 
point,  beside  difference  of  size  in  the 
wattles  of  the  neck,  and  in  the  elastic  snot 
upon  the  nose.  An  old  goose,  when  alive, 
is  known  by  the  roughness  of  the  legs,  the 
strength  of  the  wings,  particularly  at  the 
pinions,  the  thickness  and  strength  of  the 
bill,  and  the  firmness  and  thickness  of  the 
feathers;  and  when  plucke-l,  by  the  smootii 
legs,  weak  pinions  and  bill,  and  fine  skin. 
Ducks  are  distinguished  by  the  same 
marks,  but  there  is  this  difference,  that 
a  duckling's  bill  is  much  longer  in  pro- 
portion to  the  breadth  of  its  head  than 
that  of  an  old  duck.  A  young  pigeon  is 
easily  recognised  by  its  pale-coloured, 
smooth-scaled,  tender,  collapsed  feet,  the 
yellow  long  down  interspersed  among  the 
feathers,  and  the  soft  under  bill.  A  pigeon 
that  can  fly  has  red-coloured  legs,  no 
dowTi,  and  is  too  old  for  use. 

1609.  The  hen-house  should  be  divided 
into   at   least  four  apartments,    included 


within  a  court-yard.  The  use  of  four 
apartments  is,  to  devote  one  of  them  to 
tlie  hens  and  turkeys,  which  roost  high  ; 
and  therefore  wooden  roosts  should  be 
put  up  for  them,  not  narrower  tiian  to 
allow  the  feet  of  the  fowls  to  be  spread 
out.  The  roosting-house  for  these  fowls 
is  in  G,  Plate  II.,  under  a  part  of  a 
granary.  The  geese  and  ducks  should 
rest  on  the  floor,  and  have  a  house  for 
themselves,  and  this  may  be  at  the  hatch- 
ing-house. When  geese  and  ducks  are 
obliged  to  rest  below  hens,  they  are  made 
uncomfortable  and  dirty  by  the  droppings 
from  the  latter.  There  should  be  a  hatch- 
ing-house to  accommodate  both  classes  of 
birds,  when  they  sit  upon  their  eggs,  in 
separate  nests.  The  fourth  apartment 
is  the  one  for  the  use  of  those  which  are 
laying  their  eggs.  For  convenience,  com- 
partments are  made  in  it  for  containing 
nests,  which  are  made  to  suit  the  nature 
of  the  fowls.  The  largest  apartment  should 
be  occupied  by  the  most  numerous  body 
of  fowls,  namely,  the  hens  and  turkeys ; 
and  the  egg-house  should  have  access  by 
a  trap-ladder  and  opening  through  the 
wall  from  the  outside,  to  admit  the  laying 
hens.  There  should  be  an  opening  with 
a  sliding-shut  in  the  outer  door  of  this,  as 
well  as  one  in  those  of  the  geese-house 
and  hatching-house,  to  give  admittance  to 
the  birds  when  disposed  to  go  to  rest  in 
the  afternoon  ;  and  these  shuts  should  be 
closed  every  night.  In  the  accommoda- 
tion thus  appropriated  to  every  class  of 
fowls,  each  apartment  will  be  occupied 
by  its  own  class.  The  usual  practice  is 
to  put  all  kinds  of  fowls  into  the  same 
apartment;  and  the  small  space  occupied 
by  even  a  single  room  seems  to  be 
grudged  ;  as  if  any  sort  of  accommodation, 
however  hamj»ered  or  incommodious,  were 
good  enough  for  poultry.  How  breeders 
and  feeders  of  stock  can  reconcile  their 
minds  to  such  indifference  towards  any 
class  of  their  live-stock,  while  cherishing 
the  desire  of  having  a  good  fowl  at  tlieir 
table,  is  more  than  I  can  imagine,  unless 
they  believe  that  quite  opposite  modes  of 
treatment  will  produce  similar  results  in 
different  classes  of  animals.  In  very  cold 
weather,  the  apartment  occiijiied  by  the 
hens  and  turkeys  should  be  kept  warm  by 
any  expedient,  such  as  the  shutting  of 
doors,  and  putting  straw  upon  the  slated 
roofs  of  all  the  apartments  during  a  con- 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS  IN  WINTER. 


355 


tinned  storm.  Snow  forms  a  warm  cover- 
ing on  a  roof,  but  tlie  heat  from  fowls 
roosting  under,  soon  melts  it ;  so  it  is  better 
to  remove  the  snow  and  put  on  straw, 
and  allow  the  snow  to  fall  upon  the  straw. 
Fowls  thrive  best  in  a  mild  temperature, 
and  not  great  heat ;  and  such  expedients 
will  afford  sufficient  heat  during  the 
severity  of  a  winter  storm.  I  do  not  enter 
into  all  the  particulars  usually  to  be 
found  in  a  regularly  constructed  poultry- 
house — for  these  are  best  suited  to  a  pro- 
prietor's offices :  those  I  have  referred  to 
are  quite  well  enough  constructed  for  a 
farm,  and  if  the  fowls  were  as  well 
attended  to  as  such  accommodation  would 
afford  them  protection  and  comfort,  they 
would  exhibit  a  much  better  appearance 
than  they  usually  do  about  farmyards. 

1610.  A  pigeon-house  is  a  necessary 
structure,  and  may  be  made  to  contribute 
a  regular  supply  of  one  of  the  best 
luxuries  raised  on  a  farm.  As  pigeons 
are  fond  of  heat  at  all  seasons,  a  room 
in  the  gable,  above  the  bulls'  hammels, 
as  seen  in  Plate  I.,  would  suit  well.  A 
large  pigeon-house  is  not  required,  as  with 
ordinary  care,  pigeons  beiug  very  prolific 
breeders,  a  sufficient  number  for  the  table 
may  be  obtained  from  a  few  pairs  of 
breeding  birds.  I  had  a  pigeon-house  not 
exceeding  6  feet  cube,  and  not  very  favour- 
ably situated  either  for  heat  or  quiet- 
ness, which  yielded  150  pairs  of  pigeons 
every  season.  The  flooring  should  be  strong 
and  close,  and  the  sides,  front,  and  roof, 
in  the  inside,  lathed  and  plastered.  A 
small  door  will  suffice  for  an  entrance, 
to  which  access  may  be  obtained  from 
the  wool-room.  The  pigeon-holes  in  the 
gable  should  be  made  of  stone,  and  kept 
bright  with  white  paint.  The  nest-cells 
should  be  made  of  wood,  9  inches  cube 
all  round  the  walls. 

1611.  When  pigeons  receive  artificial 
heat,  they  not  only  continue  to  hatch 
longer  in  autumn,  but  will  recommence 
in  spring  sooner  than  they  would  other- 
wise do.  Indeed,  by  a  little  management, 
and  keeping  the  house  always  pretty 
full  of  pigeons,  to  retain  heat  amongst 
themselves,  they  might  be  encouraged  to 
hatch  all  the  year,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  two  months  in  the  depth  of 
winter, inDecemberand January.  Pigeons, 


like  other  birds,  are  most  prolific  when 
not  too  old ;  and  as  old  cocks  tyrannise 
over  the  young  ones,  they  should  be 
destroyed  as  well  as  the  oldest  heus.  It 
is  no  easy  matter  to  get  hold  of  old  pigeons 
to  kill  them,  as  they  are  always  on  tiie 
alert,  and  ready  to  make  their  escape  ;  but 
there  are  various  ways  of  destroying 
them,  and  a  favourite  one  is  shooting, 
which  is  not  the  best  in  this  case,  as 
young  ones  may  be  wounded  in  the  act  of 
killing  the  older  birds.  The  safest  plan 
is  to  mark  the  birds  you  wish  to  destroy 
daily  for  some  time,  in  order  to  recognise 
them  readily,  and  the  old  cocks  are  easily 
discerned  by  their  froward  manner,  and 
the  interruption  tliey  give  at  the  pigeon- 
holes to  the  entrance  of  others,  though  the 
old  hens  never  conduct  themselves  in  that 
manner.  Other  means  must  therefore  be 
taken  to  recognise  them.  The  marks  are 
rough  scaly  legs,  callous  soles  of  the  feet, 
bright  red  scales  on  the  legs,  strong  bill, 
strong  wings,  thick  covering  of  feathers, 
and  brilliancy  of  the  play  of  colours  upon 
the  neck.  AH  these  marks  are  most  con- 
spicuous in  winter,  the  season  when  the 
process  of  cocking  a  pigeon-house,  as  it  is 
termed,  should  be  performed,  as  then  no 
young  ones  will  be  unknowingly  deprived 
of  their  parents.  The  safest  way  of 
catching  the  old  ones,  is  to  enter  the 
pigeon-house  gently,  late  of  a  dark  night, 
with  a  light,  and  on  entering  and  shutting 
the  door,  the  first  movement  should  be  to 
stop  up  the  holes  to  prevent  them  escap- 
ing, which  the  old  cocks  will  be  the  first 
ta  attempt ;  and,  should  the  holes  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  floor,  a  ladder 
should  have  been  placed  in  the  pigeon- 
house,  during  the  day,  to  assist  in  effecting 
the  purpose.  Two  persons  are  required  to 
capture  the  pigeons,  as  they  will  endeavour 
to  elude  every  attempt ;  one  to  take 
special  charge  of  the  light,  which  would  be 
bright  and  safe  in  the  lantern,  fig.  89.  A 
light  landing-net  used  by  anglers  is  a 
convenient  instrument  fur  entrapping  a 
pigeon,  whether  sitting  or  flying.  Every 
bird  caught  should  be  examined  and 
recognised,  and  every  one  exhibiting  signs 
of  old  age  should  be  destroyed,  by  striking 
the  back  of  the  head  forcibly  against  the 
wall,  or  cutting  it  off  with  a  large  sharp 
knife.  When  the  process  of  weeding  is 
performing,  it  should  be  done  effectually 
at   once,  and  not  repeated  in  the  same 


856 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


season;  as  such  a  nocturnal  visitation  can- 
not fail  to  intiiiiitlate  the  whole  flock.  Nor 
should  it  be  done  in  the  season  of  hatch- 
ing, though  done  without  fail  every  year ; 
and  the  consequence  will  be,  that  your 
pigeon-bouse  will  be  stored  with  prolific 
birds,  which  will  receive  no  annoyance 
from  barren  ones.  Perhaps  a  dozen  of 
birds,  male  and  female,  so  destroyed,  may 
suffice  at  a  time.  The  unstopping  of  the 
holes,  and  the  removing  of  the  slain  birds 
and  ladder,  should  be  done  quietly. 

1612.  The  daily  treatment  of  fowls 
may  be  conducted  in  this  manner: — Some 
person  should  have  special  charge  of  them, 
and  the  dairy-maid  is  perhai)8  the  best 
qualified  for  it.  As  fowls  are  very  early 
risers,  she  should  go  to  the  hen-house  in 
the  morning,  on  her  w^ay  to  the  byre,  and 
let  out  all  the  fowls,  giving  the  hens  and 
turkeys  a  feed  of  light  corn  and  cold 
boiled  potatoes,  strewed  along  at  some 
convenient  and  establislied  place  out  of 
the  way  of  the  general  passage  of  horses 
and  carts ;  such  as  between  the  hammels 
N,  and  the  byre  and  calves'  courts,  Plate 
II.  The  ducks  should  get  the  same  food 
either  near  the  horse-pond,  or  at  any 
pond  or  trough  of  water,  placed  for  them, 
as  they  cannot  swallow  dry  food  without 
the  assistance  of  water.  Geese  thrive 
well  upon  sliced  turnips,  a  little  of  which, 
sliced  small,  should  be  left  by  the  cattle- 
man for  the  dairy-maid  at  any  of  the  stores, 
and  given  at  a  place  apart  from  the  hens. 
When  stated  places  are  thus  established 
for  feeding  fowls  at  fixed  hours,  they  will 
resort  to  them  ;  at  least,  the  well-known 
call  will  bring  the  hour  to  their  recollec- 
tion, and  collect  them  together  on  the  spot 
in  a  few  seconds,  the  regular  administna- 
tion  of  food  being  as  essential  for  their 
welfare  as  that  of  other  stock.  Ducks 
pick  up  a  good  deal  of  what  falls  about 
the  stable,  and  near  the  corn-barn  door, 
as  well  as  in  the  straw-barn  ;  and  geese 
will  help  themselves  to  the  turuij)s  that 
may  chance  to  fall  from  the  troughs  of 
the  cattle ;  and  they  are  also  fond  of  raw ' 
potatoes.  After  her  own  dinner,  say  1 
o'clock  P.M.,  the  dairy-maid  takes  a  ))art 
of  the  potatoes  that  have  been  boiled  at 
that  time,  and  while  a  little  warm,  gives 
them  crumbled  down  from  their  skins, 
with  some  light  corn,  to  the  turkeys  and 
hens.    At  this  time  of  the  day  the  spaces 


below  the  stathels  of  the  stacks  in  the 
stack-yard  form  excellent  dry  sheltered 
places  for  laving  down  food,  and  the 
stack-yard  is  a  very  probable  place  for 
their  resort  after  the  morning  meal,  when 
it  rains  or  snows.  In  laying  down  food 
for  the  fowls,  the  pigeons  should  be  re- 
membered, as  they  Avill  feed  with  the 
hens,  and  on  the  same  sort  of  food.  Before 
sunset,  the  fowls  are  all  collected  together 
by  a  call,  to  be  put  into  the  house,  which 
they  will  readily  enter;  and  many  will 
have  taken  up  their  abode  in  it  already, 
especially  the  turkeys,  which  go  very 
Soon  to  roost.  The  ducks  are  the  latest 
idlers.  The  floors  of  the  diti'erent  a])art- 
ments  should  be  littered  with  a  little  fresh 
straw  every  day,  sufficient  to  cover  the 
dung,  and  the  whole  cleaned  out  every 
week.  Sawdust  or  sand,  where  they  are 
easily  obtained,  forms  an  excellent  cover- 
ing for  the  floor  of  hen-houses.  Troughs 
of  water  should  be  placed  in  their  own 
court-yard,  supplied  with  fresh  water,  and 
cleaned  out  every  day. 

1613.  This  mode  of  daily  treatment 
will  maintain  fowls  in  a  condition  for 
using  at  any  time ;  and  it  cannot  be  said 
to  involve  much  expense,  for  the  riddlings 
of  potatoes  and  light  corn  boiled  may  be 
regarded  Jis  the  ofl'al  of  the  farm  :  but  the 
truth  is,  food  administered  to  these  crea- 
tures at  irregular  intervals,  though  it  be 
of  the  finest  quality,  will  be  compara- 
tively thrown  away,  when  compared  to 
tlie  good  effects  of  food  of  cA'en  inferior 
quality  given  at  stated  ho7(rs.  This 
})lan  contrasts  favourably  with  that  which 
gives  large  (piantities  of  food  in  one  sjuit 
at  long  intervals,  in  a  claminv  state — as 
also  with  that  which  permits  fowls  to  shift 
for  their  food  at  the  farmstead.  Eitiierof 
these  ways  will  never  fatten  fowls ;  and 
food  given  in  over-abundance  at  one  time, 
and  restricted  at  another,  will  never 
fatten  any  animal ;  nor  will  they  obtain 
sufficient  food  at  all  times  when  made 
to  shift  for  themselves,  because  of  fowls, 
like  other  animals,  some  can  forage  most 
perseveringly,  whilst  others  are  indo- 
lent and  careless  of  food  when  not  jdaced 
before  them.  A  regular  jilan  is  recom- 
mended, and  when  repeated  daily,  their 
coTidition  must  increase,  because  it  cannot 
decrease,  the  minimum  quantity  of  food 
being  always  sufficient  to  appease  hunger; 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS  IN  ^^^NTER. 


357 


and  tbey  can  never  feel  hunger  when 
supplied  with  food  at  appointed  times. 
Thus,  in  the  long  run,  more  nutrition  will 
be  derived  from  inferior  food  regularly- 
administered,  than  from  richer  given  irre- 
gularly. 

1614.  Should  it  be  desired,  however,  to 
be  particularly  indulgent  to  fowls  intended 
for  immediate  use,  the  following  materials 
will  render  the  respective  sorts  of  fowls 
perfectly  ripe  in  a  short  time.  Boiled 
potatoes,  warm,  and  light  wheat,  for  heus  ; 
boiled  potatoes,  warm,  and  firm  oatmeal 
porridge,  warm,  for  turkeys  ;  boiled  pota- 
toes, warm,  and  oats,  for  geese ;  and  boiled 
potatoes,  warm,  and  boiled  barley,  warm, 
for  ducks.  The  potatoes  and  porridge 
should  be  crumbled  down  and  strewed 
about  in  small  pieces.  As  potatoes  cannot 
now  be  depended  upon,  Indian  corn  boiled 
may  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
them.  But  immediate  effects,  even  from 
superior  food,  should  only  be  expected  on 
fowls  that  have  been  regularly  fed  as 
recommended  above,  up  to  the  time  the 
superior  food  is  indulged  in.  Let  starved 
fowls  receive  the  same  ingredients,  and  a 
long  time  will  elapse  ere  they  exhibit 
symptoms  of  improved  condition,  besides 
the  risk  they  run,  in  the  mean  time,  of 
receiving  injury  from  surfeit  and  indiges- 
tion. No  doubt,  superior  feeding  will 
incur  cost,  if  persevered  in  throughout  the 
season ;  but  I  am  disposed  to  affirm  that, 
were  proper  breeds  of  fowls  only  culti- 
vated, and  were  the  shortness  of  time 
taken  into  consideration  in  which  a  pure 
breed  will  ripen  on  good  food,  a  profit 
would  actually  be  derived  from  its  use. 
The  experiment  has  never  been  satisfac- 
torily attempted  by  farmers,  and  all  the 
instances  we  know  of  superior  feeding, 
apart  from  experiments  by  men  of  science, 
are  derived  from  the  establishments  of 
noblemen,  whose  object  not  being  to  obtain 
a  profit,  their  fowls  are  fed  with  the  view 
of  producing  tlie  greatest  results. 

1615.  Other  ingredients  may  be  used 
for  feeding  fowls,  among  which  are  buck- 
wheat, rice,  and  Indian  corn.  Buck-wheat 
is  successfully  grown  in  England,  not  so 
in  Scotland.  It  is  said  to  fatten  poultry 
well,  thouifh  not  so  well  as  graiu.     It  is 


excellent  feeding  for  pheasants.  Rice  may 
be  given  either  raw  or  boiled:  in  the 
former  state,  fowls  will  pick  it  as  readily 
as  grain  after  feeding  on  boiled  potatoes, 
and,  when  boiled,  it  will  fatten  without 
the  aid  of  potatoes — but,  of  course,  it  is 
more  expensive,  as  even  good  damaged 
rice  can  seldom  be  obtained  under  16s.  or 
18s.  per  cwt.,  which  is  nearly  2d.  per  lb., 
without  the  expense  of  cooking.  Fine 
barley,  weighing  56  lbs.  per  bushel,  sell- 
ing at  4s.  per  bushel,  is  nearly  one  penny 
per  pound.  Indian  corn  is  employed  in 
America,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Ger- 
many, and  in  Lombardy,  for  feeding 
poultry,  and  they  become  very  fat  upon 
it.  It  is  too  large  to  be  swallowed  raw, 
like  the  horse-bean  of  this  country ;  but 
when  steeped  in  water,  or  boiled,  it  is 
easily  eaten,  and,  if  sold  at  4s.  per  bushel, 
it  would  not  cost  Id.  per  lb.  "  From  a 
desire  to  save  expense,"  says  Boswell, 
"  the  bran  of  wheat,  and  sometimes 
pollard,  or  middlings,  are  given  to  fowls ; 
but  these  bruised  skins,  where  little  if 
any  of  the  farina  of  wheat  remains,  ap- 
pear to  contain  a  very  small  portion  of 
nourishment  in  proportion  to  the  cost 
price.  M.  Reaumur  found  by  experiment, 
that  it  is  little  or  no  saving  to  substitute 
bran  for  good  grain  in  feeding  poultry. 
Bran  is  not  given  dry,  but  mixed  with 
water  to  the  consistence  of  paste.  Some 
people  boil  this  ;  but  it  does  not  increase 
the  bulk,  except  in  a  very  trifling  degree, 
and  is,  therefore,  of  small  advantage.  He 
found  that  two  measures  of  dry  bran, 
mixed  with  water,  were  consumed  by 
fowls  in  the  same  time  that  they  would 
have  eaten  a  single  measure  of  boiled 
barley,  equivalent  to  three-fifths  of  a 
measure  of  dry  barley."*  Bran,  though 
not  destitute  of  nutrition,  is  of  little  use 
to  fowls  as  food ;  but  may  be  the  means 
of  conveying  nourishing  food,  in  the  shape 
of  fat,  broth,  and  other  rich  liquids  from 
the  kitchen,  which  they  could  not  other- 
wise avail  themselves  of  but  by  such  an 
absorbent.  Fowls  are  very  fond  of  bread, 
and  of  butcher-meat,  cooked  or  raw,  and 
they  will  pick  a  rough  bone  very  neatly. 
They  sometimes  display  even  carnivorous 
propensities.  Many  a  time  have  I  ob- 
served them  watching  for  a  mouse  at  the 
casting  down  of  a  stack  in  the  stack-yard  ; 


Boswell's  Poultry-Yard,  ■g.  54. 


858 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  the  moment  one  attempted  to  escape, 
awav  tliev  would  run,  cocks  and  liens 
together,  in  full  chase  after  it :  and  on 
mobbing  it,  peck  it  not  only  to  death,  but 
to  pieces,  and  swallow  it. 

1616.  I  have  said  that  eijgs^  and  chick- 
ens too,  may  be  obtained  in  winter  by 
good  management.  The  young  hens  of 
the  first  broods  in  April  will  be  old  enough 
to  lay  e^J^§,^  in  winter.  A  few  of  these 
should  be  selected  for  the  purpose ;  and  as 
the  period  of  laying  approaches — which 
may  be  ascertained  by  their  chauntiug  a 
song  and  an  increased  redness  of  the 
comb — they  should  be  supported  by  better, 
warm  feeding,  and  waruier  housing  at 
night.  The  feeding  consists  of  warm 
potato,  or  warm  Indian  corn,  and  firm 
oatmeal  porridge,  twice  a-day — at  morn- 
ing when  they  are  let  out,  and  in  the 
afternoon  at  1  o'clock,  with  a  few  grains 
of  oats.  To  give  them  peace  in  feeding 
uj)on  their  tempting  fare,  they  may  be  fed 
by  themselves  in  the  court-yard  of  the 
hen-houses,  and  the  outer-door  shut  upon 
them  after  the  rest  of  the  fowls  have  left 
their  night's  quarters.  Their  comfortable 
housing  consists  in  directing  them  into  the 
batching-house  betimes  every  afternoon, 
and  therein  making  for  them  a  number  of 
comfortable  nests  of  clean  oat-straw,  to 
choose  amongst,  and,  when  each  has  taken 
to  the  one  she  selects  for  her  own,  leaving 
an  old  Q^g  in  it  for  a  nest-egg.  A  little 
lime  and  gravel  should  be  placed  within 
their  reach — the  gravel  assisting  the 
digestion,  and  the  lime  affording  the  cal- 
careous covering  for  the  egg.  These  three  or 
four  young  hens  will  lavas  many  eggs  every 
day ;  and  though  they  are  not  so  large  as 
those  of  more  matured  fowls,  being  only 
pullets'  eggs,  still  they  are  fresh  ;  and  it 
is  no  small  luxury  to  enjoy  a  new-laid 
Ggg  at  breakfast  every  winter-morning — 
a  luxury  which  I  enjoyed  ad  many  years 
as  I  lived  in  the  country. 

1617.  With  regard  to  young  broods  in 
winter,  I  believe  few  people  will  impose 
upon  themselves  the  trouble  of  setting 
hens  on  eggs  so  late  in  the  season  for  the 
purpose  of  rearing  cliickens  in  winter — 
and  yet  it  may  be  done  without  difficulty  ; 
but  sometimes  the  task  is  imposed   invo- 


luntarily upon  one,  inasmuch  as  some  hens 
will  secret  their  nests  in  the  fields,  at  a 
heilge-root,  or  other  safe  j)lace,  and  bring 
out  strong  broods  of  chickens  on  the  eve 
of  winter  ;  and  in  such  an  event,  the  little 
innocents,  brought  into  a  cold  world,  can- 
not be  allowed  to  perish  for  want  of  care. 
When  a  late  brood  makes  its  ajtpearance, 
or  is  purposely  brought  forth,  it  should  be 
kept  apart  from  the  rest,  in  a  warm  and 
sheltered  place;  and  where  no  better  place 
presents  itself,  it  may  be  comfortably 
housed  in  a  corner  of  the  boiler-house, 
(Plate  II.,)  where  a  hamper  or  basket, 
placed  over  mother  and  chickens,  or  a 
fence  of  some  kind,  erected  across  a  cor- 
ner, near  the  fire,  will  protect  them  in 
their  comfortable  nests  from  external 
danger.  From  thence  they  should  be  let 
out  for  a  while  in  tiie  forenoon,  to  receive 
the  fresh  air  and  bask  in  the  sun,  and 
returned  to  their  nest  long  before  sunset. 
In  rainy  weather  they  may  be  conducted 
to  a  shed,  and  in  hard  frost  kept  in  the 
house  altogether,  as  frost  soon  benumbs 
their  legs — and  whenever  they  lose  the 
power  of  these  they  soon  droop  and  die. 
Their  nest  should  be  elevatetl  some  inches 
above  the  floor,  to  keep  them  above  the 
draught  of  air  that  swee])s  along  it,  with 
a  broad  sloping  base  to  ati'ord  the  chickens 
an  easy  access  to  their  nest ;  and  every 
evening,  a  little  of  tlie  cleanest  and 
warniest  of  the  straw,  from  under  a  cow  in 
the  adjoining  byre,  will  form  an  excellent 
lining  for  the  nest  for  the  hen  to  brood 
them  upon.  Food  should  be  given  them 
from  morning  to  evening  every  three 
hours.  It  may  consist  of  Marm  boiled 
mealy  potatoes  crumbled  down  small, 
picks  of  oatmeal  porridge — mixed  with 
oatmeal,  and  a  flat  low  dish  of  clean 
water.  With  variety  of  food,  daily  atten- 
tion, and  warm  housing,  they  will  get  on 
well,  and  by  spring  be  as  plumj)  as  par- 
tridges, and  as  valuable  as  ortolans.  I  am 
surprised  to  observe  Mr  Mowbray  say, 
that  "to  attempt  to  rear  winter  chickens 
in  thiscliniate,  even  in  a  carpeted  room, and 
with  a  constant  fire,  would  in  ail  jiroba- 
bility  be  found  abortive.  I  have  rej)eat- 
edly  made  the  experiment,"  he  adds, 
"  with  scores,  without  being  able  to  pre- 
serve an  indivitlual  through  the  winter.''* 
The  difficulty  I  am  sure  is  small,  though 


Mowbray's  Praetieal  Treatise  on  Domestic  Poultry,  p.  57. 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS  IN  WINTER. 


359 


the  trouble  may  be  unnecessary;  but 
neither  a  "  carpeted  room,"  nor  a  "  con- 
stant fire,"  will  of  themselves  rear  chick- 
ens :  the  whole  art  consists  of  suitable  food 
medium  temperature,  fresh  air,  and  well- 
timed  attention ;  and  with  these  a  large 
number  of  chickens  may  be  reared  in 
winter  at  one  time,  if  desired. 

1618.  Such  is  the  way  I  would  recom- 
mend the  feeding  of  poultry  on  a  farm. 
It  is  not  an  expensive  mode  in  a  pecuniary 
point  of  view — at  least  not  more  so  than 
shoukl  be  incurred  on  a  farm — for  it  con- 
sists entirely  of  ordinary  fare,  and  regular 
attention  ;  and  therein  depends  the  entire 
value  and  success  of  the  plan.  That  the 
plan  is  a  valuable  one,  and  worthy  of  imi- 
tation, I  have  proved  beyond  doubt,  as  it 
supplied  fowls  of  every  kind  in  their 
respective  seasons,  in  high  condition — at 
any  hour  they  were  required — and  without 
the  least  previous  formal  preparation. 
Thus,  a  chicken,  a  young  cock,  a  hen, 
were  at  command  throughout  the  year  ;  a 
duckling  in  the  autumn ;  a  goose  or  a  tur- 
key from  Michaelmas  to  March  :  and  this 
not  for  one  year,  or  only  in  a  favourable 
season,  but  year  after  year  for  15  years — 
as  long,  in  short,  as  I  had  opportunity  to 
practise  it.  In  truth,  a  young  fat  fowl 
and  a  fresh  ^g^  were  never  awanting, 
from  January  to  December ;  so  that  much 
truth  was  conveyed  in  Gobbet's  remark, 
when  he  said,  "  one  thing  about  fowls 
ought  always  to  be  borne  in  mind, — they 
are  never  good  for  any  thing  after  they 
have  attained  their  full  growth,  unless 
they  be  capons  or  poullards."*  As  with 
pigeons  so  with  fowls ;  keep  them  always 
young,  and  they  will  always  prove  prolific 
and  healthy. 

1619.  In  regard  to  the  undue  means 
used  for  pampering  fowls  to  fatness,  I  quite 
agree  with  Gobbet  that  "crammed  fowls 
are  very  nasty  things ;"  and  when  we 
reflect  on  the  worse  than  imprisonment 
practised  for  the  purpose,  by  cooping  up 
fowls  in  the  dark,  and  tying  their  feet 
together,  the  means  used  to  attain  the  end 
become  highly  reprehensible.  Liebig  ex- 
plains the  rationale  of  this  latter  practice. 
'"  Experience,"  he  says,  "  teaches  us  that 
in  poultry,  tlie  maximum  of  fat  is  obtained 

•  Cobbet's  Cottage  Economy. 


by  tying  the  feet  and  by  a  medium  tem- 
pera'ture.  These  animals,  in  such  circum- 
stances, may  be  compared  to  a  plant 
possessing  in  the  highest  degree  the  power 
of  converting  all  food  into  parts  of  its  own 
structure.  Tiie  excess  of  the  constituents 
of  blood  form  flesh  and  other  organised 
tissues,  while  that  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.,  is 
converted  into  fat.  When  animals  are  fed 
on  food  destitute  of  nitrogen,  only  parts 
of  their  structure  increase  in  size.  Thus, 
in  a  goose  fattened  in  the  method  above 
alluded  to,  the  liver  becomes  three  or  four 
times  larger  than  in  the  same  animal  when 
well  fed  with  free  motion,  while  we  cannot 
say  that  the  organised  structure  of  the 
liver  is  thereby  increased.  The  liver  of  a 
goose  fed  in  the  ordinary  way  isjirm  and 
elastic ;  that  of  the  imprisoned  animal 
soft  and  spongy.  The  difference  consists 
in  a  greater  or  less  expansion  of  its  cells, 
which  are  filled  with  fat."t  The  practice 
of  stuffing  appears  to  me  the  more  repre- 
hensible, in  that  its  principal  effect  is  to 
increase  the  off"al. 

1620.  The  denominations  of  the  com- 
mon fowls  of  the  farm  are  as  follows : — 
The  male  of  the  fowl  is  the  cock^  and  the 
female  the  lien  ;  the  young  are  cock  chick- 
ens and  hen  chickens  according  to  their 
sex.  A  hen  chicken  before  it  begins  to  lay 
eggs  is  a  pullet,  and  a  castrated  cock  is  a 
capon.  Turkeys  are  likewise  termed  cock 
and  hen  turkeys,  and  the  young  of  both 
sex  a  poult.  The  male  of  the  goose  tribe 
is  a  gander,  the  female  a  goose,  and"  the 
young  of  both  sexes  ?i  gosling.  A  gosling 
fit  for  eating  is  a  green  goose.  The  male 
of  the  duck  tribe  is  a  drake,  the  female  a 
duck,  and  the  young  of  both  sexes  a  duck- 
ling. Pea  cock  and  pea  hen  are  the  terms 
for  the  old  male  and  female,  and  peafowls 
for  the  young  of  both  sexes.  Gock  and  hen 
are  the  distinguishing  terms  for  the  male 
and  female  of  all  the  gallinaceous  race  of 
birds,  and  so  also  with  the  pigeon  tribe. 

1621.  Peacocks  may  be  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  turkeys. 

1622.  Guinea-fowls,  notwithstanding 
the  delicacy  of  their  eggs,  should  never  be 
tolerated  in  a  farm-yard,  both  on  account 
of  the  horrid  grating  noise  they  make, 

•\  Liebig's  Animal  Chemistry,  p.  94 


S60 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  the  strong  propensity  they  evince  of 
constantly  annoying  other  fowls. 

1623.  The  feathert  of  the  various  sorts  of 
fowls  used,  are  either  disposed  of  or  conTerted 
into  domestic  use.  The  following  directions  on 
sweetening  and  managing  feathers  are  given  by 
a  lady  of  my  acquaintance,  who  is  a  notable 
housewife  ;  and  as  they  very  nearly  accord  with 
my  own  experience,  I  shall  transcribe  them  in 
her  own  intelligent  words.  "  Every  one  is  aware 
that  the  feathers  of  cocks  and  hens  are  very 
inferior  to  those  of  geese  and  ducks,  for  the 
purpose  of  filling  beds  and  pillows  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention, 
that  the  former  should  be  kept  separate  from 
those  of  the  two  latter  fowls.  As  the  birds  are 
plucked,  the  large  feathers  should  be  selected 
and  placed  asunder.  Paper-bags  are  the  best 
recipients.  The  pinion  feathers  should  be  stripped 
from  the  quill,  and  added  to  the  other  feathers  ; 
and,  if  great  caution  have  not  been  used  in 
plucking  the  birds,  they  should  be  carefully 
looked  over,  that  no  part  of  the  skin  has  been 
torn  and  adhering  to  the  base  of  the  quills. 
The  bags  of  feathers  should  be  placed  in  the 
bread-oven  on  the  day  after  it  has  been  heated, 
and,  after  some  hours,  removed  to  a  dry  airy 
place  ;  and  this  ought  to  be  done  every  week." 
On  this  part  of  the  subject,  I  may  mention  a 
less  troublesome  plan  than  the  oven,  where 
there  happens  to  be  an  apartment  behind  the 
kitchen-fire,  against  the  wall  of  which  the  bags 
containing  the  feathers  may  be  hung  up,  and 
there  the  feathers  will  soon  iron.  "  Notwith- 
standing," continues  our  instructress,  "  every 
apparent  caution  shall  have  been  used,  the  fea- 
thers are  frequently  found  to  be  tainted,  either 
from  carelessness  in  plucking,  or  by  neglecting 
to  attend  to  them  afterwards  ;  and  no  subsequent 
bakirtij  or  picking  will  be  found  available  to 
restore  them.  In  this  case,  the  only  method  to 
render  them  sweet  is  to  boil  them,  which  is  to 
be  effected  in  the  following  manner  :  one  or  two 
large  canvass  or  calico  bags  must  be  made,  into 
which  the  feathers  from  the  small  paper-bags 
must  be  emptied  and  tied  up  ;  a  washing-copper 
must  be  nearly  filled  with  rain-water,  and  made 
to  boil.  The  calico-bags,  then,  one  at  a  time, 
are  to  be  dipped,  and,  by  means  of  a  stick, 
pushed  about,  and  squeezed,  and  kneaded,  for 
the  space  of  four  or  five  minutes,  then  lifted  out 
and  taken  out  of  doors  ;  and  being  tied  together 
and  the  openings  kept  secure,  that  no  feathers 
may  escape,  they  must  be  hung  over  a  line,  and 
left  to  drain  and  dry.  Several  times  a-day  the 
bags  are  to  be  shaken  up  and  turned  over  ;  and 
as  soon  as  the  feathers  appear  to  be  light  and 
drying,  which  will  not  be  the  case  for  nearly  a 
week,  the  bags  must  be  hung  up  during  dry 
weather  only,  and  taken  in  every  night.  In 
about  a  fortnight,  the  feathers  will  become  per- 
fectly sweet  and  ready  for  use  ;  and  the  water 
in  which  they  were  boiled  will  sufficiently  indi- 


cate that  this  plan  was  not  only  necessary,  but 
efiicacious,  in  cleansing  them  from  impurities 
which  would  else  have  rendered  them  useless." 
As  an  attestation  of  the  practical  efficacy  of  the 
plan,  the  lady  adds,  "  having  tried  the  method 
ourselves,  we  can  assure  our  readers  of  its  eligi- 
bility."* Feathers  are  now  efficaciously  and 
quickly  cleaned,  and  freed  from  all  impurities,  bj 
the  action  of  steam  upon  them. 

1624.  In  regard  to  the  diseases  of  fowls,  I  can 
say  without  the  fear  of  contradiction,  that,  if 
fowls  are  attended  to  in  a  systematic  manner, 
with  wholesome  food  prepared  for  them,  every 
day,  and  their  roosting  place  kept  cleap  and 
airy,  very  little  disease  will  aflfect  them  at  any 
age.  Mr  Mowbray  observes  that  "  Thq  diseases 
of  our  domestic  animals  kept  for  food  are  gene- 
rally the  result  of  some  error  in  diet  or  manage- 
ment, and  should  either  have  been  prevented,  or 
are  to  be  cured  most  readily  and  advantageously 
by  an  immediate  change,  and  adoption  of  the 
proper  regimen.  When  that  will  not  succeed, 
any  farther  trouble  is  extremely  questionable ;  and 
particularly  with  respect  to  poultry,  little  hope 
can  be  derived  from  medical  attempts. "+  I  am 
not  of  the  opinion  that,  when  fowls  are  observed 
to  be  affected  by  any  disease,  a  mere  change  of 
regimen  will  readily  eflfect  a  cure.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  value  of  the  animal  is  lost  in  the  time 
permitted  the  disease  to  develop  its  symptoms. 
The  plan,  therefore,  that  averts  the  greatest 
amount  of  loss  in  the  animal  itself,  and.  of  ex- 
pense in  the  attempt  "to  cure  its  disease,  is  to 
kill  the  animal  the  moment  the  least  symptom  of 
disease  is  seen  to  afiect  it.  If  atowl  is  found 
"  in  a  corner"  pining  away,  the  fault  lies  with 
those  who  have  the  charge  of  it  ;  for  if  they 
fulfilled  their  duty  in  daily  noticing,  as  they  ought 
to  have  done,  the  state  of  every  creature  .under 
their  charge,  none  could  stray  away  from  the 
rest  under  the  efi"ect  of  disease,  or  afty  other 
cause,  without  being  immediately  missed,  and 
searched  for. 

1()25.  SniJTters. — Tlie  only  disease  I  can  re- 
member to  have  seen  in  winter  is  what  is  vul- 
garly called  the  sHf/ff <)•.<, that  is,  a  discharge  of 
matter  from  the  nose,  which  causes  a  noise  in 
the  nose  like  stifled  breathing.  It  is  evidently  a 
catarrhal  aflectiou,  and  has  most  probably  been 
superinduced  by  exposure  to  rain  or  cold  in 
stormy  weather.  When  first  observed  to  be 
aff"ected  with  this  complaint,  any  fowl  kept  in 
the  condition  it  should  be  may  be  used  without 
scruple,  which  is  a  much  better  plan  than  tor- 
menting the  animal  by  pursuing  the  usual  prac- 
tice of  thrusting  a  feather  through  its  nostrils. 
If  the  fowl  is  not  fit  for  killing,  the  fault  lies 
either  with  the  person  who  has  charge  of  the 
poultry  or  with  the  farmer  himself,  who  grudges 
the  creature  its  food. 

1626.  I    have    seen    a  classified  list   of  the 


•  Quart^rlii  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  x.  p.  480-1.  A  curious  account  is  given  in  Head's 
Home  Tour,  of  the  modes  of  plucking  feathers  of  fowls  of  various  kinds  in  a  large  poulterer's  esta- 
blishment in  Lincoln. 

t  Mowbray's  Practical  Treatise  on  Domestic  Poultry,  p.  211. 


FEEDING  OF  FOWLS  IN  WINTER. 


361 


diseases  alleged  to  affect  poultry,  given  by  a  cor- 
respondent of  the  Gardener^s  Chronicle  for  7th 
November  1846,  and  the  numbers  seem  to  me 
appalling,  as  I  have  seen  but  very  few  of  them  : — 


3d  Division  —  Catarrhal, 
respiratory  and  pul- 
monary. 

Chip. 

Pip. 

Influenza,  inflamed  head, 
eyes,  and  nostrils. 

Roup  or  glanders. 

Asthma. 

Phthisis. 
4th  Division — Nervous. 

Meaghrims. 

Apoplexy. 

Paralysis. 
5th  Division' — External  and 
accidental. 

Obstruction  of  rump  gland. 

Fractures. 

Bruises. 

Tumours, 

Ulcers. 

Vermin. 

Corns. 


1st  Division — Febrile   and 
Inflammatory. 

Moulting  fever. 

Loss  of  feathers  ;  mange. 

Hatching  fever. 


2d  DrvisioN — IHgestive. 

Sick  OP  full  crop. 

Oon,  lush,  or  soft  eggs. 

Egg-bound. 

Torpid  gizzard. 

Diarrhoea. 

Fluxes. 

Constipation. 

Gapes,  or  Facciola. 

Worms. 

Canker. 

Gout. 

Dropsy. 


1627.  Lice. — As  to  vermin,  every  fowl,  like 
every  other  animal,  is  affected  with  lice.  The 
common  hen  is  infested  by  more  than  one  pedi- 
cular inhabitant,  but  the  most  frequent  is  the 
Lipeurus  variabilis,  which  has  a  narrow  body, 
the  head  rounded  in  front,  the  general  colour 
dirty  white,  smooth  and  shining,  the  margins 
with  a  black  band,  the  abdomen  having  a  brown 
interrupted  stripe  down  the  middle.  According 
to  Mr  Denny,  our  principal  authority  on  this 
subject,  it  prefers  the  primary  and  secondary 
feathers  of  the  wings, 4imong  the  webs  of  which 
is  moves  about  with  great  celerity. 

1628.  3Ienopon  palH^fhn  iS'  almost  equally 
common  in  poultry,  running  over  the  hands  of 
those  who  are  pluckinglheir  feathers,  and  difficult 
to  brush  off  from  the  smoothness*  of  their  bodies. 

1629.  The  peacock  has  a  large  and  very  d^>- 
gularly  formed  parasite  of  this  nature,  named 
Goniodes  falcicornis. 

1630.  Another,  not  unlike  the  one  just  men- 
tioned in  general  appearance,  occurs  plentifully 
on  the  turkey. 

1631.  Geese  and  ducks  are  infested  by  similar 
foes,  particularly  the  latter,  on  which  the  Doco- 
phorus  icteroides,  a  species  common  to  the  whole 
anserine  tribe,  is  usually  very  abundant.* 

1632.  As  1  have  mentioned  bran  as  an  ingre- 
dient at  times  administered  to  fowls  as  food,  it 
may  be  worth  while  to  notice  what  chemists  say 
of  its  nutritive  properties.  The  proportions 
of  water,  and  of  oil  and  fat,  do  not  vary  much  in 
pure  bran.  The  oil  varied  from  5'26  to  6'53  per 
cent,  and  the  water  from  ir82  to  1323  per 
cent,  in  six  different  cases.     The  albumen  varies 


in  a  greater  degree.     The  composition  of  bran  is 

v<iry^nearly  as  follows  : — 

Water      .             .             .  .  13'1 

Albumen  (coagulated)  ,  19*3 

Oil          .            .            .  .  4-7 

Husk  and  a  little  starch  .  55'6 

Saline  matter  (ash)         \  .  7*3 

100-0 

The  ash  has  not  yet  been  analysed.  As  it  ap- 
pears that  the  nutritive  matter,  consisting  of  the 
albumen  and  oil,  amounts  to  24  per  cent,  bran 
should  be  a  good  ingredient  to  assist,  at  least  in 
the  feeding  of  pigs  and  other  stock.-f* 

1633.  Goose  fat  is  used  for  some  purposes  on 
a  farm.  It  is  useful  in  anointing  the  udders  of 
cows  in  spring,  should  they  become  hard,  and  it 
has  the  property  of  evaporating  slowly.  It  also 
keeps  a  poultice  moist  until  it  should  be  renewed  ; 
and,  on  account  of  this  property,  it  constitutes  a 
good  ingredient  of  grease  for  smearing  the  axles 
of  cart-wheels.  This  fat  may  be  rendered  in  the 
same  manner  as  mutton-suet  and  lard,  and  kept 
in  a  jar  covered  with  bladder.  Goose  fat  "  is 
colourless,  and  has  a  peculiar  taste  and  smell, 
rather  agreeable.  If  melted,  it  congeals  at  80^° 
Fahr.  into  a  granular  mass,  having  the  con- 
sistence of  butter.  When  exposed  to  pressure 
between  the  folds  of  blotting  paper  at  281°,  it  is 
resolved,  according  to  Braconnot,  into 

Fusible  at  111°.  Fusible  .at  126^°.  Fusible  at  11 3». 

Goose  fat.              Duck  fat.  Turkey  fat. 

Stearin,       32                        28  26 

Elain,         68                       72  74 


100 


100 


100+' 


1634.  Professor  Johnston  says  that  the  solid  fat 
of  the  goose  is  the  same  as  that  of  man,  and  as 
that  in  olive  oil  and  butter,  and  is  named  mar- 
garin  ;  and  that  the  solid  fat  of  cattle,  the 
sheep,  the  horse,  the  pig,  differs  from  that  of  man, 
and  is  known  by  the  name  of  stearin.  The  elain 
or  fluid  part  of  fat  is  identical  in  all  animals,  and 
is  exactly  the  same  thing  as  the  fluid  part  of 
olive  oil,  of  the  oil  of  almonds,  of  many  other 
fruits,  and  as  the  fluid  part  of  butter  ;  and  it 
exists  in  a  larger  quantity  in  the  fat  of  the  pig 
than  in  that  of  the  sheep,  and  hence  it  is  that 
lard  is  always  softer  than  suet.§ 

1635.  I  have  often  heard  it  expressed  as  a 
decided  opinion,  that  it  is  impossible  to  fatten 
fowls  with  a  profit.  It  seems  to  me  strange  that 
fowls  should  not  make  a  return  for  their  keep 
when  the  other  animals  on  a  farm  do  ;  so  I  can- 
not coincide  witli  the  opinion  until  I  have  seen 
the  experiment  fairly  tried  by  a  farmer  ;  and,  so 
far  as  my  own  limited  experience  instructs  me, 
my  opinion  is  in  the  opposite  direction.  An 
Englishman  has  sent  me  a  calculation  by  which 
he  endeavours  to  prove,  that  the  eggs  alone  fur- 


*  Denny's  Monojjraphia  Anoplurorum  Britannice. 

+  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  866. 

X  Thomson's  Animal  Chemistry,  p.  138. 

§  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  1011-2. 


S62 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


nished  by  good  and  young  hens  would  afford  a 
reasonable  profit  ;  and  as  the  particulars  of  the 
calculation  are  very  feasible,  and  it  is  evident 
he  has  thought  seriously  on  the  subject,  I  give 
the  results  he  renders  so  probable.  "  1  consider," 
he  says,  "  that  one  man,  with  the  occasional  as- 
sistance of  his  wife,  is  sufficient  to  take  charge 
of  10,000  head  of  poultry,  as  he  would  only  have 
to  feed  them  and  keep  the  place  clean,  and 
collect  the  eggs,  &c.  I  do  not  intend  to  keep  a 
breeding  stock,  as  I  am  quite  aware  it  would  be 
both  expensive  and  difficult  to  breed  .3000  chick- 
ens every  year.  I  would  fatten  and  sell,  a  little 
before  the  moulting  season,  about  3000  of  the  old 
hens  every  year,iiicluding  a  proportionate  number 
of  cocks,  and  with  the  same  money  purchase  as 
many  pullets  and  young  cocks,  so  in  the  end  it 
would  be  the  same  as  breeding  them  ;  and  I  do  not 
Bee  why  the  old  hens  should  not  be  eatable  and 
saleable  at  about  three  years  of  age.  If  the 
pullets  purchased  yearly  were  hatched  about 
March  or  April,  they  would  begin  to  lay  about 
the  beginning  of  November,  and  would  lay  on  an 
average  at  least  4  eggs  a-week  each,  from  that 
time  to  the  moulting  season  the  following  year. 
Supposing  the  hens  to  stop  in  the  moult  6  weeks 
• — most  good  hens  will  get  over  it  in  a  month — and 
begin  to  lay  again  in  November,  I  calculate  they 
would  lay  on  an  average  about  5  eggs  a  week 
each  for  about  4  weeks  ;  and  from  this  time 
during  8  weeks,  which  would  be  into  the  winter 
quarter,  about  4  eggs  a-week  each;  as  also  from 
the  last  time  during  12  weeks,  which  would  be 
into  spring,  5  eggs  a  week  each;  and  continuing 
forward  and  during  the  summer  for  22  weeks, 
until  the  moulting  season  again,  6  eggs  a-week 
each. 

1636.  "  I  consider  12  acres  of  grass  land,  being 
50  square  feet  for  each  fowl,  quite  sufficient  space 
to  roam  in  when  they  have  an  enclosed  yard, 
well  drained,  with  good  surface,  sheds  for  shel- 
ter from  sun  and  rain,  and  green  meat  given 
them  every  day  to  supply  the  place  of  grass. 

1637.  "  Supposing  1  peck  of  barley  to  weigh  14 
lbs.  each  hen  would  have  1 8  oz.  a  week  ;  and,  tak- 
ing the  average  number  of  eggs  laid  in  a  year 
between  a  pullet  and  a  hen  at  214,  and  allowing 
2  oz.  for  each  egg  divested  of  its  shell,  the  ave- 
rage would  be  8  oz.  a-week  from  each  hen;  and 
as,  of  course,  that  weight  of  corn  would  be  re- 
quired to  produce  the  eggs,  there  would  be  left 
10  oz.  of  corn  a-week  to  support  the  life  of  each 
hen,  supply  insensible  perspiration,  and  the  ma- 
nure. Besides  the  barley,  I  would  allow  1^  oz. 
of  oats  to  each  hen  a-day,  which  I  would  con- 
sider sufficiently  high  feeding. 

1638.  "  Supposing,  also,  that  we  reckon  the 
wholesale  price  of  the  eggs,  during  the  summer, 
at  Is.  per  36,  and  in  winter  Is.  per  24,  and  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  year  a  medium  between  these  two 
prices  :  eggs  sold  by  retail  scarcely  ever  exceed, 
in  the  summer,  from  24  to  28  for  Is.,  and  in 
winter  from  12  to  15  for  that  sum. 

1639.  "  I  have  not  taken  into  account  some  few 

*  The  Farmer' 


hens  out  of  the  stock,  that  might  perchance  want 
to  sit,  as  I  should  try  to  avoid  that  c.isualty  by 
having  the  best  known  everlasting  lasers,  such 
as  the  Dorking,  &c. 

1640.  "Suppose  that  each  fowl  voids  as  much 
as  1  oz.  of  dry  dung  every  day,  the  10,000  would 
yield  about  rather  more  than  100  tons  every 
year,  which  may  safely  be  considered  worth  £7 
per  ton. 

1641.  "  Taking  these  data  as  correct,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  expected  to  be  the  results :  — 

1»  umber    For  one     _  . 
of  eggs,    shilling,    v*'"^. 
£  t-  d. 


FrKS  ft 
Number,     week. 

5,800  hens      5 
3,000  pullets  4 

-    In 
weeks. 

4 

5,800  liens      4 
3,000  pullets  4 

8 

5,800  hens      5 
3,000  pullets  4 

12 

5,800  hens      (5 
3,000  pullets  4 

22 

116,000 

48,000 


164,000    30      273  0  0 


185,000 
96,000 


348,000 
144,0fl0 


765,600 
264,000 


281,600    24 
492,000     30 


586  0  0 


-1,029,600    36    1439  0  0 


8,800  laying  stock, 

1,200  cocks  6  in  the  moult 


10,000  entire  stock  52  weeks         1,967,200 


RecUoning  one  egg  less  out  of 
every  15,  to  ni.iUe  up  for  the 
smallness  of  the  pullets' eggs, 
would  reduce  the  number  by 


131,146     30      216  0  0 


Leaving        1,830,054 


Value  of  102  tons  of  dung  at  £7  per  ton 


Peduet  for  expenses,  namely:  — 
l.'iO(i  quarters  of  barley,  at  30s. 
1070       . .      . .    oats,  at  203.     . 
M'ages  of  man  and  woman 
Green  meat,  sutli  m  lettuce,  &c. 
Incidental  e.xpen8es  and  casualties 
Kent 


2893  0  0 
714  0  0 


3607 

0  0 

f  19.->9  0  0 

1070  0  0 

70  0  0 

40  0  0 

50  0  0 

100  0  0 

3289  0  0 

Profit         .        .        £328  0  0" 

]  642.  In  regard  to  the  right  of  farmers  shoot- 
ing pigeons,  it  has  been  decided  that  "  The 
tenant  was  found  not  justified  in  shooting  his 
landlord's  pigeons,  on  the  allegation  that  they 
destroyed  his  crops.  (Easton,  May  18,  18.'i2  ; 
10  S.  D.  542.)"*  This  decision  proves  the 
fallacy  of  a  common  opinion,  that  a  farmer"  may 
shoot  pigeons  in  the  act  of  destroying  his  crops, 
provided  he  does  not  carry  them  away  after  they 
are  shot.  If  this  opinion  were  supported  by  law, 
any  tenant  that  had  a  grudge  against  his  land- 
lord might  lure  his  pigeons  by  various  means  to 
a  particular  spot,  and  there  shoot  them,  and  let 
them  lie  :  but  such  conduct,  it  is  clear,  could  not 
be  tolerated. 


ON  THE  RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF 
ANIMALS. 

1643.  The  action  of  the  digestive  organs 
of  animals  on  the  food  eaten  by  them,  and 

I  Lawyer,  p.  35. 


RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


363 


the  appropriation  of  every  particular  con- 
stituent part  of  the  food  by  those  portions 
of  the  animal  system  most  in  want  of  them, 
is  now  better  understood  by  the  aid  of 
chemistry,  than  when  the  former  edition 
of  this  work  was  written.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  you  should  be  made  acquainted 
with  whathas  been  ascertained  of  the  nature 
of  the  food  raised  on  farms  for  the  use  of 
animals,  that  you  may  be  enabled  the 
better  to  understand  the  art  of  feeding 
those  animals  to  the  best  possible  advan- 
tage ;  and  the  properties  of  their  food  can 
only  be  understood  from  a  previous  know- 
ledge of  the  functions  performed  by  the 
digestive  organs  of  the  different  animals 
fattened  on  the  farm. 

1644.  The  domesticated  animals  of  the 
farm  are  all  comprehended  in  two  of  the 
great  divisions  of  animated  nature,  namely, 
quadrupeds  and  birds.  Of  the  quadrupeds, 
they  are  all  embraced  under  one  class, — 
the  mammalia,  or  those  which  suckle 
their  young  ;  and  of  this  class  they  occupy 
twosub-classes, — one  the  ruminants,  having 
compound  stomachs,  and  the  other  hav- 
ing simple  stomachs.  The  ox,  the  sheep, 
the  goat,  have  compound  stomachs ;  the 
horse,  the  pig,  the  ass,  the  mule,  the  dog, 
the  cat,  have  simple  stomachs.  Of  tiie 
birds,  the  few  members  of  this  family 
raised  on  the  farm  occupy  both  the  great 
divisions  of  it,  namely,  land  and  water 
birds.  The  common  fowl,  the  turkey,  the 
peacock,  theguinea- fowl, are  the  land  birds; 
the  goose  and  duck  are  the  water  birds. 

1645.  Differing  as  these  quadrupeds 
and  birds  do  in  external  appearance, 
their  digestive  organs  are  nevertheless 
very  similarly  constituted,  thereby  indi- 
cating that  the  same  kind  of  food  will 
maintain  alike  all  the  animals  of  the  farm. 
These  organs  consist  of  the  oesophagus, 
the  stomach,  and  the  large  and  small  in- 
testines, which  last  are  divided  into  the 
duodenum,  the  jejunum,  the  ileum,  the 
cu3cum,  the  colon,  and  the  rectum. 

1646.  The  functions  of  these  several 
parts  are, — of  the  a^sophagus  or  meat- 
pipe  to  convey  the  masticated  food,  mixed 
with  a  large  quantity  of  saliva,  from  the 
mouth    to     the    stomach.     The   stomach 


digests  the  food  received  in  this  state,  and 
reduces  it  to  a  finer  state  of  division,  by 
means,  it  is  supposed,  of  the  action  of  a 
fluid  which  is  exuded  from  the  coats  of 
the  stomach  during  the  process  of  diges- 
tion, and  the  fluid  has  been  supposed  to  be 
an  acid,  and  that  the  hydrochloric.  But 
Dr  R.  D.  Thomson  doubts  that  digestion 
is  effected  by  means  of  an  acid.  "  An 
acid  certainly  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
stomach,"  he  remarks,  "  when  food  is  pre- 
sent; but  whether  this  acid  takes  any  part 
in  the  digestion  or  solution,  is  still  disputed. 
During  the  digestion  of  vegetable  food  in 
pigs,  whose  stomachs  bear  a  close  resem- 
blance to  those  of  man,  I  have  always 
found  a  volatile  acid  present  in  minute 
quantities,  which  corresponded  with  the 
properties  of  acetic  acid ;  but  it  is  the 
only  acid  which  distils  over  from  the 
liquor  of  the  stomach  at  a  temperature  of 
212°.  The  filtered  liquid  of  the  stomach, 
under  such  circumstances,  contains  no 
hydrochloric  acid,  but  an  acid  which  is 
either  lactic,  or  corresponds  very  closely 
with  it."  After  making  attempts  to  dis- 
cover the  hydrochloric  acid,  he  concludes, 
— "  I  regret,  therefore,  to  be  obliged  to  in- 
fer, that  the  commonly  received  view  of 
digestion  is  scarcely  admissible.  It  is 
perhaps  safer  to  conclude  that  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  knowledge  on  this  important 
subject  ;  and  that  not  only  do  we  require 
to  possess  a  few  facts  additional,  before  we 
can  be  said  to  understand  the  process,  but 
we  want  an  entirely  new  basis  on  which 
to  found  a  theory  of  digestion.  It  seems 
highly  probable,  from  n)y  own  observation, 
that  the  starch  of  food  is  converted  into 
sugar,  and  that  this  again  passes  into 
sini])ler  forms,  as  alcohol — perhaps  acetic 
acid  or  lactic  acid — by  a  kind  of  substitu- 
tion so  well  explained  by  the  theory  of 
Dumas,  and  finally  into  gaseous  forms,  as 
carbonic  acid  and  vapour  of  water,  or  after 
some  such  fashion  as  suggested  by  Liebig. 
.  .  .  .  The  most  superficial  observer 
must  have  noticed  that  digestion  is  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  chemical  action. 
Does  not  the  famished  m?iw  feel  refreshed 
after  eating,  and  does  not  the  pulse  beat 
quicker  when  food  has  been  swallowed  ? 
There  is,  therefore,  a  nervous  action  in- 
duced, the  nature  of  which  it  is  only  wise 
to  admit  we  do  not  as  yet  understand."* 


*  Thomson's  Researches  on  the  Food  of  Animals,  p.  19-23. 


S64 


PRACTICE— WIXTER. 


The  duodenum  is  the  commencement  of 
the  email  intestines,  and  receives  the  food 
from  the  stomach  in  the  form  of  chyme, 
through  the  pyloric  duct.  In  its  passage 
through  the  duodenum,  the  food  receives 
the  pancreatic  juice  from  the  duct  con- 
nected witli  the  pancreas  or  sweetbread, 
and  bile  from  the  bile-duct  of  the  liver. 
Here  these  fluids  efl'ect  a  change  of  the 
chyme  into  chyle — the  pancreatic  juice 
converting  one  portion  into  a  white,  thick, 
milky  fluid,  and  the  bile  into  a  yellow  pul- 
taceous  mass.  The  next  intestine,  the 
jejunum,  conveys  the  reduced  food  on- 
wards, acts  upon  it,  and  retains  it  only  a 
certain  time,  and  on  this  account  is  called 
the  empty-gut.  There  is  little  difference 
between  this  intestine  and  the  next,  the 
ileum.  Both  intestinesare  much  convoluted, 
in  order  to  lessen  the  pace  of  the  food 
through  them,  until  the  great  system  of 
absorbents  connected  with  the  mysentery, 
shall  have  extracted  the  nutritive  portion 
of  the  food  or  chyle  from  the  innutritions, 
and  carried  it  to  the  circulating  system,  to 
be  distributed  over  every  part  of  the 
body.  The  small  intestine,  the  ileum, 
terminates  in  the  large  intestine,  thecajcuni 
or  blind-gut,  by  a  valve  which  prevents  the 
return  of  its  contents.  The  large  intes- 
tines, the  caecum  and  colon,  are  destined 
to  serve  as  a  store-house  for  all  that  portion 
of  the  food  which  is  of  no  use  to  the  sys- 
tem, and  which  is  usually  known  under 
the  names  of  dung  and  fieces ;  but  a 
portion  of  the  absorbents  have  their  ves- 
sels also  in  these,  to  extract  all  the  nourish- 
ment possible  to  be  obtained  from  the  food, 
before  it  finally  leaves  the  body.  The 
rectum  or  straight-gut  constitutes  the 
lower  termination  of  the  abdominal  vis- 
cera, and  is  the  receptacle  for  the  dung 
before  it  is  ejected  by  the  anus.  Both  the 
duodenum  and  rectum  are  straight,  be- 
cause it  is  not  necessary  that  their  con- 
tents should  remain  in  them. 

1647.  The  oesophagus  of  the  Aor*^ enters 
the  stomach  in  a  somewhat  curved  direc- 
tion, to  prevent  the  regurgitation  of  the 
food.  The  stomach  is  globular,  has  four 
coats,  and  is  small,  not  half  so  large  as 
that  of  the  human  being  compared  with 
the  bulk  of  the  body.  "The  successive 
contraction  of  each  part  of  the  stomach, 
by  producing  a  series  of  folds  or  wrinkles, 
serves   to  agitate    the    alimentary   mass, 


and,  by  bringing  every  part  of  it  in  its 
time  to  the  surface,  to  expose  it  to  the 
influence  of  the  gastric  juice  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  the  whole  of  the  contents  are 
gradually  propelled  forwards,  from  the 
orifice  which  is  connected  with  the  oeso- 
phagus to  that  by  which  they  are  dis- 
charged." The  duodenum  in  man  is  so 
named  because  it  is  twelve  finger-breadths 
in  length;  in  the  horse  it  is  nearly  two 
feet  in  length,  and  is  therefore  misnamed. 
The  pancreatic  secretion  and  the  bile  are 
received  into  the  duodenum  about  five 
inches  from  its  commencement.  The 
jejunum  and  ileum  are  very  little  dis- 
tinguishable in  the  horse,  the  former  being 
two-fifths,  and  the  latter  three-fifths  of 
their  united  lengths,  and  both  would  con- 
tain eleven  gallons  of  fluid.  Of  the  large 
intestines,  the  caecum  is  the  first,  and  it  is 
called  the  blind-gut  because  it  has  but 
one  opening  ;  and  any  thing  that  passes 
into  it,  having  reached  the  blind  or  closed 
end,  must  return  in  order  to  escape.  The 
ileum  pierces  it  at  right  angles,  and  is 
furnished  with  a  valve.  It  is  principally 
the  fluid  part  of  the  food  which  enters  the 
ca?cum.  A  horse  will  at  one  time  drink  a 
great  deal  morethau  his  stomach  will  con- 
tain ;  and  whatever  quantity  he  drinks, 
does  not  remain  in  the  stomach  or  small 
intestines,  but  passes  on  to  the  caecum, 
and  is  there  retained,  as  in  a  reservoir,  to 
supply  tiie  wants  of  the  system.  The 
caecum  holds  four  gallons.  The  colon 
forms  a  very  large  portion  of  the  large 
intestines,  being  capable  of  containing 
twelve  gallons  of  liquid.  Along  the  out- 
side of  both  caecum  and  colon  run  three 
strong  bands,  each  of  them  shorter  than 
the  intestine,  thus  puckering  them  up,  and 
forming  them  into  sets  of  cells  which  de- 
tain the  food  in  them  for  a  very  long  time; 
and  in  order  that,  during  this  detention, 
all  the  nutriment  may  be  extracted,  they 
are  largely  supplied  with  blood-vessels  and 
absorbents.  At  the  termination  of  the 
colon  commences  the  rectum  or  straight- 
gut,  and  though  much  smaller  than  the 
colon,  is  capable  of  containing  three  gal- 
lons of  water.  It  has  no  bands,  so  that 
the  passage  of  the  faeces  may  not  be  re- 
tarded in  it ;  but  the  sphincter  nmscles  of 
the  anus  prevent  the  dropping  of  the 
dung  until  the  horse  is  disj)osed  voluntarily 
to  expel  it,  which  is  eft'ected  by  the 
efforts  of  the  animal,  assisted  by  the  mu8« 


RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


365 


cular  coat  of  the  rectum — which  is  stronger 
than  any  other  of  the  intestines,  —  and 
aided  by  the  compression  of  the  internal 
oblique  and  transverse  muscles.  The 
entire  length  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  a 
full-grown  horse  is  ninety  feet,  of  which 
the  small  intestines  occupy  sixty-six  feet, 
and  tlie  large  twenty-four.  The  intestines 
of  the  horse  are  thus  about  ten  times  as 
long  as  his  body.  The  intestines  are 
chiefly  retained  in  their  relative  positions 
by  the  mysentery,  which  is  a  doubling  of 
the  peritoneum,  including  each  intestine 
in  its  folds,  and  also  enclosing  the  arteries, 
the  veins,  the  nerves,  and  the  vessels 
which  convey  the  nutriment  from  the  in- 
testines to  the  circulation.  The  dispro- 
portion in  size  between  the  larger  and 
smaller  intestines,  is  much  greater  in  the 
horse  than  in  any  of  the  other  domesticated 
animals.* 

1648.  The  stomach  of  the  pig  is  also 
simple.  "It  is  a  truly  oraniverous  one, 
and  beautifully  adapted  by  its  pyramidal 
appendage  and  glandular  structure,  as 
well  as  by  tlie  villous  mucous  membrane 
with  which  it  is  lined,  for  the  digestion  of 
the  heterogeneous  food  which  it  is  destined 
to  receive,  being,  perhaps,  more  analogous 
to  that  of  the  horse  than  to  any  other 
animal.  In  form  it  is  globular."  Tlie 
intestines  of  the  pig  bear  a  stronger  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  human  being 
than  we  find  in  any  other  animal.  They 
are  sixteen  times  the  length  of  the  body 
of  the  animal,  and  the  proportion  of  the 
small  intestines  to  the  large  is  as  three 
to  one.  There  are  fewer  cases  of  derange- 
ment in  the  intestines  of  the  pig  than  in 
most  of  our  domesticated  animals,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  stomach  and  intes- 
tines being  prepared,  by  the  softening 
powerof  their  highly  mucous  villous  lining, 
for  the  reception  and  digestion  of  a  hetero- 
geneous mass  of  food,  which  to  other 
animals  would  be  actually  poisonous ; 
rendering  it  evident  that,  although  the  pig 
in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  herbivorous  ani- 
mal, it  was  also  destined  to  become 
omniverous  for  the  service  of  man.t 

1649.  The  compound  stomachs  oi  cattle 
and  sheep  are  of  very  different  construc- 
tion from  those  which  we  have  just  been 


corhsidering,  and  as  the  stomach  alc.ne  pre- 
sents any  great  peculiarity  in  the  diges- 
tive organs  of  this  and  the  above  class  of 
animals,  our  attention  shall  be  particularly 
directed  to  it.  The  entire  system  of 
stomachs  of  the  ruminants  is  divided  into 
four  compartments,  the  first  being  at  tlie 
termination  of  the  oesophagus, and  is  termed 
the  rumen,  ventriculus,  or  paunch.  It  is 
of  great  size,  occupying  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  is 
divided  into  four  unequal  sacs,  by  the 
duplicature  of  the  coats  of  the  rumen. 
The  left  side  of  the  rumen  is  elevated  as 
high  as  to  lie  in  contact  with  the  left 
flank,  through  which  the  trochar  (fig.  104) 
is  introduced  in  cases  of  the  hoven.  All 
the  food  when  first  swallowed  goes  into  the 
rumen,  and  is  preserved  there  for  the  act 
of  rumination;  and  a  portion,  and  occasion- 
ally the  greatest  part,  of  the  fluids  that 
pass  down  the  gullet  enter  the  rumen. 
The  office  of  the  rumen  is  to  macerate  the 
food  as  received  from  the  gullet,  without 
altering  it ;  and  this  it  does  by  sending  it 
into  the  different  compartments,  rubbing 
it  down  by  the  papilljs,  and  lubricating  it 
with  mucous.  While  in  action  the 
rumen  has  a  swinging  motion,  both  up- 
wards and  downwards,  and  backwards  and. 
forwards.  The  macerated  and  lubricated 
food  thus  passes  by  degrees  into  the  second 
stomach  or  reticulum,  which  has  the  con- 
figuration of  honeycomb  on  its  surface. 
Its  principal  duty  seems  to  be  to  roll  the 
food  into  pellets,  in  preparation  to  be' re- 
turned into  the  mouth  by  the  gullet  for 
remastication ;  and  having  apparently 
nothing  else  but  this  to  do,  it  is  the  small- 
est of  all  the  stomachs,  and  is  ovoidal  in 
form.  The  function  of  this  stomach  leads 
me  to  remark,  that  the  oesophagus  of  the 
ruminants  does  not  terminate  in  the  first 
stomach  it  meets,  as  in  the  case  of  animals 
having  single  stomachs,  but  extends  itself 
through  the  series  of  all  the  four  stomachs, 
its  internal  lining  forming  portions  of 
the  roofs  of  all  the  stomachs  which  it 
passes  through.  The  food,  whether  solid 
or  fluid,  may  thus  at  the  will  of  the  ani- 
mal, or  under  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
constitution,  pass  into  the  third  or  fourth 
stomachs  without  a  particle  of  it  entering 
into  the  first  or  second;  and  M-e  know  that 
this  is  the  case  with  the  food  after  it  has 


•  Youatt  On  the  Horse,  p.  285-96,— edition  of  1843. 


t  Youatt  On  the  Pig,  p.  89-90. 


A* 


866 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


undergone  the  process  of  rumination,  or  a 
second  mastication.  The  third  stomach, 
also  ovoidal  in  form,  is  called  the  many- 
plies,  because  it  is  furnished  intenially  with 
a  series  of  plies  orsheets  of  various  breadths, 
suspended  across  it,  each  covered  with 
papillie,  and  margined  with  a  horny  sub- 
stance, for  the  purpose  of  maceratintr  the 
food  still  more  minutely,  in  preparation 
for  the  last  or  true  stomach,  the  abomasum. 
This  last  is  of  an  elongated  form,  and  is 
covered  with  a  villous  lining,  capable  of 
supplying  the  gastric  juice  for  the  ultimate 
digestion  of  the  food,  which  depends  upon 
this  organ. 

1650.  The  smaller  and  larger  intestines 
of  the  ruminants  being  divided  into  the 
same  vessels,  having  to  perform  the  same 
functions  as  in  those  of  the  horse  and  pig, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  recapitulate  their  indi- 
vidual structure  and  relative  functions, 
further  than  to  remark,  that  the  larger 
intestines  are  not  so  cellated  as  in  the 
horse,  and  not  so  disproportionably  large 
to  the  smaller  ones ;  but,  that  the  food 
may  not  be  hurried  through  them  along 
their  even  surface,  they  are  considerably 
elongated,  being  not  less  than  twenty-two 
times  the  length  of  the  body  of  the  ox. 

1651.  As  the  internal  structure  of  the 
organs  of  digestion  of  the  sheep  are  so 
very  similar  to  that  of  cattle,  a  separate 
notice  of  them  seems  unnecessary,  further 
than  the  remark  that  the  intestinal  canal 
is  still  longer  in  proportion  in  the  sheep 
than  in  the  ox,  being  twenty-seven  times 
the  length  of  the  body.* 

1652.  The  process  of  rumination  be- 
ing an  important  one,  and  curious  in 
its  action,  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
performed  is  worth  being  described.  "  The 
cow  is  generally  found  couching  on  her 
right  side,  in  order  that  the  intestines, 
which  are  principally  lodged  on  that  side, 
may  not  press  upon  and  interfere  with  the 
action  of  the  rumen.  After  a  pellet  that 
has  undergone  the  process  of  rumination 
is  swallowed,  there  is  a  pause  of  two  or 
three  seconds,  during  which  the  cow  is 
making  a  slow  and  deep  inspiration.  By 
means  of  this  tlie  lungs  are  inflated  and 
press   on   the  diaphragm ;   and    the   dia- 


phragm, in  its  turn,  presses  on  both  the  ru- 
men and  the  reticulum,  and  assists  their 
action.  Suddenly  the  inspiration  is  cut 
short  by  an  evident  spasm  ;  it  is  the  for- 
cible ejection  of  the  pellet  from  the  reti- 
culum, and  of  a  fresh  quantity  of  food 
from  the  rumen  over  the  valvular  fold,  to 
enter  the  reticulum  as  soon  as  it  expands 
again.  This  spasmodic  action  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  evident  passage  of 
the  ball  up  the  oesophagus  to  the  mouth. 
This  prolouired  inspiration  is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  to  which  the  human  being 
has  recourse  when  he  would  expel  a  por- 
tion of  the  gas  that  distends  the  stomach."t 
No  portion  of  the  food  is  returned  for  ru- 
mination in  less  than  14  hours;  the  average 
period  is  16  or  18  hours,  and  hard  fibrous 
substances  are  detained  30  hours.  In  the 
ox,  each  pellet  receives  from  30  to  40  mo- 
tions of  the  mouth :  in  the  sheep  it  must 
receive  a  great  many  more.  The  stomach 
of  the  sheep  is  never   less  than  half  filled. 

1653.  The  fact  of  the  intimate  connec- 
tion of  the  CBSophagus  with  all  the  stomachs 
of  the  ox  or  sheep,  serves  to  explain  the 
reason  why,  in  administering  medicine  to 
these  animals,  it  at  times  takes  no  etfect, 
having  dropped  into  the  paunch  instead 
of  being  carried  along  tlie  oesophagian 
canal  to  the  abomasum,  or  last  stomach. 
This  shows  that  a  medicine,  administered 
in  the  shape  of  a  ball,  would  be  very  apt  to 
enter  into  the  paunch,  and  that  medicine  in 
a  liijuid  state  is  best  adapted  to  ruminants. 
Every  such  drink  should  be  administered 
slowly  to  give  it  time  to  proceed  to  the 
farthest  stomach. 

1654.  In  giving  drink  to  sheep,  Youatt 
says,  "  If  the  assistant  stands  astride  over 
the  sheep,  and  holds  the  head  firmly  be- 
tween his  knees,  the  medicine  may,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  be  administered  slowly 
and  gently,  and  with  the  certainty  of 
reaching  its  intended  destination,  instead 
of  entering  into  and  remaining  useless,  or 
worse  than  useless,  in  the  paunch.  There 
are  very  few  things  in  the  treatment  of 
our  ruminating  patients  that  deserve  more 
attention  than  the  method  of  adminis- 
tering the  required  medicines.  The  opi- 
nions of  practitioners  would  undergo  ma- 
terial change  with  regard  to  the  efficacy 


•  Youatt  On  Sheep,  ^.  410-65. 


t  Youatt  On  CatUe,  p.  414-31. 


RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANBIALS. 


367 


of  many  drugs,  and  the  doses  in  wliich 
they  should  be  employed,  were  sufficient 
care  bestowed  on  the  mode  in  which  they 
are  given." 

1655.  The  loss  of  cud  in  either  ox  or 
sheep  is  rather  a  symptom  of  approaching 
disease  than  a  disease  itself,  and  should 
not  be  overlooked,  but  recovered,  by  the 
administration  of  a  little  laxative  medi- 
cine, accompanied  with  aromatic  ingre- 
dients, as  carraway  seed  and  ginger. 
A  slight  circumstance  will  interfere  with 
the  process  of  rumination,  such  as  raising 
an  animal  while  in  the  act  of  ruminatipn, 
or  a  sudden  fright,  or  any  thing  that  incites 
fear.  Such  interruptions,  therefore,  should 
be  carefully  avoided  when  animals  are 
observed  to  be  engaged  in  rumination. 

1656.  The  paunch  is  of  little  use  to  the 
calf  and  lamb  as  long  as  they  are  supported 
wholly  on  milk,  as  that  liquid,  being  in  the 
prepared  state,  finds  its  way  at  once  to 
the  last  stomach,  and  is  easily  digested. 
Hence  it  is  that  calves  and  lambs,  when 
left  at  liberty,  suck  the  teat  frequently 
during  the  day. 

1657.  In  order,  therefore,  to  give  ex- 
ercise to  the  rumen,  it  is  necessary,  in  feed- 
ing both  cattle  and  sheep,  to  give  at  least 
a  portion  of  their  food  in  such  an  unpre- 
pared state  as  that  it  shall  enter  the  rumen, 
and  undergo  rumination,  before  it  is  carried 
into  the  last  stomach ;  and,  on  tliis  account, 
dry  fodder  or  cut  chaff  is  a  wholesome  in- 
gredient for  cattle  and  sheep  to  partake 
of,  along  with  the  more  nutritious  and  com- 
minuted food  which  they  receive. 

1658.  The  digestive  organs  of  birds  con- 
sist of  the  several  parts  which  have  been 
enumerated  as  existing  in  quadrupeds, 
namely,theoesophagus,thestomach,theduo- 
deum,jejunum, colon, andrectuni;  and  these 
organs  respectively  perform  nearly  the  same 
functions  in  birds  as  those  in  quadrupeds. 
Birds,  however,  are  furnished  with  some 
additional  organs  of  digestion,  which  per- 
form peculiar  functions — such  as  the  crop, 
which  is  an  enlargement  of  the  esophagus, 
situate  between  the  mouth  and  the  stomach, 
and  seems  to  serve  as  a  store  for  the 
newly  acquired  food  which  is  swallowed 
at  one  time  in  greater  bulk  than  could  be 
contained  by    the   stomach.      This   con- 


trivance forms  a  connecting  link  betwixt 
birds  and  ruminating  animals.  Another 
peculiarity  of  structure  is  the  preventri- 
culus,  which  is  also  an  enlargement  of  tb« 
oesophagus  immediately  above  the  stomach; 
and,  being  furnished  with  glands,  its  use 
is  to  furnish  the  stomach  with  a  fluid 
which  acts  on  the  food  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  gastric  juice.  The  mechanical  tri- 
turation of  the  food  in  the  stomach  is 
much  assisted  by  the  presence  of  small 
pieces  of  quartz.  A  thii-d  peculiarity  is 
the  insertion  of  the  ureters  into  the  en- 
larged portion  of  the  rectum,  named  the 
cloaca.  It  is  very  generally  imagined 
tliat  birds  pass  no  urine;  but  this  is  a  mis- 
take ;  and  it  is  not  observed  to  pass,  be- 
cause it  is  voided  at  the  same  time,  and  by 
the  same  organ  as  the  dung,  which  it  serves 
to  liquify.  Another  gland,  the  bursa  fa- 
bricii,  is  also  found  in  the  cloaca,  which  dis- 
charges a  mucous  fluid  among  the  dung. 

1659.  The  most  important  animals  bred 
on  the  farm  are  to  be  found  amongst  the 
mammalia  in  the  groups  Butninantia,  or 
those  which  chew  the  cud,  and  Pachyder- 
mata,  or  those  which  have  thick  skins ; 
and  amongst  birds  in  the  groups  Rasores 
or  scrajiers,  Ge?mtores,  or  cooers,  and  N^a- 
tator\'s,  or  swimmers.  The  characters  of 
the  quadrupeds  of  the  farm  are  generally 
well  understood,  and  require  no  particular 
description ;  but  as  those  of  the  birds  are 
less  understood,  it  may  be  instructive  to 
give  here  a  characteristic  sketch  of  each 
group  from  a  very  competent  authority. 

16G0.  Rasores,  scrapers  or  gallinaceous 
birds.  "  Tlie  extensive  order  of  the  raso- 
res or  gallinaceous  birds,"  says  Professor 
Macgillivray,  "  is  composed  of  species 
whose  direct  utility  to  man  is  more  obvi- 
ous than  of  any  other  group,  the  flesh  of 
all  of  them  affording  a  much  esteemed  and 
wholesome  food,  for  which  reason  several 
of  the  larger  kinds  have  been  reduced  to 
a  state  of  domesticity,  in  which  they  are 
found  to  be  highly  profitable.  In  this 
respect,  as  well  as  in  the  nature  of  their 
food,  and  therefore  also  in  the  structure  of 
their  digestive  organs,  they  bear  an  obvious 
analogy  to  the  ruminating  quadrupeds. 
To  this  important  series  belong  the  turkey, 
the  peacock,  the  connnon  fowl,  the  phea- 
sant, and  the  numerous  species  of  grouse 
and  partridge,  which,  although  not  cap- 


368 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


able  of  being  collectively  defined  by  clia- 
racters  deriveil  from  the  exterior,  are  yet 
clearly  separated  from  all  other  birds  by 
the  peculiar  form  of  their  intestinal  canal. 
.  .  .  Re|)resentatives  of  this  order 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  tlie  world,  from 
the  forests  and  jungles  of  the  Indian  isles, 
wiiere  the  peacock  unfolds  his  gorgeous 
train,  to  the  frozen  shores  of  Labrador 
and  Greenland,  where  the  ptarmigan  bur- 
rows among  the  snow,  in  search  of  the 
scanty  herbage.  Certain  genera  are  pe- 
culiar to  particular  regions,  as  the  turkeys 
to  America,  the  argus  to  India  and  China, 
the  pheasants  to  the  warm  and  temperate 
parts  of  Asia,  the  guinea-fowls  to  Africa; 
while  others,  as  the  grouse  and  partridges, 
are  generally  distributed.  The  affinities 
of  the  rasores  are  various ;  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  jtigeons,  through  crax  and 
penefope  ;  on  the  other  with  the  bustards, 
which  lead  to  the  plovers  ;  and  with  the 
gallinules  and  rails.  Tliey  feed  on  seeds, 
berries,  fruits  of  various  kinds,  and  on  buds, 
twigs,  and  herbaceous  })lants,  as  vfeW  as 
occasionally  on  insects  and  w^orms.  Their 
digestive  organs  are  peculiar,  in  possessing 
the  large  globular  crop  or  recipient  of  their 
food,  and  the  extremely  large  caeca,  in 
which  it  undergoes  a  second  elaboration 
after  passing  through  the  small  intes- 
tines. The  bill  is,  of  course,  admirably 
adapted  for  cutting,  breaking  oS",  or 
wrenching  the  vegetable  substances  on 
which  they  feed ;  and  which  are  ground 
to  a  coarse  pulp  in  the  stomach,  the  action 
of  which  is  aided  by  the  numerous  par- 
ticles or  fragments  of  quartz  swallowed 
for  that  purpose.  The  food  being  compa- 
ratively nutritious,  besides  undergoing 
the  usual  elaboration  in  the  intestines,  re- 
quii'es  for  its  coujplete  assimilation  a  very 
great  length  of  tube,  which  is  sujjplied  by 
the  coeca.  They  seek  their  food  in  the 
ground,  on  which  very  many  reside;  but 
some  are  of  arborial  habit.  They  rise 
with  great  celerity,  and  many  bear  a 
strong,  rapid,  and  continue<l  flight,  al- 
though for  the  most  part  they  fly  heavily, 
by  continued  quick  flaj)s  of  their  short 
curved  wings.  Their  nests  arc  placed  on 
the  ground,  and  very  artlessly  constructed, 
being  usually  a  slight  hollow,  with  some 
blades  of  green  twigs  or  leaves.  The  eggs 
are  numerous,  and  the  young,  which  are 
born  with  their  eyes  open,  and  their  bodies 
covered   with    short   thickish   down,   are 


able  to  run  about  in  a  few  minutes,  or 
imniediatoly  after  exclnsion  from  the  e^^g. 
From  the  nature  of  llieir  food,  they  do  not 
always  require  the  care  of  their  male  ])a- 
rent,  but  are  led  by  their  motiier,  who 
manifests  the  greatest  anxiety  for  their 
welfare — protects  thenj  from  cold  and  wet 
under  her  wings,  feigns  lameness  to  draw 
intruders  after  her,  wliile  they  remain 
squatted,  and  eagerly  points  out  to  them 
the  substances  on  which  they  may  feed. 
Many  of  the  gallinaceous  birds  habitually 
scrape  up  the  earth  and  dry  leaves  with 
their  feet,  for  the  j)urpose  of  exposing  the 
seeds  and  insects;  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  they  have  obtained  the  name  of 
rasores  or  scrapers.  They  have  also  a 
habit,  like  the  pigeons,  buskers,  and 
some  other  birds,  of  lying  in  the  sand  or 
dry  earth,  and  scattering  it  over  them 
with  their  feet  and  wings  ;  or,  rather,  they 
are  fond  of  basking  in  the  sun,  and  of  ly- 
ing in  warm  sheltered  places.  The  British 
species  are  too  few,  and  too  little  diversi- 
tied,  to  render  it  useful  to  s])eak  generally 
of  them  here,  farther  than  that,  being  all 
of  moderate  or  large  size,  excei)ting  one, 
they  are  exposed  to  numerous  enemies, 
of  whom,  however,  man,  while  he  fosters 
them,  commits  greater  havoc  among  them 
than  all  the  rest.  They  belong  to  the 
genera phdsianus,  t.trao,  Inyopas, pcrd'ix^ 
coturnix^  and  ortyx.  The  first  of  these 
belongs  to  the  family  gallinte,  of  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  give  thcgeneral  characters, 
as  our  only  species  are  the  domestic  fowl, 
with  which  every  ])erson  is  familiar — a  re- 
presentative sufficiently  characteristic  to 
afford  a  good  general  idea  of  those  beau- 
tiful bir<ls,  whose  natural  residence  is  in 
the  warmer  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia, 
especially  India  and  China." 

IGGl.  Geinitores^  cooers,  or  pigeons. — 
"The  beautiful,  very  extensive,  and  gene- 
rally distributed  family  of  birds  known  by 
the  names  of  pigeons,  doves,  and  turtle- 
doves, appears  to  form  an  order  of  itself, 
separated  by  well-defined  limits,  but 
yet,  as  in  other  cases,  presenting  modifi- 
cations of  form  indicative  of  its  affinity 
to  conterminous  groups.  Tiie  peculiar 
shape  of  the  head  and  bill,  more  than 
any  other  external  feature,  serves  t(j  ren- 
der the  difi'orent  species  readily  recognis- 
able as  belonging  to  a  single  tribe ;  for 
whatever  may  be  the  size,  colour,  or  even 


RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


369 


shape  of  a  pigeon,  it  cannot  be  mistaken. 
.  .  .  The  colurabinse  feed  on  vege- 
table substances,  some  chiefly  on  soft  fruits, 
others  on  nuts,  seeds  of  grasses  and  other 
plants,  some  on  the  herbaceous  parts  of 
plants.  The  process  of  assimilation  seems 
to  take  place  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner  to  that  of  gallinaceous  birds.  The 
intestine  is  much  longer  ;  but  in  the  latter 
the  difference  is  made  up  by  the  great 
development  of  the  ca^ca,  which  in  the 
pigeons  are  merely  rudimentary,  that  is, 
extremely  small,  and  secreting  a  mucous 
fluid  only.  The  oesophagus,  crop,  and 
gizzard  are  smaller  in  the  two  orders,  as 
well  as  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  thick- 
billed  gramineous  birds.  Although  their 
legs  are  short,  pigeons  walk  with  great  ease, 
and  even  celerity.  Their  flight  is  very 
unlike  that  of  the  gallinaceous  birds,  being 
strong,  rapid,  and  protracted.  Their  nests 
are  generally  placed  on  the  branches  of 
trees  or  bushes, sometimes  in  holes, and  even 
on  the  ground.  They  are  formed  of  a  broad 
basis  of  twigs,  often  without  any  lining, 
but  also  often  lined  with  various  soft  sub- 
stances, and  for  the  most  part  flat.  The 
eggs  are  generally  two,  elliptical  and  pure 
white.  The  young  are  at  first  scantily 
covered  with  soft  down,  and  are  fed  with 
farinaceous  or  pulpy  substances,  which 
have  undergone  some  degree  of  macera- 
tion in  the  crop  of  the  parent  bird,  from 
the  mouth  of  which  they  receive  it  by  in- 
troducing their  bill  sideways.  In  this 
respect,  also,  pigeons  differ  greatly  from 
the  gallinaceous  birds.  In  their  mode  of 
drinking,  also,  a  remarkable  difference  is 
observed ;  for  while  they  immerse  their 
bill  to  the  base  in  the  water,  and  drink 
continuously,  the  gallinaceous  birds  take 
a  mouthful,  elevate  their  heads  to  enable 
them  to  swallow  it  with  ease,  and  repeat 
the  action  until  satisfied.  The  young  re- 
main in  the  nest  until  able  to  fly,  soon 
after  which  they  are  left  to  shift  for  them- 
selves; whereas  the  young  rasores  follow 
their  mother  abroad  immediately  after 
birth,  and  are  never  far  from  her  mouth, 
but  pick  up  the  substance  she  points  out 
to  them.  The  pigeons,  like  many  other 
birds,  are  fond  of  basking  in  the  sun,  and 


of  rubbing  themselves  in  the  dust  or  sand, 
and  scattering  it  over  them.  These  birds 
are  found  in  all  the  warm  and  temperate 
parts  of  the  globe,  but  are  much  more 
abundant,  and  exhibit  the  most  beautiful 
tints,  in  the  former  often  rivalling  the 
parrots  in  the  splendour  of  their  plumage. 
Only  four  species  occur  in  Britain,  three 
of  which  are  resident ;  the  fourth,  the 
ringed  turtle-dove,  migratory,  remaining 
in  the  south  of  England  during  the  sum- 
mer months."  * 

1662.  Natatores^  swimmers,  anserian 
birds.  In  consequence  of  the  valuable 
work  on  the  British  birds  by  Professor 
Macgillivray  being  in  an  unfinished  state, 
I  am  unable  to  give  any  description  of 
the  digestive  organs  of  the  class  of  birds 
which  embraces  the  goose  and  duck,  the 
only  aquatic  birds  bred  on  the  farm.  I 
must  therefore  confine  myself  to  a  few 
general  remarks  on  the  Anatidce,  or  duck 
tribe,  from  the  most  recent  publication  I  < 
can  find.  "  A  family  of  web-footed  birds ; 
order  Natatores.  They  are  distinguished 
by  a  broad  depressed  bill,  which  is  covered 
with  a  soft  skin,  and  by  the  hind  toe  not 
being  included  in  the  web.  The  bill  is 
furnished  with  a  set  of  horny  laniinje  at 
the  edge  of  each  mandible,  which  serve  to 
filter  the  fluid  taken  up  by  the  bill,  and 
retain  the  solid  substances  taken  up  with 
it  ;  the  tongue  is  large  and  fleshy,  the 
gizzard  strong  and  muscular,  and  lined 
with  a  tough  coat,  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
grinding  down  the  shells  of  the  mollusca 
on  which  they  feed.  Many  are  migratory, 
and  fly  with  great  strength  at  a  consider- 
able elevation."+ 

1663.  Having  thus  seen  what  the  con- 
struction is  of  the  peculiar  apparatus  which 
elaborates  the  food  sent  into  it,  and  that 
the  structure  of  the  digestive  organs  of  all 
classes  of  the  domesticated  animals,  bred, 
on  the  farm,  bear  so  much  similarity, — 
that  the  same  sort  of  food  may  support 
them  all  alike, — we  should  now  consider 
what  are  the  constituent  parts  of  the  food 
which  are  required  to  support  and  in- 
crease the  particular  parts  of  the    body.. 


*  Macgillivray's  History  of  British  Birds,  vol.  i.  p.  103  and  249.  Those  who  desire  to  acquire  a, 
knowledge  of  the  comparative  anatomy  of  birds,  cannot  do  better  than  peruse  the  introductory  part; 
of  the  first  volume  of  this  valuable  work,  from  page  20  to  page  92;  and  here  they  will  also  find  an 
interesting  account  of  a  beautiful  subject — the  structure  and  classification  of  the  feathers  of  birds. 

+  Maunder's  Treasury  of  Natural  History,  art.  Anatidae. 

VOL.  I.  2  A 


870 


PRACTICE— 'WTNTER. 


The  animal  body,  we  all  know,  is  made  up, 
in  a  general  sense,  of  a  hard  bony  skeleton, 
wbicb  forms  tlie  frame-work  that  acts  as 
a  support  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  Bone 
is  found,  by  chemical  analysis,  to  consist  of 
6.5  per  cent  of  mineral  matter,  chiefly 
phosphate  of  lime.  Upon  and  attached 
to  this  bone  are  large  masses  of  fibrous 
flesh,  which  constitute  the  muscles  of 
the  body.  About  77  per  cent  of  this 
muscle  consists  only  of  water,  and  the 
remaining  2-3  per  cent  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  fibrin,  tlie  characteristic  proper- 
ties of  which  are  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  large  proportion  of  nitrogen 
which  it  contains  —  about  16  per  cent. 
Large  quantities  of  fat  are  found  dispersed 
over  all  parts  of  the  animal  body.  It  is 
found  to  be  composed  chiefly  of  carbon. 
The  intestines,  veins,  nerves,  are  com- 
posed chiefly  of  fibrous  matter.  Of  the 
juices  of  the  body,  the  largest  proportion 
consists  of  water  ;  and  of  the  fluids,  the 
blood  composes  the  largest  proportion, 
and  the  dry  part  of  the  blood  has  much  the 
same  composition  as  fibrin. 

1664.  Xow,  you  have  seen  from  the 
composition  already  given  of  the  several 
vegetables  and  grains  raised  on  farms,  for 
the  support  of  the  domesticated  animals,  tliat 
they  contain  principally  starch  and  sugar, 
which  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen, and  the  protein  compounds,  which  last 
comprehend  all  the  substances  that  contain 
nitrogen,  such  as  albumen,  fibrin,  casein, 
gluten.  And  the  composition  of  the  ash 
of  such  of  the  vegetable  substances  as  has 
been  given,  indicates  that  it  is  composed 
principally  of  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
the  alkalies  pota.sh  and  soda.  So  that  the 
vegetables  and  grains  rai.sed  on  the  farm 
contain,  in  their  composition,  all  the  ma- 
terials necessary  to  form  all  the  water, 
bone,  fibrin,  fat,  and  fluids,  which  com- 
pose the  animal  body. 

1665.  In  the  application  of  these  sub- 
stances to  the  particular  state  of  the  ani- 
mal economy,  it  should  conform  with 
reason  to  give  such  of  them  as  contain 
phosphoric  acid  and  lime  most  abundantly 
to  young  animals,  because  these  are  still 
forming  their  bones,  and  will  until  the 
skeleton  is  fully  developed.  The  sub- 
stances which  supply  fibrin  freely  should  be 
given  to  animals  at  all  ages,  as  the  enlarge- 


ment of  muscle  is  one  of  the  principal 
objects  of  the  breeder  of  live-stock.  And 
those  substances  which  sujiply  fat  should 
chiefly  be  given  when  it  is  desired  to  fatten 
the  animals  for  the  butcher  or  domestic 
use.  This  seems  a  very  sim])h'  view  of  the 
rearing  and  fattening  of  animals ;  but  in 
practice  it  is  not  so  easy  as  it  is  simple 
in  theory,  for  the  vital  principle  often 
interferes  very  influentially  with  the 
desired  results,  by  creating  diflerences  in 
the  constitution  of  animals  reared  under 
exactly  similar  circumstances,  as  to  give  so 
complete  a  bias  to  the  results  as  evidently 
to  place  the  forming  of  the  condition  of 
any  particular  animal  almost  beyond  our 
control.  Still,  as  much  of  the  result  accords 
with  expectation  as  to  encourage  ns  to 
persevere  in  the  improvement  of  the  rear- 
ing and  fattening  of  our  live-stock. 

1666.  As  no  one  has  done  so  much  of 
late  years  to  explain  the  process  of  diges- 
tion, and,  in  consequence,  to  establish  the 
practice  of  feeding  animals  upon  rational 
and  truly  scientific  principles — a  rough 
sketch  of  which  I  have  attempted  to  give 
in  a  preceding  paragraph, — as  the  now 
famed  Liebig  of  Giessen  in  Germany,  it  is 
but  fair  to  give  his  views  on  the  subject, 
and  which  I  find  ably  done  to  my  hand 
by  Dr  Gregory  of  Edinburgh,  in  his 
edition  of  a  recent  work  of  great  merit. 
"The  life  of  animals,"  he  says,  "is  dis- 
tinguished chemically  from  that  of  vege- 
tables by  the  circumstance,  that  by  ani- 
mals oxygen  is  constantly  absorbed  and 
rejdaced  by  carbonic  acid,  while,  by  vege- 
tables, carbonic  acid  is  absorbed,  its  carbon 
retained,  and  its  oxygen  given  out.  C-on- 
sciousness,  and  the  power  of  htcomotion, 
are  peculiar  to  animals.  In  animals,  two 
processes  are  constantly  carried  on — that 
of  respiration,  by  which  the  animal  heat  is 
kept  up  ;  and  that  of  nutrition,  by  which 
the  matter  consumed  in  the  vital  functions, 
and  expelled  from  the  body,  is  restored. 
Respiration  is  essentially  a  combustion  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  which,  in  combin- 
ing with  oxygen,  are  converted  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  and  at  the  s;ime  time 
furnish  the  animal  heat.  Liebig  calculates 
that  the  amount  of  carbon  daily  burned  in 
the  body  of  an  adult  man  is  about  14 
oimces,  and  that  the  heat  given  out  is 
fully  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  temperature 
of  the  body,  and  to  account  for  the  evapora- 


RATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


371 


tion  of  all  the  gaseous  matter  and  water 
expelled  from  the  lungs.  This  carbon  is 
derived,  iu  the  first  place,  from  the  tissues 
of  the  body,  which  undergo  a  constant 
waste,  but  alternately  from  the  food.  .  . 
.  .  The  tissues  can  only  be  decomposed 
by  the  exercise  of  the  vital  functions, 
and  the  food  of  the  herbivora  contains 
but  little  of  the  albuminous  compounds, 
only  sufficient  to  restore  the  waste  of  the 
tissues ;  while  the  carbon  required  for 
respiration  is  supplied  by  the  starch,  gum, 
sugar,  oil,  &c.,  which  form  the  great 
mass  of  their  food,  and  no  such  amount  of 
muscular  motion  is  required  in  them  as  in 
the  carnivora.  It  is  in  the  form  of  bile, 
chiefly,  that  the  carbon  undergoes  com- 
bustion.    Hitherto  the   true   function    of 

the  bile  has  been  disputed 

The  tissues,  which  are  consumed,  are  re- 
solved first  into  bile  and  urate  of  ammonia. 
The  former  is  secreted  from  the  liver,  re- 
absorbed, and  burned.  The  latter,  in 
serpents  and  birds,  is  expelled  unchanged; 
but  in  man  and  quadrupeds,  in  whom  the 
amount  of  oxygen  inspired  is  much  greater, 
it  also  is  oxidised,  yielding  finally  carbonic 

acid,  ammonia,  and  urea 

The  urine  of  the  herbivora  differs  from 
that  of  man,  in  containing,  besides  urea, 
much  hippuric  acid  when  they  are  at  rest 
or  stall-fed,  and  beuzoic  acid  when  they 
are  in  full  exercise,  and  when,  conse- 
quently, more  oxygen  is  supplied.  The 
bile  of  the  herbivora  is  much  more  abun- 
dant than  that  of  the  carnivora,  —  an  ox 
secreting,  according  to  Burdach,  37  lbs. 
of  bile  daily.  As  the  waste  of  matter  in 
the  herbivora  is  but  limited,  it  is  obvious 
that  it  cannot  supply  all  the  bile,  and, 
consequently,  a  great  part  must  be  derived 
from  the  starch  and  other  non-azotised 
constituents  of  their  food,  which  lose 
oxygen,  and  enter  into  combination  with 
some  azotised  product  of  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  tissues.  .  .  .  Soda  is  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  bile,  and  is  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  common  salt:  when 
the  supply  of  soda  is  defective,  the  meta- 
morphosis of  albuminous  compounds  can 
yield  only  fat  and  urea.  Now,  it  is 
worthy  of  observation  tiiat,  if  we  wish  to 
fatten  an  animal,  we  must  carefully  avoid 

giving  it  much  salt  in  its  food 

In  the  urine  of  the  herbivora,  soda  is  pre- 
sent in  far  larger  quantity  than  that  of 
the  carnivora,  and  combined  with  carbonic, 


hippuric,  or  beuzoic  acid.  This  shows  that 
the  herbivora  require  a  far  greater  amount 
of  soda  than  is  contained  in  the  amount  of 
blood — constituents  daily  consumed,  which 
in  them  is  small ;  and  this  soda  is  obtained 
from  their  food,  and  employed  in  produ- 
cing their  abundant  bile.  The  plants  in 
which  the  herbivora  feed  cannot  grow  in 
a  soil  destitute  of  alkalies  ;  but  these  alka- 
lies are  not  less  necessary  for  the  support 
of  the  animals  than  of  the  plants.  The 
soda  is  found  in  the  blood  and  bile  ;  and 
the  potash  is  now  known  to  exist  in  large 
quantity  in  the  juice  of  flesh,  and  to  be 
absolutely  essential  to  the  production  of 
casein,  that  is,  the  secretion  of  milk.  In 
like  manner  the  phosphate  of  lime,  which 
is  essential  to  the  growth  of  grasses,  is 
equally  essential  to  the  production  of  bone 
in  the  animals  whicli  feed  on  these  plants. 
It  is  impossible  not  to  be  penetrated  with 
admiration  of  the  wisdom  which  is  shown 
in  these  beautiful  arrangements. 

1667.  "  Let  us  now  consider  the  changes 
which  the  food  undergoes  in  the  process  of 
digestion.  When  the  food  has  entered  the 
stomach,  the  gastric  juice  is  poured  out, 
and  after  a  short  time  the  whole  is  con- 
verted into  a  semi-fluid  homogeneous 
mass,  the  chyme.  Many,  researches  have 
been  made  to  discover  the  solvent  con- 
tained in  the  gastric  juice,  but  iu  vain.  It 
contains  no  substance  which  has  the  pro- 
perty of  dissolving  fibrin,  albumen,  &c.  ; 
and  we  are  compelled  to  adopt  the  opinion 
of  Liebig,  accoi'ding  to  which  the  food  ia 
dissolved  in  consequence  of  a  metamor- 
phosis analogous  to  fermentation,  by 
which  a  new  arrangement  of  the  particles 
is  efi'ected.  As  iu  fermentation,  the 
change  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  body 
in  a  state  of  decomposition  or  motion, 
which  is  propagated  from  the  ferment  to 
the  sugar  in  contact ;  so,  in  digestion,  the 
gastric  juice  contains  a  small  quantity  of 
a  matter  derived  from  the  living  membrane 
of  the  stomach,  (1810,)  which  is  in  a  state 
of  progressive  change ;  and  the  change  or 
motion  is  propagated  from  this  to  the  par- 
ticles of  the  food,  under  certain  conditions, 
such  as  a  certain  temperature,  and,  as  it 
now  appears,  the  presence  of  a  free  acid, 
which  is  phosphoric  or  lactic,  or  botii.  .  . 
Besides  the  gastric  juice,  the  only  other 
substance  eni[)loyed  in  digestion  is  the 
oxygen  which  is  introduced  into  the  sto- 


872 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


mach  with  the  saliva,  which,  from  its  vis- 
cidity, encloses  a  large  quantity  of  air. 
The  chvme  then  leaves  the  stomach,  an<J 
gradually  parses  into  the  state  of  chyle, 
which  resembles  blood,  except  in  colour, 
being  already  alkaline,  not  acid  like  the 
chyme.  By  means  of  the  circulation,  oxy- 
gen is  conveyed  in  the  arterial  blood  to 
every  part  of  the  body.  This  oxygen,  acting 
on  the  tissues  destined  to  undergo  change, 
produces  a  metamorphosis  by  which  new 
soluble  compounds  are  formed.  The 
tissues  thus  destroyed  are  replaced  by  the 
new  matter  derived  from  the  food.  Mean 
time,  those  of  the  products  of  metamor- 
phosis which  contain  tlie  principal  part 
of  the  carbon  are  separated  from  the 
venous  blood  in  the  liver,  and  yield  the 
bile  ;  while  the  nitrogen  accumulates, 
and  is  separated  from  the  arterial  blood 
in  the  kidneys,  in  the  form  of  urea  or 
uric  acid. 

1668.  "The  blood  has  another  important 
function  to  perform,  namely,  to  convey  for 
excretion  to  the  lungs  the  carbonic  acid 
formed  in  the  extreme  vessels  or  cells  in 
all  parts  of  the  body.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  globules  of  blood  possess 
the  property  of  absorbing  oxygen  in  the 
lungs,  when  they  become  arterial,  and  thus 
convey  this  oxygen  to  all  parts.  The  glo- 
bules then  give  up  the  oxygen  to  the  par- 
ticles of  the  tissues  undergoing  change, 
and  in  its  stead  carbonic  acid  is  taken  up, 
and  the  blood  becomes  venous.  It  is  not 
known  what  chemical  compound  in  blood 
absorbs  and  carries  the  oxygen,  but  it  is 
by  some  conjectured  to  be  a  compound  of 
iron  analogous  to  the  protoxide.  It  is 
certain  that  air  is  indispensable  to  the 
blood,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen  and  hydrocyanic  acid  both 
in-tantly  destroy  the  power  of  the  blood  to 
perform  its  functions — hence  their  horrible 
energy  as  poisons,  when  inhaled.  Now, 
these  compounds  both  act  on  protoxide, 
protochloride,  and  other  analogous  com- 
pounds of  iron,  immediately  depriving 
them  of  their  characteristic  power  of  act- 
ing on  oxygen. 

1669.  "  With  regard  to  the  carbonic  acid 
which  is  produced  in  all  parts  of  the  body  in 
the  continual  metamorphosis  of  the  tissues, 
Enderlin  has  proved  that  blood  contains 
no  carbonates  whatever ;  and  Liebig  has 


since  recently  pointed  out  that  the  required 
proj)erlie3  exist  in  a  still  higher  degree  in 
the  phosphate  of  sodii,  which  does  exist  in 
the  blood,  and  ap|)ears  to  be  altogether 
indispensable  to  its  existence.  No  salt 
known  is  so  well  adapted  for  this  function. 
It  is  truly  remarkable  that,  while  both 
phosphate  of  soda  and  phosphate  of  potash 
exist  in  the  food,  the  former  alone  should 
occur  in  the  blood  ;  and  this  is  especially 
wonderful  when  we  consider  that  the  juice 
of  the  flesh,  which  is  only  separated  from 
the  blood  by  various  thin  membranes,  per- 
meable to  liquids  by  endosmose  and  exos- 
mose,  contain  much  phosphate  of  potash, 
and  little  or  no  phosi)hate  of  soda.  It  is 
evident  that  the  vessels  or  cells  must  pos- 
sess in  their  peculiar  membranes  a  power 
of  selection,  or  of  allowing  some  salts  to 
pass  in  one  direction  only,  and  others  in 

the  opposite There  can  be  no 

doubt  that  the  function  of  the  acid  salt, 
the  phosphate  of  potash,  in  the  juice  of  the 
flesh,  and  apparently  also  in  the  gastric 
juice,  is  as  important  as  that  of  phosphate 
of  soda  in  the  blood.  Probably  a  part  of 
that  function  is  to  insure  the  constant 
acidity  of  these  fluids,  as  phosphate  of  soda 
does  tJie  constant  and  essential  alkalinity 
of  the  blood,  in  which  the  power  of  ab- 
sorbing and  giving  out  carbcmic  acid — in 
other  words,  respiration — de})ends.  And 
we  see.  too,  that  if  this  be  so,  the  phosphate 
of  potash,  of  the  juice  of  flesh,  and  of  the 
gastric  juice,  cannot  be  replaced,  as  far  as 
its  functions  are  concerned,  by  phosphate 
of  soda. 

1670.  "Another  jirobable  function  of  the 
substances  whicli  give  acidity  to  the  juice 
of  the  flesh,  and  alkalinity  to  the  blood,  is 
the  production  of  electric  currents.  Ii  has 
been  shown  by  Matteucci  that  such  cur- 
rents exist  in  the  body  ;  and  we  can  easily 
see  how  they  may  arise,  when  we  observe 
two  fluids,  (me  acid,  the  other  alkaline, 
separated  by  a  niemhrane  peinicable  to 
one  or  both,  and  tiie  fluids  in  contact  with 
muscle  and  with  norvous  mattor.  At  the 
request  of  Liebig,  Bufl'constnicteil  piles  of 
discs  of  ])asteb<iard  steejied  in  blood,  with 
slices  of  muscle  and  brain,  which  showed 
a  powerful  current  from  the  blood  to  the 
muscle. 

1671.  "Since  no  blood  can  be  formed 
without  soda,  no  animal  could  live  if  con- 


EATIONALE  OF  THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


378 


fined  to  sucli  inland  plants  as  contain  only 
potash.  It  is  well  known,  indeed,  that 
animals  in  countries  far  inland,  as  Bavaria, 
are  habitually  supplied  with  common  salt, 
either  in  substance  or  in  the  form  of  salt- 
springs.  Of  both  they  are  instinctively 
fond.  But  fortunately  salt  is  found,  in 
even  inland  countries,  in  all  soils  and  in  all 
waters,  and  consequently  in  most  plants. 
Were  it  altogether  absent  no  blood  could 
be  formed,  unless  salt  or  soda  were  artifi- 
cially supplied  to  every  animal.  All  in- 
land plants  contain  earthy  phosphates,  and 
phosphate  of  potash,  in  variable  propor- 
tion, often  with  mere  traces  of  the  com- 
pounds of  sodium.  When  these  phosphates 
act  as  common  salt,  (chloride  of  sodium,) 
there  are  formed  chloride  of  potassium  and 
the  common  alkaline  phosphate  of  soda, 
which  latter  salt  is  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  the  formation  of  blood.  The 
chloride  of  potassium  is  found  in  the  juice 
of  flesh. 

1672.  "  It  is  truly  a  spectacle  worthy  of 
admiration,  to  see  the  essential  properties 
of  two  of  the  most  important  animal  fluids 
— the  blood  and  the  juice  of  flesh — thus 
secured  by  the  existence  of  a  difference, 
at  first  sight  altogether  insignificant, 
between  the  relation  of  phosphoric  acid 
to  two  alkalies,  which  so  much  resemble 
one  another  that  they  may  be  mutually  re- 
placed, each  by  the  other,  in  a  multitude 
of  cases — nay,  do  actually  replace  each 
other  in  many  plants.  The  reader  will 
not  fail  to  remark,  how  emphatically  these 
facts  impress  on  us  the  necessity  of  attend- 
ing carefully  to  the  most  minute  charac- 
ters of  all  the  compounds  which  can  be 
formed  among  the  elements  composing  the 
organic  kingdom,  even  when  these  cha- 
racters appear,  at  the  time,  to  have  no 
considerable  relation  to  the  vital  pro- 
cesses. 

1673.  "  The  researches  of  Dr  R.  D. 
Thomson  have  demonstrated,  that  the 
most  favourable  proportion  between  the 
albuminous  or  azotised,  and  the  saccharine 
or  non-azotised  constituents  in  the  food  of 
animals,  is  that  of  1  part  by  weight  of  the 
azotised  to  7  or  8  of  the  saccharine.  This 
proportion  exists  naturally  in  the  most 
nutritious  food,  such  as  grain  ;  while  in 
such  food  as  potatoes,  the  amount  of  albu- 
minous matter  is  much  too  small.     Hence 


potatQCS  alone  must  be  regarded  as  very 
inferior  in  nutritive  power  to  wheat,  oats, 
rye,  or  maize,  equal  weights  being  com- 
pared. 

1674.  "There  is  another  constituent  of 
the  animal  body,  namely,  fat,  the  produc- 
tion of  which  deserves  notice.  It  is  not 
an  organised  tissue,  but  is  formed  and  col- 
lected in  the  cellular  tissue  under  certain 
circumstances.  These  are,  rest  and  con- 
finement,— that  is,  a  deficiency  of  oxygen, 
and  an  abundance  of  food  containing  a 
considerable  proportion  of  non-azotised 
matter,  such  as  starch,  sugar,  &c.  .  . 
.  .  .  Now  the  chief  source  of  fat  is 
sugar,  the  composition  of  which  is  such, 
that  when  deprived  of  oxygen  fat  remains. 
...  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  fat 
can  only  be  formed  by  a  process  of  de- 
oxidation.  But  it  is  produced  when 
oxygen  is  deficient ;  and  it  appears,  as 
Liebig  has  pointed  out,  that,  when  there 
is  a  deficient  supply  of  oxygen,  the  pro- 
duction of  fat,  which  is  the  consequence 
of  the  deficiency,  yields  a  supply  of  that 
element,  and  thus  serves  to  keep  up  tlie 
animal  heat  and  the  vital  functions,  which 
would  otherwise  be  arrested.  This  is 
another  beautiful  instance  of  contrivance 
equally  simple  and  wonderful.  That  fat 
must  be  formed  by  the  deoxidising  pro- 
cess is  proved  by  the  phenomena  of  the 
fattening  of  animals.  A  goose  tied  up, 
and  fed  with  farinaceous  food,  altogether 
destitute  of  fat,  acquires  in  a  short  time 
an  increase  of  weight  of  several  pounds, 
the  whole  of  which  is  fat.  Again,  the 
bee  produces  wax,  a  species  of  fat,  from 
pure  sugar. 

1675.  "With  regard  to  the  production 
of  nervous  matter,  which  animals  alone 
can  form,  we  see,  from  its  ccmiposition, 
intermediate  between  that  of  albumen  and 
fat,  that  it  may  be  formed,  either  by  de- 
priving albuminous  matter  of  some  azotised 
product,  or  by  adding  to  fat  an  azotised 
compound.  Where  it  is  formed  we  do 
not  know,  but  it  must  be  formed  in  the 
animal  body ;  and  Liebig  has  suggested, 
that  the  power  of  the  vegetable  alkalies 
to  affect  the  nervous  system  may  be 
owing  to  their  composition,  which  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  that  of  nervous  matter 
than  any  other  compounds.  These  alka- 
lies may  promote  or  check  the  formation 


874 


PRACTICE    WINTER. 


of  nervous  matter,  and  thus  produce  their 
peculiar  effects."* 

1676.  These  observations  tend  to  show, 
that  we  may  expect  in  progress  of  time 
to  explain  a  large  class  of  phenomena 
connected  with  animal  life  on  chemical 
principles  We  cannot  do  so  yet,  not- 
withstanding the  plainness  of  the  views 
propounded  l)y  Liebig.  He  may  have 
opened  up  the  true  path,  but  it  is  for 
experimenters  to  pursue  it  with  research 
and  perseverance,  in  order  to  confirm  or 
refute  his  views.  As  yet,  philosophers 
are  by  no  means  agreetl  as  to  the  cir- 
cumstances which  regulate  the  process  of 
digestion  :  some  would  ascribe  our  igno- 
rance of  it  on  account  of  the  intricacy  of 
the  subject,  the  obscurity  which  attends  it, 
and  the  deficiency  of  observation  as  to  the 
true  nature  of  the  process ;  whilst  others 
regard  the  process  as  simple,  referring  the 
preparation  of  the  food  in  the  stomach  to  the 
presence  of  an  acid  in  that  organ,  which 
dissolves  the  food,  and  enables  it  to  enter 
as  a  constituent  of  the  circulating  fluids  of 
the  animal  system.  The  acid  whith  eti'ects 
this  important  object  is  the  hy<lrocliloric 
acid,  which  they  consider  to  have  been 
satisfactorily  pro  veil  to  be  present  during 
the  period  when  food  exists  in  the  stomach  ; 
and  they  conceive  they  can  imitate  the 
process  of  animal  digestion  in  glass,  or 
other  vessels  out  of  the  body,  .-simply  by 
exposing  animal  and  vegetable  fo(»d  to 
the  influence  of  dilute  acids.  The  subject 
is  not  so  very  simple  in  nature  as  it  would 
seem  to  be  when  conducted  in  a  glass 
vessel.  There  are  indications,  no  doubt,  of 
the  direction  in  which  we  are  to  search 
for  a  solution  of  the  ditticulties  of  the  sub- 
ject, but  we  are  still  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  elucidation  of  the  precise  manner 
in  which  animals  digest  their  food. 

1677.  "There  cannot  be  a  doubt,"  as 
Dr  R.  D.  Thomson  observes,  "  that  if  we 
understood  the  nature  of  the  process  by 
which  the  food  which  we  swallow  is 
converted  into  living  flesh,  important 
results  would  follow  in  reference  to 
the  preservation  of  the  health  of  ani- 
mals, and  the  treatment  of  diseases.      If 


we  were  properly  acquainted  with  every 
transformaticm  througli  which  the  consti- 
tueuts  of  the  food  pass,  after  it  has  been 
masticated,  until  it  is  finally  removed  from 
the  system,  it  is  clear  that,  in  cases  where 
the  stomach  is  unable  to  perform  ita  ac- 
customed functions,  the  assistance  of  art 
might  be  called  in  to  minister  to  digestion." 
If  Dr  Thomson,  who  has  experimented 
so  largely  on  the  subject,  feels  any  diffi- 
culty in  it,  it  must  indee<i  be  dithcult. 
His  own  researches  were  conducted  with 
a  view  to  arriving  at  a  practical  result — 
namely,  the  comparative  effects  of  certain 
given  articles  of  food  on  the  fattening  or 
secreting  j)owers  of  animals;  and  these 
"seem  to  demonstrate,  that  the  fat  of  ani- 
mals cannot  be  produced  from  the  oil  of  the 
food,  but  must  be  evcdved  from  the  calori- 
fiant  or  heat-forming  portion  of  the  ani- 
mal, essentially  assisted  by  its  nitrogenous 
materials.  By  following  out  this  princi- 
ple, he  li;is  been  enabled  to  detect  an  im- 
portant relation  existing  between  the 
nutritive  ami  calorifiant  portion  of  tlie 
food,  uj)on  the  determination  of  which,  for 
the  various  conditiims  of  animals,  he  con- 
siders the  laws  of  animal  dieting  depend. 
He  endeavoured  to  apply  the  law  to 
various  articles  of  human  food  ;  ami  he 
trusts  that  the  basis  has  been  laid  for 
future  researches,  which  may  be  directed 
to  ailminister  to  the  health  and  comfort  of 
mankiml,  and  of  the  domesticated  animals. 
In  conducting  the  experiments  upon  cattle, 
he  found  not  only  his  habitual  acquaintance 
with  animals,  but  also  his  medical  know- 
ledge, in  continual  requisition,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  tendency  of  the  varied 
condition  of  the  animal  system,  from  the 
sudden  and  frequent  changes  of  diet,  to 
induce  symptoms  of  disease.  These  were 
carefully  watched  and  overcome,  by  such 
precautions  as  clearly  follow  from  a  close 
consideration  of  the  principles  announced 
in  his  work."  t  This  work  I  would  re- 
commend for  perusal  by  every  student  of 
agriculture. 

ON   THE    ACCOMMOnATION    OP    THE   GRAIN 
CROPS  IN  THE  STEADING. 

1678.  On  looking  at  the  plan  of  the  stead- 


*  Turner's  Elements  of  CItemigtry,  p.  1314-25,  8ih  edition,  1847.  In  Grisenthwaite's  E»$ay  on 
Food,  the  source  of  animal  heat  being  the  combustion  of  carbon,  derived  from  the  food,  in  the  lungs, 
was  demonstrated  in  1838,  much  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  by  Liebig  at  the  present  time. 

+  Thomson's  Rctearchet  on  the  Food  of  Animals,  p.  vi.  Preface. 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


375 


ing  in  Plate  II,  it  will  be  observed  that 
tlie  thrashing-machine,  placed  in  the 
upper  barn  above  the  corn-barn  C,  the 
machine  for  separating  the  corn  from  the 
straw,  is  in  the  middle  of  the  great  range 
of  the  steading,  ready  to  receive  the  un- 
thrashed  crop  from  the  stack-yard  beiiind 
it,  S,  and  as  ready  to  deliver  the  straw 
thrashed  into  the  straw-barn  L,  and  the 
grain  into  the  corn-barn  C  below.  The 
straw-barn  L,  is  purposely  made  of  the 
height  of  the  upper  barn,  to  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  straw,  as  it  is  often 
convenient  in  bad  weather  to  thrash  out  a 
considerable  quantity  of  corn,  when  no 
other  work  can  be  proceeded  with,  or 
when  high  market-prices  induce  farmers 
to  take  advantage  of  them.  There  is 
another  good  reason  for  giving  ample 
room  to  the  straw-barn.  Every  sort  of 
straw  is  not  suited  to  every  purpose,  one 
sort  being  best  suited  for  litter,  and 
another  for  fodder.  This  being  the  case, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  always  both  kinds 
in  the  barn,  that  the  fodder-straw  may 
not  be  wasted  in  litter,  and  the  litter- 
straw  given  as  fodder  to  the  injury  of  the 
animals.  Besides,  the  same  sort  of  straw 
is  not  alike  acceptable  as  fodder  to  every 
class  of  animals.  Thus  wheat-straw  is  a 
favourite  fodder  with  horses,  as  well  as 
oat-straw,  whilst  the  latter  only  is  accep- 
table to  cattle.  Barley-straw  is  only  fit 
for  litter.  To  give  access  to  litter  and 
fodder  straw  at  the  same  time,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  door  from  each  kind  into 
each  court.  Thus  four  doors,  two  at  each 
side  near  the  ends,  are  required  in  a  large 
straw-barn.  Slit-like  openings  should  be 
made  in  its  side-walls,  to  admit  air  and 
promote  ventilation  through  the  straw. 
A  skylight  in  the  roof,  at  the  end  nearest 
the  thrashing-machine,  is  useful  in  giving 
light  to  those  who  take  away  and  store 
up  the  straw  from  the  thrashing-machine 
when  the  doorsareshut,  which  they  should 
be  whenever  the  wind  happens  to  blow 
too  strongly  through  them  into  the  ma- 
chine against  the  straw.  Instead  of 
dividing  straw-barn  doors  into  two  verti- 
cal leaves,  as  is  usually  done,  they  should 
be  divided  horizontally  into  an  upper  and 
lower  leaf,  so  that  the  lower  may  always 
be  kept  shut  against  intruders,  such  as 
pigs,  whilst  the  upper  admits  both  light 
and  air  into  the  barn.  One  of  the  doors 
at  each  end  should  be  furnished  with  a 


good  stock-lock  and  key,  and  thumb  latcb, 
and  the  other  two  fastened  with  a  wooden 
han<r-bar  from  the  inside.  The  floor  of 
the  straw-barn  is  seldom  or  never  flagged 
or  causewayed,  though  it  is  desirable  it 
should  be.  If  it  were  not  so  expensive, 
the  asphaltum  pavement  would  make  an 
excellent  floor  for  a  straw-barn.  What- 
ever substance  is  employed  for  the  purpose, 
the  floor  should  be  made  so  firm  and  dry 
as  to  prevent  the  earth  rising  and  the 
straw  moulding.  Mouldy  straw  at  the 
bottom  of  a  heap  superinduces  through- 
out the  upper  mass  a  disagreeable  odour, 
and  imparts  a  taste  repugnant  to  every 
animal.  That  portion  of  the  floor  upon 
which  the  straw  first  alights  on  sliding 
down  the  straw-screen  of  the  thrashing- 
machine,  should  be  strongly  boarded,  to 
resist  the  action  of  the  forks  when  re- 
moving the  straw.  Blocks  of  hard  wood, 
such  as  the  stools  of  hard-wood  trees,  set 
on  end  causewaywise,  and  sunk  into  the 
earth,  form  a  very  durable  flooring  for 
this  purpose.  Stone  flagging  in  this  place 
destroys  the  prongs  of  the  pitchforks. 
The  straw-barn  should  communicate  with 
the  chafi"-house  by  a  shutting  door,  to 
enable  those  who  take  away  the  straw  to 
see  whether  the  chafl"  accumulates  too 
high  against  the  end  of  the  winnowing- 
machine.  The  communication  to  the 
wool-room  in  this  plan  is  by  the  straw- 
barn,  by  means  of  a  stair  made  of  wood 
or  stone.  The  straw-barn  is  72  feet  in 
length,  18  feet  in  breadth,  and  15  feet  in 
height  to  the  top  of  the  side  walls. 

1679.  C  is  the  corn-barn.  Its  roof  is 
formed  of  the  floor  of  the  upper  barn, 
and  its  height  is  generally  made  too  low. 
Tiie  higher  the  roof  is,  the  more  easily 
will  the  corn  descend  to  be  cleaned  from 
the  thrashing-machine  down  the  hopper 
to  the  winnowing-macliine.  Nine  feet  is 
the  least  height  it  sliould  be  in  any  in- 
stance. The  plan  gives  the  size  of  the 
corn-barn  at  31  feet  by  18  feet ;  by  tak- 
ing 5  feet  for  partitioning  off  the  ma- 
"tehinery  of  the  thrashing-mill,  the  extent 
of  the  workable  part  of  the  barn  floor 
will  be  26  feet  by  J  8  feet.  In  that  space 
I  have  seen  much  barn-work  done.  The 
corn-barn  should  have  in  it  at  least  two 
glazed  windows,  to  admit  plenty  of  light 
in  the  short  days  of  winter,  and  they 
should    be    guarded    outside    with    iron 


876 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


stanchions.  If  one  window  cannot  be 
got  to  the  south,  the  door  when  open  will 
answer  for  the  admission  of  sunshine  to 
keep  tlie  ap.irtnient  comfortably  dry  for 
the  work-people  and  the  grain.  The  door 
is  generally  divided  into  upper  and  lower 
halves,  which,  as  usually  placed,  are 
always  in  the  way  when  the  winnowing- 
niachine  is  used  at  the  door.  A  more 
convenient  method  is  to  have  the  door  in 
a  whole  piece,  and  when  opened,  to  fold 
back  into  a  recess  in  the  outer  wall,  over 
the  top  of  which  a  plinth  might  project  to 
throw  off  the  rain.  In  this  case  theribats 
and  lintel  must  be  giblet-checked  as  deep 
as  the  thickness  of  the  door,  into  which  it 
should  close  flush,  and  be  fastene<l  with  a 
good  lock  and  key,  and  provided  with  a 
thumb-latch.  The  object  of  making  the 
corn-bam  door  of  this  form  is  to  avoid  the 
inconvenience  of  its  opening  into  the  barn, 
where,  unless  it  folds  wholly  back  on  a 
wall,  is  frequently  in  the  way  of  work, 
particularly  when  winnowing  roughs,  and 
taking  out  sacks  of  corn  on  men's  backs. 
As  to  size,  it  should  not  be  less  in  the 
opening  than  7^  feet  in  height  and  3i  feet 
in  width.  A  light  half-door  can  be  hooked 
on,  when  work  is  going  on,  to  prevent  tbe 
intrusion  of  animals,  and  the  wind  sweep- 
ing along  the  floor.  The  floor  of  the 
corn-barn  is  frequently  made  of  clay,  or 
of  a  composition  of  ashes  and  lime ;  the 
asphaltic  composition  would  be  better  than 
either ;  but  in  every  instance  it  should  be 
made  of  wood, — of  sound  hard  red-wood 
Drahm  battens,  ploughed  and  feathered, 
and  fastened  down  to  stout  joists  with 
Scotch  flooring  sprigs  driven  through  the 
feather-edge.  A  wooden  floor  is  the  only 
one  that  can  be  depended  on  being  con- 
stantly dry  in  a  com-ham ;  and  in  a  bam 
for  the  use  of  corn,  a  dry  floor  is  indis- 
pensable. It  has  been  suggested  to  me 
that  a  stone  pavement,  square-jointed,  and 
laid  on  a  bed  of  lime  over  9  inches  of 
broken  stones — or  an  a.'^phaltum  pavement, 
laid  on  a  body  of  6  inches  of  broken 
stones,  covered  with  a  bed  of  grout  on  the 
top  of  the  stones,  would  make  as  dry  and 
a  more  durable  barn-floor  than  wood,  and 
which  will  not  rot.  Xo  doubt  stone  or 
asphaltum  pavement  is  durable,  and  not 
liable  to  rot;  but  there  are  objections  to 
both,  in  a  corn-bara,  of  a  practical  na- 
ture, and  it  is  certain  that  the  best  stone 
pavement  is  not  proof  against  the  under- 


mining powers  of  the  brown  rat :  whilst 
a  wooden  floor  is  durable  enough,  and 
certainly  will  not  rot,  if  kept  dry  in  the 
manner  I  shall  recommend.  The  objec- 
tions to  all  stone  pavements  as  a  barn- 
floor  are,  that  the  scoops  for  shovelling 
the  corn  pass  very  harshly  over  them, — 
the  iron  nails  in  the  shoes  of  tlie  work- 
people wear  them  down,  raise  a  dust  upon 
them,  and  crush  the  grain, — and  they  are 
hurtful  to  the  bare  bands  and  light  im- 
plements, when  used  in  taking  up  the  com 
from  the  floor.  For  true  comfort  in  all 
these  resrtects  in  a  barn-floor,  there  is 
nothing  like  wood.  The  walls  of  this 
barn  should  be  made  sm<toth  with  hair- 
plaster,  and  the  joists  and  flooring  form- 
ing its  roof  cleaned  with  the  plane,  as  dust 
adheres  much  more  readily  to  a  rough 
than  to  a  smooth  surface.  The  stairs  to 
the  granaries  should  enter  from  the  com- 
barn,  and  a  stout  plain-deal  door  with 
lock  and  key  placed  at  thebotttmi  of  each. 
And  at  the  side  of  one  of  the  stairs  may 
be  enclosed  on  the  floor  of  the  barn,  a 
space  t,  to  contain  light  corn  to  be  given 
to  the  fowls  and  pigs  in  summer,  when  this 
sort  of  food  becomes  scarce. 

1680.  As  the  method  of  hanging  doors 
on  a  giblet-check  should  be  adopted  in  all 
cases  in  steadings  where  doors  on  outside 
walls  are  likely  to  meet  with  obstructions 
on  opening  inwards,  or  themselves  be- 
coming obstructive  to  things  passing  out- 
wards, the  subject  deserves  a  bcpaiate 
notice.  In  fig.  1 28,  a  is  the  inside  form 
Fig.  128. 


THKCORX-B.AHN  DOOK. 

of  a  strong  door,  mounted  on  crooks  and 
bands,  fully  oj)en,  and  thrown  back  into 
the  recess   of  the  wall  b,  the  projecting 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


377 


part  of.  the  lintel  c  protecting  it  effectually 
from  the  rain  ;  d  is  the  giblet-check  in  the 
lintel,  and  <?  that  in  the  ribats,  into  which  the 
door  shuts  flush; /is  the  light  movable  door 
used  when  work  is  going  on  in  the  corn-barn. 

1681.  The  wooden  floor  of  the  corn 
barn  is  liable  to  decay  unless  precautions 
are  used  to  prevent  it ;  but  a  much  too 
common  cause  of  its  destruction  is  ver- 
min— such  as  rats  and  mice.  I  used  a 
most  effectual  method  of  preventing  the 
destructive  ravages  of  either  renuin  or 
damp,  by  supporting  the  floor  in  the  par- 
ticular manner  represented  in   fig.    1 29. 

Fig.  129. 


SECTION  OF  THE  CORN-BARN  FLOOR. 

The  earth,  in  the  first  instance,  was  dug 
.out  of  the  barn  to  the  depth  of  the  foun- 
dation walls,  which  should  be  two  feet 
below  the  door  soles,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  buildiug  of  a  new  steading,  this 
can  be  done  when  the  foundations  of  the 
walls  are  taken  out.  The  ground  is  then 
spread  over  with  a  layer  of  sand,  suffi- 
cient to  preserve  steadiness  in  the  stout 
rough  flags  b  b  which  are  laid  upon  it  and 
jointed  in  strong  mortar.  Twelve-inch 
thick  sleeper  walls  a  a,  of  stone  and  lime, 
are  then  built  on  the  flags,  to  support  the 
ends  of  the  joists  of  the  floor.  The  ends 
of  the  joists  c,  formed  of  10  by  2^  inch 
plank,  are  then  laid  on  edge  upon  the 
walls  16  inches  apart,  and  the  spaces  be- 
tween   them   filled  up  to  the  top  of  the 


joists  with  stone  and  lime.  The  building 
between  the  joists  requires  to  be  done  in  a 
peculiar  way.  It  should  be  done  with 
stjuared  rubble  stones,  and  on  no  account 
should  the  mortar  come  in  contact  with 
the  joists,  as  nothing  destroys  timber,  by 
superinducing  the  dry  rot,  more  readily 
tlian  the  action  of  mortar.  For  the  same 
reason  care  should  be  observed  in  build- 
ing all  the  joists  into  the  walls,  in 
placing  the  safe  -  lintels  over  the  doors 
and  windows  dry-bedded ;  and  in  beam- 
filling  between  the  couple-legs.  The 
floor  d  is  then  laid  on  a  level  with  the 
door-sole,  and  finished  with  a  neat  skift- 
ing  board  i  i  round  the  walls  of  the  barn. 
By  this  contrivance  the  vermin  cannot 
possibly  reach  the  floor  but  from  the  flags 
b,  which  are  nearly  2  feet  under  it.  A 
hewn  stone  pillar  <?,  or  even  two,  are 
placed  on  the  flags  under  each  joist  to 
support  and  strengthen  the  floor.  This  con- 
struction of  floor  freely  admits  the  air  above 
and  below  to  preserve  it,  and  affords  room 
under  it  for  cats  and  dogs  to  hunt  after  the 
vermin.  The  figure  also  gives  a  section  of 
the  building  above  the  corn-barn,  constitut- 
ing the  upper  barn/,  having  similar  outside 
walls,  coupling,  slating,  and  ridging  of  the 
roof  to  the  middle  range  of  the  building. 

1682.  The  chaff-house  stands  be- 
tween the  corn  and  straw  barns.  It  is 
separated  from  the  former  by  a  wooden 
partition,  and  from  the  latter  by  a  stone 
wall.  Its  height  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  corn-barn,  the  floor  of  the  upper  barn 
forming  a  roof  common  to  both.  It  is  18 
feet  in  length  and  f4  feet  in  width.  It 
contains  the  winnowing  -  machine,  or 
fanners  of  the  thrashing-machine,  from 
which  it  receives  the  cliaft'.  It  has  a  thin 
door  with  a  thumb-latch  into  tlie  straw- 
barn,  for  a  convenient  access  to  adjust  the 
gearing  of  the  fanners ;  as  also  a  boarded 
windo  w,  hung  on  crooks  and  bands,  fastened 
in  the  inside  with  a  wooden  hand-bar,  and 
looking  into  the  large  court  K ;  but  its 
principal  door,  through  which  the  chaff  is 
emptied,  opens  outwards  into  the  large 
court  I.  This  door  should  be  giblet- 
checked,  and  fastened  from  the  inside  with 
a  wooden  hand-bar.  The  space  between 
the  head  of  the  fanners  and  the  wall  should 
be  boarded  up,  but  not  to  interfere  with 
the  action  of  the  fanner-belts,  and  merely 
to  prevent  the  chati' being  scattered  among 


378 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  machinery,  and  persons  climbing  up         1683.  The  tipper  ham  d,  fig.  1*80,  oo- 
by  it  into  the  upper  barn.  cupies  the  whole  space  above  the  corn-bam 

Fig.  130. 


t  *  .-^jf*!^  .^       ^ 


b  ' 


"P'M'W   r 


J 
PLAN  OF  UPPER  BARN,  GRANARIES,  AND  WOOL-ROOM. 


and  chaff-house.  It  is  32  feet  in  length  and 
30  feet  in  breadth,  and  its  roof  ascends  to 
the  slates.  It  has  a  good  wooden  floor  like 
the  corn-barn,  supported  on  stout  joists. 
It  contains  the  principal  machinery  of  the 
thrashing-machine,  and  is  wholly  a])pro- 
priatedto  the  storing  of  the  unthrasliedcorn 
previous  to  its  being  thrashed  by  the  mill. 
For  the  admission  of  barrows  loaded  with 
sheaves  from  the  stack-yard,  or  of  sheaves 
direct  from  the  cart,  this  barn  should 
have  a  door  at  ^  towards  the  stack-yard 
of  6  feet  in  width,  in  two  vertical  folds  to 
open  outwards,  on  a  giblct-check,  one  of 
the  folds  to  be  fastened  in  the  inside  with 
an  iron  cat-band,  and  the  other  provided 
with  a  good  lock  and  key.  It  is  in  this 
barn  that  the  corn  is  fed  into  the  thrash- 
ing-mill ;  and  to  afford  light  to  the  man 
who  feeds  in,  and  ample  light  to  the  barn 
when  the  door  is  tshut,  which  it  should  be 
when  the  wind  blows  strongly  into  it,  a 
skylight  should  be  placed  above  the  place 
where  the  man  stands.  The  large  door 
should  not  be  jilaced  immediately  behind 
the  man  who  feeds  in  the  corn  into  the 
tlirasliing- machine,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  in  farmsteads,  to  his  great  annoyance 
when  tlie  sheaves  are  bringing  in.  There 
should  be  slits  in  the  walls  for  the  circu- 
lation of  air  among  the  corn-sheaves,  which 
may  not  at  all  times  be  in  good  order  when 
taken  into  the  barn.     A  hatchway  a,  3  feet 


square,  in  the  floor,  over  the  com-bam 
below,  is  useful  for  handing  up  any  corn  or 
refuse  tl)at  has  to  be  again  put  through  the 
mill.  Its  hatch  should  be  furnishetl  with 
strong  cross-tailed  hinges,  and  a  hasp  and 
staple,  with  a  padlock  and  key,  by  which 
to  secure  it  from  below  in  the  coru-barn. 
An  opening  6  of  4  feet  in  height  and  3 
feet  in  width,  should  be  made  through  the 
wall  to  the  straw-barn,  to  receive  any 
straw  that  may  require  to  be  put  through 
the  mill  again.  This  opening  should  be 
provided  with  a  door  of  one  leaf,  or  of 
two  leaves,  to  fasten  with  a  bar,  from  tlie 
upper  barn.  The  thrashing- machine  is 
not  built  on  the  floor,  but  is  supported  on 
two  very  strong  beams  extending  along  tlie 
length  of  the  barn:  ^is  thesite  of  the  thrash- 
ing-machine in  this  figure.  The  allusion  to 
the  entrance  to  the  wool-room  wlien  speak- 
ingof  thestraw-barn(in  1678,)isheresliovvn 
by  the  stair  c'  into  the  wool-room  ?p,  which 
is  above  the  bulls'  hammels  X,  Plate  11., 
and  on  a  level  with  the  upper  barn  d. 

1684.  Immediately  in  connexion  with 
the  upper  barn  is  ihe  f/nngiraif  g^  fig.  130. 
It  is  used  as  an  incline.l  plane,  upon  which 
to  wheel  the  corn-barrows,  and  forms  a 
road  for  the  carriers  of  sheaves  frnm  the 
stack-yard.  This  road  should  at  all  times 
be  kept  hard  and  smooth  with  small  broken 
stones,  and  sutHciently   strong  to  endure 


ACCOMMODATION"  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


379 


tbe  action  of  barrow-wheels.  Either 
asphaltum  or  wood  pavement  would  answer 
this  purpose  well.  To  prevent  the  gang- 
way affecting  the  wall  of  the  corn-barn 
with  dampness,  it  should  be  supported  on 
a  semicircular  arch  of  masonry.  Some 
farmers  prefer  taking  in  the  corn  on  carts 
instead  of  by  a  gangway,  and  the  carts  in 
that  case  are  placed  alongside  the  large 
door,  and  emptied  of  their  contents  by 
means  of  a  fork.  I  prefer  a  gangway  for 
this  reason,  because  it  enables  the  farmer 
to  dispense  with  horse-labour  in  bringing  in 
the  stacks  if  they  are  near  at  hand,  and 
they  should  always  be  built  near  the  upper 
barn  for  convenience.  Barns,  in  which  flails 
alone  are  used  for  thrashing  the  corn,  are 
made  on  the  ground,  and  the  barn-door  is 
made  as  large  as  to  admit  a  loaded  cart  to 
enter  and  empty  its  contents  on  the  floor. 

1685.  In  fig.  130,  e  «  are  two  granaries 
over  the  cattle  sheds,  poultry-house,  and 
hay-house.  That  on  the  left  is  76  feet  in 
length  and  1 8  feet  in  width,  and  the  other 
65  feet  in  length  and  18  feet  in  width. 
The  side  walls  of  both  are  5  feet  in 
height.  Their  roofs  ascend  to  the  slates, 
as  in  the  upper  barn/  fig.  1 29.  Their 
wooden  floors  should  be  made  strong,  to 
support  a  considerable  weight  of  grain  ; 
their  walls  made  smooth  with  hair  plaster ; 
and  a  neat  skifting-board  should  finish  the 
flooring.  Each  granary  has  6  windows, 
three  in  front  and  three  at  the  back, 
and  there  is  one  in  the  left-hand  gable. 
These  windows  should  be  formed  to  admit 
light  and  air  freely ;  and  I  know  of  no 
form  so  capable  of  afl'ording  both,  as  fig. 
131.  The  opening  is  4|  ifeet  in  length 
and  3  feet  in  height.  In  the  frame  a  are 
a  glazed  sash  1  foot  in  height,  composed 
of  two  rows  of  panes,  and  b  Venetian 
shutters,  which  may  be  opened  more  or 
less  at  pleasure:  c  shows   in  section  the 

Fig.  131. 


GRANARY  WINDOW  AND  SECTION  OF  SHUTTERS. 


manner  in  which  these  shutters  operate. 
They  revolve  by  their  ends,  a  round  pin, 
in  holes  in  the  side-posts  of  the  frame  d, 
and  are  kept  in  a  parallel  position  to  each 
other  by  the  bar  c,  which  is  attached  to 
them  by  an  eye  of  iron,  moving  stifi"  on  an 
iron  pin  passing  through  both  the  eye  and 
bar  c.  The  granary  on  the  right  hand 
being  the  smallest,  and  immediately  over 
the  work-horse  corn-chest  in  the  hay- 
house,  should  be  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  horse-corn  and  other  small  quantities  of 
grain  to  be  first  used.  The  other  granary 
may  contain  seed-corn,  or  grain  that  is 
intended  to  be  sold  when  the  prices  suit. 
For  repairing  or  cleaning  out  the  thrashing- 
machine,  a  large  opening  in  the  wall  of  this 
granary,  exactly  opposite  the  niachinery  of 
the  mill  in  the  upper  barn,  at  t,  fig.  130, 
will  be  found  convenient.  It  should  be 
provided  with  a  movable  board,  or  folding 
doors,  to  close  it  in,  and  to  be  fastened 
from  the  granary.  This  opening  is  not 
shown  in  fig.  130. 

1686.  S  is  the  plan,  Plate  II.,  of  the 
stack-yard.  As  most  of  the  stacks  must 
stand  on  the  ground,  it  should  receive  that 
form  which  will  allow  the  rain-water  to 
run  off"  and  not  injure  their  bottoms.  This 
is  done  by  forming  the  ground  into 
ridges.  The  minimum  breadth  of  these 
ridges  may  be  determined  in  this  way  : 
The  usual  length  of  the  straw  of  the  grain 
crops  can  be  conveniently  packed  in  stacks 
of  15  feet  diameter;  and  as  3  feet  is  little 
enough  space  to  be  left  on  the  ground  be- 
tween the  stacks,  the  ridges  should  not 
be  of  less  width  than  1 8  feet.  The 
stack-yard  should  be  enclosed  with  a 
substantial  stone  and  lime  wall  of  4^  feet 
in  height.  In  too  many  instances  the 
stack-yard  is  entirely  unenclosed,  and  left 
exposed  to  the  trespass  of  every  animal. 
It  is  desirable  to  place  the  outside  rows  of 
the  stacks  nextthe  wall  on  stools  or  stathels, 
which  will  not  only  keep  them  off  the  wet 
ground,  should  they  remain  a  long  time 
in  the  stack-yard,  but  in  a  great  measure 
prevent  vermin  getting  into  the  stacks. 
These  stathels  are  usually  and  most  econo- 
mically made  of  stone  supports  and  a 
wooden  frame.  The  frame  is  of  the  form 
of  an  octagon,  and  under  its  centre  and 
each  angle  is  placed  a  support.  The 
frame-work  consists  of  a  plank  a  a,  fig. 
132,  1 5  feet  in  length,  and  of  others  7^ 


880 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


feet  in  length,  9  inches  in  depth,  and  2^ 
inches  in  thickness,  if  made  of  Scots  fir, 


but  less  will  suffice  with  larch.     The  sup- 
ports consist  of  a  stone  b,  sunk  to  the  level 

Fig.  132. 


A  WOODEN  STATU  KL  FOR  STACKS. 


of  the  ground,  to  form  a  solid  foundation 
for  the  upright  support  c,  18  inches  in 
height,  and  8  inches  square,  to  stand  upon, 
and  on  the  top  of  this  is  placed  a  flat 
rounded  stone  or  bonnet  d,  of  at  least  2 
inches  in  thickness.  The  upright  stone  is 
bedded  in  lime,  both  with  the  found  stone 
and  bonnet.  All  the  tojjs  of  these  stone  sup- 
ports must  be  on  the  same  level.  Upon 
these  are  placed  on  edge  the  scantlings  a  «, 
to  the  outer  end  of  which  are  fastened 
with  strong  nails  the  bearers  ee,  also  9 
inches  in  depth  and  2  inches  in  thickness. 
The  spaces  between  the  scantlings  a  are 
filled  up  with  fillets  of  wood,  //,  nailed 
upon  them.  If  the  wood  of  the  frame- 
word  were  previously  jireserved  by  Kyan's 
or  Burnett's  process,  it  would  last  perhaps 
twenty  years,  even  if  made  of  any  kind  of 
home  timber,  such  as  larcii  or  Scots  fir. 
There  should  be  a  wide  gateway  into 
the  stack-yard,  and  where  the  corn  is 
taken  on  carts  to  the  u})j)er  barn  to  be 
thrashed,  tlie  same  gateway  may  answer 
both  purposes ;  but  where  there  is  a  gang- 
way to  the  upper  barn,  the  gate  may  be 
placed  in  the  most  convenient  side  of  the 
stack-yard.  Where  carts  are  solely  used 
for  taking  in  the  corn  to  the  upper  barn, 
the  rows  of  stacks  should  be  built  so 
widely  asunder   as    to  permit  a   loaded 


cart  to  pass  at  least  between  every  two 
rows  of  stacks,  so  that  any  particular 
stack  may  be  accessible  at  pleasure. 
When  a  gangway  is  used,  this  width  of 
the  arrangement  of  the  stacks  is  not  ne- 
cessary, the  usual  breadth  of  3  feet  be- 
tween the  stacks  permitting  the  passage 
of  corn-barrows,  or  of  back-loads  of 
sheaves.  Thus,  where  a  gangway  is 
used,  the  stack-yard  may  have  a  smaller 
area  to  contain  the  same  bulk  of  grain. 
Stack-stools,  or  stathels,  or  staddels,  as 
tliey  are  variously  called,  are  sometimes 
made  of  cast-iron  ;  which,  though  neat  and 
eliicient,  are  expensive  and  liable  to  be 
broken  by  accidental  concussion  from 
carts.  Malleable  iron  stathels  Avould  re- 
move the  objection  of  liability  to  fracture, 
but  would  not  remove  that  of  expense. 
Stacks  on  stathels  are  represented  in 
Plate  I.  in  tiie  stack-yard  S.  It  has  been 
recommended  to  divide  the  frame  of  the 
stathels  into  two  parts,  so  that  they  might 
be  j)ut  under  cover  when  not  in  use  in  the 
stack-yard.  Were  the  stathels  made  re- 
movable, they  would  be  more  convenient 
in  two  pieces  than  in  one  ;  but  the  proj)riety 
of  removing  them  is  (picstionable,  when  it 
is  accompanied  with  tlie  necessity  of  remov- 
ing the  supports  also ;  for  it  is  clear  that 
the  supports  could  not  be  left  standing  in 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


381 


the  stack-yard  with  the  slightest  chance  of 
remaining  in  that  position  for  any  length 
of  time,  and  the  found-stones  upon  which 
they  stand  would  be  liable  to  be  broken  ; 
and  obliged  to  be  put  up  every  year, 
which  would  be  intolerable  trouble. 

1687.    Rats  and  mice  being  very  de- 
structive and   dirty  vermin   in  steadings, 
and  particularly  so  to  grain  in  granaries, 
means  should  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  steadings  to  prevent  their  lodgment  in 
any    particular   part.      Many  expedients 
have  been  tried  to  destroy  them  in  gra- 
naries, such  as  putting  up  a  smooth  tri- 
angular board    across  each    corner,    near 
the  top  of  the  wall.      The  vermin   come 
down  any  part  of  the  walls  to  the  corn  at 
their   leisure,  but  when  disturbed  run  to 
the  corners,  up  which  they  easily  ascend, 
but  are  prevented  gaining  the  top  of  the 
wall  by  the  triangular  boards,  and  on  fall- 
ing   down    either    on    the    corn    or    the 
floor,    are    there   easily   destroyed.     But 
preventive  means,  in  this  case,   are  mucli 
better  than  destructive,  inasmuch  as  the 
granaries  should   always  be  kept  free  of 
them,  and  the  grain  will  then  only  be  sweet 
and  clean.     Tlie  great  means  of  prevention 
is,  to  deprive  vermin  of  convenient  places 
to  breed  in  above  ground,  and  this  may  be 
accomplished  in  all  farmsteads  by  building 
up  the  tops  of  all  the  walls,  and  beam- 
filling  between    the  legs  of   the   couples 
with  stone  and  mortar — taking  ^are  to  keep 
the  mortar  from  contact  with  the  timber. 
These  places  form  the  favourite  breeding- 
ground  of  vermin  in  farmsteads,  and  should 
therefore    be    occupied    with    substantial 
stone  and  mortar.     The  top  of  every  wall, 
whether  of  stables,  cow-houses,  hammels, 
and  other  houses,  should  be  treated  in  this 
manner;   for,  if  one  place  be  left  them  to 
breed  in,  the  young  fry  will  find  access  to 
the  granaries  in  some  way.     The  tops  of 
the  walls  of  old  as  well  as  of  new  farmsteads 
should  be  treated  in  this   manner,  either 
from  the  inside,  or,  if  necessary,  by  remov- 
ing the  slates  or  tiles  until  tlie  alteration 
is    effected.      Precaution   is   necessaiy  in 
making   beam-fillings,    especially  in  new 
buildings,   to    leave   a  little   space   open 
under  every  couple   face,   to  allow  room 
for   subsidence    or    the    bending    of    the 
couples  after  the  slates  are  put  on.     Were 
the  couples,  when  bare,  pinned  firmly  up 
with  stone  and  lime,  the  hard  points  would 


act  as  fulcra,  over  which  the  long  arm  of 
the  couple,  while  subsiding,  with  the  load 
of  slates  new  put  upon  it,  would  act  as  a 
lever,  and  cause  its  points  to  rise,  and  there- 
by start  the  nails  from  the  wall-plates,  to  the 
imminent  risk  of  pushing  out  the  tops  of 
the  walls,  and  sinking  the  top  of  the  roof. 
Besides  the  tops  of  the  walls,  rats  and 
mice  breed  under  ground,  and  find  ac- 
cess into  apartments  through  the  floor. 
To  prevent  lodgment  in  those  places 
also,  it  will  be  proper  to  lay  the  strongest 
flagging  and  causewaying  upon  a  bed  of 
mortar  spread  over  a  body  of  9  inches  of 
small  l)roken  stones,  around  the  walls  of 
every  apartment  on  the  ground-floor  where 
any  food  for  them  may  chance  to  fall, 
such  as  in  the  stables,  byres,  boiling-house, 
calves'  house,  implement-house,  hay-house, 
pig-sties,  and  hen-house.  The  corn-barn 
has  already  been  provided  for  against  the 
attacks  of  vermin ;  but  it  will  not  be  so 
easy  to  prevent  their  lodgment  in  the 
floors  of  the  straw-barn  and  hammels, 
where  no  causewaying  is  usually  employed. 
The  princijial  means  of  prevention  in  those 
places  are,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  the 
foundation  of  the  walls  deep,  not  less  than 
two  feet,  and  then  fill  up  the  interior  space 
between  the  walls  with  a  substantial 
masonry  of  stone  and  lime  mixed  with 
broken  glass ;  or  perhaps  a  thick  body  of 
small  broken  stones  would  be  sufficient,  as 
rats  cannot  burrow  in  them  as  in  the  ground. 

1688.  Arrangement  of  the  machinery. 
— A  plan  of  the  ground-floor  of  the  corn- 
barn,  with  portions  of  the  adjacent  apart- 
ments, is  shown  on  a  large  scale  in  fig. 
1 33 ;  .p  is  the  corn-barn,  t  the  chaff-house,  s  a 
part  of  the  straw-barn,  ?/  the  engine-house, 
and  z  the  boiler-house.  In  this  arrange- 
ment a  is  the  position  of  the  first  fanners, 
b  that  of  the  elevator  from  the  seconds- 
spout,  and  c  that  from  the  clean-spout, 
when  these  are  used :  d  is  the  position  for 
the  second  fanner,  supplied  by  the  elevator 
c,  when  such  is  not  driven  by  hand,  and 
is  attached  to  the  machinery.  In  the 
eiigine-housey,  fisthe  position  of  the  steam- 
en}rine,/tlie  main  shaft,  carrying  the  fly- 
wheel, and  which  is  put  in  motion  by 
the  action  of  the  engine  upon  the  crank. 
The  main  shaft  carries  also,  in  the  usual 
construction,  a  spur-wheel  g ;  but  this 
member  is  subject  to  variation,  according 
to  the  pofeitiuu  of  the  engine-house    and 


S82 


PRACTICE— ^VTNTER. 


barns.     In  the  present  arrangement,  and 
in  many  others,  the  spur-wheel  y,  as  well 


as  that  marked  A,  act  merely  as  intermedia^ 
to  bring  the  power  into  contact  with  the 


Fig.  133. 


THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  GROUND-FI.OOR  OF  THE  BARNS. 


main  spnr-wheel  i,  the  last  giving  motion 
to  the  drura-pinioD,  as  will  be  more  dis- 
tinctly shown  in  another  figure.  The 
lasting  advantage  of  having  the  straw-barn 
placed  in  the  most  central  position  to  the 
whole  steading,  induces  the  trifling  addition 
of  the  intermediate  wheels  g  and  A,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  the  motive  power 
from  the  main  shaft  to  the  shaft  of  the 
great  spur-wheel  i ;  and  this  arises  from  the 
present  arrangement  not  admitting  of  the 
steam-engine  being  advanced  so  far  to- 
wards the  straw- barn  as  that  its  main  shaft 
might  lie  nearly  opposite  to  the  drum  of 
the  thrashing-machine.  In  cases,  again, 
where  the  corn  and  the  straw  barns  lie  in 
one  line  of  range — or  even  although  their 
position  may  be  at  right  angles,  as  here 
laid  down,  but  their  relation  being  such  as 
to  admit  of  the  main  shaft  coming  nearly 
opposite  to  the  drum — the  intermediate 
wheels  become  unnecessary,  and  the  great 
spur-wheel  i  is  then  placed  upon  the  main 
shaft/  itself.  It  is  of  small  importance 
which  of  these  methods  of  taking  up  the 


power  be  adopted,  the  additional  wheels 
adding  but  a  small  increase  to  the  ex- 
pense, and  a  little  to  the  tesistance  ;  but 
the  lasting  advantages  of  the  position  of 
the  straw-barn  much  n)ore  than  balance 
these.  Cases  frequently  occur  also,  where 
only  one  intermediate  wheel  is  required; 
and  in  others,  it  has  been  judged  by  some 
engineers  more  appropriate  and  expedient 
to  dispense  with  all  these  wheels,  and  to 
substitute  a  lar^e  pulley  in  the  place  of 
the  wheel  g.  In  these  cases,  a  pulley  of 
projtortionate  dimensions  is  placed  ujion 
the  drum  shaft,  and  the  motion  conveyed 
through  a  belt.  The  only  subsidiary 
machine  that  is  usually  placed  on  this  floor 
is  the  hummeller,  at  /•.  The  door  from 
the  corn-barn  into  the  engine-house  is  at 
m  ;  that  to  <me  of  the  granaries  at  y; ;  and 
r  is  the  window  of  the  corn-barn. 

1GS9.  The  engine-house  y  is  for  the 
steam-engine  <",  when  one  is  used.  It  is  18 
feet  in  length  and  8  feet  in  width,  and  the 
granary  floor  above  forms  its  roof.     It  has 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


383 


a  window  looking  into  the  large  court  I, 
and  a  door  v  with  steps  into  the  boiler  and 
furnace-house  z,  which  house  is  24  feet  in 
length  and  8  feet  in  width,  and  has  an 
arched  opening  at  the  left  or  end  door. 
The  boiler  is  seen  at  w.  The  chimney- 
stalk  0  is  6  feet  square  at  the  base,  and 
rises  tapering  to  a  height  of  not  less  than 
50  feet.  If  wind  or  horses  are  preferred 
as  the  moving  power,  the  windmill-tower 
or  horse-course  would  be  erected  on  the 
site  of  the  boiler-house  z. 

1690.  In  the  upper  or  thrashing-barn, 

that  appropriated  to  the  corn  in  the  straw, 

the  outline  arrangement  is  represented  in 

fig.  134,  wherein  the  space  a,  funned  by  the 

Fig.  134. 


LI 


0 


9  E 


I  I 


5 


THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  UPPER  FLOOR 
OF  THE  BARNS. 

placement  of  the  foundation  beams  h  and 
c,  is  the  position  occupied  by  the  thrash- 
ing-machine. The  foundation-beams  are, 
in  the  present  case,  framed  into  beams 
d  and  e,  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  ; 
the  space  a  varies  in  length,  according  to 
the  circumstance  of  the  arrangement  of 
the  machinery,  from  12  to  16  feet,  and 
in  width,  according  to  the  power  by  which 
the  machine  is  intended  to  be  worked, 
from  3  to  4  feet;////  mark  the  places 


of  the  posts  which  form  the  frame-work  of 
the  drum,  and  he g g  those  of  the  shakers. 
The  ST^acG  ffhh  is  appropriated  to  the 
gearing  or  drivingapparatusoftheuiachine, 
corresponding  to  the  space  occupied  by  the 
spur-wheels^  h  i  in  fig.  133.  Of  the  sub- 
ordinate machines  that  occasionally  have, 
but  which  always  should  have  place  in  this 
floor  of  the  barn,  I  may  point  out  the  posi- 
tion i  as  one  very  appropriate  for  the  corn- 
bruiser;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  straw- 
barn.*,  the  position  ^'is  equally  appropriate 
for  the  straw-cutter.  The  door  for  taking 
in  the  corn  from  the  stack-yard  is  seen  at  m. 

1691.  The  arrangements  mentioned  in 
the  two  preceding  paragraplis  are  subject 
to  considerable  variety,  arising  from  local 
circumstances  in  the  relative  positions  of 
the  beams,  the  power,  and  other  acces- 
sories ;  but  of  these  relations  the  experi- 
enced mill-wright  will  always  be  able  to 
form  that  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  his 
machinery  that  will  bring  out  the  most 
beneficial  results  ;  while  the  inexperienced 
will  find,  in  the  arrangements  here  laid 
down,  data  founded  on  experience  and 
extended  observation.  It  may  be  observed 
that  the  foundation-beams  b  and  c,  fig.  134, 
should  beofthebestMemel  timber,  or  of  oak, 
ash,  or  beech,  where  hard  woods  are  plentiful . 

1692.  Details  of  the  Thrashing-ma- 
chine. —  In  describing  the  thrashing- 
machine,  it  is  necessary  to  begin  with 
the  frame-work,  and  in  that  which  sup- 
ports the  main  shaft.  This,  it  invariably 
falls  out,  has  its  bearing  for  one  point  in 
the  wall  that  separates  the  barn  from  the 
locality  of  the  power,  whatever  that  may 
be.  For  this  purpose,  when  the  altitude 
of  the  position  of  the  shaft  has  been  de- 
termined, an  opening  of  2  feet  square  is 
formed  in  the  wall,  the  sill  of  which  should 
be  of  one  solid  stone,  laid  at  the  proper 
level,  and  upon  which  the  pillow-block  of 
the  shaft  is  bedded.  If  intermediate 
wheels  are  employed,  another  and  similar 
opening  must  be  formed  for  the  bearing  of 
the  shaft  of  the  great  spur-wheel.  Such 
other  shafts,  also,  as  may  require  to  be 
extended  to  the  wall  of  separation,  should 
have  bearings  in  recesses,  formed  in  the 
wall  at  the  respective  positions,  such  as 
for  the  extension  of  the  shafts  of  the  drum 
and  of  the  feeding- rollers,  which,  in  general, 
mav  be  arranged  in  one  recess.     The  sills 


884 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  bearers  in  these  minor  recesses  will 
be  found  more  convenient  if  funned  of 
good  sound  Memel  timber,  than  of  stone. 


In  further  describing  the  machine,  the 
letters  of  reference  apply  to  corresponding 
parts  of  fig.    135,  an  elevation;  and  of 


Fig.  135. 


THK  KLKVATION  OF  A 

fig.  136,  a  longitudinal  section.  In  these 
figures,  a  a  mark  portions  of  the  barn- wall, 
b  b  the  ground-floor  line,  and  c  c  the  founda- 
tion-beams. The  letter  d  marks  the  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  frame-work  of  the  case 
of  the  machine.  The  position  and  form  of 
the  feeding-board  is  marked  by  the  letter 
e  ;  and  as  this  apjiendage  is  not  required 
of  great  strength,  it  is  usually  of  a  tempo- 
rary construction,  and  sometimes  even  por- 
table. The  two  sides  of  the  frame- work 
d  require  to  be  tied  by  means  of  cross-rails, 
which  are  most  conveniently  fixed  upon 
the  top-rails  of  ibe  frame-work  by  bolting. 

1693.  The  openings  in  the  two  sides  of 
the  framing  are  filleil  in  with  panels, 
neatly  fitted  and  strengthened  with  cross- 
bars at  each  end  of  the  panels.  Those 
panels  that  fill  up  the  frame  on  the  gear- 


THRASHING-MACHINK. 

ing  side  of  the  machine,  may  be  per- 
manently fixed  in  their  respective  places; 
but  all  tiiose  on  the  other  side  must  he 
made  easily  movable,  for  giving  access 
to  the  diSVrent  parts  of  the  interior,  for  the 
purpose  of  cleaning.  In  the  panels  that 
close  up  the  drum-case,  it  has  been  re- 
commended to  leave  an  opening  of  6  inches 
diameter  round  the  shaft,  for  the  )>urj)ose 
of  admitting  a  current  of  air,  which,  it  is 
supposed,  might  jjieveut  the  winding  of 
straw  round  the  shaft  and  ends  of  the 
drum.  "When  the  construction  is  good 
in  other  respects,  it  does  not  appear  that 
this  precaution  is  necessary. 

1694.  As  to  the  gearings  of  the  Ihrash- 
ins-machine,  enough  of  them  to  let  you 
understand  their  use  may  be  described  in 
a  few  words,  by  referring  to  figs.  135  and 


^^^  ' 


iJ 


K 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING, 


385 


136.  In  fig.  135,/  is  the  great  spur- 
wheel,  corresponding  to  i,  fig.  133,  which 
gives  motion  to  all  the  internal  machinery. 
It  has  a  small  bevelled  wheel  on  its  shaft, 
which  moves  the  small  inclined  shaft  ^, 
giving  motion  to  the  feeding-gear  h,  which 
moves  either  from  45  to  50,  or  from  65  to 
70  rotations  in  a  minute,  according  as 
the  straw  is  wished  to  be  taken  in  fast 
or  slow  ;  but  the  immediate  action  of  the 
great  spur-wheel/  is  on  the  pinion  j',  which 
is  placed  on  tlie  shaft  of  the  drum,  and 
moves  it :  and  as  the  two  wheels  have  a 
great  disparity  of  size,  it  will  be  easily 
understood  that  the  drum  moves  at  a  high 
velocity,  which  is  not  less  than  360  revo- 
lutions in  a  minute,  and  the  spur-wheel 
50  rotations.  A  small  pinion  on  the  spur- 
wheel  shaft,  gives  motion  to  the  inter- 
mediate wheel  k,  which  drives  the  wheel 
I  on  the  shaft  in  the  first  shaker.  The 
two  intermediate  wheels  m  m  are  required 


to  move  the  wheel  n  of  the  second  shaker, 
and  to  give  it  a  contrary  motion  to  the 
first  shaker.  Instead  of  such  wheels,  a 
small  wheel  on  the  shaft  of  the  spur-wheel 
/,  is  sometimes  made  to  move  the  feeding- 
gear,  and  both  shakers,  by  means  of  pitch- 
chains  ;  but  although  this  is  a  simpler, 
and  perhaps  cheaper  construction  than 
the  other,  it  is  much  more  likely  to  go 
out  of  working  order. 

1695.  The  description  of  the  machine 
is  as  far  advanced  as  to  enable  you  to 
trace  the  progress  of  the  straw  .through 
the  machine.  The  spur-wheel  /  moves 
from  right  to  left  to  give  the  beaters  i'  of 
the  drum  i,  fig.  136,  a  motion  from  left  to 
right,  that  is,  they  shall  beat  the  straw 
in  an  upward  direction.  The  sheaves  of 
corn  are  placed  in  the  feeding-board  e, 
and  are  taken  from  it  by  the  rollers  of 
the  feeding-gear  h',  and  retained  hold  of 
136. 


THE  LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  A  THRASHING-MACHINE. 


VOL.  I. 


2b 


386 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


while  tlie  beaters  of  the  drum,  passing  in 
an  upward  direction,  separate  the  corn 
from  the  straw,  which  are  both  prevented 
bein>.'  driven  upwards  into  the  air  by  the 
drum-cover  »".  On  the  straw  being 
carried  over  the  top  of  the  drum,  it  is 
drawn  by  its  force  towards  the  first 
shaker/,  and  throws  it  towards  the  seccmd 
shaker  n,  which  lifts  it  over  itself,  and 
throws  it  down  upon  the  straw  screen  o', 
upon  which  it  slides  further  down  to  the 
floor  of  the  straw-barn.  The  shakers 
have  a  lower  velocity  than  the  spur- 
wheel. 

Ifi96.  The  corn  passes  through  the 
machine  in  this  manner  : — The  straw  and 
corn  pass  together  over  the  top  of  the 
drum  j,  and  are  raked  together  by  the 
shaker  I,  near  the  screen  l',  through  which 
the  corn  immediately  falls  into  the  hopper 
0,  de.-?cends  still  farther  upon  the  vibrat- 
ing shoe  of  the  fanners /»,  and  on  failing 
still  farther,  from  which  the  wind,  created 
by  the  fan,  separates  the  chaff  from  the 
corn,  carrying  the  former  into  the  chaft- 
house,  and  allowing  the  latter  to  pass 
through  the  spout  v  to  the  floor  of  the 
corn-bam.  As  much  of  the  corn  as  passes 
over  the  ridge  m"  between  the  two  shakers 
/  and  M,  is  met  by  the  brushes  of  the 
shaker  «,  which  sweep  it  clean  ofi"  the 
board  n'  towards  the  screen  ;«',  through 
which  it  falls  into  the  hopper  o  and  fanners 
J},  in  company  with  that  passed  through  at 
first  through  the  screen  /'. 

1697.  The  fan  of  the  fanners  is  moved 
by  means  of  a  leatliern  belt  or  a  hempen 
rope  g  q,  fig.  135.  which  is  iriven  motion  to 
by  a  sheave  on  the  shaft  of  the  drum,  and 
carried  by  a  couple  of  sheaves  at  r,  one  of 
which  conve\-s  the  rope  down  to  the 
sheave  *,  on  the  spindle  of  the  fan,  and 
the  other  carries  it  back  again  to  the 
drum.  The  sheave  s  is  composed  of 
sheaves  of  diSerent  diameters,  to  allow 
the  fan  to  be  driven  at  diff"erent  velocities, 
according  to  the  state  and  nature  of  the 
corn  to  be  cleaned,  and  its  spindle  is  sup- 
ported at  one  end  by  the  ui)right  post  t. 
The  velocity  of  the  fan  is  220  rotations 
per  minute. 

1698.  The  thrashing-machine  is  set  in 
motion  by  diflTerent  kinds  of  power,— by 
steam,  by  horse-strength,  by   the   wind, 


and  by  water.  Of  these,  wind  power  is 
getting  more  and  more  ont  of  use  in  driving 
farm  machinery,  on  account  of  the  great 
uncertainty  attending  the  motions  of  so 
fickle  an  element,  in  so  variable  a  climate 
as  ours ;  and  every  day,  as  the  manage- 
ment of  the  steam-engine  is  more  and 
more  understood,  it  is  becoming  more 
in  use  on  farms.  Where  water  is  suffi- 
ciently abundant,  it  is  the  simplest,  as 
well  as  the  cheapest,  of  motive  powers, 
and  is  always  preferred  to  all  others;  but 
where  the  supply  is  insuflicient,  although 
it  may  be  ample  enough  for  a  time  in 
winter,  it  partakes  of  the  disadvantages 
attending  wind, — it  may  be  insutficient 
at  the  time  it  is  most  wanted.  Experience 
has  abundantly  proved  that  thrashing- 
machines  dependent  on  water  derived 
cliiefly  from  the  drainage  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  freijuently  suffer  from  a  short 
supply  in  autumn,  and  laie  in  spring,  or 
early  in  summer,  thereby  creating  incon- 
venience for  the  want  of  straw  in  the  end 
of  autumn,  and  the  want  of  seed  or  horse- 
corn  in  the  end  of  spring.  Wherever  such 
casualties  are  likely  to  happen,  it  is  better 
to  adopt  a  steam-engine  at  once.  Although 
coal  sliould  be  both  distant  and  dear,  for 
all  that  a  steam-engine  requires,  a  steam- 
engine  should  be  erected  in  preference  to 
using  horses  in  the  thrashing-machines; 
for  besides  having  to  keep  a  larger  number 
of  horses  on  a  large  farm,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  pair  in  every  five  pairs,  the  tear 
and  wear  of  horses  in  the  rotary  motion  of 
the  horse-course  is  very  considerable. 

1699.  Of  the  three  classes  of  steam- 
engines, — the  atmospheric,  the  low,  and 
the  high  pressure, — the  high  pressure  is 
most  commonly  used  on  farms,  partly  from 
the  notion  that  it  requires  less  water,  is 
more  simple  in  its  construction  and 
management,  and  cheaper  than  the  con- 
densing or  low  pressure  engine.  It  is  cer- 
tainly very  simple  in  its  construction,  and 
its  management  is  easily  understood,  even 
by  country  people,  and  it  is  generally  less 
costly  than  the  condensing  engine  ;  but  a 
sufficient  reason  for  the  preference  may 
be  found  in  the  fact,  that  an  engine  from 
four  to  six  horse  power  is  quite  sufficient 
to  move  most  thrashing-machines,  whereas 
the  condensing  engine  is  better  ajiplicable 
to  purposes  requiring  a  higher  scale  of 
power. 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


387 


1700.  The  high-pressure  steam-engine  is 
60  called  because  the  steam  is  generated 
in  the  boiler,  at  so  great  a  degree  of 
tension  as  to  exert  a  considerable  pres- 
sure on  the  boiler, — not  less,  perhaps, 
than  25  lbs.  to  tlie  square  inch,  and  it 
may  be  increased  to  a  much  higher  rate 
without  difficulty ;  that  is,  the  pressure 
on  the  interior  of  the  boiler  above  that  of 
the  atmosphere  on  its  exterior,  which  is 
equal  to  14  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  It  is 
also  called  non-condensing,  because  it  gets 
quit  of  the  steam  in  the  elastic  state,  and 
is  not  condensed  again  into  water  as  in 
the  condensing  engine.  And  it  is  some- 
Fig. 


times  called  the  puffing  engine,  because  it 
emits  the  steam  it  has  used  in  successive 
jets  or  pufl's. 

1701.  Crank  high-pressure  Steam- 
Engine. — The  high-pressure  steam-engine 
may  be  formed  with  a  beam  or  an  over- 
head crank,  besides  a  variety  of  other 
forms ;  but  these  two  are  the  forms  found 
on  the  farm,  and  of  these  the  crank  engine 
is  the  most  common,  and  it  is  on  this 
account  that  I  have  selected  its  figure  for 
illustration.  It  is  represented  in  fig. 
137,  where  bh  \s  the  ground  floor,  c  c  the 
sole  plate,  which  is  bolted  down  to  a  mass 
137. 


THE  CRANK  HIGH-PRESSURE  STEAM-ENGINE. 


of  solid  masonry,  npon  one  or  two  blocks 
of  stone  of  at  least  one  foot  in  thickness ; 
dd  are  cast-iron  columns,  supporting  an 
entablature  e  e  of  the  same  metal,  which, 
extending  across  the  house,  is  let  into  the 
walls  on  both  ends  to  support  the  lying 


shaft  of  the  engine  ;  /is  the  steam  cylin- 
der ;  g  is  the  piston- rod  of  the  cylinder ; 
h  the  connecting-rod  between  the  piston- 
rod  and  the  crank  k ;  i  is  a  guide-bar 
extending  between  the  columns  through 
which  the  head  of  the  piston-rod  passes 


388 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


to  preserve  its    parallelism  ;    the   end  of 
the  lying  shaft  is  seen  at  the  letter  k  ;  mm 
is  the  fly-wheel ;  and  the  small  circle  at  i 
is  one  of  the  balls  of  the  governor.     The 
steam-pipe  leading  from  the  boiler  joins 
the  engine  at  n,  from  whence    the  steam 
descends  to  o,  and  passing  through  that 
branch,  and  tlie  throttle-valve  case  />,  it 
enters  a  channel  that  half  embraces  the 
cylinder,  and  opens  into  a  small  steam- 
chest  that  contains  the  slide-valve,  which 
are  concealed  behind  the  cylinder  in  the 
figure.       The   steam-chest    covering   the 
slide  being  thus  in  communication    with 
the  boiler,  the  steam,  from  its  elasticity,  is 
always  ready   to    flow  into   any  channel 
that  is  opened  for  it.     Hence,  as  the  slide 
is  moved  alternately  from  off  the  passage 
leading  to  the  upper  and  to  the  lower  ends 
of  the  cylinder,  the  piston  is  made  to  re- 
ciprocate between  the   top    and   bottom. 
At  every  change  of  the  slide,  the  passage 
leading  to  the  atmosphere  is  put  in  com- 
munication with  the  top  or  with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinder,  and  the  steam  which 
had,  in  the  previous  stroke,  done  its  duty 
on  the  piston,  is  drawn  off  and  discharged 
through  a  channel  corresponding  to  that 
by  which  it  entered,  and  passing  through 
the  branch  q^   into  the  column  yr,  it  is 
discharged    into  the    atmosphere   by  the 
pipe  r,    which   frequently   terminates  in 
the    chimney.      The  crank-shaft   carries 
two  eccentrics — the  one  for  the  pump-rod, 
to    which   is  jointed   the  plunger  of  the 
pump,  for  supplying  water  to  the  boiler ; 
the  other  moves  the  slide-valve  rod,  which 
is  so  adjusted  as  to  move  the  valve  at  the 
precise  time  and   place  required   for  the 
due  admission  and  emission  of  the  steam 
to  and  from  the  cylinder.     The  shaft  liJce- 
wise  carries  the  pair  of  level  •wheels  that 
give  motion  to  the  governor.      The  gover- 
nor consists  of  two  oblique  rods,  with  balls 
attached  to  their  lowest  extremities;  and 
these  being  suspended  by  a  joint  on  the  ver- 
tical axis,  the  whole  is  rendered  capable  of 
revolving  horizontally  upon  that  axis.  If  the 
machinery  that  gi  ves  motion  to  the  governor 
is  accelerated,  the  revolving  balls  partake 
of   the  acceleration,   and  the  centrifugal 
action  thus  generated  gives  them  a  ten- 
dency to  fly  off  from  the  centre  of  revolu- 
tion.    This  outward  motion  is  converted 
into  the  means  of  regulati(m,  for  while  the 
balls  and  rods  extend  their  circle  of  gyra- 
tion, they  act   upon    two   jointed   arms. 


The  lever  ic  is  applied  to  the  collar 
above  the  joint  of  the  rods,  and  being 
suspended  near  its  centre,  has  its  opposite 
extremity  jointed  to  the  rod  x,  the  lower 
end  of  which  acts  upon  tiie  lever  of  the 
throttle-valve  «.  The  throttle-valve  is  a 
thin  circular  plate  of  metal,  having  an 
axis  fixed  across  its  diameter,  and  is  nicely 
fitted  into  the  steam-way  passing  through 
the  case  p.  The  spindle  passes  the  sides 
of  the  case  steam-tight,  and  carries  on 
one  end  a  small  lever  by  which  the  valve 
can  be  turned,  and  the  lever  is  put  in 
connexion  with  the  lower  end  of  the  rod 
X.  The  extension  of  the  balls  of  the 
governor,  acting  through  the  lever  w  and 
rod  X,  depresses  the  lever  s  of  the  valve, 
and  by  thus  turning  the  valve,  reduces  the 
steam-w^ay,  and  prevents  further  accelera- 
tion of  the  machine. 

1702.  Insetting  down  the  engine,  we 
have  to  consider  the  space  necessary  to 
receive  it.  This,  in  the  direction  of  the 
barn  wall,  need  not  be  larger  than  8^ 
feet,  or  a  few  inches  more  than  the  dia- 
meter of  the  fly-wheel ;  the  breadth,  in 
the  other  direction,  should  not  be  less 
than  8  feet,  but  may  extend  to  9  or  9^ 
feet.  An  engine-house,  therefore,  of  the 
form  and  dimensions  afforded  by  the  plan 
Plate  II.,  is  not  well  adapted  to  this 
form  of  engine,  its  length  in  the  direction 
of  the  barn  being  too  great  for  the  en- 
tablature beam ;  and  if  adopted  for  such 
a  form  of  house,  a  wall  must  be  run  up, 
or  a  beam  placed  across,  reducing  its 
length  to  8|-  feet,  or  thereby.  In  almost 
every  case  this  form  of  engine  is  the  most 
commodious  for  its  application  to  a  thrash- 
ing-machine, especially  in  regard  to  the 
directicm  of  height ;  for  the  height  that 
the  crank-shaft  stands  above  tlie  floor 
of  the  engine-house  will  generally  bring 
it  near  to  the  large  spur-wheel,  which, 
though  not  in  all  thrashing-machines,  is 
yet  to  be  found  in  a  large  majority  of 
them.  This  is  supposing  that  the  floor 
of  the  engine-house  is  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  barn  floor,  which  will  generally 
be  the  case,  unless  artificially  changed. 

1703.  Mr  Slight  has  given  this  rule  for 
finding  the  horse-power  of  such  a  non- 
condensing  engine : — 

Multiply   the  square   of  tlie  tliaraeter  of  the 
cylinder  in   inches,  by   sixth-tenths   of  the 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


389 


entire  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler  in 
lbs.,  on  the  circular  inch,  minus  half  an  at- 
mosphere, or  5'57  lbs.,  on  the  circular  inch; 
and  multiply  the  product  by  the  velocity  of 
the  piston,  in  feet  per  minute.  The  last 
product  is  the  power  of  the  engine  in  lbs.  to 
raise  one  foot  high  per  minute  ;  and  for  the 
horse-power  divide  as  usual  by  33,000.  For 
example. 

Let  the  cylinder  be  9  inches  diameter,  the 
length  of  stroke  20  inches,  and  the  number 
of  strokes  per  minute  64,  being  equal  to  a 
velocity  of  214  feet  per  minute  for  the  pis- 
ton, and  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  25  lbs.  on 
the  circular  inch,  equal  to  32  lbs.  on  the 
square  inch  nearly  ;  then  (6  x  25  —  575 
=  9-35 ;  and 

9'^x9'35  X  214 

33000 =  5-horse  power  nearly. 

By  this  rule  for  the  power  of  non-con- 
densiug  engines,  a  cylinder  of  10  inches 
diameter,  with  a  pressure  of  25  lbs.  on 
the  circular  inch,  and  making  60  strokes 
per  minute,  is  equal  to  6-horse  power; 
and  the  piston  will  move  at  a  velocity  of 
214  feet  per  minute,  making  the  con- 
sumpt  of  steam,  allowing  for  waste,  equal 
to  128  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  7680 
per  hour.  The  proportion  of  water  to 
steam  consumed  at  tbis  pressure,  is  about 
1  to  850,  or  a  little  more  than  9  cubic 
feet  of  water,  being  about  57  gallons 
per  hour  for  the  supply  of  the  boiler. 
This  calculation  is  stated  merely  to  show 
how  small  the  quantity  of  water  is  that 
suffices  for  a  non-coudeusing  engine  of 
6-horse  power. 

1701.  The  setting  ou  and  stopping  the 
non-condensing  engine  is  an  exceedingly 
simple  operation ;  and  its  simplicity  is 
even  simplified  by  the  addition  of  a  cock 
or  valve  on  the  steam-pipe,  which  is  very 
frequently  adopted,  and  in  that  case  the 
throttle-valve  is  not  required  to  be  so 
accurately  fitted  as  where  no  stop-cock 
is  employed.  To  set  on  the  en</ine,  the 
steam  must  first  be  brought  up  to  the 
requisite  degree  of  pressure.  When  this 
is  accomplished,  which  is  known  by  the 
safety-valve  rising  so  as  to  allow  the 
escape  of  steam,  the  stop-cock,  if  there  is 
one,  is  opened,  the  throttle-valve  being 
also  opened  ;  the  steam  is  admitted  both 
above  and  below  the  piston  by  moving  the 
slide  with  the  handle  of  the  wiper-shaft, 
to  heat  the  cylinder,  the  eccentric  rod 
being  at  the  time  disengaged  from  the 
shaft.  This  done,  the  ^ab  of  the  eccen- 
tric rod  is  laid  upon  the  arm  of  the  wiper- 


shaft  ;  and,  if  the  crank  is  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  engine  may  start  ofi"  without 
assistance ;  but,  if  it  does  not  move,  the 
fly-wheel  is  to  be  pushed  round  a  few 
feet,  or  until  the  crank  has  once  passed 
the  centres,  when  it  will  move  on  freely. 
If  no  resistance  is  upon  the  engine,  the 
throttle-valve  should  be  put  nearly  shut, 
but  so  soon  as  the  resistance  comes, — the 
commencement  of  thrashing,  for  example, 
— the  throttle-valve  lever  is  to  be  con- 
nected to  the  vertical  rod,  and  the  work 
will  proceed  regularly. 

1705.  In  stopping,  where  there  is  a 
stop-cock,  the  siiutting  of  it  puts  a  stop  to 
further  motion,  except  what  the  momen- 
tum of  the  parts  may  continue  to  give 
out  for  a  few  seconds ;  where  there  is  no 
stop-cock,  the  first  step  is  to  disengage 
the  throttle-valve  lever,  and  close  the 
valve,  and  immediately  after  disengaging 
the  eccentric  rod  from,  the  wiper-shaft, 
the  engine  will  stop.  It  is  advisable  to 
keep  this  rod  disengaged  at  all  times  when 
the  engine  is  standing. 

1706.  As  the  engine-house  is  seldom 
accessible  directly  from  the  barn,  there 
ought  always  to  be  means  established  for 
communicating  a  signal  between  the  two 
places;  and  this  should  proceed  from  the 
chief  of  the  operation, — the  person  who 
feeds  the  machine.  As  there  can  be  but 
two  propositions  to  make — to  set  on  and 
to  stop — one  signal  is  sufficient,  and  a  hell 
seems  to  be  the  most  convenient  medium 
of  communication. 

1  707.  The  boiler.— Oi  all  the  parts  of 
the  steam-engine,  the  boiler,  though  by 
far  the  simplest  in  its  construction,  is  the 
most  important.  In  it  is  generated  the 
agent  of  power,  while  all  the  otlier  parts 
are  merely  the  accessories  and  media 
through  which  the  effects  of  the  miglity 
agent  are  developed.  It  has  constantly, 
while  in  action,  to  resist  this  imprisoned 
and  powerful  agent,  and  that  merely  by 
the  strength  of  its  parts;  hence  the  ne- 
cessity for  having  boilers  made  of  the  best 
possible  materials,  and  those  connected  in 
the  best  possible  manner. 

1708.  The  form  now  most  generally 
adopted  for  the  boilers  of  farm-engines, 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  the  best,  is  the  plain 


390 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


cylindrical  l)<>iler,  with  hemispherical 
e'luls.  Tiie  Statfurdsbire  plate  is  con- 
sidered tlie  best  fur  the  purpose;  and  tbey 
are  generally  bent  to  tlie  circle  in  the 
cold  state,  by  the  aid  of  a  machine.  The 
joininirs  are  all  effected  by  riveting  with 
short  bolts,  the  plates  being  previously 
punched  by  a  machine  for  the  reception 
of  the  rivets.  The  rivet-bolts  are  inserted 
and  riveted  down  in  the  red-hot  state,  so 
that,  besides  the  effect  of  the  riveting  to 
draw  the  contiguous  surfaces  of  the 
plates  into  close  contact,  there  is  the 
powerful  contraction  of  the  iron  while 
cooling,  to  produce  still  more  perfect  con- 
tact. To  insure  j>erfect  tiglitness  in  the 
joinings  or /an</iH«/^,  technically  so  called, 
the  whole  of  tlie  joints,  after  tbey  are  all 
riveted  up,  undergo  a  i)rocess  of  caulk- 
ing, which  is  simply  the  stamping  up  of 
the  edges  of  the  plates  into  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  adjoining  surface,  by  means  of 
flat-edged  chisel%  struck  with  a  hammer. 

1709.  Various  rules  arc  given  for  the 
dimensions  of  boilers,  corresponding  with 
anv  given  power  of  engine  ;  but  the  most 
natural  are  those  founded  upon  the  ex- 
tent of  surface  exposed  to  the  flame  of 
the  fire,  and  the  flame  and  heated  air  of 
the  flues,  taken  along  with  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  boiler.  From  researches 
into  the  relations  of  the  fire-surface  and 
contents,  we  can  fonn  a  very  correct 
value  of  the  power  of  boilers  from  their 
capacity  alone.  According  to  these,  a 
cylindrical  boiler  for  high-pressure  steam 
should  have,  in  its  entire  capacity,  1 2  cubic 
feet  of  space  for  each  cubic  foot  of  water 
boiled  off  \>er  hour.  Now  it  has  just  been 
shown  (1703)  that  a  6-horse  power 
cylinder  of  10  inches  diameter  will  con- 
sume the  steam  of  9  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  hour,  and  9x12=108  cubic  feet  for 
the  capacity  of  bi.iler ;  and  taking  its 
diameter  at  3  feet  4  inches,  which  gives  a 
sectional  area  of  86  feet;  and  dividing 
the  cubical  capacity  of  the  boiler  by  this 

last  number,  we  have    -— ;  =12*5  feet  for 
o'o 

the  length  of  a  cylinder   that  will  yield 

the  capacity    required.      But   as     it  will 

have    hemispherical    ends,    the    extreme 

length   will   be  13i    feet  nearly,    which 

agrees  very  well  with  practice. 

1710.  The  position  in  which  the  boiler 


is  to  be  set  down,  should  be  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  engine,  so  that  the  jiipe 
conveying  the  steam  should  be  as  sliort 
as  jHjssible,  to  prevent  all  uunecessary 
condensation  of  steam. 

1711.  The  furnace  of  the  b<jiler  has 
undergone  many  changes,  both  in  form 
and  dimensions,  and  in  the  means  of  sup- 
plying it  with  air  for  the  consumj)tion  of 
the  smoke.  The  latter  property,  though 
always  desirable,  is  not  of  weighty  im- 
portance in  farm-engines,  but  it  is  essential 
that,  in  every  case,  the  furnace  be  so 
constructed  as  to  produce  the  requisite 
supply  of  steam  with  certainty  and  de- 
spatch. To  effect  these  objects,  it  is 
required  to  expose  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  bottom  of  the  b«jiler  to  the  action  of 
the  fire,  without  reducing  that  portion  of 
tlie  surface  which  falls  to  receive  the  heat 
from  the  flame  and  smoke  passing  along 
the  flues.  In  cvlimlrical  boilers,  this  is 
effected  by  making  the  width  of  tlie  fur- 
nace equal  to  three-fifths  of  the  diameter 
of  the  boiler,  the  covering  of  the  side 
flues  rising  to  within  2  inches  of  the  level 
of  the  centre  of  the  boiler,  that  being  the 
line  to  which  the  sinking  of  tlie  water 
shf)uld  be  restricted,  so  that  the  fire  or 
heated  air  shall  never  impinge  on  any 
part  of  the  surface  that  is  not  covered  in- 
ternally with  water.  The  area  of  fire- 
grate commonly  allowed  is  one  superficial 
foot  to  each  horse  power  ;  or,  if  the  fur- 
nace is  2  feet  wide,  the  grate-bars  should 
be  3  feet  in  length.  This  is  too  small 
unless  coal  of  the  very  best  quality  is 
burned ;  and,  to  insure  abundance  of 
fire,  the  bars  should  be  of  such  length  as 
to  give  l|  square  foot  to  the  horse  power 
nearly,  and  should  be  laid  with  a  slope 
of  1  inch  on  the  foot  of  length.  In  front 
of  the  bars,  a  breadth  of  from  15  to  18 
inches  is  occupied  by  the  dumb-plate  or 
dead-plate,  upon  which  the  fresh  fuel 
should  always  be  laid  down  on  its  first 
introduction  to  the  furnace.  The  mouth 
of  the  furnace  is  closed  by  a  door  and 
frame  of  cast-iron,  leaving  the  opening  of 
the  ash-pit  about  3  feet  in  height. 

1712.  The  chimney  for  the  steam- 
engine  is  an  object  of  some  importance. 
Upon  its  height  and  area  depends  much 
of  the  future  effects  of  the  engine ;  and 
very    numerous  are    the  views   taken    of 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


391 


these  by  engineers.  The  following  points 
may,  however,  be  taken  as  data  not  easily 
controverted.  The  height  should  not  be 
less  than  50  feet ;  and,  if  it  is  desirable  to 
avoid  the  nuisance  arising  from  smoke, 
the  height  should  greatly  exceed  tliis. 
The  internal  sectional  area  should  be  as 
large  as  may  be  consistent  with  economy 
in  the  exjjense,  but  should  never  be  under 
80  square  inches  for  each  horse  power. 
Thus  a  chimney  for  a  6-horse  engine 
should  have  its  area  at  the  top  80x6"= 
480  square  inches,  and  V  480=22  inches 
nearly,  the  side  of  the  square  of  the 
chimney  internally ;  and  if  circular,  the 
diameter  should  be  25  inches  nearly.  The 
height  of  the  chimney  being  determined, 
and  also  tlie  side  of  its  square  externally, 
the  square  of  its  base  is  found  by  adding 
to  the  length  of  the  side  at  top  the 
amount  of  increase  arising  from  the  slope 
given  to  the  sides.  The  usual  slope  or 
battre  is  f  inch  to  a  foot ;  with  a  height, 
therefore,  of  50  feet,  the  increase  at  bot- 
tom will  be  18|  inches  on  each  side  ;  and 
the  walls  being  one  brick,  or  5  inches  tliick, 
the  side  of  the  square  at  top  will  be  22  + 
(5x2)=32  inches,  and  this  added  to  18| 
X  2=3y|  +  32=5  feet  11  ^  inches,  the  sides 
of  the  square  at  the  bottom. 

1713.  The  regular  supply  of  water  to 
the  boiler  of  a  steam-engine  is  a  matter 
of  great  importance,  as  is  also  the  proper 
method  of  water-gauge ;  and  it  is  also  of 
great  importance  that  the  water  sent  into 
the  boiler  should  have  its  temperature 
raised  as  high  as  possible  before  entering. 
This  is  effected  in  a  very  simple  manner, 
and  to  a  temperature  of  about  140°  by  the 
apparatus;  but  as  the  description  of  all 
the  apparatus  by  which  all  these  ends  are 
best  effected  would  involve  the  relation  of 
much  minutiae,  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to 
enter  into  them. 

1714.  The  fuel  for  the  steam-engine  is 
always  coal,  where  it  can  be  procured ; 
but  either  wood  or  peat  may  be  used.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  coal-woiks,  the  re- 
fuse or  culm  is  always  procurable  at  a  low 
price,  and  is  quite  sufficient  in  point  of 
quality  for  an  engine  furnace ;  1  cwt.  of 
this  culm  will,  on  an  average,  be  required 
per  hour  that  the  furnace  is  burning,  for 
a  6-horse  engine.  Wliere  the  locality 
involves  a  distant    carriage,    it   is   tlien 


better  to  use  the  large  coal,  of  which, 
with^  due  care,  |  cwt.  will  suffice  for  an 
hour.  In  stoking,  the  coal  should  al- 
ways be  laid  down  on  the  dead-phate, 
pushing  it  forward  before  putting  in  a 
fresh  supply.  The  fire  should  be  kept 
clear,  and  always  free  of  the  clinkers 
that  may  be  formed  in  the  bars.  On  all 
occasions  of  stopping,  the  damper  should 
be  let  down  and  the  furnace-doors  opened, 
to  prevent  unnecessary  waste  of  fuel ;  but 
at  all  times,  while  working,  the  furnace- 
doors  must  be  kept  shut,  unless  the  supply 
of  steam  is  found  to  be  too  great. 

1715.  The  Horse-wheel. — Until  of  late 
years  the  thrashing-machine  was  in  most 
cases  impelled  by  horses  moving  in  a  cir- 
cular course ;  and  as  this  power  continues 
to  be  employed  on  the  smaller  class  of 
farms,  it  is  still  of  that  importance  to 
demand  being  here  brought  under  notice. 
Horse-wheels  are  of  various  construction, 
as  under-foot  and  over-head;  the  former 
being  chiefly  used  where  small  powers  are 
required,  and  the  latter  where  four  horses 
and  upwards  are  employed.  In  general, 
in  the  under-foot  wheel,  the  horses  draw 
by  means  of  trace-chains  and  swing-tree. 
In  the  over-head  wheel,  of  old  construction, 
we  also  find  occasionally  the  same  method 
of  yoking  practised  ;  but  in  all  modern 
over-head  wheels  the  horses  draw  by  a 
yoke  descending  over  their  back,  from  a 
horizontal  beam  placed  over-head.  Cus- 
tom seems,  as  usual,  to  have  produced  a 
preference  for  this  mode  of  yoking,  though 
there  appears  good  reason  for  calling  its 
propriety  in  question,  especially  if  the 
course  has  a  diameter  of  22  feet  or  up- 
wards. The  argument  in  support  of  the 
over-head  draught  is,  that  the  horse  exerts 
his  force  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent,  or 
very  nearly  so,  to  the  curve  in  which  he 
walks,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  beam  by 
which  he  draws;  while,  in  the  swing-tree 
draught,  his  shoulders  being  considerably 
more  in  advance  of  the  point  of  attachment, 
his  exertions  must  necessarily  tend  in  a 
direction  that  will  form  an  angle  more 
acute  than  a  right  angle,  but  wiiich  will 
vary  with  the  radius  of  the  course.  It  is 
quite  true  that  this  is  the  case,  and  that 
the  horse  will  draw  at  a  disadvantage,  to 
a  certain  extent,  but  the  amount  of  this 
disadvantage  is  small.  In  a  26'-feet 
course,  which  is  a  good  medium,  giving 


S93 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  over-liead  draught  the  full  advantage 
of  the  right-angle— 90°— the  other  will 
draw  at  an  angle  of  about  72°  with  the 
radius  or  beam ;  and  it  is  easy  to  show 
that  the  amount  of  disadvantage  arising 
from  this  is  as  21  to  20.  If  the  draught 
of  a  horse  in  a  wheel  amounts  to  170  lbs. 
under  the  favourable  position,  it  will  re- 
quire an  exertion  of  178,^  lbs.  from  the 
same  horse,  when  yoked  unfavourably, 
that  is,  by  a  swing-tree.  With  this  dis- 
advantage, which  is  but  small,  if  we  com- 
pare the  freedom  of  action  and  uniformity 
of  the  resistance  in  the  case  of  the  swing- 
tree  draught,  with  the  constrained  action 
and  jolting  effects  which  the  horse  under- 
goes in  the  over-head  yoke  ;  and  to  these, 
if  we  add  the  chances  of  disadvantage  to 
horses  of  low  stature,  being  constrained  to 
draw  at  an  unfavourable  vertical  angle, 
we  shall  soon  find  an  amount  of  disad- 
vantage greater  than  in  the  former  case. 
The  question  is  not  now  of  that  impor- 
tance that  it  once  possessed,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  extensive  application  of 
steam  ;  but  it  appears  still  to  be  deserving 
of  consideration. 

1716.  In  the  construction  of  the  horse- 
wheel,  also,  a  question  arises  as  to  the 
diameter  of  the  actual  tcheel^  whether  it 
should  be  equal  in  diameter  to  the  entire 
horse-walk,  and  work  as  a  spur-wheel,  or 
have  a  diameter  considerably  under  the 
former,  and  be  applied  as  a  face  or  bevelled 
wheel.  It  appears  to  nie  that  the  large 
spur-wheel,  of  25  or  30  feet  in  diameter, 
has  been  conceived  under  a  false  impres- 
sion, and  that,  on  principle,  its  application 
is  erroneous.  It  is  also  probable,  that  a 
consideration  of  the  overshot  water-wheel, 
which,  from  its  construction,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  element  employed,  requires  that 
its  power  shouhl  be  given  off  at  or  near 
the  extremity  of  its  arms,  may  have  given 
rise  to  this  formation ;  but  the  causes  that 
combine  to  render  this  not  only  advisable, 
but  imperative,  in  the  water-wheel,  if 
every  thing  is  duly  considered,  do  not 
apply  to  horse  power.  When  the  horse- 
w'heel  has  a  diameter  larger  than  the  mean 
diameter  of  the  horse-path,  it  gives  the 
first  motion  a  higher  velocity  than  that  of 
the  moving  power,  by  its  more  extended 
radius;  and  if  any  inequality  occurs  in 
the  moving  power,  it  will  sensibly  affect 
the  succeeding  motions.     Horses  do   not 


exert  a  perfectly  uniform  force  when  yoked 
in  a  wheel — the  very  act  of  stepping  forth, 
by  removing  the  exertion  from  one  shoul- 
der to  the  other,  produces  small  incre- 
ments and  decrements  alternately  to  the 
power,  and  these  must  be  communicated 
to  the  wheel  which  extends  beyond  that 
point  of  the  lever  by  which  the  horse 
draws.  Besides  this  effect  on  the  machine, 
it  must  have  an  equally  bad  effect  upon 
the  horses ;  for,  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  large  wheel,  and  from  the 
yoke  being  applied  to  a  point  where  all 
elasticity  is  removed,  the  draught  becomes 
what  is  termed  dead, — that  is  to  say,  there 
are  no  elastic  or  yielding  parts  betwixt  the 
power  and  the  first  impulse,  that  might 
tend  to  soften  the  sudden  strains  that 
come  upon  the  horses,  unless  other  means 
are  resorted  to  to  produce  that  result. 
Wheels  of  this  construction  will,  there- 
fore, be  found  more  fatiguing  to  the  horses 
than  those  of  smaller  diameter. 

1717.  Of  horse- wheels  with  a*?n«//  circle 
of  teeth,  the  diameter  best  suited  for  all 
purposes,  and  which  might  produce  a 
maximum  eftect,  has  not  yet  been  defined; 
but  from  analogy,  and  taking  into  view 
the  properties  of  the  centre  of  jiercussion, 
we  may  infer  that  the  radius  of  the  seg- 
ments forming  the  toothed  wheel  should 
be  two-thirds  of  the  radius  of  the  beam, 
measuring  to  the  centre  of  draught,  which 
may  be  taken  at  11  feet  when  the  course 
is  26  feet  diameter,  giving  to  the  toothed 
segments  a  diameter  of  14  feet  3  inches. 
The  diameter  thus  found  is  subject  to  mo- 
dification, arising  from  considerations  of 
strength,  and  the  too  great  obliquity  of 
the  diagonal  braces  of  the  wheel,  that 
would  follow  u[x)n  a  large  diameter.  Such 
considerations  will  induce  a  reduction  of 
diameter  to  12^  or  13  feet,  as  a  good 
medium  size  of  wheel.  The  projection  of 
the  horse-beams  beyond  the  point  of  action 
of  the  toothed  segments,  produce  that  de- 
gree of  elasticity  pointed  out  in  1716 
the  absence  of  which  forms  a  defect  in 
wheels  of  large  diameter. 

171 8.  The  horse- wheel  rey>resented  in 
fig.  138,  is  constructed  on  data  derived 
from  the  foregoing  considerations,  and  is  an 
elevation  of  the  wheel.  It  is  constructed 
for  four  lior.«es, — the  cour.-e  is  26  feet  dia- 
meter within  the  pillars,  and  the  wheel  is 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING.  393 

13  feet  diameter,  with  a  hollow  cast-iron  the  wheel  are  bolted.  The  position  of  the 
central  shaft,  having  a  flange  at  top  and  horse-wheel  must  be  always  adjoining  to 
bottom,  to  which  the  arms  and  stays  of    the  barn ;  it  may  or  may  not  be  on  the 

Fig.  138. 


THE  HORSE-WHEEL  FOR  A  THRASHING-MACHINE. 


side  towards  the  stack-yard,  but  generally 
the  former.  In  the  figure,  the  barn -wall 
is  marked  «,  and  of  the  two  main  pillars, 
which  support  the  main  collar-beam,  one 
is  marked  b ;  of  the  two  minor  pillars, 
erected  solely  for  completing  the  bearings 
of  the  roof,  one  only  is  seen  at  c,  and  d  is 
the  floor  or  horse-walk.  The  footstep  of 
the  horse-wheel  is  supported  on  the  stone 
block  e,  the  step  being  adjustable  by  four 
screws,  to  bring  the  wheel  to  the  true 
level ;  and  /  is  the  collar-beam,  which  is 
laid  upon  and  bolted  to  the  main  pillars, 
and  carries  the  plummer-block  for  the 
head  of  the  central  shaft.  The  sheers  g 
are  framed  into  the  collar-beam,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  wall  a  ;  and  these  have  two 
diagonal  braces,  not  seen  in  the  figure,  to  re- 
sist the  shake  from  the  action  of  the  wheel 
upon  the  pinion  of  the  lying  shaft ;  and 
the  cast-iron  bridge  i  is  bolted  down  upon 
tlie  sheers  carrying  the  end  of  the  lying 
shaft.  The  flanges  of  the  central  shaft  k, 
and  the  one  at  the  top  not  seen,  form  the 
foundation  of  the  wheel ;  to  the  latter  are 
bolted  the  horizontal  arms,  as  well  as  the 
horse-beams  o,  and  these  are  supported  by 
the  diagonals  n  n,  seated  in  and  draw- 
bolted  to  the  flange  k.  The  horizontal 
braces  p  p,  of  the  horse-beams  are  framed 
into  the  ends  of  the  horizontal  arms,  and 
secured  with  cast-iron  knee-plates  at  their 
junction  with  the  wheel  and  with  the 
horse-beams.  Tlie  yoke-bars  ^^  ^,  are  made 
of  hard  wood,  tapering  towanls  the  lower 
end,  strongly  bolted  to  the  horse-beams. 


and  are  each  mounted  with  an  iron  pulley 
near  the  lower  end,  over  which  the 
draught-chain  passes,  the  height  of  which 
from  the  horse-path  should  be  3  feet  6 
inches,  liable  to  slight  variation,  arising 
from  the  stature  of  the  horse  that  is  to  be 
yoked  into  it.  The  wheel  r  is  now  always 
made  of  cast-iron,  in  segments,  and,  when 
the  wheel  is  very  carefully  made,  are  fitted 
and  bolted  to  a  bed-plate  of  the  same 
material,  previously  bolted  to  the  arms  and 
horse-beams,  and  is  13  feet  diameter.  The 
horse-wheel  pinion  s  is  mounted  on  the 
lying  shaft  s  t,  whose  inward  bearing  is 
upon  the  barn  wall,  in  an  opening  formed 
for  the  purpose,  and  this  shaft  carries  the 
spur-wheel  zi  inside  the  barn.  The  calcu- 
lations of  this  machine  would  stand  thus: — 
The  horses  will  walk  the  course  three  times 
in  a  minute,  being  at  the  rate  nearly  of  2^ 
miles  per  hour,  the  lying  shaft  s  t  will 
make  1 1  revolutions  for  one  of  the  wheel, 
or  33  per  minute,  and  if  the  drum  pinion, 
wliich  is  driven  by  the  wheel  ^^,  is  made 
8"6  inches  diameter,  the  wheel  being  7  feet, 
would  give  the  drum  320  revolutions  per 
minute;  a  fair  aA^erage  velocity  for  a  4- 
horse  machine,  which  can  be  increased  by 
a  quicker  step  of  tlie  horses,  say  to  2^ 
miles  per  hour,  which  would  give  340  re- 
volutions per  minute  to  the  drum. 

1719.  Some  horses,  when  yoked  in  a 
wheel,  are  observed,  after  a  short  practice, 
to  take  advantage  of  lagging  back,  and 
allowing  those  who  are  more  willing  to 


394 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


take  the  Iieavy  end  of  the  work.  To 
counteract  this,  methods  have  been  adopted 
to  make  the  horses  draw  by  cliains,  so 
arranged  as  to  make  them  work  against 
each  other  in  pairs;  or  make  any  number 
of  tlieiii  draw  from  a  ring-chain  common 
to  tlie  whole.  Another  method  was  to 
make  each  horse  draw  against  a  certain 
weight  suspended  over  j)ulley6 ;  but  all 
these  have  their  imperfections  in  one  way 
or  another.  A  new  and  more  perfect  ar- 
rangement of  the  ring-chain  was  intro- 
duced by  Mr  Christie,  Khynd,  Fifeshire, 
which  received  tlie  a])pn)hation  of  the 
Highhmd  and  Agricultural  Society  of 
Scotland.*  This  arrangement  is  exhibited 
in  tl)e  figure  by  the  doted  lines  under  the 
horse-beams ;  but  I  do  not  enter  into  the 
details  of  the  arrangement.  Suffice  it  for 
me  to  say  that  the  princi])le  of  the  arrange- 
ment is,  that  thi'  rhh/-c/iain  forms  ajigiire, 
of  so  many  equal  sides  or  angles  as  there 
are  horses  in  the  ichcel^  and  that  the  angles 
always  remain  equal.  The  defects  of 
any  other  method  of  this  kind  which  Uas 
been  tried  being,  that  the  angles  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  sluggish  or  active  temper 
of  the  horses. 

1720.  A  method  of  equalising  the  resis- 
tance to  the  shoulders  of  each  individual 
horse  has  been  long  practised,  and  which, 
from  its  simplicity  as  well  as  its  beneficial 
effects  upon  the  horses,  is  deserving  of 
general  adi-ption.  The  apparatus  consists 
of  an  iron  lever  with  equal  arn)s,  ^vhich  is 
suspended  uj)on  a  bolt  by  a  jterforation 
through  the  centre  of  the  lever  forming  the 
fulcrum,  and  the  ends  are  formed  into 
hooks  to  which  the  draught-chains  are  at- 
tached. Fig.  139  represents  the  applica- 
tion of  this  to  the  horse-beam,  wherein  a 
is  a  part  of  the  beam,  and  h  h  the  yoke- 
trees  ;  c  is  the  lever  above  described,  sus- 
pended upon  the  back  of  the  horse-beam  ; 
ddi\\e  draught-chains,  hooked  to  the  lever, 
and  passed  under  the  pulleys  of  the  yoke- 
trees,  beyond  which  the  horse  is  yoked  to 
the  extremity  of  the  cliains.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  mode  of  yoking  will  at  once 
be  obvious ;  for  suppose  that,  from  inad- 
vertence, the  hor.se  may  have  been  un- 
equally yoked,  whenever  he  exerts  his 
force,  the  chain  that  had  been  yoketl  short 
— suppose  it  to  be  the  left  shoulder — will 


immediately  pull  down  the  end  of  the  lever 

to  which   it  is  hooked,  and  so  bring  the 

longer  chain  to  bear  with  equal  resistance 

Fig.  139. 


THE  LEVER  FOR  EQUALISING  DRAUGHT  IN 
TUE  THRASHING-MACHINE. 

upon  the  right  shoulder.  It  will  be  found, 
also,  that  the  lever  will  vibrate  at  every 
step  taken  by  the  horse,  as  his  efforts  are 
changed  at  every  step  from  the  one  shoul- 
der to  the  other;  the  lever  will  therefore 
tend  to  equalise  his  exertions  in  respect  to 
Lis  muscular  economy,  and  to  the  motion 
of  the  machine. 

1721.  The  Water-irheel. — Water,  when 
it  can  be  commanded,  is  the  chea})est  and 
most  uniform  of  all  powers;  and  on  many 
farms  it  might  be  commanded  by  carefully 
collecting  and  storing  in  a  dam.  Water- 
wheels  have  been  commonly  treated  as  of 
two  kinds;  but,  with  great  deference,  I 
conceive  they  may  be  classed  under  two 
heads.  The  under-shot,  or  oprnjioat-board 
wheel,  which  can  only  be  advantageously 
employed  where  the  supply  of  water  is 
considerable  and  the  fall  low ;  it  can 
therefore  rarely  answer  for  farm  purposes, 
and  need  not  be  discussed.  The  second  is  the 
bucket- whee],  which  may  be  over-shot  or 
breast,  according  to  the  height  of  the  fall. 
It  is  this  wheel  that  is  adopted  in  all  cases 
where  water  is  scarce  or  valuable,  and  the 
fall  amounting  to  6  or  7  feet  or  more, 
though  it  is  sometimes  employed  with  even 
less  fall  than  6  feet.  It  is  the  most  effec- 
tive mode  of  employing  water,  except 
where  the  fall  is  excessively  high,  or  ex- 


*  Prize  Estayt  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.  p.  264. 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


395 


ceeding  50  feet,  when,  in  such  cases,  it  is 
applied  to  motive  machines  that  will 
rarely  be  employed  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, such  as  Barker's  mill,  &c. 

1722.  When  it  is  proposed  to  employ  a 
stream  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  power, 
the  first  step  is  to  determine  the  quantity 
delivered  hy  the  stream  in  a  given  time  ; 
this,  if  the  stream  is  not  large,  is  easily 
accomplished  by  an  actual  measurement 
of  the  discharge,  and  is  done  by  damming 
up  the  stream  to  a  small  height,  say  1  or 
2  feet,  giving  time  to  collect,  so  as  to 
send  the  full  discharge  through  a  shoot, 
from  which  it  is  received  into  a  vessel  of 
any  known  capacity,  the  precise  time  that 
is  required  to  fill  it  being  carefully  noted. 
This  will  give  a  correct  measure  of  the 
water  that  could  be  delivered  constantly 
for  any  purpose ;  if  in  too  small  a  quantity 
to  be  serviceable  at  all  times,  the  result 
may  found  a  calculation  of  the  time  re- 
quired to  fill  a  dam  of  such  dimensions  as 
might  serve  to  drive  a  thrashing-machine 
for  any  required  number  of  hours.  If  the 
discharge  of  the  stream  is  more  than  could  be 
received  into  any  moderately-sized  vessel, 
a  near  approximation  may  be  made  to  the 
amount  of  discharge  by  the  following 
method:  Select  a  part  of  its  course,  where 
the  bottom  and  sides  are  tolerably  even, 
for  a  distance  of  50  or  100  feet;  ascertain 
the  velocity  with  which  it  runs  through 
this  space,  or  any  measured  portion  of  it, 
by  floating  light  substances  on  its  surface, 
noting  the  time  required  for  the  substance 
to  pass  over  the  length  of  the  space.  A 
section  of  the  sti'eam  is  then  to  be  taken, 
to  determine  the  number  of  superficial  feet 
or  inches  of  sectional  area  that  is  flowing 
along  the  channel,  and  this,  multiplied 
into  five-sixths  of  the  velocity  of  the 
stream,  will  give  a  tolerable  approxima- 
tion to  the  true  quantity  of  discharge — 
five-sixths  of  the  surface  velocity,  at  the 
middle  of  the  stream,  being  very  nearly  the 
mean  velocity  of  the  entire  section.  Sup- 
pose the  substance  floated  upon  the  surface 
of  the  stream  passed  over  a  distance  of 
100  feet  in  20  seconds,  and  that  the 
stream  is  3  feet  broad,  with  an  average 
depth  of  4  inches — here  the  area  of  the 
section  is  exactly  1  foot,  and  the  velocity 
being  100  feet  in  20  seconds,  gives  300 
feet  per  minute,  less  one-sixth  =  250  feet, 
and  this  multiplied  by  the  sectional  area 


in  feet,  or  1  foot,  is  250  cubic  feet  per 
minutei"or  the  discharge.  It  is  to  be  kept 
in  mind  that  this  is  only  an  approximation, 
but  it  is  simple,  and  from  repeated  experi- 
ments I  have  found  it  to  come  near  the  truth. 
For  those  who  wish  to  enter  more  elabo- 
rately into  the  subject,  I  may  here  state  a 
formula  derived  from  those  of  Sir  John 
Leslie,  for  finding  the  mean  velocity,  and, 
having  also  the  transverse  section,  to  find 
the  discharge  of  a  stream  or  river. 

Multiply  the  constant  1'6  into  the  hydraulic 
depth,  and  into  the  slope  of  the  surface  of 
the  water  per  mile,  the  square  root  of  the 
product  will  give  the  mean  velocity  of  the 
stream  in  feet,  per  second ;  and  the  root, 
multiplied  by  the  section  of  the  stream  in 
square  feet,  is  the  discharge  per  second. 
The  hydraulic  depth  is  the  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  stream  in  square  feet,  divided  by 
the  periphery  of  the  stream,  less  the  sur- 
face breadth. 

Example, — If  the  surface  hreadth  be  3  feet,  the 
bottom  breadth  24  feet,  and  the  slope  of 
the  sides  each  9  inches, a  transverse  section  of 
these  dimensions  will  contain  2  square  feet 
nearly,  which,  divided  by  the  periphery, 
which  is 

3-l--75-f75->- 2-5  =  7,  the  periphery, 
then  the  area  of  the  section=2  feet ; 

and  2-^(7 — 3)='5foot,  or  =6  inches,  the 
hydraulic  depth. 

And  suppose  the  slope  at  the  place  of  section 
to  be  14  inch  on  100  feet,  or  6'5  feet  per 
mile,  apply  the  formula — 

1-6  X  -5  X  6'.5=2'3  feet,  the  velocity  per 
second  nearly,  and  the  delivery  will  be 
2'3  X  2  =  4'6  cubic  feet  per  second, 
which,  multiplied  by  60,  gives  276  cubic 
feet  per  minute. 

1723.  The  next  step  is  to  ascertain,  by 
levelling,  from  the  most  convenient  point 
at  which  the  stream  can  be  taken  off,  to 
the  site  where  the  water-wheel  can  be  set 
down,  and  to  that  point  in  the  continua- 
tion of  the  stream  where  the  water  can  be 
discharged  from  the  wheel,  or  what  is 
called  the  outfall  of  the  tail-race.  If  the 
water  has  to  be  conveyed  to  any  consider- 
able distance  from  the  point  where  it  is 
diverted  from  the  stream  to  the  wheel,  a 
lade  must  be  formed  for  it,  which  should 
have  a  fall  of  not  less  than  1|  inches  in 
100  feet,  and  this  is  to  be  deducted  from 
the  entire  fall.  Suppose,  after  this  deduc- 
tion, the  clear  fall  be  12  feet,  and  that  the 
water  is  to  be  received  on  a  bucket-wheel 
whose  power  shall  be  equal  to  4  horses. — 


896 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


The  rule  for  finding  the  quantity  of  water  required  per  minute  to  produce  4  horses'  power  is 
to  multiply  the  constant  44,000  by  the  horse-power,  aud  divide  the  product  by  the  product 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  cunslant,— the  weight  of  water  per  cubic  foot  by  the  height  of 
the  full. 
Example. — Multiply  the  constant  .  .  .  44,000 

By  the  horse-power,     ....  4 


Which  divide  by  the 

weight  of  water  per  cubic  foot, 
Multiplied  by  the  height  of  the  fall, 


)1 76000(234  cubic  feet,  the  quantity 

62'5        1500  of  water   required  per 

12     minute    to    produce    4 

2,600  horses'  power. 


7500  2,250 


3,500 
3,000 

44,00^x_4^234  cubic  feet. 
625x12 
The  rule  for  finding  the  horse-power  of  any  ascertained  discharge  of  water  will  be  found  in  (117.) 


The  formula  is  this  — 


1724.  If  the  stream  does  not  produce 
this  quantity,  a  dam  must  be  formed  by 
embanking  or  otherwise,  to  contain  such 
quantity  as  will  supply  the  wheel  for  three 
or  six  hours,  or  such  period  as  may  be 
thought  necessary.  The  quantity  required 
for  the  wheel  here  supposed,  for  three 
hours,  would  be  42,120  cubic  feet;  but 
suppose  tlie  stream  to  supply  one-fourth 
part  of  this,  the  remainder,  or  31,590  feet 
must  be  provided  for  in  a  dam,  which,  to 
contain  this,  at  a  depth  not  exceeding  4 
feet,  would  be  88  feet  square.  But  the 
constant  supply  of  water  is  often  much 
smaller  than  here  supposed,  and  in  such 
cases  the  dam  must  be  proportionally  larger. 

1725.  The  dam  may  be  formed  either 
upon  the  course  of  the  streair*,  by  a  stone- 
weir  thrown  across  it,  and  proper  sluices 
formed  at  one  side  to  lead  off  the  water 
when  required;  or,  what  is  much  better, 
the  stream  may  be  diverted  from  its  course 
by  a  low  weir  into  an  intermediate  dam, 
which  may  be  formed  by  digging  and  em- 
bankments of  earth,  furnished  with  sluice 
and  waste-weir,  and  from  this  the  lade  to 
the  wheel  should  be  formed.  The  small 
weir  on  the  stream,  while  it  served  to 
divert  the  water,  when  required,  through 
a  sluice  to  the  dam,  would,  in  time  of 
floods,  pass  the  water  over  the  weir,  the 
regulating  sluice  being  shut  to  prevent 
the  flooding  of  the  dam.  This  last  me- 
thod of  forming  the  dam  is  generally  the 
most  economical  and  convenient,  besides 
avoiding  the  risk  which  attends  a  heavy 
weir  upon  a  stream  that  may  be  subject 
to  floods.  When  water  is  collected  from 
drains  or  springs,  it  is  received  into  a  dam 


formed  in  any  convenient  situation,  and 
which  must  also  be  furnished  with  a  waste- 
weir,  to  pass  oft'  flood  waters,  besides  the 
ordinary  sluice. 

1726.  The  position  of  the  sluice  in  the 
dam  should  be  so  studied  as  to  prevent  the 
wrack  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
finding  its  way  into  the  sluice,  and  thence 
to  the  water-wheel.  To  avoid  this  incon- 
venience, the  sluice  should  not  be  placed 
at  the  lowest  point  of  the  dam,  where  it 
most  commonly  is,  but  at  one  side,  at 
which  the  water  will  pass  into  the  lade, 
while  the  rubbish  will  float  past  to  the 
lowest  point. 

1727.  The  wator-wheel  should  be  on 
the  bucket  principle,  and,  for  a  fall  such 
as  we  have  supposed,  should  not  be  lesa 
than  14  feet  diameter;  the  water,  there- 
fore, would  be  received  on  the  breast  of 
the  wheel.  Its  circumference,  with  a 
diameter  of  14  feet,  will  be  3'141G  x 
14=44  feet;  its  velocity,  at  5  feet  per 
second,  is  44  x  5  =  220  feet  a  minute ; 
and  234  cubic  feet,  per  minute  (1723,)  of 
water  spread  over  this,  gives  a  sectional 
area  ft»r  the  water  laid  upon  the  wheel  of 

234 

^-  =  rOG  feet;  but  as  the  bucket  should 

not  be  more  than  half  filled,  this  area  is 
to  be  doubled  =  2-12  feet ;  and  as  the 
breadth  of  the  wheel  may  be  restricted  to 

3  feet,  then  ^=-704  foot,  the  depth  of 

the  shrouding,  eijual  to  8^  inches  nearly; 
and  if  the  wheel  is  to  have  wooden  sole- 
ing,  1  inch  should  be  added  to  this  depth 
already  found,  making  t)^  inches. 


ACCOMMODATION"  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


397 


1728.  The  arc  in  which  the  wheel  is  to 
be  placed  must  have  a  width  siifRcient  to 
receive  the  wheel  with  the  toothed  seg- 
ments attached  to  the  side  of  the  shroud- 
ing. For  a  bucket-wheel  it  is  not  necessary 
that  it  be  built  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  but 
simply  a  square  chamber — one  side  of  it 
being  formed  by  the  wall  of  the  barn,  the 
other  by  a  wall  of  solid  masonry,  at  least 
2^  feet  thick :  one  end  also  is  built  up 
solid,  while  the  opposite  end,  towards  the 
tail-race,  is  either  left  entirely  open,  or,  if 


the  water  is  to  be  carried  away  by  a  tun- 
nel, the  water-way  is  arched  over  and  the 
space  above  levelled  in  with  earth.  It  is 
requisite  tliat  ti)e  walls  of  the  wheel- 
arc  here  described,  should  be  built  of 
square-dressed  stone,  having  a  breadth 
of  bed  not  less  than  12  inches,  laid  flush 
in  mortar,  and  pointed  with  Roman 
cement. 

1729.  Fig.  140  is  a  sectional  elevation 
of  the  wheel ;  a'  a'  is  the  barn-wall,  b'  b' 

140, 


THE  SECTION  AND  ELEVATION  OF  A  BUCKET  WATER-WHEEL. 


is  the  sole  of  the  arc  or  chamber,  formed 
of  solid  ashler,  having  an  increased  slope 
immediately  under  the  wheel,  to  clear 
it  speedily  of  water.  The  shaft,  the 
arms,  and  shrouding,  are  all  of  cast-iron, 
the  buckets  and  sole  being  of  wood;  and, 
to  prevent  risk  of  fracture,  the  arms  are 
cast  separate  from  the  shrouding.  The 
width  of  the  wheel  being  ^  feet,  the 
toothed  segments  4  inches  broad,  and  they 
being  1  inch  clear  of  the  shrouding,  gives 
a  breadth  over  all  of  3  feet  5  inches,  and, 
when  in  the  arc,  there  should  be  at  least 
1  inch  of  clear  space  on  each  side,  free  of 


the  wall.  The  shaft  is  not  required  to  be 
longer  than  just  to  pass  through  the  bear- 
ings ;  for,  in  wheels  of  this  kind,  it  is 
improper  to  take  any  moticm  directly  from 
the  shaft.  The  eye-flanges  i,  2  feet  dia- 
meter, are  separate  castings,  to  which  the 
arms  c  are  bolted  ;  the  flanges  being  first 
keyed  firmly  upon  the  shaft.  The  shroud- 
ing d  d  '\s  cast  in  segments,  and  bolted 
to  the  arms  and  to  each  other  at  their 
joinings.  On  the  inside  of  the  shroud- 
plates  are  formed  the  grooves  for  securing 
the  ends  of  the  buckets  and  of  the  sole- 
boarding,   in  the    form   as  shown  in  the 


898 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


section  from  e  to  e.  The  form  of  the 
buckets  sliould  be  such  as  to  afford  the 
greatest  possible  space  for  water  at  the 
greatest  possible  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  wheel,  with  sufficient  space  for  the 
entrance  of  the  water  and  displacement  of 
the  air.  In  discharging  the  water  from 
the  wheel  also,  the  buckets  should  retain 
the  water  to  the  lowest  possible  point. 
These  conditions  are  attained  by  making 
the  pitcli  ff  of  the  buckets,  or  their  dis- 
tance from  lip  to  lip,  L'-  times  the  depth 
of  the  sliroiiding  ;  the  depth  of  the  front 
of  the  bucket /_y  inside,  equal  to  the  pitch  ; 
and  the  breadth  of  the  bottom  g  h  as 
great  as  can  be  attaineii  consistently  with 
free  access  of  the  water  to  the  bucket 
immediately  preceding ;  this  breadth, 
inside,  should  not  exceed  two-fifths  cf  the 
depth  of  the  shrouding.  The  figure  repre- 
sents one-half  of  the  shrouding-plates  re- 
moved, in  order  the  better  to  exhibit  the 
position  of  the  buckets. 

1730.  The  shrouding -plates  are  bolted 
upon  the  buckets  and  soling  by  bolts  pass- 
ing from  side  to  side;  and,  in  order  to 
prevent  resilience  in  the  wheel,  the 
arms  are  su[»ported  with  diagonal  braces. 
The  toothed  segments  which  operate  on 
the  pinion  k,  are  bolted  to  the  side  of  the 
shrouding  ilirough  palms  cast  upon  them 
for  that  purpose,  and  the  true  position  of 
these  segments  requires  that  their  pitch- 
lines  should  coincide  with  the  circle  of 
gyration  of  the  wheel :  when  so  placed, 
the  resistance  to  the  wheel's  action  is  made 
to  bear  upon  its  parts,  without  any  undue 
tendency  to  cross  strains.  For  that  rea- 
son, it  is  improper  to  place  the  pitch-line 
beyond  the  circle  of  gyration,  which  is 
frequently  done,  even  uf)on  the  periphery 
of  the  water-wheel.  The  determination 
of  the  true  place  of  tlie  circle  of  gyration 
is  too  abstruse  to  be  introduced  here,  nor 
is  it  necessary  to  be  so  minute  in  the  small 
wheels,  to  which  our  attention  is  chiefly 
directed ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  pitch- 
line  of  the  segment  wheel  should  fall 
between  one-half  and  two-fifths  of  the 
breadth  of  the  shrouding,  from  the  extreme 
edge  of  the  wheel. 

1731.  Another  important  point  is  that 
tchere  the  power  is  taken  off  from  the 
wheel,  that  is,  the  ))laciiig  of  the  pinion  k. 
The  most  advantageous  part  for  placing 


this  pinion  is  in  a  line  horizontal  to  the 
axis  of  the  water-wheel :  here  the  whole 
weight  of  the  water  acts  in  impelling  the 
pinion,  while  no  strain  is  brought  on  the 
shaft  bey<md  the  natural  weight  of  the 
wheel.  In  every  position  above  this,  un- 
necessary strains  are  brought  upon  the 
shaft  and  otiier  parts  of  the  wheel,  and 
these  increase  with  the  distance  from  the 
first  point  /t,  till,  if  placed  at  the  oi)posite 
point  horizontal  to  the  axis,  the  load  upon 
the  shaft  would  be  double  the  weight  of 
all  the  water  upon  the  wheel,  over  and 
above  the  weight  of  the  wheel  itself. 

1732.  Laying  the  water  upori  the 
wheel  is  another  point  of  some  conse- 
quence ;  but  whether  it  be  delivered  over 
the  crown  of  the  wheel,  or  at  any  point 
below  that,  the  water  should  be  allowed 
to  fall  through  such  a  space  as  will  give 
it  a  velocity  equal  to  that  of  the  periphery 
of  the  wheel  when  in  full  work.  Thus, 
if  the  wheel  move  at  the  rate  of  5  feet  per 
second,  the  water  must  fall  upoti  it 
through  a  s[)ace  of  not  less  than  '4  foot ; 
for,  by  the  laws  of  falling  bodies,  the 
velocities  acquired  are  as  the  times  and 
whole  spaces  fallen  through,  to  the  squares 
of  the  time.  Thus  the  velocity  acquired 
in  ]"  being  32  feet,  a  vehjcity  of  5  feet 
will  be  acquired  by  falling  .IJG";  for  32: 
1"::  5:  .156",  and  1"-:  16::  .156"":  .4 
foot,  the  fall  to  produce  a  velocity  of  5 
feet.  But  this  being  the  mininmm,  the 
fall  from  the  trough  to  the  wheel  may  be 
made  double  this  result,  t)r  about  10  inches. 
The  trouL'h  which  delivers  the  water  upon 
the  wheel  should  be  at  lejist  6  inches  less 
in  breadth  than  the  wheel,  to  give  space 
for  the  air  escaping  from  the  buckets,  and 
to  prevent  the  water  dashing  over  at  the 
sides  ;  I,  fig.  1 40,  is  the  trough  and  m  the 
spout  that  conveys  the  water  to  the  wheel. 
It  is  convenient  to  have  a  regulating  sluice 
??,  that  serves  to  give  more  or  less  water 
to  the  wheel  ;  and  this  is  worked  by  a 
small  shaft  passing  to  the  inside  of  llie 
barn.  The  shaft  carries  a  pinion  q,  work- 
ing the  rack  of  the  sluice-stem  r,  a  small 
friction-roller  s  being  placed  in  proper 
bearings  on  the  crosshead  t  of  the  sluice- 
frame  ;  and  this  a])paratus  is  workdl  inside 
the  barn  by  means  of  a  lever  handle  upon 
the  shaft  of  the  ])inion  </.  As  a  waste- 
sluice,  the  most  convenient  and  simple,  in 
a  mill   of  this  kind,  is   the  trap-sluice  o, 


ACCOMMODATION  FOR  THE  GRAIN  IN  THE  STEADING. 


399 


which  is  simply  a  board  hinged  in  the  sole 
of  the  trough,  and  opening  from  the 
wheel ;  it  is  made  to  shut  close  down  to 
the  level  of  the  sole,  and,  when  so  shut, 
the  water  passes  freely  over  it  to  the 
wheel.  The  lifting  of  this  sluice  is  effected 
by  means  of  the  connecting-rod  u  and 
crank-lever  »,  the  latter  being  fixed  upon 
another  small  shaft,  which  passes  through 
the  wall  to  the  interior  of  the  barn,  where 
it  is  worked  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
former.  When  it  is  found  necessary  to 
stop  the  wheel,  the  trap  is  lifted,  and  the 
whole  supply  of  water  falls  through  the 
shoot  0  p,  leading  it  to  the  bottom  of  the 
wheel-arc  b'l/,  by  which  it  runs  off,  until  the 
sluice  at  the  dam  can  be  shut,  which  stops 
further  supply.  The  wheel  here  described, 
if  it  moves  at  the  rate  of  5  feet  per 
second,  will  make  6^  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  pinion-shaft  of  k  will  carry 
a  spur-wheel  by  which  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  machine  can  be  put  in  motion.  The 
rate  of  the  spur-wheel  depends  on  the 
relation  of  the  water-wheel  and  its  pinion. 
In  the  present  case  they  are  in  the  pro- 
portion of  8  to  1,  and,  as  the  water-wheel 
makes  6|  revolutions  per  minute,  this, 
multiplied  by  8,  will  give  54  to  the  spur- 
wheel. 

1733.  There  is  a  diminutive  form  of 
thrashing-machine  that  merits  notice, — a 
one-horse  machine.  In  some  of  our  pa- 
storal districts,  where  the  proportion  of 
arable  land  is  so  small  as  not  to  warrant 
the  expense  of  a  large  thrashing-machine, 
these  have  been  very  successfully  adopted. 
They  are  constructed  with  a  small  horse- 
wheel,  generally  over-head;  and  the 
motion  is  carried  into  the  barn  in  the 
usual  ft)rm,  where  a  spur-wheel  drives  the 
drum-pinion  at  a  velocity  of  250  turns 
per  minute.  Tliedrum  strikes  downward, 
and  has  a  pair  of  feeding-rollers.  There 
is  neither  shaker  or  fan  attached  to  the 
machine,  and  four  people  are  required  to 
carry  on  the  process,  the  dressing  being 
an  after  operation.  With  this  little 
machine  12  bushels  of  oats  can  be  thrashed 
in  an  hour ;  and  the  whole  cost  of  it  is 
about  £20. 

1734.  There  remains  to  be  noticed  one 
more  member  of  this  family  of  machines, 
— the  Engl  ish  portable  thrash  ing-machine. 
It  is  now  most  extensively  employed  in 


the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and 
apparently  to  good  purpose.  But  while 
this  may  be  granted  to  tlie  machine,  I 
demur  to  the  practice  whicli  involves  out- 
of-(h)or  tlirashing,  and  a  system  of  lialf 
performed  work.  But  it  is  to  the  machine, 
and  to  one  member  of  it  alone,  that  I 
wish  to  direct  attention,  namely,  the  drum. 
It  appears  to  me,  in  regard  to  this  mem- 
ber, that  the  English  and  the  Scotch 
machines  operate  on  different  principles. 
In  the  latter,  as  is  well  known,  the  thrash- 
ing is  performed  by  a  process  of  beating-, 
and  the  instrument  acts  over  but  a  short 
space,  upon  the  grain  undergoing  the  pro- 
cess— that  is,  while  it  is  under  the  drum- 
cover,  or  about  one-fourtli  the  circum- 
ference of  the  drum-case;  and  even  during 
a  part  of  tliis  progress,  the  cover  is  so 
distant  from  the  beaters — about  3  inches — 
that  little  effect  is  produced  upon  the 
straw  beyond  a  few  inches  from  the  feed- 
ing-rollers. There  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
owing  to  this  peculiar  construction,  when 
a  stray  ear  of  corn,  or  a  sheaf-band,  hap- 
pens to  enter  root  foremost,  they  are  very 
likely  to  pass  unthrashed,  for  the  rollers 
have  no  hold  of  them  ;  and  they  are  so 
lightly  pressed  upon  the  beaters  that  we 
cannot  be  surprised  at  their  passing  in  an 
imperfectly  thrashed  state.  It  has  come 
under  observation,  also,  that,  taking  our 
machines  as  usually  worked,  and  applying 
them  to  the  thrashing  of  corn  cut  by  tlie 
scythe,  the  work,  from  the  same  cause,  is 
often  imperfectly  performed,  mainly  in 
consequence  of  many  of  the  ears  entering 
by  the  reverse  end.  Of  late  years,  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  our 
thrashing-machines,  by  improving  the 
shaking  apparatus,  apparently  forgetting 
that  the  shaker  should  have  nothing  to 
do  beyond  separating  loose  grains  from 
the  straw.  The  duty  of  the  shaker  is  not 
to  thrash;  and  when  foul  thrashing  ap- 
pears, it  is  the  drum,  not  the  shakers,  that 
are  in  fault. 

1735.  Let  us  turn  to  the  English 
machine,  which  has  nothing,  it  is  true, 
beyond  a  drum  and  feeding-rollers,  and 
they  even — the  rollers — can  be  left  out. 
The  drum,  or,  as  it  might  be  called,  the 
rubber.,  though  armed  with  what  may  be 
termed  beaters,  does  not,  in  fact,  thrash 
by  beating,  but  by  rubbing  the  grain 
against  a  wire  grating ;  and  in  this  lies  its 


400 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


best  qualities.  The  drum  of  this  machine 
is  a  skeleton  formed  of  two  rings  of  cast- 
iron,  fixed  upon  an  axle,  and  to  these 
rings  are  fixed  six  beaters,  lying  parallel  to 
the  axle,  forming  a  skeleton  cylinder.  It 
revolves  within  a  concave,  which  embraces 
nearly  three-fourths  of  its  circumference, 
and  is  nowhere  more  distant  from  the 
beaters  than  1^  inch.  The  concave  is 
nearly  throughout  an  open  trellis  or  grat- 
ing, composed  of  plates  and  rods  of  iron 
and  wire ;  and  to  complete  all,  this  drum 
makes  from  700  to  9U0  revolutions  per 
minute.  In  an  apparatus  of  this  kind,  it 
is  impossible  that  an  ear  of  corn,  enter 
bow  it  may,  can  escape  unthrashed,  or 
rather  rubbed  ;  for  it  is  evident,  that  the 
machine  operates  by  a  process  of  rubbing 
out  the  grain  ;  and  with  all  the  delects 
attending  those  machines,  it  must  be 
granted  that  they  thrash  clean. 

1736.  Contrasting  these  machines,  we 
see  the  Scotch  one  operating  with  a  very 
heavy,  and,  from  its  general  construction, 
sluggish  cylinder,  its  beaters  moving  with 
a  velocity  of  less  than  3000  feet  a  mi- 
nute, and  the  grain  subjected  to  its  influ- 
ence over  a  space  not  exceeding  1  \  foot ; 
and  when  worked  by  4  horses,  thrashing 
at  the  rate  of  26  bushels  of  w  heat  per  hour, 
dressing  included.  In  the  English  machine 
is  to  be  seen  a  small  and  extremely  light 
skeleton  cylinder,  which,  from  its  structure, 
must  be  easily  moved,  though  its  beaters 
move  with  a  velocity  of  4000  feet  per 
minute,  and  the  grain  subjected  to  its  in- 
fluence over  a  space  of  about  4  feet,  and, 
when  worked  by  4  horses,  thrashing  at 
the  rate  of  36  bushels  of  wheat  per  hour, 
but  not  dressed,  though  in  general  very 
clean  thrashed.  The  straw  is  perhaps  a 
little  more  broken,  whidi  is  sometimes 
unimportant. 

1737.  "I  cannot  view  these  two  ma- 
chines," well  observes  Mr  Slight,  "  with- 
out feeling  impressed  with  a  conviction 
that  both  countries  would  soon  feel  the 
advantage  of  an  amalgamation  between 
the  two  forms  of  the  machine.  Thfe  drum 
of  the  Scotch  thrashing-machine  w(»uld 
most  certainly  be  improved  by  a  transfu- 
sion from  the  principles  of  the  Englisli 
machine  ;  and  the  latter  might  bo  ecjuaily 
improved  by  the  adoption  of  tlie  manu- 
facturing-like arrangements,  and  general 


economy  of  the  Scotch  system  of  thrashing. 
That  such  interchange  will  ere  long  take 
place,  I  am  convinced  ;  and  as  I  am  alike 
satisfied  that  the  advantages  would  be 
mutual,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  views 
will  not  stand  alone.  It  has  not  been 
lost  sight  of,  that  each  machine  may  bo 
said  to  be  suited  to  the  system  to  which 
it  belongs,  and  that  here,  w  here  the  corn 
is  cut  by  the  sickle,  the  machine  i.<  adapted 
to  that  ;  while  the  same  may  be  .'^aid  of 
the  other,  where  cutting  by  the  .'^^cvtlie  is 
so  much  practised.  Notwithstanding  all 
this,  there  aj)pears  to  be  good  jiroperties 
in  both  that  either  seems  to  stand  in  need 
of,  and  it  is  not  improbaldc  but  that  the 
grain  in  Scotland  will  ere  long  be  entirely 
cut  down  by  the  scythe." 


ON    THE  THRASHING  AND    WINNOWING    OF 
GRAIN. 

1738.  The  first  preparation  for  thrash- 
ing corn  —  that  is,  separating  the  grain 
from  the  straw  by  the  thrashing-machine 
or  the  flail — is  taking  in  the  stack  to  be 
thrashed,  and  mowing  it  in  the  upper  or 
thrashing-barn.  The  person  appointed  to 
superintend  the  barn-work,  is  the  one 
who  forks  down  the  stack  to  be  conveyed 
into  the  barn.  This  is  generally  the 
steward,  where  there  is  one ;  and  where 
there  is  none,  the  jjcrson  who  superintends 
the  field-workers  usually  takes  this  ciiarge. 
In  some  cases  the  hedger  does  it,  when 
there  is  not  much  field-work  in  winter. 
Suppose,  then,  that  the  steward  under- 
takes the  duty, — he  is  assisted  in  it  by  4 
field-workers. 

173.9.  When  about  to  take  in  a  stack,  he 
provides  himself  with  a  ladder  to  reach 
its  eaves,  and  a  long  small  fork,  usually 
employed  to  pitch  sheaves  at  leading- 
time  to  the  builder  of  stacks.  He  also 
provides  himself  with  a  stout  clasp-knife, 
which  most  farm-servants  carry.  Stand- 
ing cm  the  ladder,  he,  in  the  first  place, 
cuts  away  with  the  knife  all  the  tyinga 
of  the  straw-ropes  at  the  eaves  of  the 
stack.  On  gaining  the  top,  the  ladder 
is  taken  away,  and  he  cuts  away  as  much 
of  the  ropes  as  he  thinks  will  allow  him 
to  remove  the  covering  with  the  fork. 
The  covering  is  then  pushed  down  to  the 
ground,    until    the  top   of    the    stack    ia 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


401 


completely  bared.  On  the  side  of  the 
stack  nearest  the  barn,  a  little  of  the  co- 
vering is  spread  upon  the  ground  by  the 
field-workers,  to  keep  the  barn-sheet  off 
the  ground,  and  they  spread  the  sheet 
over  tlie  spread  straw,  close  to  the  bottom 
of  the  stack.      The   sheaves  first  thrown 


down  from  the  top  of  the  stack  upon  the 
sheet  are  taken  by  the  women,  and  placed 
side  by  side,  with  the  corn  end  upon  the 
edge  of  the  sheet,  along  both  its  sides,  to 
keep  them  down  from  being  blown  up  by 
the  wind,  or  turned  up  by  the  feet.  The 
sheet   is  seen  spread  out  at  «,  fig.  141, 

141. 


CASTING  DOWN  A  STACK  TO  BE  THRASHED. 


fritm  the  base  of  the  stack  i,  which  is  in  the 
act  of  being  thrown  or  cast  down  by  the 
steward  c,  and  the  sheaves,  keeping  down 
one  side  of  the  sheet,  are  seen  lying  in  a 
row  as  at  d.  One  barrow  g,  is  in  the  act 
of  being  loaded  by  the  field- worker  /, 
whilst  another  worker  g  assists  in  load- 
ing every  baiTow  as  it  returns  empty; 
and  another  barrow  h  is  seen  fully  loaded, 
and  in  tlie  act  of  being  wheeled  away  by 
the  third  field-worker « to  the  barn.  Each 
barrow-load,  as  it  arrives  at  the  upper 
barn,  is  tilted  upon  the  floor,  and  emptied 
at  once,  instead  of  the  sheaves  being  lifted 
out  of  it  one  by  one.  Two  barrows,  if 
the  distance  from  the  barn  is  not  great, 
will  bring  in  a  stack  of  ordinary  size  in  a 
moderate  time,  say  in  3  hours.  The  fourth 
worker  remains  in  the  upper  barn,  to  pile 
up  the  sheaves  as  they  are  brought  in  into 
what  are  called  mo«*5— that  is,  the  sheaves 
are  placed  in  rows,  parallel  to  each  other,  to 
a  considerable  height,  with  their  butt  ends 
outwards,  the  first  row  being  piled  against 
the  wall,  as  seen  at  a,  fig.  145.  In  casting 
the  stack,  the  steward  takes  up  the  sheaves 
in  the  reverse  order  in  which  the  builder 
had  laid  them  at  harvest-time,  beginning 
with  those  in  the  centre  first,  and  then  re- 

VOL.  I. 


moving  those  around  the  circumference  one 
by  one.  The  fork  thrust  into  the  band  will 
generally  hit  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
sheaves,  where  they  are  most  easily  lifted, 
and  swung  towards  the  sheet.  The  sheaf 
k  is  about  the  position  it  assumes  on  being 
pitched  by  a  fork,  the  corn  end  always 
having  a  tendency  to  drop  downwards, 
and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  lifted 
from  its  bed  at  I.  When  all  the  sheaves 
of  the  stack  have  been  wheeled  in,  the 
steward  takes  a  rake  and  clears  the  ground 
of  all  loose  straws  of  corn  that  may  have 
been  scattered  from  the  stack  to  the  barn, 
and  puts  them  into  the  sheet,  the  four  cor- 
ners of  which  are  then  doubled  in  towards 
the  middle,  including  within  them  the 
grain  that  may  have  been  shaken  out  by 
the  shock  received  by  the  sheaves  on  being 
thrown  down ;  and  the  sheet,  with  its  con- 
tents, are  carried  by  all  the  women  into 
the  barn,  and  its  contents  emptied  on  the 
floor,  near  the  feeding-in  board  of  the 
thrashing-machine.  The  sheet  is  then 
siiaken,  and  spread  out  upon  the  stack- 
yard wall,  or  other  airv  place,  to  dry  be- 
fore being  folded  up  to  be  ready  for  use  on 
a  similar  occasion.  The  covering  of  the 
stack  is  then  carried  away  by  the  women, 

2c 


402 


PRACTICE— WINTER, 


to  such  parts  of  the  courts  and  hanimels  as 
are  considered  by  the  cattle-man  to  require 
littering,  before  it  becomes  wetted  with 
xain,  and  tlie  ground  raked  clean.  The 
straw-ropes,  which  bound  down  the  cover- 
in"'  of  the  stack,  should  be  cut  by  the 
steward  into  short  lengths  before  being 
carried  away  in  the  litter,  as  lonij  rojjes 
are  found  very  troublesome  to  tlie  men 
■when  filling  their  carts  with  the  dung  on 
clearing  out  the  courts.  Stacks  should  be 
carried  into  the  barn  in  dry  weather, 
though  a  drizzling  or  muggy  day  will  do 
little  harm  to  the  straw.  Damp  straw 
passes  through  the  thrashing-mill  not  only 
with  difficulty,  but  is  apt  to  mould  and 
contract  a  disagreeable  smell  in  the  straw- 
barn.  A  stack  may  remain  in  the  barn 
until  the  straw  is  required ;  or  it  may  be 
thrashed  the  first  wet  day;  or  it  may  be 
required  to  be  thrashed  on  the  subse(iuent 
part  of  the  day  in  which  it  is  carried ;  or 
it  may  be  requisite  to  thrash  it  as  brought 

Fig. 


in,  in  which  case  additional  hands  are  re- 
quired to  bring  it  in,  while  the  usual  bam- 
workers  are  enij>loyed  at  the  mill.  The 
steward  having  to  feeil  in,  the  hedger,  or 
engine-man,  or  one  of  the  men,  should  field- 
operations  not  be  pressing,or  even  a  woman, 
in  a  case  of  emergency,  can  cast  the  stack, 
provided  the  covering  is  taken  oft"  for  her, 
which  the  steward  will  do  ere  the  mill  is  set 
on  Two  barrow.s  actively  worked  will  keep 
the  mill  going,  if  tlie  distance  from  the 
stack  to  the  barn  is  short. 

1740.  The  barn-sheet  is  made  of  thin 
canvass,  and  should  be  about  12  feet 
square.  It  is  useful  not  only  for  this,  but 
many  other  j)urpose§  of  the  farm,  of  which 
notice  shall  be  taken  as  the  occasion 
suits. 

1741.  A  very  convenient  means  of 
conveying  the  sheaves  from  the  jtack  to 
tlie  barn  is  the  corn-barrotc,  fig.  142,  the 

142. 


THE  CORX-BARROW. 


construction  of  which  is  so  obvious  that  a 
specified  description  seems  unnecessary, 
farther  than  that  it  is  about  (J  feet  in 
length,  and  stands  2^  feet  in  height  to 
the  top  of  the  bracket.  The  sheaves  are 
laid  across  the  barrow  in  rows,  with  the 
corn  and  butt  ends  alternately,  and  tliey 
are  kept  from  sliding  oft'  in  the  act  of  beinij 
wheeled,  by  the  slanting  bracket  which  is 
supported  by  stays.  In  this  way,  from  10 
to  15  sheaves,  according  to  their  bulk, 
may  be  wheeled  away  at  once  by  a 
woman. 

1742.  Ladders  are  most  useful  imple- 
ments about  a  farm-steading.  Tliey  are 
best  formed  of  tapering  Norway  j)iue 
spars,  sawn  up  the  middle.  A  useful  form 
of  ladder  for  farm  purposes  is  shown  in 
fig.  143,  where  the  rounded  form  of  the 


Norway  spar,  divided  in  two,  is  placed 
outmost,  though  it  is  as  often  placed 
inmost.  These  spars  a  a,  are  connected 
together  by  steps  b  of  clean  ash,  pushed 
through  auger- made  holes  in  the  spars, 
and  rendered  firm  by  means  of  wedges 
driven  into  the  outside  ends  of  the  steps. 
The  steps  are  9  inciies  apart,  and  16  inches 
long  at  the  bottom,  and  13  inches  at  the 
top,  in  a  ladder  of  15  feet  in  length,  which 
is  the  most  useful  size  for  the  use  of  a 
stack-yard.  To  prevent  the  ladder  from 
falling  to  pieces,  in  consequence  of  the 
shrinking  of  the  round  steps,  a  small  rod 
of  iron  is  placed  under  the  upper,  middle, 
and  lower  steps,  where  one  of  its  ends  is 
jtassed  through  each  spar,  and  held  firmly 
there  by  means  of  a  shoulder  on  the  inside, 
and  a  nut  and  screw  on  the  outside  of 
each  end   of  the   rods.     When    properly 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


40S 


finished  and  painted,  such  a  ladder  will 
last  many  years. 

Fig.  143. 


THE  LADDER. 


1743.  A  couple  of  10  feet,  a  couple  of  15 
feet,  and  one  of  24  feet  ladders,  will  suffice 
for  all  the  purposes  of  a  farm,  as  also 
for  the  repairs  of  the  steading  and  houses. 

1744.  Some  dexterity  is  required  to  set 
a  long  ladder  on  end,  as  also  to  carry  it 
from  one  place  to  another.  To  place  it 
in  a  j)erpendicular  position,  its  lower  or 
heavy  end  should  be  shoved  against  any 
object  capable  of  resisting  its  slipping 
upon  the  ground  ;  and  on  its  light  end 
being  elevated  arm's-length  above  the 
head,  the  position  is  kept  good  by  another 
person  taking  a  step  between  the  prongs 
of  a  fork,  by  means  of  which  that  end  of 
the  ladder  is  still  more  elevated,  while  it 
is  still  increased  by  the  first  person  push- 
ing arm's-length,  simultaneously,  against 


one  step  after  another,  till  the  perpen- 
dicular j)ositiou  is  gained.  A  long  ladder 
is  carried  from  one  place  to  another  in 
this  way,  provided  the  distance  to  be 
carried  is  sliort.  Set  the  perpendicular 
edge  of  the  ladder  against  the  right 
shoulder,  and  then  take  hold  of  a  step 
with  the  right  hand,  and  raise  the  ladder 
steadily  by  it  a  little  from  the  ground, 
while,  to  retain  the  perpendicular  position, 
grasp  a  step  above  the  head  firmly  with 
the  left  hand,  and  then  walk  steadily 
forward.  Some  can  carry  it  steadily  by 
grasping  one  step  with  both  hands,  with 
the  edge  leaning  against  the  shoulder; 
and  some  even  are  so  powerful  in  the 
arms,  as  to  carry  a  ladder  by  the  steps  at 
arm's-length  before  them,  with  one  arm 
above,  and  another  below  the  head.  A 
ladder  may  be  moved  on  the  ground  a 
short  distance,  while  standing  in  a  per- 
pendicular position,  by  holding  a  spar  in 
each  hand  at  arms-length,  and  then  mov- 
ing first  one  foot  of  the  ladder  in  advance, 
and  then  the  other,  till  the  spot  is  gained. 
This  sort  of  motion,  when  applied  to 
moving  a  large  stone,  is  technically  named 
by  masons  cuttivg.  A  long  ladder  is 
brought  down  from  the  perpendicular  to 
the  horizontal  position,  by  placing  it 
against  a  stack,  as  against  c,  fig.  1 4o,  or 
any  other  object  which  will  resist  its  foot- 
slipping  on  the  ground,  and  allowing  it  to 
come  to  the  inclined  position  against  the 
arms,  with  the  hands  stretched  above  the 
head,  and  the  ladder  will  approach  the 
horizontal  position  the  farther  you  recede 
from  its  lower  end,  the  upper  end  being 
supported  by  another  person  with  a  long 
fork.  When  not  in  use,  ladders  should  be 
laid  on  the  ground  along  the  side  of  a  stack, 
or  the  stack-yard  wall;  when  left  standing 
they  are  apt  to  twist.  Ladders  are  more 
frequently  destroyed  by  being  brought  to 
the  grouiid  in  a  careless  manner,  and  by 
being  blown  down  by  the  wind  while  rest- 
ing against  a  stack,  than  by  fair  use. 

174.5.  Anotlier  mode  of  taking  in  a 
stack  into  the  upper  barn  is  with  a  horse 
and  cart,  when  the  sheaves  are  mowed 
up  by  one  woman,  and  carried  from  the 
door  by  another.  When  this  \}\&n  is 
adopted  as  a  fixed  one,  there  is  no  gang- 
way to  the  upper  barn,  the  cart  being  set 
alongside  the  wall,  and  the  sheaves  forked 
into  the  door  upon  the  floor,  from  whence 


404 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


they  are  carried  to  the  mow.     This  j>lan 
als<)  requires   the  stack-yard   to  be  con- 
structed so  as  a  cart  may  pass  and  turn 
between  every  two  rows  of  stacks,  thereby 
causing    it   to    occupy  a  large  space   of 
ground.     It  has  also  the  effect  of  laying  a 
plough  idle  when  a  stack   is  taking    in, 
unless  there  be  an  odd  horse,  w  orked  by 
a    lad,    employed    over    and    above    the 
ordinary  number  of  draughts.    If  a  plough 
is  laid  idle  upon  every  stack  being  taken 
in,   greater  loss  is  incurred  by  eniph.ying 
the  horses  in  this  way,  than  in  paying  4 
women  and  having  2  barrows  ;  and,  after 
all,  the  women   will  be  required  to  work 
in  the  barn  when  the  mill  is  set  on.  "When 
a  horse  is  employed,  2  men  are  required 
at  the  taking  in  of  the  stack  ;  one  to  cast 
the   stack,  and     the   other   to  drive    the 
horse,    unless,  indeed,   a  woman  is   em- 
ployed to  cast  the  stack,  which  she  may 
occasionally  do,  but  cannot  be  depended 
on  to   possess   the   requisite  strength   to 
do  the  work  throughout  the  season.      On 
taking   in  with  a   horse,  one  barn-sheet 
is  required    at  the  stack  and  another  at 
the  barn-wall.     The  cart-wheels  are  apt 
to  cut  up  the  stack-yard  in  wet  weather, 
unless  the  roads  through  it  are  metalled 
with  stone.«,  which  incurs  expense;  and  in 
time  of  snow,  a  complete  road  must  be 
cut  for  the  passage  of  the  cart.     Roads 
through  a  stack-yard,  to  admit  carts  every 
where,  and  give  freedom  to  go  to  the  barn 
from  any  part,  lays  the  stack-yard  open 
to  people  and  stock.     I  confess  I  like  the 
gangway  and  barrows,  as  being  a  neater 
and  quieter  mode  of  proceeding  with  the 
work,  especially  as  women  are  obligeil  to 
be  employed  in  the  barn  ;  but  even  with  a 
gangway,  a  cart  or  carts  maybe  occasion- 
ally employed   in  taking  in  a  stack  while 
the  mill  is  going,   by  the  sheaves   being 
forked  from  the  cart,  across  the  head  of  the 
gangway,  into  the  upper  bam,  and  thence 
taken  to  the  mow  or  feeding-in  table. 

1746.  Before  setting  on  tli©  thrashing- 
mill,  its  several  parts  require  to  be  oiUd. 
Fine  sweet  oil  should  be  employed  for 
this  purpose,  though  too  often  a  coarse 
dirty  oil  is  used.  It  should  be  jtut  for  use 
into  a  small  tin-flask,  having  a  long  nar- 
row spout,  fig.  144,  to  reach  any  gudgeon 
behind  a  wheel.  The  guilgyns  which 
require  oiling  are  those  of  the  drum,  the 
apiir-wheel,  the  shakers,  and  the  fanners; 


and,  with  horsepower,  that  of  the  pinion  of 

the   lying-shaft,  as  also   the  step  of  the 

Fig.  144. 


THE  OIL-CAN. 

bone-wheel  ;  and  in  the  case  of  water- 
power,  those  of  the  wheel,  and  the  lying 
and  upright  shafts.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
steward  to  oil  the  machine. 

1747.  When  steam  is  employed  as  the 
moving  power,  the  fire  should  be  kindled 
by  the  engine-maa  in  time  to  get  up  the 
steam  by  the  moment  it  is  wanted.  From 
half  an  hour  to  an  hour  may  be  required 
for  this  ])urpose,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere.  When  water  is  the 
power,  the  sluice  of  the  supply  dam  should 
be  drawn  up  to  the  proper  height,  to 
allow  the  water  time  to  reach  the  mill- 
wheel  sluice  when  it  is  wanted.  When 
the  power  is  of  horses,  the  horses  are 
yoked  in  the  wheel  by  their  respective 
drivers,  immediately  after  leaving  the 
stable  at  the  appointed  hour  of  yoking; 
and  while  one  of  the  men  is  left  in  charge 
of  driving  the  horses,  the  others  go  to  the 
straw-barn  to  take  away  the  straw  from 
the  screen  of  the  mill  with  straw-forks, 
fiffs.  110,  111,  and  fork  it  in  mows  across 
the  breadth  of  the  barn. 

1748.  The  steward  undertakes  the  feed- 
ing-in of  the  corn,  and  has  the  sole  con- 
trol of  the  mill.  Two  women  are  ap- 
pointed to  the  upper  barn  above — one  to 
bring  forward  the  sheaves,  the  other  to 
loosen  their  bands  and  place  them,  as  re- 
quired, upon  the  table  of  the  feeding-in 
board.  Other  two  women  are  a]>])oiiited 
in  the  corn-barn  below,  one  to  take  away 
the  corn  as  it  comes  from  the  spout,  and 
riddld  it  with  a  riddle  appropriate  to  the 
sort  of  corn,  in  a  bin  in  one  corner  or  side 
of  the  barn.  The  other  takes  away  the 
ronghs,  or  coarse  corn,  from  the  other 
spout,  and  riddles  it  with  an  appropriate 
riddle  in  a  henp  by  itself,  throwing  the 
ekimniings  of  the  riddlings  in  a  chaff- 
sheet,  which  she  carries  to  the  upjx'r  barn, 
to  be  again  put  through  th  ■  mill.  Where 
elevators  are  in  use,  one  woman  is  suffi- 
cient in  the  corn-barn  to  riddle  the  com 
as  it  comes  from  the  clean  spout,  and  the 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


405 


otlier  woman,  in  this  case,  tramps  tlie 
straw-mow  in  tlie  straw-barn.  It  is  tlie 
duty  of  one  of  tlie  women  in  tlie  corn-barn 
to  see  that  the  chaff  does  not  accuinuiate 
upon  the  end  of  the  mill-fanners,  and 
fall  down  into  the  rough  spout.  To 
ascertain  the  state  of  the  chaff  easily,  a 
small  sliding  shut  should  be  made  in  the 
wooden  partition  between  the  corn-barn 
and  chaff-house,  on  o[)ening  and  looking 
through  which,  the  state  of  the  chaff  will 
at  once  be  seen.  When  water  or  steam 
is  employed,  women  either  take  away 
the  straw  from  the  machine,  independent 
of  those  in  the  barns,  or  men  do  it,  such 
as  the  hedger  or  cattle-man,  and  at  times 
the  shepherd.  In  all  cases,  a  woman 
should  spread  the  straw  and  tramp  it  in 
mows  in  the  straw-barn,  as  it  comes  from 
the  mill,  and  form  one  mow  after  another. 

1749.  A  chaff-sheet  for  carrying  oat- 
chaff  or  riddlings,  or  other  refuse  from  the 
barns,  consists  of  thin  sacking  or  cotton 
bagging — and  there  should  at  least  be  two 
of  them  in  the  corn-barn.  From  5  to  b\ 
feet  square  makes  a  convenient  size  of 
chaff-sheet. 

1750.  Every  thing  being  thus  prepared, 
(and  every  preparation  ought  to  be  com- 
pleted before  the  mill  is  moved,)  the  mill 
is  ordered  by  the  steward  to  be  set  a-going 
by  the  engine-man  or  driver — and  which 
is  best  done  by  means  of  ringing  a  bell, 
hung  in  the  engine-room  or  horse-coui-se, — 
when  the  power  is  steam  or  horses,  and  he 
himself  lets  on  the  water  to  the  wheel 
when  the  power  is  water.  The  power 
should  be  applied  gently  at  first,  and  no 
corn  should  be  presented  until  the  mill 
has  acquired  its  proper  momentum — the 
thrashing-motion^  as,'\i  is  termed.  When 
this  has  been  attained,  in  a  very  few 
seconds,  and  which  a  little  experience  will 
teach  the  ear  to  recognise  instantly,  the 
steward — the  feeder-in — takes  a  portion 
of  a  slieaf  in  both  his  hands,  and,  letting 
its  corn  end  fall  before  hiui  on  the  feeding- 
in  board,  spreads  it  with  a  shaking  and 
disengaging  motion  across  the  width  of 
the  board.  His  great  care  is,  that  no 
more  is  fed  in  than  the  mill  can  thrash 
cleverly ;  that  none  of  the  corn  is  pre- 
sented sideways,  or  with  the  straw  end 
foremost.  He  thus  proceeds  with  a  small 
quantity  of  corn  for  a  few  minutes,  until 


he  ascertains  the  capacity  of  the  mill  for 
work  at  tlieparticular  time,  which  is  much 
affected  by  many  circumstances,  and  then 
the  rc((uisite  quantity  is  fed  in  ;  but  on 
no  account  should  the  feed  exceed  one 
sheaf  at  a  time,  however  fast  they  may 
have  to  be  supplied  in  succession. 

1751.  The  ascertainment  of  the  capa- 
city of  the  mill  is  necessary  every  time 
the  mill  fs  used  ;  for  however  well  ac- 
quainted the  feeder-in  may  be  with  it 
generally,  and  whatever  power  may  be 
employed,  it  is  not  alike  effective  under 
all  circumstances.  For  example,  the 
water  may  flow  quicker  or  slower;  the 
horses  move  slower  and  duller  or  brisker  ; 
and  the  steam  be  more  or  less  easily 
raised,  and  retain  its  elasticity  longer  or 
shorter  one  day  than  in  another.  If 
water  is  flowing  freely  into  the  supply- 
dam  while  the  thrashing  is  going  on,  it 
"will  come  more  quickly  towards  the  wheel, 
and  consequently  maintain  the  thrashing 
pace  of  the  mill  for  a  longer  time  than 
when  it  flows  from  a  full  dam  until  it  is 
emptied,  when  the  power  becomes  less  by 
degrees.  So  with  horses  :  the  state  of 
the  weather  will  oppress  them  one  day, 
and  they  will  work  with  languor  and 
irregularity,  do  what  the  driver  can  to 
induce  them  ;  while  in  another  day,  they 
will  work  with  an  active  pace  throughout 
the  yoking.  I  presume  less  of  this  varia- 
tion will  be  felt  with  steam  than  with  any 
of  the  other  powers,  but  still  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere  must  have  some  effect  on 
its  elasticity.  The  direction  and  stiength 
of  the  wind  affects  the  progress  of  thrash- 
ing. When  it  blows  in  the  direction  of 
the  straws  passing  through  the  mill,  the 
thrashing  will  proceed  briskly.  So  power- 
fully have  I  seen  this  exem{)lified,  that  the 
upper  barn  door  had  to  be  kept  shut,  to 
moderate  the  effect  of  the  wind.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  wind  blows  against 
the  straw  through  the  mill,  the  thrashing 
may  proceed  so  slowly  as  that  the  doors  of 
the  straw-barn  are  obliged  to  be  closed — 
and  then  some  of  the  corn  will  pass  along 
with  the  straw. 

17.')2.  Acquainted  with  all  these  pro- 
motive and  retarding  circumstances, 
suppose  that  the  feeder-in  </,  fig.  145,  is 
I  ready  to  proceed.  He  takes  the  sheaves 
from  the  feeder-in  board  e,  supplied  by  the 


406 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


woman  stationed  beside  it  /,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  loosen  the  bands  of  the  sheaves ; 
but  he  should  not  allow  her  to  put  on  more 


than  one  sheaf  at  a  time  on  the  table,  as  is 
the  propensity  to  do,  much  to  his  annoy- 
ance in  separating  the  sheaves  ;  while  the 


Fig.  145. 


FBEDIXG  IN  CORN  INTO  THE  THRASHING-MAf  IIINK  IN  THK  IPPER  BARN. 


other  woman  g^  brings  forward  the  sheares 
from  the  mow  «,  and  places  them  in  a 
convenient  position  before  the  other 
woman  /",  and  even  loosens  a  band  occa- 
sionally in  assistance. 

17.53.  There  are  certain  circumstances 
which  greatly  affect  the  action  of  the  mill 
in  the  cleanness  of  its  thrashing.  One  de- 
pends on  the  dririvp  of  the  horses^  in  which 
a  considerable  diH'erence  is  felt  by  the 
feeder-iu  when  one  man  keeps  the  hordes 
at  a  regular  pace,  whilst  another  drives 
them  by  fits  and  starts.  The  regular  mo- 
tion is  attained  by  the  driver  walking 
round  the  course  in  the  contvart/ direction 
to  the  horses,  in  which  he  meets  every 
horse  at  least  twice  in  the  course  of  a 
revolution,  and  which  keeps  all  the  horses 
upon  their  mettle,  every  horse  expecting 
to  be  spoken  to  when  he  meets  the  driver. 
The  irregular  motion  is  jtroduced  by  his 
Walking  in  the  same  direction  with  the 
horses,  when  the  horse  next  him  makes  the 
greatest  exertion  until  he  outstrips  the 
man,  when  he  slackens  his  pace  ;  and  then 
the  horse  following  him,  on  coming  up  to 
the  man,  exerts  himself  until  he  also 
passes  Irim  ;  and  so  on  in  succession,  one 
horse  after  another.  The  man  always 
walks  slower-  than  the  horses  ;  and  when 
he  irives  a  crack  of  the  whip  the  horses 
give  a  start,  an<l  strain  the  machine;  but 
immediately  after  this  they  relapse  into 
the  irregular  motion,  caused  as  above 
described.     In  such  a  style  of  driving  a 


willing  horse  is  sure  to  get  more  to  do,  and 
a  lazy  one  less  than  he  should,  as  horse- 
wheels  are  usually  constructed.  Tlie 
gangway,  which  is  sometimes  made  for  the 
driver  to  walk  in  within  the  stays  of  the 
wheel,  serves  only  to  encourage  his  indo- 
lence. I  have  seen  a  fellow  fast  asleep 
while  leaning  against  one  of  these  stays, 
on  being  carried  round  on  the  gangway. 
Tiie  horses  receive  a  breathing  of  15  or 
20  minutes  at  mid-yoking  in  the  mill. 

1754.  Another  cause  of  foul  thrashing 
is  cuttin<r  the  bands  of  the  sheaves  with  a 
knife,  instead  of  loosening  the  band  and 
corn-knot.  The  cutting  is  a  quick  mode 
of  assisting  the  woman  who  han<ls  the 
sheaves  to  the  feeder-in,  but  the  knot,  in 
passing  sideways  with  the  sheaf,  almost 
escapes  the  drum.  Every  band  should  be 
loosened,  its  corn-knot  untied,  and  laid 
along  the  sheaf  to  which  it  belongs,  when 
it  will  have  the  chance  of  being  thrashed 
clean.  If  one  woman  is  unable  to  loosen 
the  bands  fast  enough,  on  account  of  the 
shortness  of  the  sheaves,  the  other  woman 
should  assist  her  by  laving  loosened  sheaves 
before  her  ;  but  if  a  third  woman  is  found 
requisite  for  the  work,  let  her  be  engaged 
rather  than  the  straw  be  not  thrashed  clean. 

1755.  Too  slow  or  too  fast  a  motion  of 
the  mill,  and  the  ]>ermission  of  jiortionsof 
sheaves  going  broa<lside  on,  or  butt  end 
foremost,  to  the  feeding-rollers,  will  cause 
foul  thrashing,  and  consequent  loss  of  corn. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


407 


1756.  There  are  several  incidental  In- 
conveniences attending  the  act  of  thrash- 
ing under  particular  circumstances — as, 
when  the  sheaves  are  very  long,  the 
feeding-rollers  take  a  long  time  to  pass 
them  through,  even  after  the  fast  motion 
has  been  given  them.  In  a  very  quick 
motion,  the  beaters  of  the  drum  are  apt 
to  chop  the  straw  in  pieces.  On  the  other 
hand,  very  short  sheaves  are  taken  in  so 
quickly  as  almost  to  elude  the  drum,  even 
when  the  feeding- rollers  are  put  on  the 
slow  motion.  It  is  a  laborious  task  to 
feed  in  short  sheaves  of  any  sort,  and 
especially  of  oats,  so  as  to  keep  this  mill 
steadily  thrashing  ;  and  it  is  loss  both  of 
time  and  power  to  allow  the  feeding-rollers 
to  be  idle,  even  for  a  moment,  I  was  once 
very  hard  worked,  as  were  the  women 
who  loosened  the  sheaves  and  riddled  the 
corn,  in  feeding-in  a  stack  of  ordinary 
dimensions  of  Blainslie  oats  of  very  short 
straw,  when  the  sheaves  disappeared 
through  the  feeding-rollers  in  an  instant, 
though  on  the  slowest  motion.  The  stack 
took  about  65  hours  to  thrash  with  horses, 
and  during  this  time  64  bolls,  or  384 
bushels,  of  clean  corn  passed  through  the 
mill — nearly  10  bolls  or  60  bushels  an 
hour.  Another  cause  besides  short  straw 
may  cause  great  labour  in  feeding-in, 
— namely,  inordinate  application  of  the 
moving  power.  Wind  is  the  power  which 
is  most  likely  to  elude  the  control  of  man. 
I  remember  of  a  windmill  which  ran  off, 
and  could  not  be  stopped  by  the  brake,  in 
consequence  of  a  sudden  gale  pressing 
more  forcibly  upon  the  sails  than  it  was 
in  the  power  of  the  apparatus  to  furl  them  ; 
and  such  a  velocity  did  the  mill  attain 
that  two  men  were  required  to  feed  in, 
and  horses  and  men  to  bring  in  corn  to 
the  machinery,  until  the  M'ind  should  abate 
a  little — which  it  did  not  at  all  until  three 
large  stacks  of  oats  had  been  thrashed, 
at  the  rate  of  16  bolls,  or  96  bushels,  per 
hour.  When  the  straw  is  long  and  supple, 
it  is  apt  to  wind  round  the  upper  feeding- 
roller — and,  when  it  does,  no  more  corn 
should  be  fed  in,  as  it  will  be  drawn  in 
instantly  by  the  drum.  In  some  mills  a 
reverse  motion  is  given  to  the  feeding- 
rollers,  to  obviate  the  accident  by  unwind- 
ing the  straw  ;  but  it  does  not  always  serve 
the  purpose  intended.  Indeed,  I  never 
Baw  a  good  instance  of  unwinding  by  the 
rollers.     A  much  better  plan  is,  to  cut  the 


straw  with  a  stout  knife,  while  the  rollers 
are  n\oving  in  their  usual  course.  The 
most  convenient  form  of  knife  is  that  of 
a  razor  set  dead  in  a  stout  wooden  handle. 
It  should  be  always  at  hand  within  a 
leathern  strap  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the 
post  of  the  drum-framing,  near  the  right 
hatul  of  the  feeder-in.  Long  oat-straw  is 
liable  to  warp  at  all  times,  especially  when 
damp,  and  brought  direct  from  the  field. 
Some  mills  are  closed  in  with  boarding 
above  the  drum-cover,  to  conceal  the  first 
rake  from  view  ;  but  in  close  muggy  wea- 
ther, or  with  the  straw  not  completely  dry, 
tlie  straw  is  apt  to  linger  about  the  rake — 
and,  to  notice  this  inconvenience,  the  board 
has  to  be  raised  up  very  often.  Such  a 
board  is  useful  when  wheat  is  thrashing, 
when  its  grains,  striking  against  the  sur- 
face of  the  rake,  are  thrown  back  with 
great  force  upon  the  face  of  the  feeder-in. 
So  painfully  have  I  felt  the  pellets  of 
wheat  strike  my  face,  in  the  absence  of 
such  a  board,  that  a  sack  had  to  be  nailed 
up  to  ward  off  the  grain.  The  inconveni- 
ence of  the  straw  collecting  in  front  of  the 
first  shaker  I  have  seen  most  frequently 
occur  when  seed-wheat  was  thrashing  iu 
autumn,  before  the  straw  was  completely 
won ;  and  wheat-straw,  in  that  state,  will 
even  wind  round  the  rollers. 

17-'57.  When  the  sheaves  are  about  all 
thrashed,  one  of  the  women  takes  the  rake 
^,  fig.  145,  and  pushes  with  its  inverted 
head  all  the  loose  corn  along  the  floor,  as 
about  c,  that  has  come  out  fi'om  the  straw, 
into  a  heap  at  the  feeding-in  board,  upon 
which  it  is  placed  by  the  other  woman 
with  the  wecht/^  While  the  feeder-in  is 
putting  this  loose  corn  towards  the  rollers 
with  a  stout  stick,  kept  in  the  barn  for  the 
purpose,  the  woman  who  had  raked  it  iu 
now  sweeps  the  entire  floor  towards  the 
board,  with  the  besom  i.  The  mill  is  then 
stoj)ped  for  a  few  minutes,  until  ail  the  corn, 
chaft",  and  straw  belonging  to  the  particu- 
lar stack  thrashed  are  swept  away  from 
the  drum-gudgeons,  and  elsewhere,  and 
placed  on  the  feeding-in  board,  that  no 
remains  of  the  corn  iu  hand  may  be  left 
to  mingle  with  perhaps  a  very  difterent 
sort  of  grain  iu  the  stack  that  will  be 
thrashed  next.  While  all  this  is  proceed- 
ing, the  women  in  the  corn-barn  are  not 
idle.  One  has  riddled  the  tail  of  the 
corn-bin,  and  shovelled  the  bin  close  against 


408 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


a  convenient  part  of  the  barn-wall ;  wliile 
the  other  lins  taken  up  to  the  upper  haru 
the  roiiKiiiiin«,'  refuse,  to  be  passed  again 
throuu'h  the  mill,  and  swept  the  barn 
floor  clean,  and  hung  up  the  riddles  against 
the  walls,  and  put  the  other  implements 
into  their  proper  places. 

IT.'iS.  When  barley  is  thrashed,  the 
roughs  are ,  not  riddled  as  it  comes  from 
the  spf)ut,  but  reserved  to  be  put  through 
the  mill  after  the  sheaves  have  all  been 
thrashed.  The  hatchway  «,  fig.  127, 
forms  a  convenient  means  of  communica- 
tion betwixt  the  corn  and  upper  barns, 
and  through  it  the  roughs  arc  handed  up 
in  wechts,  and  placed  on  the  feeding-in 
board,  from  which  the  feeder-in  supplies 
the  mill  in  small  quantities  with  the  stick, 
so  as  the  roughs  may  have  time  to  be 
thoroughly  beaten  by  the  drum  ;  for,  with 
the  exception  of  the  fanners  to  blow  away 
the  awny  refuse  into  the  chaff-house,  the 
rest  of  the  machinery  of  the  mill  is  of  little 
value  in  this  operation.  The  use  of  the 
stick  for  this  and  the  operation  mentioned 
above,  is  to  save  the  hands  of  the  feeder-in 
being  seized  by  the  feeding-rollers,  when 
feeding  in  so  short  a  substance  as  roughs. 
Few  mills  have  elevators,  and  therefore 
the  barley-ronghs  are  usually  treated  as 
now  described. 

IT-'iO.  Any  portion  of  the  straw  that 
happens  to  be  damp,  which  it  is  very 
likely  to  be  immediately  after  harvest, 
will  probably  not  be  thrashed  clean,  and 
it  is  advisable  to  put  it  again  through  the 
mill.  The  opening  in  the  wall  at  i,  fig. 
137,  betwixt  the  upper  and  straw  barns, 
permits  the  damp  straw  to  be  forked  up 
from  the  straw-barn  into  the  upper  barn. 

1760.  After  the  mill  has  been  used  for 
every  purpose,  the  sluice  of  tlie  dam  is 
immediately  let  down,  the  horses  taken 
out  of  the  mill-course,  or  the  steam  let  oil", 
the  hatchway  and  opening  are  closeil,  and 
the  door  of  the  upper  barn  is  locked. 

1761.  The  feeding-in  of  oats  is  similar 
to  that  of  wheat,  but  only  the  straw  is  not 
60  easily  separated  in  the  sheaf. 

1762.  The  bean  being  easily  separatctl 
from  its  pod,  the  fast  motion  of  the 
thrashing-machine  should  be  put  on  when 


it  is  thrashed  ;  but,  the  straw  being 
brittle,  the  best  plan  to  avoid  its  being 
much  broken  with  the  fast  motion  is  to 
feeJ  the  sheaves  thin  sidfwa^s,  instead 
of  lengthways,  into  the  feeding-rollers. 
The  pods  being  covered  with  down,  it  be- 
comes black  on  the  crop  being  won,  which 
the  thrashing  throws  off  like  a  thick  black 
impalpalde  dust,  which,  on  entering  the 
mouth  and  nostrils,  and  blackening  the 
clothes,  makes  the  thrashing  of  beans  a 
disagreeable  process;  and  the  noise  occa- 
sioned by  their  impinging  against  the  iron 
lining  of  the  drum-case,  is  most  deafening, 
and  overpowers  the  human  A'oice.  In 
thrashing  peas,  the  feeding-rollers  are 
put  on  the  fast  motion,  and  the  sheaf  is 
allowed  to  be  taken  in  by  them,  while  the 
feeder  holds  on  by  the  sheaf,  and  pulls  it 
thinner  and  thinner.  Peas  are  as  easily 
thrashed  out  as  beans ;  but  the  process 
does  not  create  so  offensive  a  dust,  though 
the  noise  attending  it  is  very  great.  Peas 
are  riddled  with  the  oat  riddle,  the  refuse 
generally  being  small  clods  of  earth  and 
shrivelled  grains,  which  are  left  in  the 
riddle,  and  given  to  the  pigeons. 

1763.  I  have  said  that  the  straw,  as  it 
is  thrashed,  is  mowed  up  in  the  straw-barn, 
and  it  is  done  in  this  manner:  —  Two  per- 
s(ms  are  required  to  take  away  the  straw 
when  the  thrashing-mill  is  in  motion. 
The  straw  is  received,  as  it  falls  continu- 
ously down  the  straw-screen  o',  fig.  136, 
upon  the  strongly  boarded  part  of  the  floor 
of  the  straw-barn  below  it,  and  is  thence 
taken  up  in  forkfuls,  with  a  large  straw 
fork,  fig.  110,  and  carried  to  the  part  of 
the  straw-barn  where  it  is  intentled  to  be 
mowed  up,  and  where  a  field-worker  is 
ready  to  receive  it  and  mow  it  up.  The 
mowing  consists  of  spreading  the  straw  in 
a  line,  across  the  end  or  along  one  side 
of  the  straw-barn,  in  breadths  or  mows  of 
.•5  or  a  feet,  and  tramjiling  it  firmly  with 
the  feet ;  and,  when  one  mow  has  reached 
such  a  height  as  the  roofing  ol  the  barn 
will  easily  allow,  another  one  is  made 
upon  the  floor  beside  it,  and  so  on  in  suc- 
cession, one  mow  after  another,  in  jiarallel 
order,  until  the  stack  is  thrashed  or  the 
barn  filled.  The  advantage  of  putting 
up  straw  in  the  barn  in  mows,  in  pre- 
ference to  building  it  over  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  barn-floor,  is — that  a  mow 
receives  the  straw  in  forkfuls,  which  re- 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


409 


quire  to  be  only  spread  a  very  little  before 
being  tramped  firm;  wliereas  over  a  broad 
space  the  forkfuls  would  have  to  be 
carried  to  tlie  farthest  end  and  sides — a 
task  which  no  single  field-worker  could 
do  as  fast  as  the  tnen  fork  it.  And  when 
the  straw  is  taken  away,  each  mow  is 
easily  removed  by  force  of  the  arms  alone, 
whereas  straw  is  very  difficult  to  be  pulled 
asunder  when  built  up  and  tramped  in 
broad  spaces. 

1764.  When  a  stack  of  litter  straw  is 
being  thrashed,  the  cattle-man  may  be 
saved  a  good  deal  of  trouble  in  carrying 
the  litter  to  the  courts  and  hammels,sliould 
they  require  to  be  littered.  To  effect  this, 
the  straw  is  carried  in  back-loads  from 
the  straw-screen  in  short  ropes,  one  end 
of  which  is  hooked  on  to  the  bottom  of  the 
screen,  and  the  other  end  is  held  in  one 
hand  of  the  person  who  is  to  carry  the 
load,  while  the  other  hand  guides  the 
straw  into  the  rope.  Those  who  carry 
assist  each  other  on  with  the  load  in  the 
barn.  The  carriers  litter  one  court  after 
another  methodically,  and  not  at  random, 
in  which  tliey  are  assisted  and  directed 
by  the  cattle-man,  and  by  the  field-worker 
who  would  have  had  to  mow  the  straw  in 
the  barn. 

1765.  For  the  convenience  of  this  pro- 
cess, as  well  as  for  many  others,  it  is 
better  to  have  the  end  of  the  straw-screen 
cut  off  about  3^  feet  above  the  floor  of  the 
straw-barn,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  slope 
down  to  the  floor,  because,  when  it  is  so  pro- 
longed, its  end  is  in  the  way  upon  the  floor, 
and  very  apt  to  become  injured  by  the 
prongs  of  the  large  forks  striking  against  it 
when  removing  the  straw;  and  it  much  in- 
terferes with  the  convenience  of  bundling 
straw  directly  from  the  mill,  either  for  the 
purpose  of  litter,  fodder,  or  thatching  stacks. 
In  some  mills  there  is  no  straw-screen  atall, 
the  straw  fulling  on  the  floor  direct  from 
the  apron  of  the  second  shaker.  Besides 
the  inconvenience  of  the  straw  thus  falling 
directly  upon  the  persons  taking  it  away, 
the  want  of  a  screen  prevents  the  stray 
grains  of  corn  being  separated  from  the 
straw,  and  are  therefore  carried  away  in  it. 

1766.  The  next  process  in  connexion 
with  corn  is  the  winnbicivg  —  that  is, 
making  it  clean  for  the  market — and  this  ■ 


process  is  conducted  in  the  corn-barn. 
The  first  thing  to  be  done  towards  pre- 
paring the  thrashed  heap  of  corn  for  the 
market,  is  passing  the  roughs  of  wheat  or 
oats  through  the  blower.  Thismac-hine  is 
set  with  its  tail  at  the  barn-door,  that  the 
chaff  may  be  blown  away  from  it.  The 
steward  drives  the  fanners,  one  woman  fills 
the  hopper  with  the  roughs ;  and  as  they 
do  not  pass  easily  through  the  hopper,  an- 
other woman  stands  upon  the  stool  belong- 
ing to  the  barn,  fig.  164,  and  pushes  them 
with  her  hand  towards  the  feeding-roller; 
while  the  other  two  women  riddle  the  corn 
upon  the  new-thrashed  heap.  The  riddlings 
of  the  roughs,  and  all  the  light  corn,  may 
be  put  past  for  the  fowls. 

1767.  Before  proceeding  to  describe 
particularly  the  winnowing  of  corn,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  you  some  idea  of  the 
machines  by  which  the  corn  is  made  clean 
for  market,  such  as  the  windowing  ma- 
chines, or  fanners — so  named  in  the  latter 
sense  because  they  blow  away  the  filth 
from  the  corn  by  means  of  fans.  When 
cleaning  fanners  are  fixed  to  one  spot,  and 
are  connected  with  elevators,  they  are 
generally  of  large  dimensions,  and  of  more 
complicated  construction  than  when  made 
to  be  moved  about  in  the  barn.  Fig.  146 
is  the  elevatAon  of  the  fixed  fanner,  which 
is  in  dimensions  6  feet  9  inches  in  length, 
4  feet  9  inches  in  height,  and  1  foot  9  inches 
in  breadth,  and  where  a  is  the  fore  fram- 
ing, made  in  halves,  and  bolted  together, 
for  the  convenience  of  removing  the  out- 
ward half  of  the  fan-case ;  h  is  the  back 
frame  made  single;  c  c  is  the  side  boarding ; 
c?  is  a  crank  on  the  end  of  the  spindle  of 
the  fan,  the  arms  of  which  are  seen  tra- 
versing the  spaces  ^,  which  are  the  air-ports 
by  which  the  air  finds  access  to  the  fans, 
and  upon  which  are  placed  sliding  panels 
//,  by  which  the  admission  of  the  air,  and 
ultimately  the  force  of  the  blast,  can  be 
regulated ;  the  crank  d  is  attached  to  the 
connecting  rody,  which  communicates  mo- 
tion to  the  double  or  bell-crank  spindle  h, 
whose  office  it  is  to  move  the  riddle-frame. 
The  hopper  i  receives  the  undressed  grain, 
and  the  spouts  k  I  in  deliver  respectively 
the  first,  second,  and  light  grain,  after 
separation  in  the  machine  ;  but,  as  it  would 
be  inconvenient  to  deliver  all  these  at  one 
side,  there  are  corresponding  sliders,  k'  I' 
m';   and  each  side  being  provided   with 


410 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 

Fig.  146. 


THK  ELEVATION*  OF  THE  DRESSING  FANNER. 

spouts  and  sliders,  the  latter  are  shifted  so  fourth  foot  of  the  machine  to  any  inequa- 

as  to  cause  the  three  qualities  to  be  de-  lities  of  the  barn-floor. 

livered — two  on  one  side,  and  the  third  in 

the  opposite.      The  slot-bar  n  is  for  the  1768.  Y\^.\-^'i  xsvilongitudinal  section 

purpose  of  adjusting  the    length   of  the  of  the  same  fanner,  the  letters  of  which 

Fig.  147.  ^ 


THE  LONGITl  DINAL  SECTION  OF  THE  DRESSING  FANNER,  WITH  RIDDLES  AND  SIEVES. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


411 


partly  correspond  with  those  in  fig.  146. 
The  fans  revolve  within  the  circular  case 
fg  A,  the  space /^  being  open  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  air,^o  being  the  funnel-hoard; 
s  t\^  the  shoe ;  q  r  s  is  the  riddle-frame, 
which  receives  the  two  riddles  u  and  v^ 
slid  in  grooves  and  movable ;  w  is  the 
hopper,  on  the  front  of  which  is  the  sluice 
*,  moved  by  the  screw- winch  x,  to  regu- 
late the  feed.  The  sieve  frame  is  a'  h\ 
■which  receives  two  sieves  into  the  grooves 
e'  and/'.  The  frames  of  both  riddles  and 
sieves  are  supported  by  the  chains  V  and 
A',  attached  to  the  stretcher-rod  h.  The 
toothed  wheel  i,  seen  through  the  air-port, 
is  turned  by  a  winch-handle,  and  acts 
upon  a  pinion  fixed  upon  the  axle  of  the 
fan.  The  proportion  of  the  wheel  and 
pinion  are  45  to  1,  the  fan  making  from 
212  to  220  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
spare  riddles  are  kept  in  the  locker  lc\  V 
being  the  lid  opening  into  it;  c  ??' is  a 
slider  that  can  be  raised  or  depressed  to 
catch  the  light  grain,  while  it  allows  the 
chaff  to  j)ass  over, 

1769.  The  full  complement  of  riddles 
for  the  riddle-frame  is  6,  of  which  2  only 
can  be  employed  at  one  time.  Their 
meshes  are — for  wheat  5  in  the  inch,  for 
barley  4  in  the  inch,  and  for  oats  3  in 
the  inch.  The  slap-riddles  are  three  quarter 
inch,  and  1  inch  in  the  meshes.  The  sieves 
are  made  of  wire-cloth  :  the  upper  one  has 
9  meshes  in  the  inch,  the  lower  7  meshes. 

1770.  Fig.  148  \^  2itransvers('' section  oi 
the  same  fanner  :  a  a  are  the  frames,  c  c  the 
side-boardings,  m  m  the  light  spouts,  m'  the 
sliders,  to  change  the  direction  of  the  dis- 
charge; and  0' p' is  the  sloping  division 
0'  p  of  fig.  147.  The  sieve-frame,  with 
its  2  sieves,  are  contained  between  a'  and 
b' ;  and  //  are  2  flaunch-boards,  sloping 
over  the  sieve-frame,  to  direct  the  grain 
upon  the  sieve.  The  riddle-frame,  with 
its  riddles  u  and  v,  are  contained  between 
r  and  0;  and  w  is  the  hopper,  with  its 
sluice  s.  The  end  of  the  connecting-rod  g, 
fig  146,  is  seen  at  ^17,  as  jointed  to  the  bell- 
cranks  that  shake  the  riddles  and  sieves 
by  their  attachment  at  b'  and  0;  i'  is  the 
toothed  wheel,  with  its  winch-handle  k, 
and  framework  I,  by  which  the  fan  is  im- 
pelled. 

1771.  When  this  fanner  is  in  operation, 


the  blast  is  sent  through  the  funnel  f  gob', 

fig.    147.       Its   chief    force    is    directed 

Fig.  148. 


THE  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  DRESSING 
FANNER. 

upon  that  end  of  the  riddles  q  0;  and 
as  the  grain  falls  from  the  hopper  upon 
that  end  of  the  riddles,  the  lighter  chatf  is 
immediately  blown  ofi'  beyond  the  point  c. 
The  remainder,  with  the  grain,  will  be 
passing  tiirough  the  riddles  towards  the 
sieve ;  and  during  this  stage,  any  remains 
of  chaff  are  blown  off  and  the  light  grain 
and  seeds  are  blown  beyond  b'.  The  blast 
not  having  power  to  carry  them  over  c,  they 
fall  down  between  c  and  b',  and  are  dis- 
charged at  the  lights  spout  7n;  at  the  same 
time,  the  heavy  grain  and  seeds  fall  upon 
the  upper  sieve  /',  when  all  the  plump 
full-sized  grains  roll  down  over  this  sieve, 
and  are  delivered  at  the  Jirsts  spout  k. 
These  grains,  together  with  other  seeds 
whose  specific  gravity  exceeds  the  lights, 
but  whose  bulk  is  under  that  which 
the  upper  sieve  is  intended  to  pass,  con- 
sequently fall  through  the  meshes,  and 
are  received  upon  the  lower  sieve  e';  upon 
this  the  grain  so  received  rolls  down  and 
is  delivered  through  a  small  oi)ening  at  the 
foot  of  the  sieve  e'  into  the  chamber  of  the 
seconds  spout  I.  The  smaller  seeds,  such  as 
those  of  sinapis  and  others,  being  too  small 
to  be  retained  even  upon  this  sieve,  fall 


412 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


through  it,  and  arc  received  into  the  cliain-  1772.    The  finishing  fanner  or  duster. 

ber  «,  from   whicii   they   arc  removed  at  — This  is  a  fanner  of  !;iniplcr  construction 

convenience  throuirh  the  aperture;/,  wliicii  tiian   fis^.    146.     As    re;.Mrds  the  hlast,  it 

ischised  hy  a  sliding  shutter.     Tlie  usual  is  constr\lT;ted  on  tlie  same  ]jrinciple  as  tiie 

price  of  this  fanner,  with  its  riddles  and  former.    Fig.  14!)  is  an  cLvntion,  in  which 

sieves,  is  <£!>,  9s.  the  framework  is  similar  to  the  last,  hut  its 

Fig.  149. 


THE    ELk:\'ATlUN  OK  TIIK   FINISHING  FANNER  OH  Dl'STER. 

over-all  dimensions  are  smaller,  the  ex-  an  open  funnel,  d  e  f  fj ;  the  latter  part, 
treme  length  being  .5  feet  8  inches,  the  /\<7  being  continued  outward  from  the  feed- 
height  4  feet  8  inches,  and  the  width,  as  ing  roller  h,  which  is  so  placed  as  not  to 
before,  1  foot  9  inches.  The  main  frame  offer  any  obstruction  to  the  current.  The 
aa\s  again  made  in  halves,  and  the  back  hopper  i  is  furnished  wnth  asliderX%  which 
frame  h  is  also  single ;  c  is  the  air-port,  is  adjusted  to  the  requisite  feed  by  the 
The  wheel  «?,  and  its  pinion  on  the  axle  of  screw  I;  and  the  sole  of  the  funnel,  from 
the  fan,  are  in  the  same  pro{)ortion  as  be-  m  to  rf,  is  a  solid  board,  while  the  shoot 
fore;  but  on  the  axle  of  the  wheel,  a  from  <Z  to  ?»■ — thepointof  discharge  for  the 
pulley  is  mounted,  which,  by  means  of  a  best  corn — is  a  wire  sieve.     That  part  of 


cross-belt  e,  drives  the  pulley  /,  of  the 
same  diameter,  and  which  is  placed  upon 
the  axle  of  a  feed  ing- roller.  The  side- 
boarding^^,  is  formed  to  the  taste  of  the 
maker,  except  in  that  part  which  forms 
the  fan -case,  and  in  the  ])arts  h  and  i, 
which  are  cut  away  to  afford  more  ready 
access  to  the  light  corn,  and  to  the  small 
Eeed  that  may  have  been  sej)arated  :  /"  and     r  the  wheel-framing,  and  d  the  wheel  ;  / 


the  sole  m  d,  and  the  board  g  o,  are  both 
fitted  to  slide  up  or  down  to  temper  the 
division  of  the  light  corn,  should  any  of 
them  remain  ;  and  p  is  a.  division,  sepa- 
rating the  light  corn  from  the  small  seeds. 

1774.  Fig.  1 .51  is  the  transrersc  section; 
a  a  are  the  frames,  h  is  the  winch-handle. 


I  are  handles  by  which  it  may  be  lifted 
from  one  place  of  the  barn  to  another. 

1773.  Fig.  150  is  the  longitudinal  sec- 
tion, where  a  a  and  Lb  are  the  cross  rails 
of  the  frames,  and  c  the  air-port.  In  this 
inac!iine,  the  blast  is  sent  directly  through 


is  the  pulley  of  the  feedinir-rollor,  li  the 
roller,  and  i  the  hop])cr.  Of  the  interior 
parts,  p  is  the  division  under  the  sole,  m 
is  the  sole  as  seen  below,  and  dd  are  the 
vanes  of  the  fan,  e  e  being  its  axle. 

177"'.  In  operating  with    this    fanner, 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


413 


the  grain  is  taken  from  tlie  hopper  by  the 
revolution  of  the  feeding-roller ;  and  as  it 


falls   perpendicularly  in  a  thin  sheet,    is 
intercepted  by  the  blast  under  the  most 

Fig.  150. 


THE  LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  THE  FINISHING  FANNER  OR  DVSTER. 

favourable  circumstances.  All  such  chaff  iioht  grain  that  may  have  remained  is 
and  dust  as  yet  remain  amongst  it,  is  separated  also,  and  falls  between  g  and  w, 
blown  over  the  back-board  ^,  tig.  150 ;  the     down  the  spout  g  o  ;  the  remainder  ruiis 


Fig.  151. 


THB  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  FINISHING  FAN- 
NER OR  DUSTER. 


down  the  sole  m  d,  and  in  passing  from  d 
to  «,  should  any  small  seeds  yet  remain, 
they  are  intercepted,  and  fall  through  the 
screen  d  ii,  while  the  best  corn  passes  on, 
and  is  delivered  at  n.  The  price  of  this 
fanner  is  £6,  15s. 

1776.  The  thrashing-machine  fanner 
differs  little  in  its  essentials  from  the  first 
described.  Its  position  p  is  seen  in  figs. 
135  and  136,  immediately  under  the  great 
hopper  0.  The  width  for  a  6-horse  power 
machine  ought  to  be  considerably  more 
than  the  common  fanners,  not  under  24 
inches,  nor  is  it  requisite  that  it  sliould 
exceed  30  inches.  The  fan  is  of  the  same 
diameter,  and  i\\ejirsts  spout  stands  in  the 
same  relation  as  described  in  fig.  146. 
There  is  no  spout  corresponding  to  the 
seconds  of  that  figure ;  but  the  foul  spout 
takes  the  place  of  the  light  corn.  The  rid- 
dles and  sieves  of  fig.  147  are  entirely  left 
out,  and  in  their  place  a  simple  shoe,  with 
a  sheet-iron  bottom,  which  is  perforated 
all  over  in  1-inch  holes  at  five-eighth  inch 
apart.   This  is  placed  under  the  great  hop- 


414 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


per, and  is  a!,'itateilbya  connecting  rod  from 
a  crank  on  the  fun-axle,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  cxiiibited  in  fig.  )4()  at/;.  The  ex- 
treme length  of  the  machine  fanners  should 
be  8  feet,  and  their  height  4  feet  10  inches. 

1777.  Riddles. — The  most  complete  im- 
plements for  separating  heavy  articles 
from  corn  of  any  kind  are  riddles.  They 
are  formed  either  entirely  of  wood,  or 
partly  of  wood  and  wire.  Wood  riddles 
have  long  been  in  use,  though  I  believe, 
in  tiie  hands  of  a  skilful  riddler.  the  wire 
riddle  makes  the  best  work.  The  wood 
are  made  of  fir  or  willow,  but  American 
elm  is  the  best.  The  wire  riddles  have 
hitherto  been  made  of  iron  wire,  on 
account,  perhaps,  of  its  cheapness ;  but  I 
shouhl  suppose  that  copper  wire  would 
make  a  bette'r  and  more  durable  riddle. 
A  riddle,  whether  of  wood  or  wire,  con- 
sists of  a  bottom  of  open  mesh-work,  and 
of  a  cylindrical  rim  of  wood,  the  diameter 
of  which  is  usually  23  or  24  inches,  and 
its  depth  3  inches.  Rims  are  made  either 
of  fir,  or  oak,  or  beech,  the  last  being  most 
used.  '  In  fir  rims,  Uie  wooden  withes  of 
the  bottom  are  passed  tlirougli  slits, 
thereby  endangering  the  splitting  of  the 
rim  itself  all  round,  which  they  not  unfre- 
quently  do;  but  in  the  oak  rim  the 
withes  are  passed  through  bored  holes, 
which  never  cause  splitting.  There  is 
little  danger  of  wire  splitting  the  rims  of 
any  sort  of  wood.  The  following  figures 
of  riddles  are  portions  only  of  the  bottom  of 
each  kind,  but  the  meshes  are  at  full  size?. 


177 


8.    Fig.    152  is  a  wheat   riddle  of 
wood,     the 


Fig.  152. 


THE  Wooden  wheat  riddle. 


meshes  of 
which  are  a 
quarter  of 
an  inch 
square,  the 
breadth  of 
the  wood 
splits  three- 
sixteenthsof 
an  inch, and 
its  price  is 
3s.  6d.  with 
an  oak  rim. 


1779.  Fig.  153  is  a  wooden  barley 
riddle  having  a  mesh  of  five-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  square,  the  breadth  of  the  withes 


being  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
3s.  with  an  oak  rim. 

Fig.  153. 


The  price  is 


1  J_ 


')\m 


W 


THE  WOODEN  BARLEY  RIDDLE. 

1780.  Fig.  154  is  a  wooden  riddle  for 
oats,  with  three-eighths  of  an  inch  square 
Fig.  154. 


THE  WOODEN  OAT  RIDDLE. 

of  mesh,  and  the  breadth  of  the  withes  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  The  price  is  2s.  4d. 
with  an  oak  rim. 

1781.  Fig.  155  is  a  wooden  riddle  for 


Fig.  155, 


THE  WOODEN   BEAN  RIDDLE. 


beans,  hav- 
ing five-six- 
teenths of 
an  inch 

square  in  the 
mesh,  with 
willies  of 
three  -  six- 
teenths of 
an  inch  in 
width.  The 
J  price  is  3s. 
Gd.  with  aa 
oak  rim. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


415 


1782.  For  riddling  the  roughs  of  wheat 
and  oats,  the  roughs  of  barley  not  being 


riddled,   a  wooden  riddle,  fii 
Fig.  156. 


156,  has 


the    good    grain 
together    with 

Fig.  159. 


THE  WOOCEN  RIDDLE  FOR  THE  ROUGHS  OF 
WHEAT  AND  OATS. 

meshes  of  one  inch  square,  and  the  breadth 

of  the  withes  three-eighths  of  an  inch.  The 

price  is  2s.,  with 


Fig.  157. 


THE  IRON-WIRE  WHEAT 
RIDDLE. 


an  oak  rim. 

1783.  Fig. 
157  is  an  iron- 
wire  riddle  for 
wheat,  having 
25  meshes  in 
the  square  inch, 
including  the 
thickness  of  the 
wires.  The  price 
is  5s.,  with  a 
beech  rim. 


1784.  Fig.  158  is  an  iron-wire  riddle 
for  barley,  having  16  meshes  to  the  square 
inch,  including  the  thickness  of  the  wire. 


Fig.  158. 


THE  IRON  WIRE  BARLEY 
RIDDLE. 


The  price  is  4s., 
with  abeech  rim. 
A  barley  wire 
riddle  answers 
for  riddling 

beans,  but  an 
opposite  process 
is  performed, — 
the  small  and 
shrivelled  beans 
and  other  refuse 
pass  through  the 
meshes,      while 


left  in  the  riddle ; 
any  lumps  of  clay  and 
stones  that  may 
have  accompa- 
nied the  good 
grain,  and  which 
nmst  be  re- 
moved by  the 
hand. 

1785.  Fig. 
159  is  an  iron- 
wire  riddle  for 
oats,  having  12 
meshes  to  the 
square  inch,  in- 
cluding the  thickness  of  tlie  wire.  The 
price  is  ys.  6d.,  with  a  beech  rim. 

1786.  Fig.    160   is   a   wire   riddle  for 
roughs,  having  the  meshes  1|  inch  square. 
Fig.  100. 


THE  IRON-WIRE  RIDDLE  FOR  ROUGHS. 

The  price  is  2s.  6d.,  with  a  beech  rim. 
Eiddles  for  roughs  are  also  called  slap- 
riddles.  When  elevators  are  used  in  a 
thrashing  machine,  no  slap-riddles  are  re- 
quired. 


Fig.  181. 


THE  WOODEN  SIEVE. 


1787-  Sieves. 
—Fig.  161  is 
a  wooden 
sieve  for  sift- 
ing out  dust, 
earth,  and 
small  seeds, 
from  corn, 
havingmeshes 
of  one-eighth 
of  an  inch 
square,  and 
the  breadth  of 


416 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  withes  also  one-eighth  of  an  inch, 
price  is  3s.  uJ.,  with  an  oak  riui. 


The 


Fig.  162. 


1788.  Fig.  162  is  an 
iron-wire  sieve,  having  64 
meshes  to  the  square  inch, 
including  the  thickness  of 
the  wire.  The  size  is  22 
inches  diameter,  culled  No. 
THE  IRON- WIRE  8,  and,  with  a  heech  rim,  is 
^'^^^        sold  fur  5s.  6d. 

1789.  These  are  all  the  sizes  and  varie- 
ties of  riddles  and  sieves  required  on  a 
farm.  Of  slap-riddles  and  sieves,  only 
one  of  each  size  is  used  ;  but  of  the  riddles 
for  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  beans,  two  of 
each  kind  are  required,  whether  of  wood 
or  wire.  I  have  tried  both  kinds,  and  pre- 
fer the  wire,  as  making  better  work,  though 
I  am  aware  they  require  more  dexterous 
riddlers,  to  use  them  with  advantage,  than 
the  wooden  riddles. 

1700.  ^Vechts  or  maunds  for  taking  up 
corn  from  the  bin  or  floor,  of  the  form  of 
h,  fig.  145,  are  made  either  of  withes  or 
of  skin,  attached  to  a  rim  of  wood.  One 
of  fir  withes,  with  a  rim  of  oak,  costs 
2s.  6d.  A  young  calfs  skin  with  the 
hair  on,  or  sheep's  skin  without  the  wool, 
tacked  to  the  rim  in  a  wet  state,  after  be- 
coming dry  and  hard,  makes  a  better  and 
more  durable  wecht  than  wood.  Wechts 
should  be  made  of  different  sizes ;  two  as 
large  as  two  fulls  shall  fill  the  bushel  with 
ease,  and  others  of  smaller  diameter,  and 
less  depth  of  rim,  to  take  up  the  corn  fr^m 
the  fanner,  to  give  to  the  riddlers.  Bas- 
kets of  close  and  beautiful  wicker-work, 
such  as  fig.  163,  are  used  in  barns  in  parts 
of  England  instead  of  wechts. 

Fig.  163. 


THR  C0RN-BA8KKT  OP  WICKSR-WORK. 

1791.  A  stont  four- legged  stool,  2^  feet 
long,  9  inches  broad,  !»nd  9  inches  iiigh, 
fig.  1C4,  made  of  ash,  is  useful  in  a  barn, 


to  alh)w  the  women  to  reach  the  hopper  of 
the  fanner  easilv.  For  want  «f  a  stool 
the  inverted  bushel  is  taken  to  stand  upon, 
much  to  its  injury. 

Fig.  164. 


THK  BARN  STOOL. 

Fif.  165.  1792.  Atcooden  hoe, 

fig.  165,  7  inches  long, 
and  4  inches  deep  in 
the  blade,  fixed  to  a 
shaft  9  inches  long, 
made  of  plane-tree,  is 
easier  than  the  hands  to 
fill  wechts  with  corn 
from  the  floor. 


THE  BARN  WOODEN 
HOE 


1793.  A  couple  of  wooden  scoops,  such 
as  tig.  166,  to  shovel  up  the  corn  in  heaps. 
Fig.  166.  are  indispensable  imj)le- 
ments  in  a  corn-barn.  The 
scoop  is  3  feet  3  inches 
in  height,  with  ahead  like 
a  common  spade  ;  a  helve 
18  inches  in  length,  and 
the  blade  14  inches  wide 
and  16  inches  long.  The 
blade,  helve,  and  handle, 
are  all  of  one  piece  of 
wood,  of  plane- tree,  the 
belly  of  the  scoop  being  a 
little  hollowed  out,  and  its 
back  thinned  away  to  the 
sides  and  face.  This  is  a 
convenient  size  of  scoop 
for  women's  use,  and  who 
have  most  occasion  to  use 
it,  and  it  is  also  light.  In 
THE  CORN  SCOOP,  the  granaries  in  towns, 
scoops  are  made  longer,  with  a  handle  of 
a  separate  piece  of  ash,  and  are  clumsy 
implements  when  made  of  more  than  one 
piece  of  wood.  A  wooden  scoop  does  not 
injure  a  floor  so  much  as  an  iron  spade,  and 
better  retains  the  corn  upon  its  face,  iu  the 
act  of  shovelling. 

1704.  Brooms    are    useful    implements 
in  a  steading,  to  sweep  the  different  sorts 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


417 


of  floors,  and  they  are  formed  of  materials 
suited  best  to  clean  the  particular  sort 
of  floor.  For  sweeping  the  floors  of  cause- 
wayed or  paved  stables  and  byres,  the 
twigs  of  the  birch  tree  form  the  most 
elastic  and  durable  brooms.  They  are  tied 
together  with  stout  twine  in  bundles  of 
about  6  inches  in  diameter  at  the  tied  end, 
and  2  feet  in  length.  A  wooden  handle 
of  about  3  feet  in  lengtli  is  driven  into 
the  tied  end,  and  is  kept  in  its  ])lace  by  a 
pin  passed  through  it  and  the  twigs.  Tiie 
sweeping  end  receives  such  a  trimming 
with  the  knife  as  to  give  it  a  flattened  face 
to  the  ground,  sloped  away  to  a  point. 
Fresh,  twigs  make  the  best  brooms,  and 
after  they  have  become  perfectly  dry,  they 
are  very  brittle.  Brooms  for  the  corn- 
barn  and  granaries  are  best  made  of  stems 
of  the  broom  plant, (^Genista  scoparia,) a.iid 
I  presume  the  instrument  derived  its 
name  from  the  plant  being  so  used,  which 
is  simply  tied  together  with  twiue  at  one 
end,  about  3  feet  in  length,  and  used  with- 
out a  handle.  The  broom  is  also  in  the 
best  state  when  fresh,  and  becomes  very 
brittle  on  being  dried.  When  long  straight 
stems  of  the  common  ling  (^Calluna  vki- 
garis)  can  be  procured,  they  make  Loth 
good  and  durable  brooms.  The  harder 
birch  is  required  to  clear  the  dirt  from 
between  the  stones  of  a  causeway,  and  the 
softer  broom  answers  best  to  keep  the 
baru-fluor.  Hair  brooms  do  not  answer, 
as  bristles  have  not  strength  to  clear 
away  the  heavier  dust  often  encoun- 
tered in  barns.  Perhaps  brooms  of  whale- 
bone would  answer  better  than  broom,  but 
I  have  seen  none  of  them  as  yet  tried  in 
the  country. 

1795.  Nails  should  be  driven  at  con- 
venient places  in  the  walls  and  partitions 
of  the  barn,  to  hang  the  riddles,  wechts, 
and  sieves  upon. 

1796.  The  necessary  implements  being 
described,  the  heap  of  grain,  suppose  it  to 
be  wheat,  is  next  to  be  winnowed.  For 
this  purpose,  the  blower,  fig.  140,  is  placed 
alongside  the  heap,  with  its  tail  away 
from  the  direction  in  which  it  is  pmposed 
to  place  the  new  riddled  heap  of  grain 
with  its  ofi"side,  that  is,  its  side  farthest 
from  the  driver,  next  the  heap.  The 
steward  adjusts  the  component  parts  of 
the  blower  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  grain 

VOL.  I. 


to  be  winnowed — namely,  the  tail-board, 
g  0,  fig.  150,  should  be  no  higher  up  than 
to  allbw  the  chaflf  to  escape  over  it, 
while  it  retains  the  lightest  even  of  the 
grain ;  the  slide,  m  d,  in  the  interior, 
should  only  be  so  far  up  as  to  permit  the 
light  grain  to  be  blown  over  it,  while  it 
retains  all  the  heaviest,  which  pours  down 
d  n  to  the  floor.  What  falls  from  this 
slide  is  the  light  corn,  and  it  drops  nearest 
the  chafl".  The  wire-screen  below  this 
slide  on  (/  n  permits  dust  and  small  seeds 
of  wild  plants  to  pass  through,  and  deposits 
them  between  the  liglit  and  heavy  corn. 
The  opening  of  the  sluice  at  the  feeding- 
roller  k  and  h  is  so  adjusted  as  that  the 
grain  shall  fall  as  fast,  but  no  faster,  than 
the  wind  shall  have  power  to  blow  away 
the  chaif  and  light  corn  from  amongst  the 
heavy.  All  these  adjustments  of  parts 
may  not  be  made  the  most  perfect  at  once, 
but  a  little  trial  will  soon  direct  him 
what  requires  to  be  rectified,  and  experi- 
ence of  the  machine  will  enable  him  to 
hit  near  the  mark  at  once.  The  blower 
should  be  made  to  stand  firmly  and 
steadily  on  the  floor  when  used. 

1797.  The  arrangement  of  the  persons 
who  winnow  the  corn,  so  as  to  proceed  with 
regularity  and  despatch,  is  this: — The 
steward  drives  the  blowei*.  One  woman 
fills  the  hopper  with  corn  with  a  large 
wecht,  or  the  basket,  fig.  163,  from  the 
heap,  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  driver. 
Her  duty  is  to  keep  the  hopper  as  nearly 
full  as  she  can,  as  then  the  issue  of  corn 
from  it  is  most  regular,  and  she  is  assisted 
in  doing  this  the  more  easily  by  the  use  of 
the  barn-stool,  fig.  164.  Another  woman, 
with  a  smaller  wecht,  takes  up  the  good 
grain  as  it  slides  down  upon  the  floor, 
with  the  wooden  hoe,  fig.  165,  and  divides 
the  wechtful  between  the  other  two  women, 
who  each  stand  with  a  riddle,  fig.  152  or 
157,  in  her  hand  at  the  place  where  the 
new  heap  is  to  be  made.  The  heap  is 
made  in  one  corner,  or  against  any  part 
of  a  wall  of  the  barn,  to  take  up  as  little 
room  as  possible.  When  the  two  women 
have  received  the  grain  into  their  riddles, 
they  riddle  it,  bringing  the  last  part  of 
each  riddling  towards  the  edge  of  the 
heaj),  and  casting  what  is  left  as  the 
scum  in  the  riddles  into  the  bushel,  as  a 
receiver,  placed  conveniently  to  receive  it. 
The    riddlings    consist   of    capes,     large 

2d 


418 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


grains,  sprouted  grains,  small  stones,  the 
larijer  class  of  seed  of  weeds,  that  could 
not  jKi-'s  through  the  wire-screen  in  the 
hh)\ver,  clods  of  earth,  bits  of  straw  too 
heavy  to  be  blown  away,  and  such  like. 
By  the  time  the  women  have  riddled  the 
quantity  given  them,  the  other  woman 
has  taken  up  as  mucii  from  the  floor  at 
tiie  blower  as  to  supply  them  with  a  fresh 
(piantity.  When  the  corn  begins  to  ac- 
ctiiiiidate  amongst  the  riddlers'  feet,  one 
of  them  takes  the  wooden  scoop,  fig.  lOfi, 
and  drawing  with  it  the  tail  or  edge  of 
the  heap  into  a  small  heap,  gives  it  up 
in  portions  to  the  other  riddler,  who  ])Uts 
the  remains  of  the  riddlings  into  the  bushel; 
after  which  the  large  heap  is  shovelled  up 
against  the  wall,  while  the  scattered  grain 
on  the  floor  is  swept  towards  it  with  a 
broom  i,  fig.  145,  by  one  of  the  riddlers,  or 
the  woman  who  gives  up  the  corn  from  the 
blower,  as  the  case  may  be.  Wliile  the 
unwinnowed  heap  is  becoming  less,  as  tiie 
riddled  one  increases  in  bulk,  the  woman 
who  has  charge  of  it  shovels  it  also  up  at 
times,  and  sweeps  in  its  edge,  that  no 
scattered  grains  may  be  permitted  to  lie 
upon  the  floor  to  get  crushed  with  her 
shoes.  All  the  women  should  endeavour 
to  do  their  respective  parts  in  a  neat  and 
cleanly  way.  There  is  much  diflerenee  in 
the  mode  of  working  evinced  by  different 
women  in  the  barn,  some  constantly  spill- 
ing grain  on  the  floor,  when  they  have 
occasion  to  lift  it  with  a  wecht,  evincing 
the  slattern ;  but  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
steward  to  correct  every  instance  of  care- 
lessness ;  whilst  others  keep  the  floor 
clean,  and  handle  all  the  instruments  they 
use  with  skill  and  neatness. 

1798.  The  thrashed  heap  of  corn  being 
thus  passed  through  the  blower,  and 
riddled  in  the  manner  described  into 
another  heap,  the  chaffy  matter  blown 
upon  the  floor  is  then  carried  away  to  the 
dunghill,  and  the  light  corn  subjected  to 
examination,  as  well  as  the  riddlings  in 
the  bushel.  When  the  grain  is  of  fine 
quality,  there  will  be  no  good  grain,  and 
little  bulk  in  the  light  corn  heap,  which 
may  all  be  put  past  for  hen's  meat ;  but, 
in  other  circumstances,  the  liizht  corn,  to- 
gether with  what  is  in  the  bushel,  should 
again  be  put  through  the  fanners,  and  all 
the  grain  taken  out  of  it  that  would  not 
injure   the  clean  corn,  when  mixed  with 


it.  Wlien  the  light  corn  has  thus  been  dis- 
posed of,  and  the  ."ceds  and  dust  from  the 
screen  carried  out  and  ])laced  on  a  bare 
piece  of  ground  for  the  pigeons,  fowls,  or 
wild  birds  to  pick  up.  and  vol  tlirowu  upon 
the  dungiiill  to  render  it  foul  with  the 
seeds  of  wild  plants,  the  heap  should  be 
shovelled  up,  the  fanner  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  placed  aside,  and  the  floor  swej)t. 

17f>n.  When  corn  is  dressed  clean, 
there  should  nothing  be  seen  but  good 
grains, — no  shrivelled  grains,  no  seeds  of 
other  ])lants,  no  clods  of  earth,  no  straw, 
no  chafled  grains.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  dressing  described  above  will  be 
sufficient  to  clean  the  corn  ;  but  should  any 
earth  or  sn)all  seeds  be  still  detected 
amongst  it,  and  the  blower  cannot  separate 
these,  the  corn  shoidd  be  sifted  through  a 
sieve,  fig.  iGl  or  162.  Should  light  sub- 
stances be  still  detected  along  with  shri- 
velled grain,  the  whole  should  again  be  put 
through  the  fanner,  and  riddled  as  before 
descrihed.  Should  light  substances  <mly 
be  found,  these  mav  be  blown  away  by  the 
fanner,  and  the  corn  will  not  again  be  re- 
(|uiretltobe  riddled,  but  measured  into  the 
bushel,  and  ])ut  into  sacks  from  the  fan- 
ner. Good  grain  will  be  sufficiently  dress- 
ed by  one  piissage  through  the  fanners,  but 
that  of  inferior  quality  will  require  twice 
juitting  through ;  or  should  a  su|)erior 
class  of  fanner  be  used,  such  as  fig.  146, 
grain  of  even  very  inferior  quality  may 
be  made  sufficiently  clean  by  one  winnow- 
ing. In  general,  oats  are  made  clean  by 
one  winnowing,  but  wheat  and  barlev 
require  two  thorough  winnowings,  that 
is,  twice  through  the  fanner,  and  twice 
riddled. 

1800.  Suppose,  then,  that  the  corn  has 
been  treated  as  last  described,  and  lies 
in  a  heap  to  be  measured  into  sacks,  the 
arrangements  for  doing  this  is  seen  in 
fig.  167,  where  a  is  the  steward  with 
the  strike  in  his  right  hand,  ready  to 
strike  the  corn  in  the  bushel  />,  which 
is  in  the  act  of  being  filled  by  the  two 
women  cc,  who  are  jjouring  a  wecht ful 
each  into  it  at  the  same  time,  and  in 
sucli  quantity,  as  to  fill  it  at  once. 
Other  two  women  dd  are  holding  the 
mouth  of  the  sack  e  ready  for  the  bushel 
to  he  emptied  into  it.  The  first  two 
bushelfuls  are  emptied   into  the  sack  from 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


419 


the  floor,  and  the  last  two  are  emptied  and  one  of  the  women  lifting  it  by  its 
by  first  placing  the  edge  of  the  busLel  handles,  and  when  there,  the  women  slip 
upon  the  half-filled  sack  by  the  steward     the  month  of  the  sack  under  the  handle 

Fig.  1()7. 


THE  MEASURING  UP  OF  GRAIN  IN  THE  CORN  BARN. 


nearest  them,  and  while  they  raise  the 
bushel  a  little  by  means  of  the  sack,  the 
steward  turns  the  bushel  over  from  him, 
pouring  the  grain  completely  out  of  it  into 
the  elevated  mouth  of  the  sack ;  and  thence 
sustaining  the  weight  of  the  empty 
bushel  with  both  hands,  he  sets  it  down 
by  the  handle  beside  the  heap  of  corn, 
with  one  liandle  towards  the  heap  and 
the  other  towards  the  sack,  ready  again 
to  be  filled.  Four  bushels,  or  half  a 
quarter  of  grain,  are  put  into  one  sack. 
The  sack,  when  full,  is  wheeled  away 
by  the  steward  with  the  sack-barrow  f 
amongst  the  other  sacks  at  g;  and  while 
the  steward  is  doing  this,  one  of  the 
women  d  brings  forward  an  empty  sack 
from  the  heap  /«,  which  had  been  laid 
neatly  down  by  the  steward,  in  sufficient 
number  to  contain  all  the  corn  in  tiie 
heap,  or  what  portion  of  it  may  be  desired 
to  be  measured  up  at  the  time.  As  the 
heap  i  diminishes,  one  of  the  women  c 
shovels  it  into  smaller  space  with  the 
scoop  ^,  and  sweeps  the  floor  clean  to- 
wards the  heap  with  the  broom  /,  and 
then  the  whole  party  advance  nearer  the 
heap.  It  is  customary  for  the  two  sets 
of  women  c  c  and  d  d  to  take  the  filling 
of  the  bushel  by  turns  every  four  sacks 
filled,  as  the  holding  of  the  sacks  is  at- 
tended with  little  fatigue,  compared  to 
filling  the  bushel. 

1801.  There  are  some  particulars  re- 
garding the  measuring  up  of  grain  which 
require  attention.  In  the  first  place,  the 
bushel  should  be  filled  at  once,  because 


it  will  hold  more  corn  when  filled  with 
two  separate  wechtfuls  than  with  two  at 
once,  the  first  wechtful  getting  time  ti» 
subside  before  tlie  other  is  poured  above  it. 

1802.  In  the  next  place,  the  wechtfuls 
should  not  be  poured  into  the  bushel 
from  a  great  height,  as  the  higher  fall 
compresses  more  grains  into  the  bushel. 
The  women,  cc  in  fig.  167,  are  purposely 
shown  pouring  the  corn  from  too  great  a 
height  into  the  bushel. 

]  803.  Another  consideration  is,  that  the 
bushel  be  striked  immediately  after  it  is 
filled.  To  do  it  quickly,  the  corn  raised 
in  the  centre  of  the  bushel  by  the  pouring 
should  be  levelled  with  a  wave  of  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  in  the  lightest 
manner,  so  as  to  make  it  spread  around 
towards,  and  not  lower  than,  the  edge  of 
the  busliel  farthest  from  tlie  heap,  and  this 
part  of  the  edge  is  sweeped  with  the  side 
of  the  same  hand,  to  clear  it  of  every 
grain  of  corn,  and  make  it  ready  for  the 
strike  to  be  applied,  which  should  always 
be  drawn  towards  the  heap,  in  order  to 
make  the  superfluous  grain  striked  ofl"  fall 
as  near  it  as  practicable.  As  a  proof  how 
much  grain  sinks  in  a  bushel  in  a  very 
short  time  after  it  has  been  striked,  a 
space  in  the  inside  of  the  rim  will  be  seen 
all  the  way  round,  the  moment  that  the 
bushel  is  touched  to  be  emptied;  but  a 
more  obvious  proof  is  obtained  on  striking 
the  mouth  of  the  bushel  with  a  smart  stroke 
of  the  strike,  and  the  grain  will  imme- 
diately subside  a  considerable  space. 


420 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


1804.  Anotber  matter  is,  that  the  grain 
be  well  shaken  down  into  the  sack  while 
it  is  inoasured,  so  as  to  till  np  the  comers, 
and  make  the  whole  sack  firm.  It  is 
miicli  easier  for  men  to  carry  a  well  filled 
sack  to  a  distance,  and  especially  up 
several  stairs  to  a  granary,  than  one  that 
is  loosely  filled  in.  The  filleil  sack  can 
be  commanded  like  a  j)ack  of  goods  ;  in  a 
slack  one,  the  grain  is  apt  to  shift  its 
boithage,  to  use  a  nautical  phrase,  and  to 
change  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  load. 

1805.  The  corn  is  measured  up  direct 
from  the  fanners  in  this  way  : — The  stew- 
ard drives  the  fans,  one  woman  fills  the 
hopjjer,  another  puts  the  winnowed  grain 
into  a  large  wecht,  and  fills  the  bushel  at 
once,  strikes  the  bushel  and  empties  it, 
while  the  other  two  women  hold  the  sacks, 
one  of  whom  wheels  them  away  with  the 
sack-barrow  as  filled.  There  is  one  ob- 
jection to  this  mode  of  filling  the  bushel, 
that  the  tremor  of  the  floor,  occasioned 
by  the  working  of  the  fanner,  is  apt  to 
shake  down  the  corn  in  it  more  than  in  the 
way  described  above.  In  measuring  up 
corn  for  horses,  or  seed-corn  of  any  kind, 
or  the  corn  to  be  given  to  the  men  as  part 
of  their  wages,  it  may  be  measured  up  in 
any  circumstances ;  and  as  only  oats  can 
be  measured  after  one  winnowing — it  is 
only  that  species  of  grain  which  is  mea- 
sured up  direct  from  the  fanner. 

1806.  Corn  is  now  invariably  measured 
by  the  imperial  bushel,  fig.  168.     It  is  of 

Fig.  168. 


THE  IMPERIAL  BUMihl,  <it   .\  cu.si  KNIKNT  FORM. 

Cooper-work,  made  of  oak  and  hooped 
with  iron;  and,  according  to  the  AVeights 
and  Measures  Act,  must  be  stamped  by 
competent  authority  before  it  can  he  le- 
gally used  ;  and,  having  been  declared  the 
standard  measure  of  caj)acity  in  the 
country  for  dry  measure,  it  forms  the  basis 


of  all  contracts  de|)endent  on  measures  of 
capacity  when  otherwise  indefinitely  ex- 
I)ressed  (.'ith  Geo.  IV.,  c.  74,  sec.  15.) 
The  busliel  must  contain  just  2150.42 
cubic  inche.'i,  though  its  form  may  vary. 
The  form  represented  in  the  figure  I  con- 
sider most  convenient,  being  somewhat 
broader  at  the  ba.'-e  than  at  the  top,  and 
furnished  with  2  fixed  handles.  It  is  not 
too  broad  for  the  mouth  of  an  ordinary 
half-quarter  sack,  nor  too  deep  to  compress 
the  grain  too  much;  and  its  2  handles  are 
l)laced  pretty  high,  so  that  it  may  he  car- 
ried full  without  the  risk  of  capsizing. 
Some  bushels  are  made  inconveniently 
broad  for  a  sack,  for  the  sake  of  being 
shallow,  that  the  corn  may  not  be  com- 
pressed in  them.  I  have  seen  others  sj)re;ul 
out  so  much  in  the  mouth  as  to  render 
them  unsteady.  Some  have  no  handles  at 
all,  and  are  obliged  to  be  lifted  by  the 
arms ;  whilst  others  have  only  one  handle 
for  the  ])erson  who  overturns  the  bushel  to 
lay  hold  of,  and  that  sometimes  a  jointed 
one,  and  there  being  no  handle  on  the 
other  side  for  the  sack  to  pass  under,  the 
sack  is  apt  to  slip  over  the  mouth  of  the 
bushel  while  it  is  being  emptied  ;  and 
others  have  the  handles  too  low  to  be  of 
any  service  to  the  isack  to  pass  under  in  the 
act  of  the  bushel  being  emptied.  These 
different  structures  of  bushelsbecome  essen- 
tial conveniences  or  inconveniences  when 
much  corn  has  to  be  measured  up  in  a  short 
time ;  and  when  convenience  is  studied  in 
them,  they  contribute  much  to  ease  labour. 
I  felt  this  forcibly  one  short  day  in  winter, 
when  I  had  to  measure  up  1 25  bolls  of  oats, 
equal  to  750  bushels,  with  the  old  firlot  of 
1 5  busliel,  of  a  convenient  form,  overturn- 
ing it  500  times,  and  wheeling  away  every 
b<»ll  with  a  sack-barrow  to  diflereut  parts 
of  the  barn. 

1807.  In  connexion  with  the  bushel  is 
the  strike  for  sweeping  off  the  superfluous 
corn  above  tlie  edge  of  the  bushel.  It  is 
usually  made  of  two  forms;  the  one  a  flat 
piece  of  wood,  like  a  in  fig.  Ki!);  the 
otiier  of  the  form  of  a  roller,  like  fj.  The 
Weights  and  Measures  Act  prescribes  that 
the  strike  shall  be  of  a  round  form,  of  a 
piece  of  light  wood,  2  inches  in  diameter; 
but  he  who  put  the  notion  into  the  heads 
of  tho.'^e  who  drew  nj)  the  act,  that  this  is 
the  best  form  of  strike,  must  have  had 
little  experience  of  using  one.     If  the  ob- 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


421 


ject  is  to  separate  one  stratum  of  grains 

of  corn  from  another — and  tliis  is  the  only 

object  of  using  a  strike — the  shar'p  edge  of 

Fig.  169. 


THE  FLAT  AND  CYLINDER  CORN-STRIKES. 

the  fiat  strike  is  evidently  best  fitted  for 
the  purpose.  A  cylinder,  when  passed 
with  a  uniform  motion  over  a  bushel, 
though  not  rolling,  must  push  down  some 
of  the  grain  that  is  in  front  of  it,  under  it ; 
and,  if  it  is  rolled  across  the  bushel,  it 
must  press  down  still  more  grain,  in  the 
manner  of  a  roller  passing  over  friable  land, 
and,  of  course,  tnake  the  bushel  hold  more 
grain  than  it  would  naturally  do.  I  would 
advise  all  sellers  of  grain  to  use  the  flat 
strike,  whatever  purchasers  may  wish  them 
to  do.  On  striking  wheat,  the  strike  is 
drawn  straight  across  the  bushel,  the  grains 
being  nearly  round,  and  yielding  easily  to 
the  forward  motion  of  the  strike  ;  but  in 
the  case  of  barley  and  oats,pease  and  beans, 
the  strike  should  be  moved  across  the 
bushel  in  a  zig-zag  manner,  because,  those 
grains  being  long  or  rough,  a  straight 
motion  is  apt  to  tear  away  some  of  them 
even  to  be  below  the  level  of  the  edge  of 
tlie  bushel.  The  strike  should  be  made  of 
wood  in  the  best  seasoned  state,  and  of 
that  kind  which  is  least  likely  to  lose  its 
struightness  of  edge,  while  it  should  be 
light  to  carry  in  the  hand,  and  hard  to 
resist  blows.  Perhaps  plane-tree  may 
afford  the  nearest  approach  to  all  these 
properties. 

1808.  Wheat  and  oats  require  no  other 
dressing  than  what  may  be  given  by  the 
fanner;  but  it  is  otherwise,  at  times,  with 
barley.  When  barley  has  not  been 
thoroughly  ripened,  the  awns  are  apt  to  be 
broken  off  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  grain,  by  the  thrashing-machine  ;  and 
as  the  part  left  must  be  got  rid  of  before 
the  grain  can  be  said  to  be  dressed,  means 


are  used  for  that  purpose  by  the  hummel- 
ler,  which  may  be  driven  by  the  same 
power  as  the  thrashing-machine,  or  used 
by  the  hand. 

1809.  The  hummelling  of  barley  is  a 
process  that,  in  many  cases,  is  essential  to 
the  marketable  condition  of  that  grain,  and 
it  is  effected  in  many  different  ways.  In 
some  cases  the  thrashing-machine  itself  is 
made  the  hummeller,  by  employing  an  iron 
fluted  cover  to  the  drum  ;  in  others,  with- 
out this  addition,  the  barley  isshutup  in  the 
drum-case  for  a  few  minutes  while  thedrum 
is  revolving,  as  recommended  by  the  late 
Rev.  Dr  Farquharson,  Alford.*  Another 
method  is  with  a  conical  receiver,  within 
which  a  spindle,  carrying  a  number  of 
cross  arms,  is  made  to  revolve,  and  the 
grain  passes  through  this  machine,  lying 
nearly  in  a  horizontal  position,  before 
entering  the  fanner.  This  form  of  the 
hummeller  was  made  public  by  Messrs 
Grant,  Grantown,  Banff'shire,+  and,  with 
some  modifications, — which  are,  however, 
very  important  ones,  and  give  a  new 
character  to  the  machine, — a  hummeller 
similar  to  it  is  now  the  most  ap})roved 
form,  the  case  being  made  cylindrical,  and 
its  position  vertical.  Instead,  also,  of  the 
grain  passing  loosely  through  the  cylinder, 
an  essential  characteristic  of  the  improved 
machine  is,  that  tlie  cylinder  shall  be 
always  full  of  grain. 

1810.  The  q/linder  hummeller  consists 
of  a  cylindrical  case  of  wire-cloth,  having 
an  upright  iron  spindle  revolving  within 
it,  armed  with  a  number  of  flat  thin  blades 
of  iron,  kept  in  revolution  at  a  high 
velocity.  The  grain  is  admitted  through 
a  hopper  at  top,  keejiing  the  cylinder 
always  full,  and  is  discharged  through  a 
small  orifice  at  bottom,  the  degree  of 
hummelling  depending  upon  the  area  of 
this  orifice.  Fig.  170  is  an  elevation  of 
this  hummeller.  The  sole  frame  a  a  lests 
on  the  floor  of  the  corn-barn  (see  k  fig. 
130  ;)  b  h  are  two  strong  posts  rising  from 
the  former,  and  secured  to  the  beams  of 
the  floor  above  ;  c  is  a  bridge-tree  which 
supports  the  foot  of  the  spindle  h ;  two 
rings  of  wood  d  d,  are  supported  by  the 
uprights/'.  It  is  lined  with  wire-cloth,  of 
10  or  12  meshes  in  the  inch,  and  placed 


Prize  Essat/s  of  the  Highland  and  ^Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiii.  p.  66.      f  Ibid. 


422 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


between  the  poets  b  by  and  is  furnished 

with    a   bottom,    which  just    admits    the 

spindle  h  to  pass  through,  and  haying  a 

Fig.  170. 


J 

-J'l 

n: 


THE  ELEVATION  OP  THE  CYLINDER  HUMMELLER. 

thin  shield  on  the  spindle,  oyer  the  open- 
ing. The  spindle  supports  the  blades, 
which  are  in  2  rows,  5  and  4  in  a  row, 
riveted  into  the  spindle;  or  the  blades 
may  be  crucifurm,  with  an  eye  in  the 
centre,  through  which  the  .shaft  passes. 
The  hopj)er  k  may  be  either  formed  round 
the  spindle,  or  it  may  stand  at  one  side  ; 
and  it  may  be  furnished  witli  a  slider  to 
rei,nilate  tlie  feed,  though  this  is  virtually 
dune  by  the  contraction  or  enlargement 
of  the  orifice  below.  To  save  space, 
fig.  170  is  represented  broken  oif;  but  m 
is  a  bridge-piece  bolted  upon  the  posts 
I,  to  support  the  head  of  the  spindle, 
and  also  the  end  of  the  horizontal  shaft; 
the  spindle  h  and  shaft  carry  the  mitre- 


wheels  0  that  give  motion  to  the  spindle. 
The  spindle  refpiiros  to  have  a  velocity  of 
300  to  400  per  minute,  and  the  motion 
may  be  conveyed  in  various  ways,  suited 
to  the  general  arrangements  of  the  ma- 
chinery. In  the  present  case,  it  is  brought 
at  once  from  the  great  8i)ur-\vhcel  by  a 
pinion  of  the  same  size  as  that  of  the 
drum  ;  and  its  siiaft  is  HUp]K)rtod  on  a 
bracket  at  the  one  end,  wiiije  the  oilier 
has  a  bearing  in  the  wall  that  se]iarale3 
the  barn  from  the  engine-house. 

1811.  The  Iland-kitinmi'ller. — In  the 
smaller  class  of  farms,  hand-hummellers 
are  pretty  generally  used,  and  are  of 
various  forms,  but  all  retaining  one  ]>riu- 
ciple  of  construction  and  of  effect.  Tliey 
are  round,  square,  and  oblong  ;  but  in  all 
three  forms,  tlicy  consist  of  a  number  of 
parallel  bars  of  iron,  placed  in  a  frame  of 
one  of  the  forms  above-named.  Fig.  171 
rig.  171.  is      a      square 

hummeller  in 
persj)ective.  It 
consi-sts  of  a 
sijuare  frame  of 
iron,  1 2  inches 
each  way,  2 
inciiesin  depth, 
and  ^  inch 
thick.  Bars  of 
similar  dimen- 
sion.-- are  rivet- 
eil  into  the 
sides  of  the 
frame,  and 

crossing  each 
other,  forming 
cou\partments 
of  from  I  ^  to  2 
inches  square. 
A  branched  iron 
stem  is  riveted 

THE  HAND-HfM!MELI,EK.  (,)        \\^q      fraUlC 

below  and  at  top,  and  forms  a  socket  into 
which  a  wooden  helve  is  fixed,  having  a 
crosshead  by  which  it  is  held  in  the  hand. 
Such  huinmellers  are  fre<piontly  nuide 
with  parallel  bars  only,  in  which  case  they 
are  less  expensive  but  much  less  elfeclive. 
It  is  used  with  a  mincing  motion  on  a  thin 
layer  of  barley  on  the  floor. 

15512.  To  make  sacks  stand  so  as  each 
mav  be  taken  away  with  ease  from  a 
number,  they  should  be  set,  the  first  one 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


423 


in  a  corner,  with  one  shoulder  against  and  every  other  sack  in  the  same  row, 
one  wall,  and  the  other  shoulder  against  as  b  and  e,  will  stand  with  the  left 
the   other   wall,  as   seen   at  a,  fig.  172;     shoulder  against  the  wall,  and  the  right 

Fig.  172. 


FILLED  SACKS  AS  THEY  SHOULD 

shoulder  against  the  side  of  the  sack  set 
down  hefore  it.  In  the  succeeding  row, 
the  first  sack,  as  d,  will  have  its  right 
shoulder  against  the  wall,  and  its  left 
shoulder  against  the  side  of  the  first  sack 
a  that  was  set  up  in  tiie  corner ;  and  the 
succeeding  sacks,  e  and/,  will  have  their 
left  shoulders  in  the  hollows  between  the 
sacks,  b  and  c,  in  the  first  row,  and  their 
right  shoulders  against  the  sides  of  the 
sacks  that  were  set  down  just  hefore  each 
of  them  :  and  so  on,  row  after  row.  In 
short,  tlie  sacks  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder, 
instead  of  side  to  side.  Now,  the  utility 
of  this  arrangement  is,  that  the  sacks,  in 
the  first  place,  are  as  closely  set  together 
as  they  can  possibly  be ;  for  the  left 
shoulders  of  d  and  e,  as  may  be  seen,  fill 
uj)  the  hollows  between  the  right  shoulders 
of  a  b  and  h  c.  In  the  next  place,  as  each 
sack  is  removed  in  the  reversed  order  in 
which  tliey  were  placed,  it  presents  its 
broad  side  either  to  the  barrow  to  be 
wheeled  away,  without  the  slightest  en- 
tanglement with  any  other  sack,  or  to  be 
lifted  at  once  as  it  stands  upon  the  man's 
back,  without  the  usual  trouble  of  having 
to  be  kneed  forward  to  a  more  convenient 
spot.     Thus,  look  upon/,  the  last  placed 


BE  PLACED  ON  THE  BARN  FLOOR. 

sack,  and  the  first  to  be  removed.  It  is 
obvious  that  its  side  is  presented  in  the 
most  proper  position  for  the  barrow ;  and 
its  corners  (/  and  h  are  qnite  ready  for 
the  hands  of  the  persons  who  are  to  assist 
in  raising  it  to  a  man's  back.  The  figures 
show  also  the  difference  between  tight  and 
slovenly  sacking  up  of  corn;/  shows  a 
slackness  of  putting  the  first  bushel  into 
it,  where  there  are  creases  between  ff  and 
h,  and  the  corners  at  ff  and  h  project 
too  much  out,  because  the  corn  above 
them  is  too  slack.  On  the  other  hand, 
d  shows  a  well-filled  sack.  When  filled 
sacks  are  wheeled  aside,  theii*  mouths 
should  be  folded  in  and  closed  up,  as 
represented  in  the  outer  row  d  ef.  On 
tying  sacks,  which  they  must  be  when 
intended  to  be  sent  away  by  cart,  the 
tie  should  be  made  as  near  the  corn  as 
possible,  to  keep  the  whole  sack  firm,  as 
seen  iu  a,  b,  and  c. 

1813.  There  are  three  modes  of  lifting 
a  sack  to  a  man's  back.  One  is,  for  the 
person  who  is  to  carry  the  load  to  bow 
his  head  down  in  front  of  tlie  sack,  placing 
his  back  to  its  broad  side,  and  bending  his 
left  arm  behind  his  own  back,  across  hia 


424 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


loins,  and  his  right  hand  upon  his  right 
knee,  to  await  in  this  position  the  assistance 
that  is  to  be  given  him.  Two  people 
assist  in  raising  the  sack,  by  standing  face 
to  face,  one  on  eacii  side  of  it,  bowing 
down  so  as  to  clasp  hands  across  the  sack 
near  its  bottom,  as  from  g  to  /<,  below  the 
carrier's  head,  and  thrusting  the  fingers 
of  tiie  other  hands  into  the  corners^  and  /«, 
which  yield  and  go  inwards,  and  thereby 
afford  a  firm  hold.  Each  lifter  then 
presses  his  shoulder  against  the  edge  of 
the  sack,  and  with  a  combined  exertion 
upwards,  which  the  carrier  seconds  by 
raising  his  body  up,  the  bottom  of  the 
sack  is  raised  uppermost,  and  the  tied 
mouth  downmost,  resting  against  the 
back  of  the  carrier.  The  lifters  now  leav- 
ing hold,  the  carrier  keeps  the  sack  steady 
on  his  back,  with  his  left  arm  across  its 
mouth.  Another  plan  is,  for  the  carrier 
to  lay  hold  of  the  top  of  the  shoulder  of 
the  sack  with  both  his  hands,  his  arms 
crossing  each  other.  His  two  assistants 
do  as  directed  before;  and  while  they  lift 
the  sack  between  them,  the  carrier  quickly 
turns  his  back  round  to  the  sack  and  re- 
ceives it  there,  retaining  a  firm  hold  of 
the  parts  he  had  at  first.  A  third  i)lan  is 
for  the  assistants  to  raise  the  sack  upon 
another  one,  and  then  the  carrier  brings 
his  back  down  against  the  side  of  the 
sack,  laying  hold  of  its  shoulders  over  his 
own  shoulders,  and  rising  up  straight  witii 
it  on  his  back.  The  last  plan  recpiires 
most  strength  from  the  carrier,  he  having 
to  rise  up  with  the  load ;  the  second  most 
from  the  lifters,  they  having  to  lift  the 
load  up;  and  in  the  first  both  parties  are 
nearly  equally  concerned. 

1814.  The  more  upright  a  man  walks 
with  a  loaded  sack  on  his  back,  with  a 
short  firm  step,  the  less  will  the  load  feel 
oppressive  to  him. 

1815.  A  filled  sack  is  kneed  forward  by 
placing  both  knees  against  the  side  of  the 
sack,  an<l,  while  embracing  it  with  both 
arms,  and  grasi>ing  hold  of  it  with  both 
hands,  lifting  it  from  the  ground,  and  push- 
ing it  forward  a  space  with  the  knees,  and 
thus  from  space  to  space,  or  around  a  pivot. 

1816.  In  regard  to  loading  a  cart  with 
filled  sacks,  the  general  principle  is  to 
place  all  the  mouths  of  the  sacks   within 


the  body  of  the  cart,  so  that  should  any  of 
the  tyings  give  way,  the  corn  will  not  be 
spilled  upon  the  ground.  One  mode  of 
loading  a  cart,  a  double  horse  load,  is  re- 
presented in  Plate  III.,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  a  loaded  cart  on  its  way  to  a  market 
town.  Two  sacks  are  laid  Hat  on  the  bottom 
of  the  cart,  with  the  mouths  next  the  horse. 
Two  are  placed  on  the  front,  with  their 
bottoms  outwards.  Two  are  placed  on  the 
tail-board  with  their  bottoms  outwards, 
and  the  mouths  of  all  the  four  are  within 
the  cart.  These  last  four  sacks  are  placed 
on  their  edges,  with  t^e  corners  just  over 
the  edge  of  the  front  and  back  of  the  cart. 
Other  two  sacks  are  placed  together  on 
edge  above  these  four,  and  one  behind,  flat, 
with  all  their  mouths  pointing  inwards. 
Nine  or  ten  old  bolls,  that  is,  54  or  60 
bushels,  used  to  be  carried  by  two  horses, 
according  to  the  distance  to  be  travelled; 
but  now  that  half-quarter  sacks  are  in  use, 
and  the  single-horse  cart  is  most  generally 
employed,  the  loads  have  assumed  a  dif- 
ferent form,  according  to  the  length  of  the 
journey,  and  as  the  horses  are  to  be  loaded 
or  return  empty  from  the  market  town. 
About  3()  bushels  of  wheat,  40  of  barley, 
and  5Q  of  oats,  each  (piantity  making  about 
1  t(m  weight,  is  considered  a  good  load  for 
a  double  cart  in  the  country  ;  and  a  single 
one  will  take  a  projjortionate  quantity  of 
these  numbers,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  the  farm  is  situated  in 
reference  to  the  place  where  the  grain  is 
to  be  delivered  ;  but  15cwts.  make  agood 
load  for  a  single  horse.  The  carters  in 
towns  take  much  heavier  loads  of  corn 
than  those  in  the  country.  I  may  men- 
tion that  the  sacks,  as  represented  in  the 
cart  in  Plate  III.,  seem  too  large  and  full 
for  corn  ;  they  rather  have  the  ajipearance 
of  being  filled  with  rye-grass  seed. 

1817.  The  sacks  for  corn  require  to  be 
attended  to,  to  keep  them  in  serviceable 
condition.  They  arc  usually  made  of  a 
sort  of  canvass,  calle<l  sacking,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  tow  of  which  the 
sacking  is  made,  and  tiic  mode  in  which  it 
is  manufactured,  whether  tweeled  ori)lain, 
the  j)riee  of  sacks  varies  from  Is.  3d.  to 
2s.  Od.  each.  Every  sackful  of  corn,  be- 
fore it  is  put  into  the  cart,  is  tied  at  the 
mouth  with  a  piece  of  cord,  a  soft  cord 
answering  the  purpose  best.  The  ties  are 
cither  attaclieil  to  the  seam  of  the  sack  it- 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


425 


self,  or  are  carried  in  the  ploughman's 
pocket.  Every  sack  should  be  marked 
with  the  initials  of  its  owner's  name,  or 
with  the  name  of  the  farm.  Tlie  letters 
may  either  be  painted  on  with  a  brush,  or 
formed  by  painting  upon  open  letters  cut 
through  a  plate  of  zinc.  In  either  case,  red 
lead  is  used.  The  initials  are  put  on,  and 
appear  as  those  on  sack/,  fig.  172.  When 
sacks  become  wetted  with  rain,  they  should 
be  shaken  and  hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry ; 
and  it"  they  get  besmeared  with  mud,  they 
should  be  washed  and  dried.  If  the  air  can- 
not dry  thein  in  time  to  prevent  mouldiness, 
tbey  should  be  dried  befoi-e  a  fire.  Where 
steam  is  used  fur  thrashing,  sacks  may  be 
dried  in  tbe  boiler-house.  An  airy  place 
to  keep  sacks  is  across  the  granary,  over 
ropes,  suspended  between  the  legs  of  the 
couples.  Holes  will  break  through  sacks, 
by  wear,  by  tear,  or  by  mice,  which  will 
almost  invariably  find  their  way  into  sacks 
of  corn  that  have  stood  a  considerable 
time  on  the  barn  floor.  The  best  thread 
for  darning  even  canvass  sacks,  is  strong 
worsted;  and  if  well  darned,  the  mended 
parts  become  the  strongest  parts  of  the 
sack.  When  a  considerable  accident  oc- 
curs to  a  sack,  probably  the  best  way  of 
using  the  torn  sack  is,  to  keep  it  for  cutting 
up  to  mend  others.  The  person  who  has 
the  charge  of  thrashing  and  cleaning  the 
corn,  has  the  charge  of  the  sacks,  and 
must  be  accountable  for  their  number. 

1818.  Sacks,  when  filled,  are  most  con- 
veniently wheeled  to  any  part  of  the  barn, 
Fig.  J  73.  in    a   barrow 

made  for  the 
purpose.  A 
good  form  of  a 
sack  -barrow 
may  be  seen 
in  fig.  173.  To 
be  conveni- 
ent, it  should 
stand  upright 
of  itself,  as 
seen  in  the  fi- 
gure. There 
are  two  modes 
of  using  it  ; 
one  when  the 
sacks  stand 
upright  when 
THE  sACK-BAKRow.  filled,  aud  the 

other  when  the  sacks  stand  as  in  fig.  172. 


On  standing  behind  the  wheels,  in  the  first 
case,  and  on  taking  a  hold  of  the  handle  a 
with  the  right  hand,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
sack  with  the  left,  aivd,  pushing  it  oflf,  in- 
sert the  iron  scoop  b  of  the  barrow  between 
the  sack  and  the  floor ;  and  on  pulling  the 
sack  towards  you,  push  the  wheels  forward 
by  the  right  foot  on  the  axle,  and  the 
sack  is  placed  on  the  scoop,  ready  for 
removal.  In  the  other  case,  push  the 
scoop  of  the  barrow  below  the  sack  f, 
which  is  lying  a  little  from  you ;  and  on 
pulling  the  sack  towards  you,  it  becomes 
ready  for  removal.  The  iron  shields  c 
over  the  wheels  save  their  rubbing  against 
the  sacks.  The  height  of  the  barrow 
should  be  3i  feet,  its  breadth,  over  the 
wheels,  H  foot,  and  the  frame  made  of 
ash,  and  painted.  The  load  is  most  easily 
wheeled  with  the  barrow  held  in  a  nearly 
upright  position. 

1819.  A  frame  of  iron,  to  Iiold  the  sack 
in  filling,  has  lately  been  introduced  into 
England  ;  but  as  I  consider  it  better 
adapted  for  tlie  potato-field  than  the  corn- 
barn,  I  shall  defer  describhig  it  at  present. 
The  objection  to  using  it  in  a  corn-barn 
is,  that  the  spikes  of  the  legs  injure  a 
floor. 

1820.  The  Weiphing-machine  is  an 
important  article  of  the  barn  furniture, 
and  various  forms  of  it  are  resorted  to. 
The  common  beam  and  scales  is  the  most 
correct  of  all  the  instruments  of  the  class; 
but  it  is  defective,  as  being  less  convenient 
for  the  purposes  of  the  barn  than  several 
others  that  are  partially  employed.  Steel- 
yards of  various  forms  are  also  used ;  but 
in  all  steelyards  there  are  grounds  for 
doubting  their  accuracy,  in  consequence  of 
the  operator  not  seeing  the  true  counter- 
poise of  the  substance  weighed,  but  only 
its  representative,  bearing  an  actual  weight 
greatly  smaller  than  the  substance,  but  in 
the  inverse  proportion  to  it  that  the  longer 
arm  of  tlie  steelyard  on  which  it  is  ap- 
f)ended  bears  to  the  shorter  arm.  Many 
of  these  steelyards,  from  their  compact- 
ness, are,  however,  greatly  to  be  com- 
mended; and,  when  well  constructed, 
and  properly  adjusted,  will  be  found  to 
answer  the  purpose  of  weighing  such  bulky 
articles  as  grain  with  sutticient  accuracy. 
Their  choajiness  also,  wdien  compared  with 
some  other  instruments  on  the  beam  and 


426 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


1821. 


balance  jirinciple,  Tcliich  combines  every 
C(»iivenieiice  fur  tlic  setting  on  and  removal 
of  the  hags  of  grain,    willi    accuracy  an«l 
A    weighing-machiiMy    on    the     neatness  of  Construction,  is  exhibited  in 


scale  principle,  holds  out  a  great  induce 
ment  for  their  adoption. 


Fig.  174. 


THE  BALANCE  WEIGH  ING-MACUI,NE. 


fig.   174.      This   machine    is   constructed  sujiports  a   cross-liead   suspended  on  the 

clii^^fly  of  cast-iron,  tlie  framework  a  is  end  centres  of  the  beam,  aufl  to  whicli  \tt 

connected  by  cross-stretcher  bolts  ^,  and  attached  the  ]>illar //,  to  the  lower  end  of 

is  supported  in    iront  011  the   wheels  c  c,  which  is  attached  the  shelf-plale  or  scale 

while  the  back  pans  are  supported  on  the  //,  upon  which  the  principal  weigiits  ?/"  aie 

feet  f/.     Tiie  folding  handles  <>,  one  on  each  ])laced.     The   cross-head  carries  also  the 

side,  turn  on  a  joint  pin  at  e,  and  become  top  shelf  or  scale  X",  ujion  which  the  smaller 

levers  by  which  the  machine  can  be  moved  weights  are  ))laccd.  and  a  dead  j)hite  /  is 

about    like    a    wheelbarrow.      The  beam,  fixed   on    the    framework    on    which    the 

parts  of  which  are  seen  at  //,  is  double,  small   weights  stand  ready  for  use.     The 

and  also  formed   of  cast-iron,   with  steel  opposite  ends  of  the  beam  carry   a   frame 

centres,   the   two   bars  forming  the  beam-  m,  only  partially  seen,  to  the  lower  end  of 

stand,  and  arc  connected  by  a  diagonal  which  the  shelf  «  is  jointed,  and  upon  this 

truss.     The  one  end  of  the  double  beam  shelf  the  bag  0,  about  to  bo   weighed,  is 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


427 


shown  in  the  fiffure.  To  the  upper  end  of 
the  frame  m  there  is  also  attached,  by  a 
strong  bracket  not  seen  in  the  figure,  the 
shelf  or  scale/?,  and  upon  this  scale  the 
bag  maybe  placed  and  weighed  with  equal 
accuracy,  while  it  is  supported  by  the  light 
frame  qq.  The  object  of  the  top  and  bot- 
tom weighing  shelves  is  to  suit  the  place- 
ment, or  the  removal  of  the  bag,  either 
from  or  to  a  man's  back  by  the  top  shelf, 
or  from  or  to  the  corn-barrow  by  the 
lower  shelf.  When  the  machine  is  not  in 
use, the  lowershelf  « is  foldedup  against  the 
back  of  the  frame,  and  the  light  frame  or 
hixckqq  folds  down  over  the  folded- up  lower 
shelf  «,  reducing  the  machine  to  a  very  com- 
pact state.  In  weigliing  with  this  machine, 
from  its  being  on  the  princij)le  of  the  bal- 
ance, the  amount  of  weights  required  is 
e(|ual  to  the  absolute  weight  of  the  body 
that  is  being  weighed,  and  the  true  weight 
is  determined  when  the  scales  or  shelves 
k  and  y?  coincide  in  one  level  line  witli  the 
dead-plate  /.  In  constructing  this  machine, 
the  bottom  of  the  pillar  g^  and  of  the  frame 
wi,  are  provided  with  a  horizontal  connect- 
ing-rod, which  preserves  their  parallelism, 
and,  consequently,  the  correct  indications 
of  the  beam.  Weighing-machines  are  con- 
structed, on  the  same  principle,  with 
wcxjden  frame-work,  which  renders  them 
lighter  and  cheaper  ;  but  from  the  change- 
able nature  of  the  material,  as  a  fleeted  by 
moisture  and  dryness,  they  are  liable  to  de- 
rangement. The  price  of  the  machine,  as 
exhibited  inthe  figure,is<£8, 10s. ;  and  when 
constructed  in  wood  the  price  is  £5  ot £.Q. 

1X22.  Biddling.— The  riddling  of  corn 
is  a  complicated  and  difficult  operation. 
I  have  never  found  a  person  who  could 
describe  it  in  words ;  and  as  it  is  the  only 
species  of  farm  labour  I  never  could  per- 
form to  my  own  satisfaction,  I  feel  that  I 
cannot  describe  it  so  as  to  be  of  service 
to  those  who  would  desire  to  learn  it.  I 
may  say,  generally,  that  riddling  consists 
of  iiolding  the  bottom  of  the  riddle  a  little 
inclined  from  you,  and  of  giving  the  corn 
in  it  a  circular  motion,  always  from  right 
to  left,  accompanied  with  an  upward  jerk 
of  .the  left  hand,  which  seems  to  loosen 
and  sliake  the  mass  of  corn,  and  has  the 
eft'ect  of  bringing  up  all  the  lighter  ini- 
j)urities  in  it  to  the  surface,  while  the 
rotatory  motion  seems  to  draw  these  to  the 
centre  of  the  riddle  into  a.  he^p,  and  the 


same  jerk  causes,  at  the  same  tune,  the 
heavy  corn  to  descend  equally  througli  the 
meshes  ,of  the  riddle.  Very  few  people, 
who  profess  to  riddle,  can  do  it  well.  I 
have  never  seen  a  man  do  it  well,  though 
I  have  several  women.  A  good  criterion 
of  the  ability  to  riddle  is  this : — Place  a 
man's  hat  with  a  flat  crown  in  the  centre 
of  the  riddle,  and  if  you  can  make  the  hat 
start  up  on  any  point  of  the  edge  of  its 
crown,  and  by  the  motion  of  the  riddle 
cause  it  to  revolve  on  that  point,  in  the 
centre  of  the  riddle,  as  long  as  you  please, 
and  with  what  velocity  you  may,  you  will 
certainly  be  able  to  riddle  corn  well.  The 
usual  way  of  riddling  is  to  swing  the  riddle 
from  side  to  side  in  an  elliptical  course,  and 
make  the  corn  fall  through  the  meshes 
quickly,  all  which  may  easily  be  done  by 
any  novice;  but  such  a  motion  sends  much  of 
the  impurities  along  with  the  corn,  instead 
of  collecting  them  in  the  centre.  Corn 
passes  more  quickly  through  a  wire  than 
a  wooden  riddle,  and  it  requires  a  skilful 
hand,  with  a  quick  circular  motion,  to 
prevent  it  passing  too  quickly.  The 
withes  of  the  wooden  riddle  retarding  the 
passage  of  the  corn  through  the  meshes, 
an  indiflferent  riddler  will  make  better 
work  with  a  wooden  than  a  wire  riddle. 
Before  all  the  corn  has  been  jiassed  through 
the  riddle,  the  impurities,  collected  in  the 
centre,  are  brouglit  in  a  heap  to  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  riddle,  the  riddle  being 
inclined  to  that  side  for  the  purpose,  while 
the  rotatory  motion  is  continued  to  the  last. 
The  impui'ities  are  then  thrown  into  any 
vessel  placed  for  their  reception,  such  as  a 
wecht,  and  the  bushel  is  so  used  when 
the  corn  is  not  measuring  up. 

1 823.  Si/tinp. — Sifting  is  jjerformed  with 
the  sieve,  and  its  object  is  to  separate 
small  heavy  objects  from  corn,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  whatever  impurities  lighj^er 
than  corn  Jire  also  brought  to  the  sur- 
face. It  is  performed  precisely  in  the 
same  manner  as  riddling,  when  it  is  well 
done,  but  the  circular  motion  is  made  to 
revolve  much  quicker.  Corn  is  only  sub- 
jected to  sifting,  after  it  has  been  win- 
nowe<l  and  riddled  as  clean  as  these 
o])erations  can  make  it;  and  yet,  with  a 
thorough  sifting,  it  is  surprising  what  im- 
purities may  he  discovered  amongst  it, 
both  in  the  scum  of  light  matter  brought 
to  the  surface,  as  well  as  the  heavy  stuff, 


498 


PRACTICE— WINTKIl. 


which  descends  through  the  small  meshes, 
leaving  the  good  grains  heiiinil  on  the 
sieve.  All  8eed-corii  sliould  he  .sifted  ;  and 
I  liclieve  tiiere  is  no  way  of  duintr  it  so 
effectually  as  with  the  hand.  Sifting- 
niachincs  have  heen  contrived  for  the 
purpose,  with  more  or  less  success,  and 
are  now  generally  adopted  in  meal- 
mills,  and,  no  douht,  save  much  manual 
labour,  though  I  am  douhtfnl  of  theit  sift- 
ing so  well  as  the  hand ;  for  I  consider 
meal-sifting  by  the  hand  as  the  jterfection 
of  riddling,  and  in  doing  it,  the  meal  is  not 
only  moved  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
as  corn  when  well  riddled,  but  the  sieve 
itself  is  made  to  revolve  gently  and  re- 
gularly, with  a  slight  jerk,  from  the  right 
hand  to  the  left,  making  the  whole  process 
such  a  complication  of  motion  as  would 
be  difficult  to  imitate  with  machinery. 
Reeing-machines  have  been  invented  for 
cleansing  corn,  but  with  what  success, 
compared  to  riddling  by  the  hand,  I  can- 
not say.  They  are  successful,  however, 
in  cleansing  rye-grass  seed. 

1824.  Carts. — The  common  cart  being 
80  intimately  connected  with  the  produce 
of  barn-work,  this  seems  a  very  befitting 
time  to  say  a  few  words  on  its  construc- 
tion and  use.  Agricultural  carriages  are 
either  four-wheeled  waggons  or  two-wheel- 
ed carts;  and  as  the  Scotch  practice,  which 
I  profess  chiefly  to  follow,  admits,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  the  two-wheeled  cart 
only,  the  following  observations  are  chiefly 
confined  to  that  implement. 

1825.  Though  the  cart,  in  general,  is  a 
vehicle  very  much  diversified  in  structure 
to  suit  the  numerous  purposes  to  which,  in 
a  commercial  country,  it  is  applied,  yet 
for  the  purposes  of  the  farm  its  varieties 
lie  within  narrow  limits,  and  may  be 
classed  under  two  principal  kinds,  the  tilt 
or  coup  close-bodied  cart,  and  the  close- 
bodied  dormant  cart ;  but  these,  again, 
vary  as  to  size,  forming  single  and  dvuhle 
horse  carts,  which  are  merely  varieties  of 
the  first.  A  third  aiui  less  important 
kind,  is  the  corn  or  hay  cart,  used  chiefly 
in  the  seasons  of  corn  and  hay  harvest ; 
and  there  are  others  not  re(juired  on  every 
farm,  but  are  important  to  some,  such  as 
the  cage  cart,  for  carrying  lambs  and  other 
live-stock  to  market,  and  the  water  and 
licjuid-manure  cart. 


182().  The  till  oirt  is  the  niost  imj)or- 
tant  vehicle  of  transport  on  the  farm,  and 
is  employed  for  nine-tent  lis  of  all  the  pur- 
poses of  carriage  required  in  the  multi- 
farious o]>erations  througliout  the  year. 
It  is  employed  to  convey  manure  of  all 
kinds;  to  convey  stone  and  other  materials 
for  draining  and  other  operaticms  ;  leading 
home  turnips  and  potatoes;  and  for  carry- 
ing produce  of  all  kinds  to  market.  For 
some  of  these  operations  the  tilt  cart  is 
pre-eminently  adapted,  such  as  carrying 
and  distributing  of  manures,  or  other 
matters  that  can  be  safely  discharged  by 
tilting.  The  dormant  cart,  on  the  other 
hand,  issuflicieutly  commodi<)Us  when  sub- 
stances have  to  be  carried  that  require  to 
be  di.schargcd  from  the  cart  by  lifting, 
such  as  grain  in  bags,  and  many  other 
articles  requiring  to  be  conveyed  to  and 
from  the  farm. 

1827.  Fig.  175  is  a  view  in  perspective 
of  the  common  one-horse  tilt  or  couj)  cart, 
of  a  simple  and  much  approved  construc- 
tion, and  consists  of  the  following  parts. 
The  wheels  a  a,  which  are  of  the  usual 
height,  4  feet  6'  inches,  are  of  the  dished 
construction,  with  cylindrical  tread  or  sole, 
and  are  inclined  from  the  vertical  to  bring 
them  to  the  standard  gauge  below.  The 
axle,  which  is  of  the  bent  order,  with  2^ 
inch  arms,  is  only  seen  as  it  protrudes 
through  the  nave.  The  body  of  the  cart, 
bb,  with  its  bolsters,  one  of  which  is  seen 
at  c,  by  which  it  rests  ujmn  the  axle,  and 
to  which  the  shafts  are  jointed  by  means 
of  a  joint-rod  that  passes  through  the 
holsters  and  the  ends  of  the  shafts.  The 
shafts  d  are  secured  to  the  body  by  means 
of  the  lock  seen  in  the  figure  in  front; 
and  they  are  here  represented  resting  upon 
a  tresste  to  keep  the  cart  upon  a  level ; 
and,  lastly,  the  top-sides  e  e,  which  are 
fitted  to  ship  and  unship  as  occasion  may 
require. 

1828.  The  double-horse  agricultural 
cart  diflers  only  from  the  one-hor-^e  tilt, 
fig.  175,  and  its  detail-s  in  being  of  larger 
dimensions,  but  especially  in  depth  ;  the 
length  is  also  increased  a  few  inches,  while 
the  width  remains  nearly  the  same,  and 
the  limbers  are  stronger;  but  all  the  di- 
mensions are  variable,  according  to  the 
tastes  and  olijects  ot  the  owners.  This 
cart  is  represented  at  work  in  Plate  III. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


429 


1829.  In  all  carts  of  the  flcscriptions 
here  noticed,  the  cladding  or  Ijcarding  of 
the  floor  and  sides  is  an  important  point  : 


very  line  and  .straiglit  grained  deal  should 
bo  avoided,  liecause  of  its  liability  to  split. 
Of  IIicnW  oods  best  adapted  for  the  purpose, 


FiK.  1 


THE  SINGLE-HORSE  TILT  CART. 


I  may  name  the  common  saugh  or  willow,  yields,  by  calculation  and  experiment,  a 

the  larch,  the  common  Scots  fir,  and  others  result  which  loads  the  horse  in  the  shafts 

of  the  pine  tribe;  and  the  more  they  abound  with  a  fair  degree  of  pressure,   and   such 

in  sound  knots,   so   much  the  better  are  as  he  is  (piite  capable  of  supporting  through 


a  moderate  journey.  The  amount  of  this 
load  on  the  back  of  tlie  horse  has  fre- 
(|uent]y  been  very  much  overrated;  and 
kw  practical  people  have  a  clear  conception 
of  its  amount.       When   the    cart  is  pro- 


they  adapted  to  the  purpose,  not  only  pre- 
venting the  splitting  of  the  boards,  but 
adding  to  the  durability  of  the  material. 

1830.  The   nails    used    for    fixing   tiie 
boarding  should  always  be  the  common  perly  loaded,  there  will  be  a  preponderance 
cart  wai7,  which  is  distinguished  from  other  of  one-seventh  of  the  load  before  the  axle 
common   nails  by  its  diminished   length,  on  whicli  the  cart  body  rests. 
increased    thickness,    and    being    cliisel- 

pointed,  qualities  tliat  adapt  it  for  being  1832.  The  method  of  yoking  the  horses 

driven  into  hard  wood,  while  its  thickness  into  tlie  cart  may  be  seen  in  Plate  III., 

gives  it  the  requisite  strength  to  resist  the  where  the  horse  in  the  shafts  is  yoked  as 

rough  usage  that  such  machines  are  always  it  would,    be  in  a  single-horse  cart,   and 

liable  to.  where  both  the  horses  are  yoked,  as  in  the 

double-horse  cart,  with  all  the  necessary 

1831.  It  is  always  of  importance  to  harness.  In  addition  to  the  collar  and 
husband  well  the  energies  of  the  horse  ;  bridle  required  for  yoking  the  horse  to 
and  in  no  case  is  it  more  necessary  than  the  ])l(Uigli,  as  already  described  in  (076,) 
in  the  cart  horse.  To  facilitate  tlie  ar-  and  (GSO,)  the  horses  require  the  following 
rangement  of  the  load  in  the  two-wheeled  harness  in  the  cart : — 

cart  here  described,  the  practice  has  been  The  siiaft-horse. 

to  place  tiie  cart  upon  the  axle,  in  a  ])osi-  ''Saddle  an<l  ghtli.  ^-l  Ibs.weiglit,  worth  £12  0 


tion  that  places  four-sevenths  of  the  body  "^^^"^ ' 
before  the  axle,  and  three-sevenths  of  it 
behind.  Whether  this  has  been  deiUioed  Collar, 
from  calculation  or  experiment,  cannot  Ilaims, 
now  be  determined;  but  (me  thing  is  cer-  l*'''"le, 
tain,  that  the  above  proportion  seems  to 
suit  all    purposes,   and  what  is  more,   it 


10  _ 

l.T    „ 

7  ~ 

5^  lbs. 


1  0  0 

2  2  0 

1  0  0 

0  5  6 

0  10  0 

£3  17  6 


430 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


234 

15 

7        ~ 
44       . 

1  7  •-' 
_       10  0 

0  ."5  6 
_       0   10  0 

50  lbs. 

£3     '2  8 

Tlie  Tracc-luiree. 
Two  l>ark-band8  and  girih,  8  lbs.  weight, 

worth  £0   Ifi  0 

Cart  chains,      .         .         14  @  7ii.per  Ib.O     H  2 
Stretcher,  .         .  H     _        „      0     ;i  0 


Collar, 
H:iiins, 
Bridle, 


1833.  In  Forfarsliire  the  trace-Iiorse  is 
liainessed  ilifforentlyrrciiitliatt^liown  in  the 
plate.  A  broad  .strap  is  hooked  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  collar,  and 
terminates  at  the  other  end  in  a  crupper, 
through  which  the  tail  is  made  to  pass, 
and  a  haunch  strap  goes  down  each  side 
from  the  top  of  the  (piarter  to  support  the 
trace-chains  and  stretcher.  This  plan  sup- 
ports the  stretcher  well,  and  completely 
prevents  it  striking  the  Imcks  of  the  horse 
when  turning  and  halting,biit  itconfinesthe 
action  of  the  horse  very  much,  and,  when 
the  bearing-rein  of  the  bridle  is  passed 
over  the  top  of  the  haims,  the  horse's 
head  is  jiulled  up  to  an  inconvenient  de- 
gree. The  yoking  seen  in  the  i)late  is 
better  therefore  than  this  mode. 

1834.  A  set  of  cart  and  jdongh  harness 
■was  exhibited  bv  ^Ir  David  Scott,  sadtller, 
Glasgow,  at  the  Highland  and  Agricul- 
tural Society's  Show  at  Edinburgh,  in 
184S,  the  coin])onent  parts  of  which  were 
fastened  together  by  means  of  spring- 
hooks,  instead  of  the  common  buckle,  which 
seems  to  nie  to  deserve  the  attention  of 
farmers.  The  parts  are  easily  put  to- 
gether and  separated.  Connected  with 
the  same  contrivance  of  spring  hooks  was 
a  collar,  which  being  kept  together  with  a 
sj)ring-hook,  nuiy  be  easily  disengaged  and 
expanded,  and  removed  from  the  neck  of 
the  horse  in  case  of  the  horse  falling,  and 
any  other  part  of  the  harness  can  be  as 
easily  iliseniragod  in  case  of  accident.  The 
price  of  this  form  of  harness  complete  is 
£(),  8s. 

l8o.'».  I  may  also  mention  that,  at  the 
same  Show,  Messrs  WaUlie  and  Hunter, 
saddlers,  Kelso,  exhibited  a  cait-saddle, 
the  l)oards  and  ])aucls  of  wiiich,  being 
movable,  adjust  themselves  to  any  form 
of  the  horse's  back,  like  a  pad.  The  price 
of  this  saddle  is  £l,  Is. 


1836.  Hamcps  leather  is  best  for  farm 
purposes  in  the  long  run,  though  highest 
priced  at  fii-st. 

1837.  Hemp  and  Manilla  reins  are  the 
best,  and  cost  f)}^  per  lb.  They  should 
always  be  used  doultle  with  the  cart, 
whether  the  horse  be  yoked  double  or 
single.  The  double  reins  are  wouiui  up 
with  a  tie  and  loop,  to  hang  on  any  hook  or 
slij)  below  any  jiart  of  the  harness,  aa 
shown  below  the  haunch-strap  of  the 
breeching  in  Plate  III.  The  shaft-hurse 
requires  bridle,  collar,  liaims,  saddle,  and 
breeching,  to  be  fully  equipped.  The 
bridle,  collar,  and  haims,  constitute  the 
harness  common  to  both  j)lough  and  cart. 
The  breeching  is  buckled  to  the  back  part 
of  the  wooden  tree  of  the  saddle,  at  such 
length  of  strap  as  suits  the  length  of  the 
horse's  quarter.  The  saddle — as  saddle 
and  breeching  together  are  commonly 
called — is  placed  on  the  horse's  back  im- 
mediately behind  the  shoulder,  and 
strapped  firmly  on,  in  case  of  slipping  off 
in  the  yoke,  with  the  belly-band,  which 
can  scarcely  be  seen  in  the  plate ;  the 
breeching  being  put  over  the  horse's  hind- 
quarter.  Time  was  when  a  crupper  was 
a  general  appendage  to  the  breeching — 
the  efl'ect  of  which  was  to  place  an  undue 
pressure  upon  the  root  of  the  horse's  tail, 
when  the  saddle  was  pressetl  forwanl  by 
the  back-chain,  on  the  cart  descending  a 
declination.  Now  that  the  comfort  of 
animals  is  better  attended  to,  b}'  the  re- 
moval of  annoyances  to  the  work-horse, 
tlic  cru))j)er  has  been  generally  removed. 
The  back-chain  is  fastened  to  the  back- 
chain  hooks  of  the  shafts  of  the  cart,  and 
gets  leave  to  remain  there  constantly.  In 
yoking,  the  shafts  are  held  up  with  their 
})oints  elevated;  the  horse  is  told  to  turn 
and  back  under  them,  which  he  does  very 
obediently,  and  even  willingly  ;  they  are 
then  brought  down  on  each  side  of  the 
horse ;  the  back-chain  is  then  adjusten 
along  the  groove  of  the  saddle,  to  such 
length  as  that  the  «lraught-chains.  m  hen 
extended,  shall  be  in  a  straight  line  to  the 
axle  ;  the  shoulder  slings,  or  draught- 
chains,  are  linked  to  the  draught-1 k  of 

the  cart,  at  such  length  as  to  be  an  ex- 
tension of  the  above  line  ;  the  breeching- 
chains  are  linked  to  the  breeching-hooks, 
of  such  length  as  to  allow  the  breeching  to 
bang  easily  upon  the  hams  of  the  horse — 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


431 


not  to  cliafe  the  hair — in  his  motion  for- 
ward upon  level  ground,  but  as  tight  as 
before  the  back-chain  hooks  slip  as  far 
back  as  they  can  upon  the  runner-staples 
of  the  shafts,  the  hams  of  the  horse  shall 
press  against  the  band  of  the  breeching 
sufficiently  to  keep  the  cart  back,  before 
the  horse's  rump  shall  touch  the  front  of  the 
bodyof  tliecart.  The  cart  belly-band  is  then 
buckled  round  the  near  shaft  under  the 
runner-staple,  just  as  tight  as  not  to  press 
against  the  horse's  chest  on  level  ground, 
and  only  when  he  goes  up-hill.  All  these 
adjustments  of  parts  are  made  in  a  short 
time,  even  with  a  new  horse,  cart,  or  har- 
ness, and  they  require  no  alteration  after- 
wards. 

1838.  The  harness  of  the  trace-horse  is 
simple  beyond  the  collar,  haims,  and 
bridle,  consisting  only  of  2  back-bands, 
belly-band,  and  trace-chains.  The  back- 
band  is  placed  where  the  saddle  should  be, 
and  is  fastened  to  the  trace-chains  on  either 
side  witli  a  triangular  buckle  having  a  long 
hooked  tongue.  The  trace-chaius  are  linked 
to  the  draught-hook  k,  fig.  11,  of  the  haims 
at  one  end,  and  fastened  by  a  hook  at  the 
other  end  to  a  staple  in  the  under  side  of 
the  shafts ;  the  point  of  which  hook  is 
always  placed  in  the  inside,  to  put  it  out 
of  the  way  of  taking  hold  of  any  thing 
passing  near  the  shafts  of  the  cart.  The 
trace-chains  are  usually  divided  in  two 
pieces,  one  called  the  short-endfi,  which 
pass  from  the  shafts  to  the  stretcher,  and 
the  other  part  stretch  from  tlie  stretcher 
to  the  haims.  The  short  ends  are  usually 
left  attached  to  the  cart.  A  hook  on  each 
side  of  the  stretcher  attaches  the  short- 
ends  to  the  other  part  of  the  trace-chains. 
The  use  of  the  stretcher  is  solely  to 
expand  the  trace-chains  beyond  the  hind- 
quarters of  the  trace-horse.  The  trace- 
chains  being  distended  from  the  haims  to 
the  shafts,  the  back-band  is  hooked  on  to 
them,  so  as  always  to  lie  firmly  on  the 
horse's  back  ;  and  the  belly-band  is  also 
hooked  in  like  manner  to  the  same  [lart  of 
the  chains,  to  keep  both  ends  of  the  back- 
band  firm.  The  rump-band  is  hooked  on 
to  the  trace-chains,  so  as  to  lie  easy  on  the 
rump  when  these  are  distended ;  and  the 
position  of  this  band  may  vary  farther 
or  nearer  on  the  loins  or  rump,  as  it  may 
best  lie,  its  use  being  solely  to  keep  the 
chain  and  stretcher    from    falliuff  on  the 


horse's  hocks  when  he  turns.  The  leins  are 
then  fastened  on  each  side  of  both  horses 
to  the  ring  of  the  bridle,  having  been  pre- 
viously passed  through  rings  on  the  haims 
and  the  back-band.  The  horses  are  now 
ready  to  start,  in  as  far  as  the  harness  is 
concerned. 

1839.  To  unyoke  the  horses  is  just  to 
undo  what  has  been  done  in  yoking;  the 
reins  are  first  taken  ofi'  and  coiled  ujj;  the 
stretcher  is  unhooked  from  the  chains,  and 
it  and  the  short- ends  brought  o»'er  the 
head  of  the  shaft-horse  and  laid  upon  the 
shafts  of  the  cart  behind  him,  and  the 
trace-horse  is  then  free ;  the  cart  belly- 
band  is  then  unbuckled ;  the  draught- 
slings  and  breeching-chaius  are  unhooked ; 
and  on  the  shafts  being  raised  up,  the 
shaft-horse  is  free ;  and  on  the  bearing- 
reins  being  slip])ed  over  the  top  of  the 
haims,  both  the  horses'  heads  are  free  to 
take  a  drink  of  water,  or  shake  themselves. 

1840.  The  cart  should  always  be  under 
cover  in  a  cart-shed  when  not  in  use,  as, 
when  not  so  accommodated,  and  being  a 
machine  composed  of  many  parts,  the 
weather  soon  has  an  injurious  etl'ect  upon 
its  upper  works.  When  backed  into  the 
port  of  a  cart-shed,  the  shafts  are  easily 
put  up  out  of  the  way  of  the  horse  again 
being  yoked,  by  hanging  the  back-chain 
upon  a  hook  suspended  hy  a  chain  from  the 
balks  of  the  roof,  when  the  shed  is  not  floor- 
ed above,  an<I,  when  it  is  floored,  the  hook 
to  support  the  back-chain  may  be  sus- 
pended from  a  joist  of  the  flooring. 

1841.  The  (/r ease  used  for  farm-carts  is 
commonly  a  mixture,  melted  together  in 
equal  ])arts,  of  tallow  or  train-oil  and 
common  tar.  It  is  kej)t  in  a  deep  narrow 
tub,  and  applied  with  a  broad  pointed 
stick.  The  tub  should  have  a  cover,  but 
is  usually  without  one,  and  sul)ject  to  col- 
lect dust  in  the  cart-shed.  When  a  cart 
is  to  be  greased,  the  linch-pin  and  washer 
are  removed  from  the  projecting  point  of 
the  axle  ;  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel  is 
then  pulled  towards  you  from  the  cart 
with  such  a  jerk  as  to  allow  the  lower  edge 
of  tiie  wheel  to  remain  on  the  same  spot 
of  ground  it  was,  and  the  point  of  the 
axle-arm  will  then  lean  upon  the  edge  of 
the  bush  at  the  hack  of  the  nave.  The 
grease  is  then  spread  upon  the  upper  side 


432 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


of  the  axlc-ann  with  the  stick,  the  wheel 
pushed  hack  to  its  proi)er  place,  uiul  the 
washer  ami  liiich-pin  respectively  restored 
to theirpriiper  places  in  the  projecting  point 
of  the  axle.  Tiie  groove  of  the  saddle  is 
also  greased,  to  lessen  the  friction  of  the 
back-chain  when  playing  upon  it.  The 
grease  used  for  railway  carriages  has 
sulphur  in  it,  which  is  said  to  make  it 
more  durable,  and  might,  no  doubt,  be 
used  in  farm  carts,  provided  the  cost  were 
not  exorbitant.  It  is,  I  believe,  a  patented 
article. 

1842.  Systematic  writers  on  agriculture,  when 
treating  of  tlie  various  plants  cultivated  on  a 
farm,  describe  their  diaracters  in  botanical  phra- 
seology ;  and  though  this  seems  a  proper  mode, 
when  different  genera  of  plants  have  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  ;  yet  when  mere 
varieties  of  the  same  species,  and  especially 
when  tliose  varieties  are  numerous,  require  to  be 
described,  a  more  natural  method  of  classifying 
them  seems  likewise  desirable,  that  other  people 
than  botanists  may  easily  distinguish  them. 
Professor  Low,  when  treating  of  wheat,  enume- 
rates 11  diiferent  subdivisions*  which  arp  culti- 
vated, and  which,  doubtless,  possess  distinct 
botanical  characteristics  ;  but  such  distinctions 
are  not  likely  to  be  appreciated  by  the  majority 
of  farmers.  Mr  Lawson  has  described  !i3  varie- 
ties of  wheat  ;t  Colonel  le  Coutenr  mentions 
having  in  his  possession,  in  1836,  no  fewer  than 
150  varieties  :J;  and  the  Museum  of  the  High- 
land and  Agricultural  Society  in  Edinburgh 
possesses  141  varieties.!  To  distinguish  all 
these  varieties  by  botanical  terms  would  puzzle 
any  farmer. 

1843.  For  this  reason,  it  has  occurred  to  me, 
that  a  method  should  be  established  for  easily 
recognising  the  different  kinds  of  grain  in  use 
by  the  external  characters  of  the  ear  and  grain. 
Colonel  le  Couteur  has  given  a  classification  of 
icheat  involving  this  principle,  and  adduces  a 
similar  reason  lor  attempting  it,  when  he  says, — 
"  No  one  has  done  so,  as  a  branch  of  agriculture, 
in  those  plain  terms  which  may  be  intelligible, 
not  to  the  botanist  or  scientific  reader  only,  but 
to  the  great  mass  of  farmers."  And  the  prin- 
cipal object  he  considers  should  be  held  in  view, 
in  establishing  such  a  classification,  is  the  nature 
and  qualities  of  each  variety  for  making  bread  \ 

1844.  In  prosecuting  this  idea  of  a  classifica- 
tion. Colonel  le  Couteur  divides  all  the  varieties 
of  wheat  into  two  classes,  namely,  beardless  and 
bearded.  lu  so  far  he  imitates  the  modern 
botanist,  who  divides  the  cultivated  varieties  of 
wheat  into  the  two  divisions  of  barbatum  a)id 
imbirbe,  signifying  the  above  conditions.  But, 
unfortunately  for  the  stability  of  this  classifica- 
tion, that  distinction  is  not  immutable,  for  some 
bearded  wheat  lose  their   beards  on  cultivation, 

*  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  A<iriculture,  p.  2 
J  Le  Couteur  Un  \Vhcat,  p.  ii.,  Dedication;  and 


and  some  beardless  ones  are  apt  to  become 
bearded,  when  cuhivated  on  poor  soils  and  ex- 
posed situations.  Some  of  the  otlier  grains 
indicate  a  temlency  to  similar  sjiorting,  for  the 
potato-oat  as.sumes  a  beard  when  sown  a  long 
time  on  the  same  ground  in  a  poor  state.  He 
subdivides  beardless  wheat  into  while,  red, 
yellow,  and  Iiver-(!oloured,  smooth  chaffed,  and 
velvet  chaffed  ;  and  the  bearded  he  divides  under 
the  same  colours.  Some  varieties  of  wheat  are, 
no  doubt,  decidedly  downy  on  the  chaff,  but 
others,  again,  are  so  very  little  so,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  (iistiiiguisli  them  from  some  of  the 
roughest,  varieties  'of  smooth  chaffed  ;  and  it  is 
known  that  the  same  wheat  will  be  differently 
affected,  in  this  resjiect,  by  the  soil  upon  which 
it  grows  ;  for  a  sharp  soil  renders  the  chaff  and 
straw  smoother  and  harder  than  a  deaf  one, 
wliich  has  a  tendency  to  i)roduce  soft  and  downy 
chaff  and  straw.  Downiness  is  thus  not  a  more 
permanent  cliaracter  than  the  beard  for  esta- 
blialiing  the  denominations  of  the  great  divisions 
of  wheat.  Conjoining  the  characters  of  the 
grain  and  ear  of  wheat,  is,  in  my  opinion,  inju- 
dicious, inasmuch  as  the  character  of  neither 
separately  can  positively  indicate  tlie  state  of 
the  other,  and  both  are  not  required  to  indicate 
the  superior  properties  of  any  variety  of  wlieat 
for  making  bread.  A  baker  at  once  distinguishes 
the  grain  which  will  afford  the  best  bread;  and 
neither  he,  nor  any  farmer,  could  indicate  such  a 
property  from  the  ear  of  any  wlieat.  Colonel 
le  Couteur  assumes  a  liver-coloured  wheat,  as  a 
distinctive  colour,  as  well  as  others.  I  confess  1 
cannot  distinguish  this  colour  ;  and  I  never  re- 
member to  have  seen  a  wheat  of  a  liver-brown 
colour.  I  think  all  the  colours  of  wheat  may  be 
classed  under  two  of  the  primary  colours,  yellow 
and  red — for  even  the  whitest  has  a  tinge  of 
yellow — and  the  brownest  is  deeply  tinged  with 
red  ;  and  as  xcltite  and  red  are  the  terms  by 
which  the  colours  of  the  wheat  have  been  longest 
known,  these  should  be  retained  ;  and  the  sub- 
tints  of  yellow  and  red  found  in  wheat  may  be 
easily  designated.  The  variety  of  wheat  which 
should  form  the  standard  of  each  colour  has 
never  yet  been  indicated  ;  but,  judging  from  the 
collection  of  wheat  in  the  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society's  Museum,  I  should  say  that  the 
Hungarian  white  wheat  indicates  the  purest 
white,  and  the  blood-red  wheat  the  purest  red. 

184.5.  Were  I  to  attempt  to  classify  both  the 
wheat  plant  and  grains  of  wheat,  by  natural 
marks,  1  would  make  two  classifications,  one  by 
the  ear  and  the  other  by  the  grain,  so  that  each 
might  be  described  by  its  own  characteristics,  and, 
if  desirable,  when  describing  the  plant,  reference 
could  be  made  to  the  characteristics  of  the  grain. 
In  this  way  confusion  wouldbeavoided  in  describ- 
ing the  ear  and  the  grain.  The  farmer  who 
grows  the  wheat  plant,  and  sells  it  in  the  grain, 
should  be  acquainted  with  both  ;  but  the  baker, 
who  is  only  acquainted  with  the  grain,  need 
know  nothing  of  the  ear.  Were  he,  however,  to 
receive  an  ear  of  each  variety  of  grain  he  pur- 
chased, he  would  be  best  able  to  describe  at  once, 

20.  t  Lawson's  y/i/ric«/<«r«s«'»  J/anwo/,  p.29. 

p.  77.       §  Catalogue  of  the  Museum,  p.  63-6. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


433 


to  the  farmer,  what  particular  variety  afforded 
him  the  flour  best  suited  to  his  purpose. 

1846.   Wheat. — On    examining    the     ears    of 
wheat  that  have  come   under  my  notice,  1  think 
they  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  176,  which  show  the  ears  half  the 
Fig.  176. 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  WHEAT  1!Y  THE  EAR. 

natural  size,  and  which  may  be  distinguislied 
thus  :  a  is  a  close  or  compact  eared  wheat,  which 
is  occasioned  by  the  spikelets  being  set  near  each 
other  on  the  rachis,  and  this  position  makes  the 
chaff  short  and  broad.  This  specimen  of  the 
close-eared  wheat  is  Hickling's  Prolific.  The 
second  class  of  ears  is  seen  at  b,  the  spikelets 
being  of  medium  length  and  breadth,  and  placed 
just  so  close  upon  the  rachis  as  to  screen  it  from 
view.  The  ear  is  not  so  broad,  but  longer  than 
a.  The  chaff  is  of  medium  length  and  breadth. 
This  specimen  is  the  well-known  Hunter's  white 
wheat.  The  third  class  is  seen  at  c,  the  spike- 
lets of  which  are  set  open,  or  so  far  asunder  as 
to  permit  the  rachis  to  be  easily  seen  between 
them.  The  ear  is  about  the  same  length  as  the 
last  specimen,  but  is  much  narrower.  The  chaff 
is  long  and  narrow.  This  is  a  specimen  of  Le 
Couteur's  Bellevue  Talavera  white  wheat. 

1847.  These  three  classes  of  varieties  consti- 
tute the  Triticum  sativum  imberbe  oi  hoinnKis, — 
that  is,  all  the  varieties  of  the  beardless  culti- 
vated wheat.     Formerly  they  were  divided  by 


botanists  into  Triticum  hybernum  or  winter 
wheat,  and  Triticum  cestivum  or  summer  wheat  ; 
but  experience  has  proved  that  the  summer 
wheat,  so  called,  may  be  sown  in  winter,  and 
the  winter  wheat  sown  in  spring,  and  both 
come  to  perfection.  Paxton  says  that  Triticum 
is  derived  from  '"  tritum,  rubbed — in  allu.sion  to 
its  being  originally  rubbed  down  to  make  it 
eatable."*  It  is  of  the  natural  order  Graminece  of 
Jussien,  and  of  the  third  class  Tr.andria, 
second  order  Diijynia,  and  genus  Triticum,  of 
the  Linnaean  system.  In  the  natural  system  of 
Lindley,  wheat  stands  in  class  iv.,  Endugens  ; 
alliance  1,  Glumales ;  order  29,  Graminacece  ; 
genus  11,  Hordew. 

1848.  In  </,  fig.  176  is  represented  a  bearded 
wheat,  to  shuw  the  difference  of  appearance 
which  the  beard  gives  to  the  ear.  The  bearded 
wheats  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  long 
shape  of  the  chaff  and  the  open  position  of  the 
spikelets,  and  therefore  fall  under  the  third  classc. 
But  cultivation  has  not  only  the  effect  of  de- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  beard,  but  of  setting 
the  spikelets  closer  together,  as  in  the  specimen 
of  the  white  Tuscany  wheat,  shown  at  d  in  the 
figure,  which  is  considered  the  most  compact 
eared  and  improved  variety  of  bearded  wheat. 
Bearded  wheat  constitutes  the  second  division  of 
cultivated  wheat  of  the  botanists,  under  the  title 
of  Triticum  satitumbarbatum.  The  term  bearded 
is  used  synonymously  with  spring  wheat,  but 
erroneously,  as  beardless  wheat  is  as  fit  for 
sowing  in  spring  as  bearded,  and  the  bearded 
may  be  sown  in  winter. 

1849.  In  regard  to  classifying  wheat  by  the 
grain,  on  observing  a  great  variety  of  forms,  I 
think  they,  as  well  as  the  ears,  may  all  be 
classed   under   three    heads.     The  first   class  is 


Fig.  177. 


SHORT,  ROtND, 

PH'.MP  FORM,  AND 

SMALL  SIZE  OF 

WHEAT. 


shown  in  fig.  177,  where  all 
the  grains  are  short,  round, 
and  plump,  with  the  bosuni 
di^tillctly  marked,  and  well 
filled  up.  In  the  cut,  the 
grain  to  the  left  is  seen  with 
the  median  line  along  its 
bosom  ;  another,  below  it, 
with  the  round  or  opposite 
side  lying  underniost  ;  and 
the  third  and  fourth  show 
the  germ  and  radicle  ends  respectively.  All 
fine  vhite  wheat  belongs  to  this  class,  and  is  en- 
closed in  short,  round,  and  generally  irhite  chaff, 
which,  when  ripe,  becomes  so  expanded  as  to 
endanger  the  falling  out  of  the  grain.  Very  few 
red  wheat  belongs  to  this  class.  In  reference  to 
the  ear,  this  class  is  found  in  short-chaffed  and 
broad  spikelets,  which  are  generally  compact, 
as  a  fig.  176.  The  specimens  here,  of  the  grain, 
are  of  the  Hungarian  white  wheat. 

1 850.  The  second  class  is  represented  by  fig. 
178,  where  the  grains  are  long  and  of  medium 
size,  that  is,  longer  and  larger  than  the  grains 
of  fig.  177.  The  chaff  is  a.ho  viedium-sized.  la 
reference  to  the  ear,  it  is  of  the  medium  standard, 


*  Paxton's  Botanical  Dictionary,  Triticum.   See  also  Hooker's  British  Flora,  p.  20,  edition  of  1831. 
VOL.  I.  2  E 


434 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


in  respect  to  breadth  and  closeness  of  spikelets, 

as  b,  fi^.  176,  though  medium-iUfd  i/rain  is  not 

roiifint  d  to  this  sort  of  ear  ;  and  is  found  in  the 

com/.>art  ear,  as  in  Hickling's   pmlific  white  and 

Kie.  178.  red  wheat,  as  well  as  in  the 

y^  opfii    ear,  such    as   the    red 

f\  iJanzigcreepiiij^  wheat.  .Most 

y^      ii  of  rr</ wheat  belongs  to  this 

ffl     y     ^        class  of  grain,  though  many 

\jlj  '  j        of  the  if*jf^  vneditiiH- tiztd  - 

^^   1  J       such    as    Huntor's   white  — 

CJ^    ^        also  belongs  to  it.    This  spe- 

RATii  KR  LONG,       cimen  of  grain  is  the  Cauca- 

MEDn.M-siZED  roRM  sian  red  wheat,  whose  ear  is 

or  WHEAT.         bearded,  and  belongs  to  the 

open-spiked  cla^s  c,  fig.  176.    The  left-hand  grain 

shows  the  median  line  strongly  marked,  and  the 

ends  of  all  the  grains  are  sharp. 

1851.  Fig.   179  represents  the  third  form  of 


Fig.  179. 


LARGE  ."SIZE  AND 

LO.NG   FORM  OF 

WHEAT. 


grain,  which  is  lar<je  'ind 
i'lti'j  to  a  greater  degree 
than  the  last  class.  Its 
ck'ifii  lon<j,  and,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  ear,  the  spike- 
lets  are  generally  open  ; 
though,  in  the  case  of  this 
epecitnen,  the  Odessa  long 
white  wheat,  the  ear  is  me- 
dinm-sized,  and  the  chaff 
long  as  well  as  the  grain. 
The  median  line  of  the  uppermost  grain  is  not 
Bo  distinctly  marked  as  in  the  two  former  cases. 
The  ends  of  the  grain  are  pointed  but  not  sharp, 
and  the  skin  seems  rather  coarse.  The  germ 
and  radicle  are  boldly  marked. 

1852.  The  three  sorts  of  wheat  in  these  figures, 
all  placed  in  similar  positions,  are  of  the 
natural  size,  and  indicate  the  forms  of  the  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  wheat  found  in  our  markets. 

1853.  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been 
stated,  that  no  inevitable  relation  exists  between 
the  ear  and  the  Qmin  ;  that  the  compact  ear  does 
not  always  produce  the  round  grain  nor  the 
while  wheat  ;  that  in  the  medium  ear  is  not 
always  found  the  medium-sized  grain  ;  and  that 
the  open  ear  does  not  always  produce  the  lar:re 
long  grain.  Still,  there  exist  coincidents  which 
connect  the  cAo/f  with  the  qrain.  For  example, 
the  lenifth  of  the  <■*<?/'  indicates  the  lenijtk  of  the 
gr'iin,  upon  whatever  sort  of  ear  it  may  be  found ; 
and,  generally,  the  colour  of  the  chaff  determines 
that  of  the  grain  ;  and  as  the  open  sjdkelel  bears 
long  chaff,  the  long  chaff  covers  grain  of  coarser 
quality  than  the  chaff  of  the  compact  ear.  On 
desiring,  therefore,  to  determine  the  sort  of  i/ratn 
any  number  of  ears  of  different  kinds  of  wheat 
contain,  the  form  and  colour  of  the  chajf  deter- 
mine the  point,  and  not  whether  the  ear  carries 
Compact,  medium,  or  open,  bearded  or  beard- 
less, woolly  or  smooth  spikelets. 

1854.  But  the  classification  of  wheat  is  nn- 

important  to  the  farmer,  compared  to  the  mode 
of  judpimj  it,  to  ascertain  the  external  charac- 
ters which  best  indicate  the  purposes  to  which  it 
may  be  best   employed,  in  the  particular   con- 


dition of  the  sample.  The  purposes  are,  for 
seed  and  the  making  of  flonr — whether  the  flour 
is  to  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  bread 
or  of  cuiitectiuns,  or  in  some  of  the  arts, 
as  starch-making.  In  ita  beH  condition,  all 
wheat,  whether  red  or  white,  small  or  large,  long 
or  ruuiid.  should  appear  plump  within  its  skin, 
and  not  in  the  leart  shrivelled  or  shrunk.  The 
skin  hhould  be  fine  and  smooth,  and  not  in  the 
least  scaly  or  uneven  in  surface.  The  colour,  be 
it  what  tint  it  niay,  should  be  bright,  lively,  and 
unitbrm,  and  not  in  the  least  dull,  bleached,  or 
particoloured.  The  grains  should  all  be  of  the 
same  t-izc  and  form,  not  bhort  and  lung,  round 
and  long,  small  and  large.  The  grains  should 
be  quite  periect;  there  should  be  no  bruises,  or 
holes,  or  dried  rootlets  hanging  from  one  end,  or 
woolly  appendages  protruding  from  the  other.  If 
perfect  in  all  these  respects,  wheat  is  fitted  for 
every  purp-jt-e,  and  may  be  purchased  by  the 
general  merchant.  For  particular  purposes,  par- 
ticular properties  must  be  sought  for. 

1855.  When  wheat  is  quite  opaque,  indicating 
not  the  least  translucency,  it  is  in  the  best  state 
for  yielding  the  finest  flour— such  flour  as  con- 
fectioners use  for  pa.-try  ;  and  in  this  state  it 
will  be  eagerly  purchased  by  them  at  a  large 
price.  Wheat  in  this  state  contains  the  large?t 
proportion  of  fecula  or  starch,  ajid  is  therefore 
best  suited  to  the  starch-maker,  as  well  as  the 
Confectioner.  On  the  other  hand,  when  wheat  is 
translucent,  hard,  and  flinty,  it  is  better  suited  to 
tlie  common  baker  than  the  confectioner  and 
starch  manufacturer,  as  affording  what  is  called 
strong  flour,  that  rises  boldly  with  yeast  into  a 
spongy  dough.  Bakers  will,  therefore,  give 
mure  for  good  wheat  in  this  state  than  in  the 
opaque  ;  but  for  bread  of  finest  quality  the 
flour  should  be  fine  as  well  as  strong,  and  there- 
fore a  mixture  of  the  two  conditions  of  wheat  ia 
best  suited  for  making  tiie  best  quality  of  breal. 
Bakers,  when  they  purchase  their  own  wheat, 
are  in  the  habit  of  mixing  wheat  which  respec- 
tively possesses  those  qualities  ;  and  millers  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  supplying  bakers  with  flour, 
mix  different  kinds  of  wheat,  and  grind  them  to- 
gether for  their  use.  Some  sorts  of  wheat  natu- 
rally possess  both  these  properties,  and  on  that 
account  are  great  favourites  with  bakers,  though 
not  so  with  confectioners  ;  and,  1  presume,  to 
this  mixed  property  is  to  be  ascribed  the  great 
and  lasting  popularity  which  Hunter's  white 
wheat  has  so  long  enjoyed.  We  hear  also  of 
"  hii/k  inijred  "  Danzig  wheat,  which  has  been  so 
mixed  for  the  purpose,  and  is  in  high  repute 
amontrst  bakers.  Generally  speaking,  the  purest 
coloured  white  wheat  indicates  most  opacity, 
autl,  of  course,  yields  the  finest  flour  :  and  red 
wheat  is  iiio>t  flinty,  and  therefore  yields  the 
strongest  flour  :  a  translucent  red  wheat  will 
yield  stronger  flour  than  a  translucent  white 
wheat,  and  yet  a  red  wheat  never  ^eali^es  so 
high  a  i>rice  in  the  market  as  white  — partly  be- 
cause it  contains  a  lari:er  proportion  of  refuse  in 
the  grinding,  bnt  chiefly  because  it  yields  less 
fine  flour,  that  is,  starch. 

1856.  The  weight  of  wheat  varies  according 


THRASHING  AND  WINXOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


435 


to  the  state  of  the  season  from  59  lbs.  to  68  lbs. 
per  imperial  bushel  ;  the  former  being  very  light, 
and  produced  only  in  a  wet  late  season,  on  infe-  • 
rior  land,  the  latter  being  extraordinarily  heavy, 
and  produced  only  in  a  very  clear  hot  season  on 
the  best  soil.  A  good  average  weight  for  wheat 
is  63  lbs.  per  bushel,  the  finest  samples  from  the 
best  soils  in  the  same  circumstances  being  65 
lbs.  Of  Chidham  white  wheat,  weighing  fio  lbs 
per  bushel,  I  found  that  86  grains  weighed  one 
drachm.  The  bushel  should  contain  Zl.'ijOiO 
grains  of  wheat :  at  63  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  and  87 
grains  to  the  drachm — the  most  common  case — 
the  bushel  should  contain  701,568  grains. 

1857.  For  seed,  the  base  from  which  the  root- 
lets issue  should  be  distinctly  marked  and  rather 
prominent,  and  the  end  from  which  the  blade 
springs  should  be  covered  with  a  slight  hairiness. 
The  protuberances  of  the  rootlets  and  hairy  end 
should  on  no  account  be  rubbed  off  by  sheeling, 
as  tbat  would  render  the  grain  unfit  for  seed, 
and  deprive  it  of  its  vitality.  Nor  should  the 
grain  be  kiln-dried,  as  that  process  also  deprives 
it  of  vitality  ;  but,  indeed,  wheat  is  never  kiln- 
dried  in  this  country. 

1858.  Kiln-drying  makes  wheat  too  hard  for 
grinding,  and  imparts  a  smoky  odour  to  it. 
Hardness,  however,  is  not  necessarily  induced  by 
kiln-drying,  as  some  wheat  becomes  hard  by  ordi- 
nary drying;  and  in  parts  of  the  Continent, such 
as  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  some 
wheat  is  naturally  so  hard,  that  others  are  called 
soft  merely  to  distinguish  them.  When  no 
smokiness  can  be  detected  in  the  odour  of  foreign 
wheat,  the  surest  test  of  its  having  retained  its 
vitality  is  to  germinate  the  grain  near  the  fire,  in 
a  glass,  amongst  as  much  water  as  will  swell  it. 

1859.  Damaged  wheat  may  be  detected  in 
various  ways.  If  it  has  been  in  sea-water,  al- 
though not  enlarged  by  moisture,  it  never  loses 
the  saline  taste  ;  and  even  when  washed  in  fresh 
■water  and  dried  in  a  kiln,  the  washing  gives  it 
a  bleached  appearance,  and  the  kiln-drying  may 
be  detected  by  the  smell  or  taste.  Wheat  which 
has  been  slieeled  to  make  it  look  round  and 
plump,  may  be  detected  by  the  ends  being  rubbed 
down.  When  heated  in  the  stack,  though  not 
to  the  degree  of  affecting  the  colour,  it  tastes 
bitter.  When  long  in  the  granary,  it  appears  dull 
and  dirty,  though  passed  through  the  fanners  ; 
and,  though  not  seriously  injured,  contracts  a 
musty  smell.  Wheat  is  attacked  by  insects  in  the 
granary,  which  breed  within  its  shell  and  eat  the 
kernel,  and  the  shells  are  then  easily  detected 
by  their  lightness,  and  the  holes  in  them.  Ger- 
minated, swollen,  burst,  bruised,  smutted  grains, 
as  well  as  the  presence  of  other  kinds  of  grain 
and  seeds,  are  easily  detected  by  the  eye. 

1860.  Difference  of  opinion  exists  in  regard  to 
the  best  mode  of  preserrinf)  wheat  in  (/raiiarles. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  shovel  the  lieap  over 
from  the  bottom  every  few  weeks,  according  to 


the  dryness  or  dampness  of  the  air,  or  heat  or 
coldness  of  the  atmosphere.  In  this  mode  of 
treatment,  a  free  ventilation  of  air  is  requisite  in 
the  granary,  and  the  worst  state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere for  the  grain  is  when  it  is  woist  and  varm. 
Extreme  heat  or  extreme  cold  are  preservatives 
of  grain.  The  practice  of  others  is  not  to  turn  it 
over  at  all,  but  keep  it  in  the  dark  in  thick 
masses,  reaching  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling. 
No  doubt,  if  air  could  be  excluded  from  a  granary, 
the  grain  would  be  preserved  in  it  without 
trouble  ;  and  a  good  plan  of  excluding  the  air 
seems  to  be,  to  heap  the  grain  as  close  together 
as  possible.  When  kept  long  in  heap  without 
turning,  it  retains  its  colour  with  the  fresh  tint, 
which  is  secured  by  keeping  it  in  the  dark. 
The  ancients  used  to  preserve  grain  many  years, 
to  serve  for  food  in  years  of  famine.  Joseph,  in 
Egypt,  preserved  wheat  for  seven  years  in  the 
stores  ;  in  Sicily,  Spain,  and  the  northern  parts 
of  Africa,  pits  were  formed  in  the  ground  to  pre- 
serve it  ;  and  the  Romans  took  great  pains  in 
constructing  granaries,  which  kept  wheat  for  50 
and  millet  for  100  years.*  As  regards  the  far- 
mer, the  question  of  preserving  wheat  in  granaries 
should  little  affect  him,  the  best  way  of  keeping 
wheat  being  in  the  straw  in  the  stack  ;  and  when 
the  stacks  are  thrashed,  that  the  straw  may  be 
used,  he  should  dispose  of  his  wheat  immediately, 
and  take  the  current  market-prices.  During  the 
cuiiency  of  a  lease,  this  is  the  safest  practice  for 
securing  him  an  average  price  ;  and  it  saves 
much  trouble  in  looking  after  the  grain,  much 
vexation  when  the  grain  becomes  injured,  and 
much  disappointment  when  the  price  falls  below 
its  expected  amount.  Two  friends  of  mine, 
large  farmers,  were  both  great  losers  by  keeping 
wheat  of  tlieir  own  growth.  They  each  stored 
three  years'  crop,  and  though  offered  £6  a  quarter 
for  it,  refused  it,  and  were  obliged  at  last  to  take 
65s.  Such  is  not  unfrequently  the  fate  of  farmers 
who  speculate  in  grain  of  their  own  growth  ;  but 
when  they  become  merchants,  and  involved  in 
the  intricacies  of  foreign  trade,  their  ignorance 
of  their  new  profession  makes  them  feel  the  effects 
of  their  temerity  in  engaging  in  it. 

1861.  Wheat  is  prepared  for  the  use  of  man 
by  being  ground  iniKi  fiour.  The  machinery  used 
for  grinding  wheat  is  simple  and  effective.  The 
first  process  is  to  put  the  wheat  through  the 
sheelitdj  cylitider,  which  rubs  off  every  extraneous 
matter  adhering  to  the  outer  skin  of  the  grain, 
and  renders  it  plumper,  brighter  in  colour,  and 
free  from  every  impurity.  The  quantity  of  black 
suffocating  dnst  wliich  flies  off  from  the  cylinder 
in  this  process,  and  the  seeds  and  other  substances 
separated  from  the  grain  and  collected  together, 
surprise  every  one,  wlio  has  never  previously 
witnessed  the  process,  how  such  impurities  caa 
proceed  from  an  af'pareiit/y  dean  sample. 

1862.  After  the  sl)eeling,  the  wheat  is  put  into 
a  large  liopper,  which  conveys  it,  by  means  of  the 
shoe  and  clack,  through  the  upper  one  of  two 
millstones  of  French  bhurr,+  which  grind  it  into 


*  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  ii.  p.  426. 

■f"  See  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Millstone,  for  an  account  of  this  remarkable  substance. 


486 


PRACTICE— WIXTEK. 


»  flour  containing  all  the  ingredienU  of  the 
wheat.  On  leaving  the  atones,  the  flour  has 
aUained  a  high  rise  of  temperature.  In  orUer 
to  cool  it,  which  should  be  done  as  quickly  as 
possible,  it  ia  immediately  carried,  in  small  quan- 
tities on  an  endless  web,  to  a  well  ventilated 
cooling-room,  to  be  spread  upon  a  wooden  floor, 
and  turned  frequently  over  with  a  wooden  shovel. 

1863.  After  it  is  thoroughly  cooled,  it  is  made 
to  descend  from  the  cooliug-room,  by  a  hopper, 
into  the  boufting  or  drftting  cylinder,  in  which  it 
is  separated  into  several  parts,  by  being  pushed 
by  revolving  brushes  through  wire-cloths  of  dif- 
ferent size  of  mesh.  These  parts  usually  consist 
of  firsts,  or  fine  flour;  of  $<co»df,  or  second  flour  ; 
of  third*,  or  sharps;  of  broad  or  coarse  bran,  and 
oifine  bran. 

1864.  Sometimes  the  coarse  bran  onlyi?  taken 
out,  when  the  flour  is  said  to  be  overhead,  and 
makes  good  coarse  household  bread.  Sometimes 
both  fine  and  coarse  bran  are  taken  out,  and  the 
flour  makes  a  sweet  coarse  bread,  but  not  so 
good  as  the  overhead.  When  a  small  quantity 
of  the  firsts  is  taken  out,  to  make  the  flour  as  fine 
as  possible,  it  is  used  for  pastry  and  fancy  bread  ; 
and  the  seconds  then  become  finer,  and  make  the 
seconds  loaf  of  superior  quality.  When  a  large 
proportion  of  the  flour  is  made  into  firsts,  it  is 
not  fiite,  and  the  seconds  are  thereby  reduced  iu 
quantity  and  made  coarser.  The  sharps,  or  thirds, 
which  consist  of  the  kernel  of  the  grain,  broken 
and  escaped  from  between  the  millstones,  are 
used  by  biscuit-bakers. 

1865.  The  first  or  broad  bran  is  used  for  bran- 
nashes,  and  mixing  with  horse-corn;  and  the  fine 
bran  is  employed  to  feed  poultry  and  pigs. 

1866.  In  London  the  millers  dress  the  flour  into 
seven  distinct  sorts.  From  a  quarter  of  wheat 
of  8  bushels,  there  are  yielded  of — 

Bushels.      Pecks. 
Fine  flunr,  ..53 

Seconds,  ...02 
Fine  middlings,  ..01 
Coarse  middlings,  .  .  0  ^'A. 

Bran,  .  .  .  3  O' 

Twentv-pennv,        .  .  ''  (^ 

Pollard,       .'  .  2  0 


ToUl, 


14 


1867.  So  that  grinding  increases  the  bulk  of 
flour  and  bran  in  the  proportion  of  14  4  to  8  of 
the  bulk  of  wheat. 

1868.  WTiether  flour  is  properly  gr^iund,  is 
judged  of  on  being  taken  into  the  hand  as  it  falls 
fr>ra  the  spwut  from  the  millstones.  It  is  rubbed 
by  the  thumb  along  the  side  of  the  forefinger, 
and  if  it  feel  pleasantly  smooth,  without  being 
greasy  or  rough,  it  is   well.      When  the  outer 


edge  of  the  milhtones  are  set  too  close,  the  flour 
feels  grea.sy,  and  has  been  too  much  bruised — or 
killed,  as  it  is  termed — and  it  does  not  easily 
rise  with  yeast  in  the  making  of  bread.  When 
the  stones  are  set  too  far  asunder,  the  grain  ac- 
camulates  too  much  under  the  eye  of  the  mill- 
stone, and  is  there  bruken,  which  prevents  a  part 
of  the  skin  of  the  grain  being  separated  from  the 
kernel,  so  that  the  bran  is  thick,  roui^h,  and 
heavy,  containing  much  waste  of  substance. 

1869.  \rhen  the  large  bran  is  inspected,  and 
is  found  to  be  entirely  skin,  and  no  white  sub- 
stance of  the  wheat  adhering  to  it,  the  shelling 
has  been  well  executed  ;  and  bran  in  this  state, 
on  being  thrown  up,  will  fall  lightly  towards  the 
ground  in  large  thin  flakes.  The  small  bran  has 
always  a  part  of  the  substance  of  the  wheat 
attached  to  it,  being  derived  from  the  groove 
which  forms  the  bosom  or  median  line  of  the 
grain,  and  is  produced  after  the  large  bran  has 
been  sloughed  ofi^  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  grain  ground  down  to  the  level  of  the  groove. 

1870.  Whether  flour  is  properly  dretud  is 
ascertained  in  the  same  way,  by  rubbing  the  fine 
flour  with  the  thumb  along  the  forefinger;  and  if 
it  feel  smooth  and  even,  sot  in  the  least  rough  or 
gritty,  or  greasy,  it  is  well.  To  judge  still  further 
whether  the  flour  has  been  perfectly  dressed,  press 
a  polished  surface,  such  as  the  back  of  a  silver 
spoon,  upon  it,  and  if  the  smooth  pressed  surface 
expose  no  minute  brown  spots  of  bran,  i4is  clean 
dressed;  and  if  none  can  be  detected  by  a  good 
raagnifying-glass,  it  is  as  perfectly  dressed  as 
machinery  can  do  it. 

1871.  There  is  no  means  of  judging  whether 
any  parcel  of  flour  will  make  good  bread,  the 
^uur  of  the  opaque  and  flinty  wheat  being  undis- 
tinguishable  from  each  other ;  and  it  is  perhaps 
this  difiiculty  which  induces  bakers  to  buy  wheat, 
and  have  it  mixed  and  made  into  floor  on  their 
own  account  —  otherwise  the  .«;implest  plan  for 
them  would  be  to  buy  the  sort  of  flour  they  want. 
On  account  of  this  practice  of  the  bakers  being 
very  general,  most  of  the  flour  millers  in  Scotland 
grind  only  ou  hire. 

1872.  Flour  is  put  np  into  farkf  of  286  lbs.,  or 
20  stones  imperial.  It  is  pressed  by  the  bottom 
of  the  sack  being  beaten  against  the  floor  by 
means  of  a  fork-lever,  to  which  the  sack  is  sus- 
pended, on  being  filled  at  the  spout  from  the  dress- 
ing-machine. Of  wheat  weighing  64  lbs.  per 
bushel,  4^  or  5  bushels  will  be  required  to  make 
a  sack  of  fine  flour.  Of  the  fine  crop  of  1815,  I 
remember  of  the  late  Mr  Brown,  Whiisome  Hill, 
Berwickshire,  selling  to  Mr  Mackay  of  Clarabud 
Mill,  in  that  county,  800  bolls,  or  4800  bushels 
of  red  Danzig  creeping  wheat,  weighing  27  stones 
per  boll,  or  63  lbs.  per  bushel,  which  yielded  24 
st'jues  of  fine  flour,  and  only  3  stones  of  refuse, 
which  is  only  one-ninth  of  the  entire  weight.* 


•  As  an  instance  of  the  great  fluctuation  in  the  price  of  wheat,  occasioned  by  a  difierence  in 
seasons,  I  may  mention  that  part  of  this  fine  wheat  was  sold  in  1815  for  ?,2<.  per  boll  of  6  bushels, 
or  5s.  4d.  per  bushel  ;  and  in  August  1816,  a  very  wet  season,  part  was  sold  for  105s.  per  boll,  or 
17s.  6<L  per  bushel,  being  a  rise  in  price  of  about  328  per  cent  in  the  coarse  of  a  few  months. 


THRASHIXG  AXD  WmNOWiNG  OF  GRAIN. 


437 


I  find  the  fine  white  wheat  used  by  the  bakers  of 
Edinburgh  yield  13^  st.  of  14  lbs.  of  flour  from  4 
bushels,  weighing  18  St.,  2  st.  of  odds,  seconds, 
parings,  sharps,  and  waste,  and  24  st.  of  brau. 

1873.  Many  devices  are  practised  to  adulterate 
flour.  I  remember  a  miller  in  Cornwall  being 
fined  in  very  heavy  penalties  for  adulterating 
his  flour  with  washed  leUpar,  obtained  from  the 
disintegration  of  the  granite  of  his  neighbour- 
hood. Potato-flour  and  bean-flour  are  mixed 
with  wheat-flour,  and  though  not  positively  un- 
wholesome, or  perhaps  unlawful,  are  frauds,  inas- 
much as  they  are  articles  of  inferior  value  to  the 
flour  of  wheat.  Every  kind  of  adulteration  caa 
be  detected.  "If  potato-flour  be  added,"  says 
Dr  Ure,  "  which  is  frequently  done  in  France, 
since  a  vessel  which  contains  1  lb.  of  wheat-flour 
will  contain  14  lb.  of  potato-flour,  the  proportion 
of  this  adulteration  may  be  easily  estimated.  If 
gypsum  or  ground  bones  be  mixed  with  flour, 
they  will  not  only  increase  its  density  still  more, 
but  they  will  remain  after  burning  away  the 
meal." — "  Bean  or  pea  flour  may  be  detected  by 
pouring  boiling  water  upon  it,  which  develops 
the  peculiar  smell  of  those  two  substances." — 
'•  Nitric  acid  has  the  property  of  colouring  wheat- 
flour  of  a  fine  orange  yellow,  whereas  it  does  not 
affect  the  colour  of  potato-flour." — "Pure  muri- 
atic acid  colours  good  wheat-flour  of  a  deep 
violet,  but  dissolves  potato-fecula." — "  As  fecula 
absorbs  less  water  than  flour,  this  afibrds  a  ready 
means  of  detection."-—"  Alum  may  be  detected 
in  bread  by  treating  the  bread  in  water,  and 
pouring  a  few  drops  of  nitrate  or  muriate  of 
barytes  in  it,  when  a  heavy  white  precipitate  will 
folkiw,  indicating  the  presence  of  sulphuric 
acid."*  "  Guaiacum,"  says  Dr  Thomson,  "  is 
rendered  blue,  by  various  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.  It  becomes  blue,  according  to  Tadei, 
when  rubbed  in  the  state  of  powder  with  gluten 


of  wheat,  or  with  the  farina  which  it  contains."t 
If  a  little  of  this  gum  and  water  be  put  amongst 
flour,  it  is  a  very  good  and  easy  test  of  its  sound- 
ness when  the  flour  becomes  b/ue.  "  It  has  been 
found  so  difficult  to  detect  the  adulteration  of 
flour,"  remarks  Mr  Babbage,  "  and  to  measure 
its  good  qualities,  that,  contrary  to  the  maxim 
that  government  can  generally  purchase  any 
article  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  that  at  which  they 
can  manulacture  it,  it  has  been  considered  more 
economical  to  build  extensive  flour-mills,  and  to 
grind  their  own  corn,  than  to  verify  each  sack 
purchased,  and  to  employ  persons  in  continually 
devising  methods  of  detecting  the  new  modes  of 
adulteration  which  might  be  resorted  to."  J 

1874.  Any  one  may  analyse  flour  in  this  way  : 
— "  A  ductile  paste  is  to  be  made  with  1  lb.  of 
flour  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  and  left 
at  rest  for  an  hour  ;  then  having  laid  across  a 
bowl  a  piece  of  silken  sieve  stuff',  a  little  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  bowl,  the  paste  is 
to  be  laid  on  the  sieve,  on  a  level  with  the  water, 
and  kneaded  tenderly  with  the  hand,  so  as 
merely  to  wash  the  starchy  particles  out  of  it. 
.  .  .  .  The  water  must  be  several  times  re- 
newed, until  it  ceases  to  become  milky.  The 
gluten  remains  on  the  sieve."§ 

1875.  The  analysis  of  wheat  and  flour  by  the 
celebrated  Vauquelin  gave  the  following  results. 
It  may  be  observed,  however,  of  the  wheat  and 
flour  subjected  to  this  analysis,  that  they  were 
of  foreign  growth,  and  the  results  cannot  be 
adopted  for  practical  purposes  in  this  country, 
as  if  they  had  been  obtained  from  British  wheat 
and  flour.  "  In  general,"  says  Davy,  "  the 
wheat  of  warm  climates  abounds  more  in  gluten, 
and  in  insoluble  parts  ;  and  it  is  of  greater 
specific  gravity,  harder,  and  more  difiicult  to 
grind."|| 


Components. 

French 
wheat. 

Odessa  bard 
wheat. 

Odess^  soft 
wheat. 

Ditto. 

Flour  of 
Paris 
bakers. 

Ditto  of  good 

quality  and 

ill  iiubhc 

establishments. 

Ditto,  in- 
ferior kind, 

Starch,      . 
Gluten, 
Sugar, .     . 
Gum,  .     . 
Bian,   .     . 
Witer,      . 

71-49 

10-96 

4-72 

332 

lobo 

56-5 
14-55 
8-48 
4-90 
2-30 
12-00 

62-00 

12-00 

7-56 

5-80 

1-20 

1000 

7-2-00 
7-30 
5-42 
3-30 

1-2-00 

72-8 
10-2 
4-2 
•2-8 

lo-b 

712 

10-3 

4-8 

3-6 

80 

67-78 
9-02 
4-80 
4-60 
2-00 

1-2-00 

100-49           98-73 

98-56 

100-02 

100-0 

97-9 

100-20  IT 

It  seems  that  Odessa  wheat  contains  more  than 
double  the  quantity  of  sugar  that  French  wheat 
does.  The  gluten  mentioned  liere  is  a  mixture  of 
gluten  and  albumen.  The  gum  has  a  brown 
colour,  and  contains  azote. 

lo"6.  It  is  the  gluten  which  gives  to  a  mixture 


of  flour  and  water  its  tenaciousness,  ductility, 
and  elasticity,  and  forms  an  important  nourishing 
property  of  loaf-bread.  Gluten  has  a  great  re- 
semblance to  animal  tendon  or  membrane,  con- 
taining no  less  than  14^  per  cent  of  azote.  When 
subjected  to  fermentation,  which  is  of  a  peculiar 
character,  and  has  thereby  obtained  the  appella- 


*  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Flour  of  Wheat. 

f  Thomson's  Organic  Chembtri), —  Vci/etables,  p.  535. 

X  Babbage  On  the  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures,  p.  102. 

§  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Bread. 

II  Davy's  Lectures  on  Aoricultural  Chemiftry,  p.  136, edition  of  1839. 

^  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry, —  Vegetables,  p.  876. 


438 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


tion  of  panary  fennenUtion,  a  considerable 
volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  eyolred,  but 
which  is  retained  in  the  mass  of  the  dough  by 
the  tt'uacity  of  the  gluten.  Thus  confined  during 
its  evolution,  the  gas  expands  the  dough  to 
nearly  double  its  pristine  volume,  and  gives  it 
its  vesicular  texture  ;  and  it  is  the  infinite  num- 
ber of  these  cellules,  filled  with  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  apparently  lined  with  a  glutinous  mem- 
brane of  a  silky  sotiness,  that  gives  to  the  well- 
baked  loaf  that  light,  elastic,  porous  constitution, 
which  good  bread  always  possesses. 

1 P77.  Wheat-flour  also  contains  oil,  which  pos- 
sesses the  general  properties  of  the  fatty  oils,  or 
of  butter.  The  proportion  of  oil  in  the  outer 
part  of  the  grain  of  wheat  is  greater  than  in  the 


Potash, 
Soda, 
Lime, 

Maenesia,      . 
Oxide  of  iron. 
Phosphoric  acid, 
Sulphuric  acid. 
Silica, 


inner  part.  This  appe.irs  from  the  proportion  of 
fat  yielded  by  the  several  part-  of  a  sample  of 
grain  gruwn  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Durham. 
Thus,- 

Per  cent. 
The  fine  flour  gave  of  oil,  .  I  '.5 

Tlie  boxing.*,        .  .  .  l!'.''i6 

The  pollard  or  slurps,  .  S'.it! 

The  bran,  .  .  .  3-25 

The  more  husk  in  it,  therefore,  the  more  oil  a 
flour  is  likely  to  contain.  Hence  the  agreeabi* 
flavour  of  coarse  bread. 

1R78.  Wheat  when  burned  in  the  grain  leave* 
ash,  of  which  the  following  is  the  coniposiiiouy 
according  to  various  authorities  : — 


will  and  Frexenius. 

Birbon. 

Thoa. 

BoD.'iisfnsaaTt. 

Erdmann. 

MMnof  the 

Gicssen 

Uunwd. 

Kurbr.4w. 

Bccbetttronn. 

i^ipcic. 

Sil  AuUjKC 

Red. 

White. 

•21 -87 

33-iU 

6-4. •} 

24-17 

3012 

25-90 

•23-72 

15'75 

•27-79 

lo:u 

0-44 

9-05 

1-.03 

?,m 

3!il 

301 

3(M) 

l-.<»2 

2-81 

.0-60 

i:k,4 

r2-.t8 

13-.=i7 

16-2« 

6-27 

I-2-03 

l-.JG 

o-.il 

0-50 

(I-.V2 

1-33 

0-(i7 

4J»:« 

4fK.'l 

4'iU 

45-53 

48  30 

60-39 

4.9-81 

017 

0-27 

lol 

0-24 

0-42 
9«-44 

i'-'91 

1-31 

3-37 

1-17 

10000 

<)9-f.'9 

99  05 

100-00 

99-6-2 

.99-50 

«  Of  the  differences  of  this  table,"  observes  Pro- 
fessor Johnston,  "  part,  no  doubt,  are  due  to  the 
Tariety  of  wheat  examined,  part  also  to  soil, 
climate,  season,  mode  of  culture,  deirree  of  ripe- 
ness, and  other  circumstances,  the  effect  of  which 
we  have  as  yet  no  means  of  ascertaining.  For 
all  practical  purposes,  the  mean  of  six  analyses 
may  at  present  be  regarded  as  affording  a  valu- 

Where  grown. 
Sunderland  Bridge,  near  Durham, 
Kinihlesworth,  do. 

lloujhall,  .  Ho. 

Plawsworth,        .  do. 

1 880.  The  composition  of  bran  is  as  follows : — 
Water,  .  .  .  .  1^^  1 
Gluten,  ....  1.9-3 
Oil,  .....  4-7 
Husk,  and  a  little  starch,  .  .  fiS-f! 
Saline  matter,  (ash,)               .             •  7'<i 

100-0 

1881.  Leaten  was  at  first  used  to  produce  the 
fermentation  spoken  of  in  dough.  It  is  nothing 
more  than  a  piece  of  dough  kept  in  a  warm  place 
until  it  undergoes  a  process  of  fermentation, 
swelling,  becoming  spongy,  or  full  of  air-bubbles, 
at  length  disengagingan  acidnlo-spiritous  vapour, 
and  contracting  a  sour  taste.  A  much  better 
promoter  of  the  panary  fermentation  is  yea^t, 
which  is  the  viscid  froth  that  rises  on  the  surface 
of  beer  in  the  first  stage  of  its  fermentation. 

1882.  With  good  wheaten  flour,  the  proportion 


able  approximation  to  the  true  composition  of  the 
ash  of  the  grain." 

1879.  Tlie  saline  and  other  inorganic  matter  of 
wheat  resideschiefly  in  thehnsk,as  may  be  seen  by 
the  relativeqiiantiiiesiif  ash  It-ft  liy  the  flonr,bran, 
&c.ofseveral  samples  of  English  and  foreign  wheat, 
as  determined  in  Professor  Johnston's  laboratory: 

Asli  left  per  cent  by  dry 
Fine  Flour.         Boxings.  Sliarps.  Bran. 

1-24  4-0  5-8  6-9 

1-15  :<-8  4-9  6  7 

0-9'!  3-0  5-6  71 

0-93  2-7  5-5  7-6* 


given  by  the  bakers  to  make  bread  is,  three- 
fourth's  weight  of  flour  and  one-fourth  of 
yeast,  water,  and  salt.  The  bread  loses  one- 
seventh  of  its  weijiht  in  baking.  With  these  pro- 
portions, a  sack  of  flour  of  280  lbs.  yields  92 
loaves  of  4  lbs.  each.  • 

1883.  It  is  not  unusual  for  farmers  to  bake 
their  household  bread,  and  it  may  be  done  in  this 
way:  Take,  say  24  lbs.  of  flour,  whether  fine  or 
ground  overhead,  and  put  it  in  a  hollow  clay 
dish.  Make  a  deep  holloa-  in  the  middle  of  it, 
and  sprinkle  a  handful  of  salt  over  it.  Then  take 
half  a  pint  of  thick,  sweet,  fresh,  well  washed 
yeast,  about  5  quarts  of  milk-warm  water,  from 
65°  to  70°  Fahr.,  and  a  pint  of  bran,  and  stir 
them  together  in  a  pitcher.  Too  hot  water  will 
stop,  and  too  cold  will  prevent  fermentation. 
Ponr  the  water  and  yeast  over  the  flour  tlinnigh 
a  sieve,  and,  mixing  all  liiihtly  together,  set  the 
mass   before  the  fire,  covering  it   with  a  cloth. 


•  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  pp.  365  and  86i)-9,  2il  e<iition. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


439 


Light  the  oven  fire,  and  bring  it  to  a  clue  heat. 
lu  about  au  hour  the  sponge  will  have  risen 
sufficiently,  when  it  should  be  kneaded  with  con- 
siderable ibrce  for  about  15  or '20  minutes.  The 
dough  t-hould  not  be  worked  too  stitf,  though  it 
requires  to  be  a  little  stiff'er  when  the  loaves  are 
fired  on  their  own  soles  than  when  fired  in  pans. 
The  kne;ided  dough  is  again  set  before  the  fire, 
and  covered  with  a  cloth  as  before,  when  a  new 
fermentation  ensues,  which  will  have  proceeded 
far  enough  when  the  dough  increases  half  more  in 
bulk,  that  is,  in  about  an  hour,  when  the  dough 
is  portioned  out  into  the  size  of  the  loaves  desired, 
and  placed  in  the  oven  to  be  fired.  If  the  oveu 
is  too  hot,  the  douglx  will  be  encrusted  on  the 
surface  too  much  and  too  soon,  and,  if  too  cold, 
the  bread  will  be  heavy,  and  not  rise  sufficiently 
in  the  firing.  Experience  must  teach  these 
particulars.  This  quantity  will  make  27  lbs.  of 
bread. 

18fi4.  The  danger  of  making  the  bread  soiir  is 
incurred  between  the  first  and  second  processes 
of  fermentation.  In  the  first  it  is  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation, wliich  of  itself  is  innocent,  but  if 
increased  heat  is  applied,  or  the  sponge  allowed 
to  stand  too  long,  it  is  apt  to  run  into  the  acetous 
fermentation.  This  tendency  is  checked  during 
the  first  process  by  kneading  the  dough  in  time. 
If,  however,  the  second  fermentation  is  allowed 
to  continue  longer  than  it  should  be,  the  acetous 
fermentation  will  rapidly  appear,  and  then  the 
bread  will  inevitably  be  sour  unless  some  counter- 
acting e.xpedient  is  adopted,  such  as  an  applica- 
tion of  an  alkali,  as  carbonate  of  soda,  or  of  au 
alkaline  earth,  as  magnesia  or  chalk.  It  is 
certainly  better  to  employ  these  neutralising  in- 
gredients than  to  allow  the  batch  of  bread  to 
become  sour,  but  better  still  to  use  the  means  of 
making  the  batcli  into  sweet  bread,  than  to 
rectify  that  acidity  in  it  which  ought  never  to 
have  overtaken  it;  and  the  means  of  avoiding 
acidity  arc,  to  make  the  sponge  fresh  in  the 
morning,  a  thort  time  before  the  bread  is  to  be 
fired,  and  not  to  allow  it  to  stand  over  night  in 
the  kitchen  in  a  low  temperature.  I  speak  from 
experience,  and  can  safely  aver  that,  with  these 
precautions,  not  a  sour  loaf  was  seen  in  my  house 
for  many  years.  I  do  not  say  that  a  sponge  left 
over  night  must  become  sour,  but  only  that  it  is 
much  mure  a}it  to  become  so  tlian  when  fresh 
made. .  When  the  second  fermentation  is  allowed 
to  proceed  too  far,  both  the  lactic  and  acetic 
acids  are  formed;  the  former  most  sensibly  aftects 
the  taste,  and  tjie  latter  the  smell  ;  and  both 
combine  to  make  bread  sour. 

1805.  Brewer's  barm  makes  the  lightest  and 
best  yeast  for  family  use,  and  what  of  it  may  not 
be  used  at  one  time,  may  be  kept  sweet  for  some 
weeks  in  the  following  manner  :  "  As  this  sub- 
stance works  out  of  the  barrels,  it  should  be 
placed  in  deep  pans,  and  left  to  settle  for  a  day 
or  two.  The  thin  fluid  should  then  be  poured 
ofi",  and  the  pan  filled  with  cold  fresh  spring 
water,  stirring  the  thick  yeast  well  up.  Every 
day  this  operation  is  to  be  repeated,  and  occasion- 


ally it  ought  to  be  strained  through  a  sieve  into 
another  vessel.  It  vvill  thus  always  be  ready 
for  use."  Experience  alone  can  tell  whether  the 
scent  or  appearance  of  yeast  procured  at  a  brew- 
ery are  those  the  most  desirable;  but  these  hints 
may  prove  useful.  "  If  it  be  fit  for  the  purpose, 
it  will  smell  rather  fragrant;  if  stale,  it  will  have 
a  strong  acid  and  slightly  putrid  scent.  In  this 
state  we  have  known  it  to  be  recovered  and 
rendered  available  by  adding  a  tea  spoonful  of 
flour,  the  same  of  sugar,  a  salt  spoonful  of  salt, 
and  a  tea  cupful  of  warm  water,  to  a  half  pint  of 
yeast,  and  setting  it  near  the  tire  to  rise,  having 
well  stirred  it.  This  should  be  done  about  an 
hour  before  it  is  intended  to  be  mixed  with  the 
flour;  for  that  time  is  required  in  order  to  watch 
whether  the  fermentative  principle  is  strong 
enough  to  work  the  bread.  In  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  the  mass  will  have  nearly  reached  its 
height,  and  a  fine  head  will  have  formed.  This 
must  be  looked  at  carefully.  If  it  continue  up 
and  appear  opaque,  it  may  be  trusted  ;  but  if  it 
'  go  back,'  that  is,  sink,  look  hollow  and  watery, 
and  the  bubbles  break,  it  will  infallibly  spoil  the 
batch;  it  must  be  thrown  away.  Ihaii  ought 
always  to  be  uhcJ,  however  fresh  and  good  the 
ferment  may  be  found.  Bran  contains  an  acid 
principle  which  tends  to  subdue  the  bitter  taste 
of  the  hop, and  it  also  possesses  much  fermentative 
matter  that  assists  the  action  of  the  yeast."  In 
this  way,  "  we  have  ourselves  baked  bread  that 
was  made  with  the  barm  from  our  own  home- 
brewed beer  for  six  successive  weeks  ;  not  from 
necessity,  but  in  order  to  ascertain  the  extent  of 
time  to  which  yeast  might  be  kept  sweet."* 

1886.  On  the  propriety  of  fermenting  bread, 
Dr  Robert  D.  Thomson  conceives  that  there  are 
materials,  the  use  of  which  in  baking  bread  would 
be  more  economical  than  fermentation.  "  Bread," 
he  observes  "  may  be  made  either  by  the  usual 
process  of  fermentation,  or  by  the  action  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  uponsesquicarbonate  of  soda.  In  many 
respects  the  latter  process  deserves  the  preference, 
when  we  consider  the  chemical  nature  of  the  two 
methods.  The  vulgar  idea,  which  yields  the 
palm  of  superiority  to  the  former,  does  not 
appear  to  be  based  on  solid  data ;  and  it  seems 
desirable  that,  iu  a  case  of  so  much  importance  in 
domestic  economy,  the  arguments  in  favour  of 
such  an  opinion  should  be  subjected  to  a  careful 
experimental  examination.  Judging  a  priori,  it 
does  not  seem  evident  that  flour  should  become 
more  wholesome  by  the  destruction  of  one  of  its 
important  elements,  or  that  the  vesicular  condi- 
tion engendered  by  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid 
from  that  source,  should  at  once  convert  dough 
(if  it  were  unwholesome)  into  wholesome  bread. 

1887.  "When  a  piece  of  dough,"  continues 
Dr  Thomson,  "  is  taken  in  the  hand,  being  ad- 
hesive, and  closely  pressed  together,  it  feels 
heavy,  and  if  swallowed  in  the  raw  condition,  it 
would  prove  indigestible  to  the  majority  of  indi- 
viduals. This  would  occur  from  its  compact 
nature,  and  from  the  absence  of  that  disintegra- 
tion of  its  particles,  which  is  the  primary  step  ia 


*  Quarterly  Journal  o/  Agriculture,  vol.  ix.  p.  200. 


440 


PRACTICE— AVTNTER. 


digestion.  But,  if  the  same  dough  were  subjected 
to  the  elevated  heat  of  a  baker's  oven,  450°,  its 
relation  to  the  digestive  powers  of  the  stomach 
Would  be  changed,  because  the  water  to  which 
it  owed  its  tenacity  would  be  expelled,  and  the 
only  obstacle  to  its  complete  division,  and  conse- 
quent subserviency  to  the  solvent  powers  of  the 
animal  system,  would  be  removed.  This  view  of 
the  case  is  fully  borne  out  by  a  reference  to  the 
form  in  which  the  flour  of  the  various  species  of 
the  Cfri'atia  is  employed  as  an  article  of  food  by 
different  nations.  By  the  peasantry  of  Scotland, 
barley-bread,  oat-cakes,  pease-bread,  or  a  mixture 
of  peas  and  barley-bread,  and  also  potato-bread 
mixed  with  flour,  are  all  very  generally  employed 
in  an  unfermented  form,  with  an  effect  the  re- 
verse of  injurious  to  health.  With  such  an 
experience  under  our  daily  observation,  it  seems 
almost  unnecessary  to  remark,  that  the  Jew  does 
not  labour  under  indigestion  when  he  has  substi- 
tuted, during  his  Passover,  unleavened  cakes  for 
his  usually  fermented  bread  ;  that  biscuits  are 
even  employed  when  fermented  bread  is  not  con- 
sidered sufficiently  digestible  for  the  sick  ;  and 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of 
India,  and  of  Affghanistan,  very  generally  make 
use  of  unfermented  cakes,  similar  to  what  are 
called  scones  in  Scotlantl.  Such,  then,  being 
sufficient  evidence  in  favour  of  wholesomeness  of 
unfermented  bread,  it  becomes  important  to  dis- 
cover in  what  respect  it  differs  from  fermented 
bread.  Bread-making  being  a  chemical  process, 
it  is  from  chemistry  alone  tliat  we  can  expect  a 
solution  of  this  questiou." 

1888.  After  describing  the  usual  mode  of  baking 
loaf-bread,  Dr  Thomson  proceeds  to  argue  that 
"  the  result  gained  by  this  process  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  merely  the  expansion  of  the  par- 
ticles of  which  the  loaf  is  composed,  so  as  to 
render  the  mass  more  readily  divisible  by  the 
preparatory  organs  of  digestion.  But  as  this 
object  is  gained  at  a  sacrifice  of  the  integrity  of  the 
flour,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  interest  to  ascertain 
the  amountof  loss  sustained  in  the  process.  To  de- 
termine this  point,  I  had  comparative  experiments 
made  upon  a  large  scale  witli  fermented  and  unfer- 
mented bread.  The  latter  was  raised  by  means 
of  carbonic  acid,  generated  by  chemical  means  in 

the  dough The  result  of  my  experiments 

upon  the  bread  produced  by  the  action  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  upon  carbonate  of  soda,  has  been, 
that  in  a  sack  of  flour  there  was  a  difference  in 
favour  of  the  unfermented  bread,  to  the  amount  of 
30  lbs.  13  oz. ;  or,  in  round  numbers,  a  sack  of 
flour  would  produce  1U7  loaves  of  unfermented 
bread,  and  only  100  loaves  of  fermented  bread  of 
the  same  weight.  Hence,  it  appears  that  in  a 
sack  of  flour,  by  the  common  process  of  baking, 
7  loaves,  or  6J  per  cent  of  the  flour,  are  driven 
into  tlie  air  and  lost. 

1889.  "  An  important  question  now  arises  from 
the  considerationof  the  result  of  this  experiment. 
Does  the  loss  arise  entirely  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  sugar,  or  is  any  other  element  of  the  flour 
attracted  1  It  appears  from  a  mean  of  8  analyses 


of  wheat-flour  from  different  parts  of  Europe 
by  Vanquelin  (1872)  that  the  quantity  of  sugar 
contained  in  flour  amounts  to  5  61  per  cent.  But 
it  is  obvious  that,  as  the  quantity  lost  by  baking 
exceeded  this  amount  by  nearly  one  percent,  the 
loss  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  removal 
merely  of  the  ready  formed  sugar  of  the  flour. 
We  must  ascribe  this  entire  loss  to  a  conversion 
of  a  portion  of  the  gum  of  the  flour  into  sugar, 
and  its  decomposition  by  means  of  the  ferment, 
which  is  highly  probable; or  we  must  attribute  it 
to  the  action  of  the  yeast  upon  another  element 
of  the  flour.  And  if  we  admit  that  yeast  isgener- 
ated  during  the  panary  fermentation,  tlien  the 
conclusion  would  be  inevitable,  that  another 
element  of  the  flour  beside  the  sugar  or  gum  has 
been  affected  ;  for  Liebig  has  well  illustrated 
tlie  fact,  that  when  yeast  is  added  to  wort, 
ferment  is  formed  from  the  gluten  contained  ia 
it;  at  the  same  time  the  sugar  is  decomposed  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  >«'ow,  in  the  panary 
fermentation,  which  is  precisely  similar  to  the 
fermentation  of  wort,  we  might  naturally  expect 
that  the  gluten  of  the  flour  would  be  attracted  to 
reproduce  yeast," 

1890.  Dr  Thomson  has  given  the  following 
recipe  for  making  good  unfermented  bread  : — 

"  Take  of— 

Flour,        .  .  .  41hs. 

Supercarbonate  of  soda  of  the 

shops,      ...  5^  drachms. 

Muriatic  acid,  .  .  6A 

Salt,  ...  5" 

\\  ater,        .  .  .  3-t  oz. 

Tlie  soda  is  first  mixed  with  the  flour  very  inti- 
mately. The  salt  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  and 
added  to  the  acid,  the  whole  being  then  rapidly 
mixed  as  in  common  baking.  The  bread  may 
either  be  baked  in  tins,  or  be  formed  like  cottage 
loaves,  and  should  be  kept  from  one  to  1%to  hours 
intheo^en.  Should  the  bread  prove  yellow,  it 
is  a  proof  that  the  soda  has  been  in  excess,  and 
indicates  tlie  propriety  of  adding  a  small  addi- 
tional portion  of  acid,  the  acid  varying  somewhat 
in  strength."  * 

1891.  Professor  Johnston  mentions  a  curious 
fact  as  regards  the  action  of  yeast.  "One  of 
the  most  satisfactory  experiments  in  proof  of 
the  organised  or  vegetable  character  of  yeast 
has  lately  been  made  by  Ludersdorf.  He  rubbed 
yeast  carefully  in  a  mortar  till,  when  seen  under 
the  microsco]>e,  all  tlie  globules  had  disappeared, 
and  then  mixed  it  with  a  solution  of  sugar.  It 
caused  no  trace  of  fermentation,  while  an  equal 
weight  of  unrubbed  yeast  in  another  similar 
solution  of  sugar  occasioned  a  copious  evolution 
of  gas.  The  fermentation  brought  on  by  yeast 
is  not,  therefore,  a  purely  chemical  process,  it  is 
the  result  of  the  organisation  of  the  particles  of 
yeast.  A  similar  exjieriment  had  sh«wn  De 
Saussure  that  the  leaves  of  plants  cease  to  de- 
compose carbonic  acid  when  their  organi>ation  is 
de^troyed  ;  and  Freny  has  made  the  same  obser- 
vation' in  regard  to  the  skins  of  fruits.  While 
the  result   is  purely  chemical,  therefore,  the  im- 


Thomson's  Retearches  on  the  Food  of  AnimaU,  p.  180-5. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


441 


mediate  cause  in  all  these  cases  is  the  surface  of 
the  organised  body."* 

1892.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  Raspail, 
who  used  the  microscope  to  so  great  advantage 
to  chemical  investigation  and  elucidation,  had 
no  idea  of  the  organic  structure  of  yeast.  He 
observes  "  1  regard  ferment  as  a  mixture  of 
gluten  still  unchanged,  and  of  the  residue  result- 
ing from  the  change  produced  on  it  by  the  process 
of  fermentation.  Do  the  gluten  and  the  sugar 
act  on  each  other  in  this  case,  either  chemically 
or  physically,  by  a  kind  of  double  decomposition, 
or  do  they  act  in  a  manner  resembling  the 
galvanic  influence  of  contact  ?  This  is  a  point 
which  science  has  not  yet  (in  the  year  1834, 
when  the  translation  of  this  work  was  published) 
been  able  to  determine. "+ 

1893.  It  is  assumed  by  some  people,  that  a 
mixture  of  potatoes  amongst  wheateu  flour  ren- 
ders bread  lighter  and  more  wholesome.  That 
it  will  make  bread  whiter,  I  have  no  doubt  ; 
but  I  have  as  little  doubt  that  it  will  render  it 
more  insipid,  and  it  is  demonstrable  that  it 
makes  it  dearer  than  wheaten  flour.  Thus, 
take  a  bushel  of  "  seconds"  flour,  weighing  56 
lbs.  at  5s.  6d.  A  batch  of  bread,  to  consist  of 
21  lbs.,  will  absorb  as  much  water,  and  require 
as  much  yeast  and  salt,  as  will  yield  7  loaves,  of 
4  lbs.  each,  for  2s.  4d.,  or  4d.  per  loaf.  *'  If, 
instead  of  7  lbs.  of  the  flour,  the  same  weight  of 
raw  potatoes  be  substituted,  with  the  hope  of 
saving  by  the  comparatively  low  price  of  the 
latter  article,  the  quantity  of  bread  that  will  be 
yielded  will  be  but  a  trifle  more  than  would  have 
been  prodacfd  from  14  lbs.  of  flour  only,  without 
the  addition  of  the  7  lbs.  of  potatoes  ;  for  the 
starch  of  this  root  is  the  only  nutritive  part,  and 
we  have  proved  that  but  one-seventh  or  one- 
eighth  of  it  is  contained  in  every  pound,  the 
remainder  being  water  and  innutritive  matter. 
Only  20  lbs.  of  bread,  therefore,  instead  of  28 
lbs.,  will  be  obtained  ;  and  this,  though  white, 
will  be  comparatively  flavourless,  and  liable  to 
become  dry  and  sour  in  a  few  days  ;  whereas, 
without  the  latter  addition,  bread  made  in  pri- 
vate families  will  keep  rrell  for  3  weeks,  though, 
after  a  fortnight,  it  begins  to  deteriorate,  espe- 
cially in  the  autumn."  The  calculation  of  com- 
parative cost  is  thus  shown  : — 

Flour,  141bs.,  sayat  l^d.  per  lb.,      =     Is.  5.Jd. 
Potatoes,  7  lbs.,  say  at  5s.  per  sack,  =     02 
Yeast  and  fuel,         .         .         .         =     0     4J 


2s.  Od. 


The  yield,  20  lbs.,  or  5  loaves  of  4  lbs.  each,  will 
be  nearly  5d.  each,  which  is  dearer  than  the 
wheaten  loaves  at  4d.  each,  and  the  bread  be- 
sides of  inferior  quality. 

1894.  "  There  are  persons  who  assert — for  we 
have  heard  them — that  there  is  no  economy  in 
baking  at  home.  An  accurate  and  constant  atten- 
tion to  the  matter,  with  a  close  calculation  of 


every  week's  results  for  several  years — a  calcu- 
lation induced  by  the  sheer  love  of  investigatioa 
and  experiment — enable  us  to  assure  our  readers, 
that  again  is  invariably  made  of  from  l^d.  to  2d. 
on  the  4  lb.  loaf.  W  all  be  intrusted  to  servants, 
we  do  not  pretend  to  deny  that  the  waste  may 
neutralise  i\\e  profit ;  but,  with  care  and  investi- 
gation, we  pledge  our  veracity  that  the  saving 
will  prove  to  be  considerable.":):  These  are  the 
observations  of  a  lady  well  known  to  me. 

1895.  The  microscope  has  ascertained  the 
structure  of  wheaten  flour.  "  The  largest  grain3 
of  the  fecula  of  wheat,"  says  Raspail,  "  do  not 
generally  exceed  '002  of  an  inch  in  size.  They 
are  spherical,  and  along  with  them  we  see  empty 
and  torn  membranes,  resulting  from  the  bruising 
of  the  grains  by  the  mill.  They  are  much 
smaller,  rounder,  and  better  preserved,  when 
they  are  extracted  from  the  grain  while  it  is 
greenish,  and  not  ripened  on  the  stalk.  .  .  Pani- 
fication,"  he  observes,  "  is  a  process  whose  object 
is  to  burst  all  the  grains  of  iecula,  which  are  in 
the  farina,  associated  with  a  very  fermentable 
substance  called  gluten.  The  finest  and  best 
baked  bread  is  what  is  made  of  farina  abound- 
ing in  an  elastic  gluten  ;  for  this  gluten,  rising 
in  large  blisters  by  the  dilatation  of  the  gases 
imprisoned  within  it,  allows  each  feculent  grain 
to  participate  in  the  communication  of  the  heat, 
and  to  burst,  as  it  would  by  boiling.  Hence,  after 
panification,  if  the  paste  has  been  well  kneaded, 
we  do  not  find  a  single  grain  of  fecula  entire. 
The  bread  will  be  duller  and  less  properly  baked, 
if  it  contains  less  of  this  gluten.  This  is  the 
reason  why,  other  circumstances  being  alike,  the 
bread  of  rye  and  barley  is  less  nourishing  than 
that  of  wheat.  Wheaten  bread  will  likewise  be 
heavier  and  less  perfect,  according  as  the  flour 
has  been  more  or  less  mixed  with  other  grain  or 
with  fecula.  It  has  been  observed,"  he  con- 
tinues, "  that  the  more  of  foreign  fecula  we  mix 
with  flour,  the  less  increase  of  weight  does  the 
bread  acquire.  Thus,  G  lbs.  of  flour  produce 
8  lbs.  of  bread  ;  but  3  lbs.  of  fecula  of  the 
potato,  with  3  lbs.  of  flour,  produce  only  6  lbs. 
of  bread.  The  reason  of  this  is  the  following  : — 
The  grains  of  fecula  do  not  imbibe  the  water, 
but  only  are  moistened  by  it  ;  in  other  words,  it 
only  adheres  to  them.  The  gluten,  on  the  other 
hand,  imbibes  it  as  a  sponge  would  do,  and  the 
more  it  is  kneaded  the  more  it  imbibes,  and  the 
water  thus  imbibed  adds  to  the  weight  of  the 
bread.  There  are  two  reasons,  then,  against  this 
sort  of  mixture  ;  and  this  adulteration,  though 
it  be  not  a  crime,  is  still  a  fraud,  because  the 
immediate  result  of  it  is  to  diminish  at  once  the 
weight  and  the  nutritive  quality  of  the  bread." 
Thus  the  minutest  scientific  research  corrobo- 
rates facts  evolved  by  practice. 

1896.  Wheat  contains  more  ijlutcn  than  any  of 
the  other  grains,  and  it  is  this  substance  which 
confers  the  relative  value  on  wheat  as  an  article 
of  food.  It  is  most  developed  when  used  in  the 
form  of  bread.     '•  If  we   prepare  two  masses  of 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  41 1,  note. 
•J*  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistry,  p.  334.         J  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ix.  p.  584-9. 


ii2 


PRACTICE— WINlTiR. 


glnten  by  kneading,  says  Raf^pail,  "  we  shall 
not  be  able  to  make  them  unite  by  simple  con- 
tact ;  but  if  we  tear  open  the  side  of  each,  and 
bring  the  edges  tugether,  the  smallest  effurt  will 
be  sufficient  to  unite  the  two  masses  into  one. 
The  object  of  kneading,  then,  is  to  press  the  two 
edges  of  the  glutinous  parcels  against  each 
other.  Hence  tiie  quantity  of  gluten  will  vary 
according  to  the  mode  of  kneading  employed. 
Thu*  Beccaria,  who  contented  himself  with 
placing  the  farina  in  a  sieve,  and  keeping  it 
under  a  stream  of  water,  but  without  stirring  it, 
obtained  less  gluten  than  Kesselmeyer,  who  in 
the  first  place  made  a  paste  of  the  farina,  and 
then  kneaded  it  continually  under  a  stream  of 
water,  till  the  water  ceased  to  pass  off  milky. 
In  the  former  process,  the  weight  of  the  water 
falling  on  the  farina  brought  a  few  parcels  to- 
gether, but  kept  asunder  or  disunited  the  greater 
number,  which  consequently  passed  through  the 
sieve,  la  the  second  process,  on  the  contrary, 
the  hand  in  kneading  compressed,  turned  in 
every  direction,  aud  brought  together  by  every 
point  of  contact,  the  scattered  parcels,  and 
scarcely  allowed  the  water  to  carry  off  any 
thing  but  the  round  and  smooth  grains  of  fecula. 
I  have  ever  found  that,  in  this  process,  we 
obtain  more  or  less  gluten,  according  as  the  paste 
is  pressed  in  different  ways  ;  for  when  it  is 
merely  compressed  perpendicularly,  we  lose  a 
good  deal  more  of  the  gluten  than  when  it  is 
rolled  upon  itself  with  some  force." 

1897.  In  regard  to  the  nutrithe  properties  of 
plati'n,  there  is  no  doubt  they  are  of  a  superior 
order,  though  not  for  the  reason  ascribed  by 
Magendie,  who  concluded  that  gluten  is  nutri- 
tious because  sugar,  which  contains  uo  nitrogen, 
could  not  support  dogs  in  life  beyond  a  certain 
time  ;  while  Parmentier  was  led  to  infer  that 
gluten  remains  undigested.  *'  But  who  does  not 
perceive,"  justly  asks  Ra.-^pail,  "  that  animals, 
till  then  accustomed  to  live  on  flesh,  must  suffer 
on  being  all  at  once  deprived  of  tuis  aliment, 
just  as  a  horse  would  suffer  from  being  fed  on 
flesh  instead  of  hay  ;  for  as  digestion  i^-  a  com- 
plex operation,  why  should  we  seek  to  study  it 
by  violating  its  elements  ?  Sugar  will  not  fer- 
ment by  itself — why,  then,  ex|>cct  that  it  should 
ferment  without  albumen  in  the  stomach  I  If 
this  mode  of  experimenting  entitle  us  to  erase 
sugar,  oil,  and  gum  from  the  list  of  nutritive 
substances,  we  must  also  erase  pure  gluten,  and 
even  pure  albumen  ;  for  if  an  animal  be  fed  on 
them  alone,  it  will  die  just  as  certainly  as  if  it 
had  been  fed  exclusively  on  sugar.  This  is  one 
of  those  questions,"  he  concludes,  "in  which 
both  sides  are  wrong,  and  the  truth  lies  in  blend- 
ing the  opposite  opinions  together.  Neither 
gluten  nor  sugar,  taken  singly,  is  nutritive  ;  but 
they  become  alimentary  when  united."* 

1898.  Notwithstanding  the  reasonableness  of 
these  remarks  of  Raspail,  certain  experimenters 
insist  that  the  nutritive  value  of  bread  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  gluten  it  contains  ; 
and  in  like  manner  they  determine    the   value 


of  wheat,  because  certain  varieties  of  foreign 
wheat  are  used  by  our  bakers  to  mix  with  our 
own  wheat, and,  it  being  found  that  those  varie- 
ties of  foreign  wheat  contain  more  gluten  than 
certain  other  varieties  of  British  wheat,  the 
conclusion  is  formed,  without  the  investigation 
of  other  circumstances,  that  a  mixture  of  foreign 
wheal  is  at  all  times  necessary  to  enable  our 
bakers  to  make  the  finest  quality  of  nutritious 
bread.  Thus,  Sir  George  .Mackenzie,  Bjrt.,  in  a 
recent  pamphlet,  that  may  be  regarded  as  a 
supplement  to  another  one  which  appeared 
from  his  pen  at  a  former  period,  on  a  kindred 
subject,  observes  that  "  Each  of  these  varieties 
(of  wheat)  differ  from  the  rest  in  its  habits  of 
growth  and  in  productiveness,  and  above  all  in 
its  degree  of  fitness  for  the  purposes  of  the 
baker.  Now,  it  is  or  ought  to  be  well  known 
that  the  baker  rannot  use  home-grown  wheat  by 
itself,  on  account  of  its  deficiencies  in  certain 
qualities.  He  has  therefore  to  procure,  from 
foreign  countries,  wheat  possessing  those  qualities 
in  a  high  degree,  to  mix  with  that  of  home 
growth,  to  enable  him  to  produce  good  bread. 
Much  has  been  said  of  rendering  Great  Britain 
ijidependent  of  foreign  supply.  But  it  has  been 
a  sad  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  can  be  done 
by  increasing  merely  the  quautitxi  of  home  pro- 
duce. Let  that  be  done  to  any  amount — still,  if 
nothing  el-e  be  attended  to,  quantity  will  not 
render  us  independent.  We  must  liave  ijualitji 
too.  The  only  means,  by  the  application  of 
which  we  can  hope  to  become  comparatively 
independent,  has  been  furnished  by  organic 
chemistry.  I  believe  I  was  the  first  to  call 
attention  to  this  ;  but  I  have  called  hitherto  in 
vain,  so  difflcult  is  it  to  expel  old  not;oiis  and 
prejudices,  and  to  substitute  knowledge  derived 
from  fact  and  experience,  .\draitting  the  fact 
that  the  baker  nui?t  have  foreign  wheat,  the 
question  arises,  what  can  be  done  to  render  it 
unnece>sary  for  the  baker  to  import  it  ?  The 
answer  is,  lo  produce  wheat  at  home  of  timilar 
qnolity.  It  is  not  manures,  it  is  not  soil,  it  is 
not  the  most  careful  draining  and  cultivation,  that 
will  render  the  wheats  now  cultivated  so  much 
better  as  to  supersede  foreign  wheat.  We  may 
produce  finer-looking  aud  more  abundant  crops, 
but  we  cannot  change  the  inherent  qualities  of 
any  wheat.  What,  then,  is  to  be  done  ?  is  the 
next  question.  We  must  first  ascertain  ichit  it 
is  that  renders  foreign  wheat  superior  to  our 
own,  for  the  purpose  of  making  bread.  For  the 
answer  we  must  apply  to  the  cfiemift.  He  pro- 
ceeds, first,  to  determine  the  proportions  of  the 
different  component  parts  of  foreign  wheat. 
This  done,  he  subjects  the  varieties  of  wheat 
grown  at  home  to  the  same  processes,  and  finds 
that  the  proportions  of  certain  ingredients  of 
foreign  grain  are  greater  in  reference  to  others 
than  in  the  home-grown  wheat.  This  di-covery 
having  been  made,  and  as  we  know  that  foreign 
wheat  has  been  grown  in  this  country,  and/tiiVt-rf 
to  give  satisfaction,  we  must  not  sit  still,  under 
the  impression  that  our  climate  will  not  admit  of 
wheat  being  grown  equal  in  quality  to  foreign. 
It  may  be — perhaps  is — quite  true,  that  most  of 


Raspail's  Organic  Cltemistri/,  p.  114,  130,  18-2,  and  396. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


443 


the  varieties  of  wheat  cultivated  abroad  will  not 
succeed  with  us.  But  to  conclude,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  that  we  cannot  produce 
any  wheat  equally  good  as  foreign  grain,  ia 
absurd.  There  are  many  varieties  of  wheat, 
and  new  ones  may  be  raised  ;  and  I  maintain 
that  if,  possessing  a  small  farm  of  its  own,  with 
a  proper  establishment,  an  association  proceed 
to  collect  varieties  of  wheat  of  the  best  charac- 
ter, to  analyse  them,  and  select  the  best  sorts, 
and  to  try  them  on  a  farm  of  their  own,  in 
reference  to  soil  and  climate,  some  may  be  found 
adapted  to  our  climate,  and  suited  in  all  re- 
spects to  the  farmer  and  baker — for  the  farmer 
also  must  have  wheat  possessing  certain  quali- 
ties. In  the  search,  the  chemist  would  have  to 
be  constantly  applied  to,  and  the  closest  attention 
would  have  to  be  bestowed  by  a  botanical  phy- 
siologist on  the  growth  and  habits  of  the  varie- 
ties under  trial.  The  soil,  of  course,  would  have 
to  be  examined,  the  various  manures  applied, 
and  the  results  registered.  A  meteorological 
register  should  also  be  kept,  and  observations 
made  of  the  effects  of  the  weather.  If  among 
known  varieties  we  cannot  find  one  to  answer 
expectation,  then  we  must  resort  to  hybridisation, 
which,  being  judiciously  managed,  will  doubtless 
yield  some  new  varieties  adapted  to  our  views."* 

1899.  It  may  be  fully  admitted,  that  British 
bakers  mix  foreign  among  our  own  wheat  in 
making  bread  ;  but  the  practice  is  confined  to  the 
bakers  resident  in  large  towns,  where  foreign 
wheat  can  be  easily  obtained  at  any  time.  The 
bakers  in  the  country  towns  and  villages  never 
use  foreign  wheat,  except,  it  may  be,  under  the 
peculiar  circumstance  of  a  scarcity  of  wheat 
in  our  own  country.  The  reason  why  even 
bakers  in  large  towns  use  foreign  wheat  at 
all  is,  not  that  the  British  wheat  is  of  inferior 
qu<il'itij  to  the  foreign,  but  that  the  foreign  wheat, 
at  the  commencement  of  winter,  is  in  a  better 
condition  for  grinding  into  ilour  than  the  British. 
The  foreign  wheat  used  by  our  bakers  is  almost 
wholly  brought  from  the  ports  of  the  Baltic, 
and  the  practice  of  the  farmers  and  dealers  in 
grain,  in  that  part  of  the  Continent,  is  to  prepare 
their  wheat  for  shipment  by  kiln-drying.  If  it 
were  not  kiln-dried,  it  would  most  likely  heat, 
and  be  thereby  injured  on  board  ship.  The  kilns 
used  there  for  drying  grain  are  quite  of  a  diff'erent 
construction  from  ours.  They  consist  of  a  double 
cone  of  iron,  the  inner  one  being  of  cast  iron, 
in  which  the  fire  is  lighted — the  outer  one  con- 
sisting of  sheet  iron.  The  wheat  is  i)assed  in  a 
thin  stream  upon  the  cast-iron  heated  cone,  be- 
tween the  double  cones,  and  the  steam  derived 
from  the  water  evaporated  from  the  grain,  issues 
at  the  top  between  the  cones.  It  is  known  to 
all  farmers  and  millers,  that  British  wheat  is  too 
damp  or  raw  to  be  ground  into  flour  daring  the 
winter.  The  month  of  Alarch  must  first  pass 
away  ere  the  wheat  of  this  country  is  dry  enough 
to  be  ground  by  itself  into  flour.  It  could  be 
kiln-dried,  no  doubt;  and- though  our  kilns  are 
not  suited  for  drying  it  properly — either  smoking 


or  roasting  it  too  much — kilns  like  those  of  the 
Continent  could  easily  be  constructed  here  for 
the  purpose.  But  there  exists  a  strong  dislike 
on  the  part  of  both  our  bakers  and  millers  to  use 
kiln-dried  wheat  by  itself.  The  bakers  aver 
that  the  flour  retains  a  flavour  of  the  kiln,  which 
even  the  process  of  fermentation  in  baking  does 
not  altogether  dissipate  ;  and  the  millers  truly 
assert  that  kiln-dried  wheat  is  too  free  for  their 
millstones,  the  grain  splintering  to  pieces  before 
the  bran  is  shelled  off.  The  foreigners  kiln-dry 
their  wheat,  because  the  process  renders  it  safe 
for  exportation  by  sea;  and  as  they  use  no  wheat 
flour  for  bread,  they  are  not  interested  in  pre- 
serving the  natural  taste  of  the  flour,  or  the 
best  state  of  the  grain  for  grinding.  While, 
therefore,  the  British  wheat  cannot  be  ground 
into  flour  by  itself  in  winter,  and  the  foreign 
wheat  cannot  bear  the  action  of  the  stones  by 
itself,  the  baker  and  miller  have  no  alternative 
but  to  mix  the  raw  British  wheat  in  winter  with 
the  dry  kiln-dried  foreign  wheat  ;  and  the  mixing 
secures  the  double  advantage  of  drying  the  raw 
wheat  by  means  of  the  kiln-dried,  while  the 
kiln-dried  is  softened  by  being  in  contact  for  a 
time  with  the  raw.  The  proportion  in  which 
the  two  states  of  wheat  are  mixed  varies  from 
one-third  to  one-sixth  of  the  foreign  kiln-dried, 
according  to  the  state  of  rawness  of  the  British 
wheat.  The  expediency  of  using  foreign  wheat  at 
all  by  the  baker  arises,  if  not  solely,  in  a  great 
part  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  miller,  tlie 
dressing  of  whose  millstones  is  unsuited  equally 
to  grinding  wheat  in  a  raw  or  brittle  state. 

1900.  As  to  the  superiority  of  foreign  wheat 
in  making  the  best  bread,  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  of 
doubtful  pretension.  I  have  given  Sir  Humphry 
Davy's  (1875)  statement  of  the  wheat  of  warm 
countries  abounding  more  in  gluten — and  the  fact 
is  not  surprising,  when  we  know  the  dry  state 
in  which  foreign  wheat  is  always  sent  to  this 
country.  Professor  Johnston  states  that  English 
wheat  loses  from  15  to  17  per  cent  of  weight  by 
being  dried;  while  foreign  wheat,  from  Semitioff, 
for  e.Kample,  loses  only  13  per  cent.+  But  be 
the  proportion  of  gluten  in  foreign  wheat  what 
it  may,  it  is  not  on  account  of  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  it  that  the  baker  mixes  foreign  wheat 
with  the  British,  but  simply  to  remove  the  raw- 
ness of  the  home  wheat  by  a  process  which  will 
render  it  eminently  fit  to  be  ground  into  flour, 
witliout  the  slightest  risk  of  injuring  its  sweet- 
ness for  bread.  The  bakers  in  the  country  re- 
serve some  old  British  wheat  to  mix  with  the 
raw  of  the  new  crop,  and  they  make  as  good 
bread  therewith  as  the  bakers  do  who  use  foreign 
wheat ;  and  home  wheat,  alter  it  has  been  fairly 
dried  in  the  slack  or  granary — best  in  the  stack — 
is  ground  by  itself  into  flour,  and  makes  as  good 
broaii  as  foreign,  and  is  then  in  a  better  state 
for  grinding  by  itself  than  the  kiln-dried  foreign 
wlieat  is  by  itself. 

1901.  What,  therefore,  has  been  said  regard- 
ing the  higher  nutritive  powers  of  foreign  wheat 


*  Mackenzie's  Short  Plea,  p.  5-7. 
•f-  Johnston's  Lectures  on  AgricuUia-nl  Chemistry,  Sd  edition,  p.  867,  note. 


444 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


over  British  I  consider  to  have  arisen  from  the 
criterion  attempted  to  be  established  by  Liebig, 
and  some  other  chemists,  of  what  constitutes  the 
true  principle  of  nutrition  in  bread.  That  crite- 
rion would  maintain  that  the  greater  abundance 
of  gluten  in  a  wheat  is  a  sure  test  of  its  nutritive 
superiority.  That  some  error  lurks  in  such  a 
rule  the  followinj^  fact  indicates.  I  requested 
Professor  Johnston  to  analyse  for  uie  two  speci- 
mens of  wheat,  as  respects  their  comparatively 
nutritive  powers,  one  grown  in  1845,  the  other  in 
1846.  They  were  both  of  the  same  variety  of 
wheat,  grown  in  similar  circumstances,  as  to  soil 
and  management,  on  the  same  farm  iu  Lincoln- 
shire, and  the  analyses  stood  thus :  — 

COMPOSITION  OF  LINCOLNSHIRE  WHEAT. 

Grown      Grown 
in  Itna.    in  1846. 

Water  per  cent,        .        .        .        l-'??       13-16 

Protein  compounds,  or  muscle- 
forming  matter  in  the  whole 
grain 15-31       14-14 

Protein  compounds  in  the  whole 
grain  freed  from  hygrometric 
water,       .         •     .   •  .      •         •     1^-60       IC-JC 

Protein  compounds  in  sifted  flour 

of  grain  freed  from  water,  .     15-09       15-77 

A  note  accompanying  the  analyses  says,  that 
*' the  numbers  15'09  and  15-77  ought  not,  pro- 
perly, to  be  compared  with  each  other,  but  with 
those  immediately  above  them.  The  grain  in 
each  case  was  merely  pounded  in  a  mortar,  and, 
though  they  were  sifted  through  the  same  sieve, 
the  one  may  have  been  more  pounded  than 
the  other,  and  therefore  when  silted  may  have 
given  a  finer  flour,  containing  more  of  the  bran, 
in  which  the  excess  of  the  protein  compound 
resides."  Chemically  speaking,  the  amount  of 
the  protein  compound  is  the  test  of  the  relative 
nutritive  powers  of  these  two  samples  of  wheat, 
and  of  course  the  wheat  grown  in  1845  was 
more  nutritive,  and  ought  of  course  to  have  been 
of  more  value,  than  that  grown  in  184G.  Now, 
1845  was  an  unfavourable  season  for  the  growth 
of  good  wheat ;  the  crop  was  generally  inferior 
throughout  the  kingdom :  the  above  sample  of 
that  year  was  lean,  hungry,  and  not  unlike  the 
winnowings  of  good  wheat,  and  would  have 
made  heavy  clammy  bread  ;  and  a  corn-mer- 
chant valued  it  at  10s.  less  per  quarter  than 
the  wheat  of  184G,  which  was  beautifully  fine. 
Are  we  to  conclude,  then,  that  the  wheat  which 
makes  heavy  clammy  bread  is  more  nourishing 
than  that  which  makes  light,  spongy  bread  ? — 
that  the  corn-merchant  and  baker  do  not  know 
the  wheat  that  will  make  the  best  bread  ? — and 
tliat  no  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  e.\ternal 
characters  of  grain,  as  regards  their  nouriahing 
properties?  Certainly  not. 


or  of  powder.  The  effect  will  be  the  same, 
proviiied  the  irons  used  be  sufficiently  heat- 
ed. It  is  sufficient  to  mix  the  fecula  with  a 
little  water,  to  dip  the  linen  in  it,  clapping 
it  with  the  ha, id,  and  to  apply  the  hot  iron 
while  tlie  lineu  is  still  moist.  The  grains  of 
fecula  will  burst  from  the  action  of  the  heat,  the 
membranes  will  dilate  as  they  combine  with  a 
portion  of  the  water  that  is  present,  the  soluble 
mass  will  be  freely  dissolved  in  the  rest  of  it, 
and  the  linen  will  be  starched  and  dried  by 
one  process."  Fecula  is  used  in  making  size  for 
paper  as  well  as  glue  ;  and  "  it  is  known  that 
weavers  are  obliged,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
humidity  of  the  batter  used  in  dressing  the 
threads,  to  work  habitually  in  low,  damp,  and 
consequently  unwholesome  places.  Diibuc,  an 
apothecary  at  Rouen,  proposed  to  add  to  the 
dressing  a  deliquescent  chloride,  which,  by  at- 
tracting the  moisture  of  the  air,  might  prevent 
the  drying  of  the  batter,  and  thus  admit  of  the 
workman  carrying  on  his  labour  in  drier  and 
more-healthy  places.  Verguaud  recommends  the 
use  of  the  fecula  of  the  horse-chestnut,  which 
contains  a  proportion  of  potash  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  batter  from  drying."  *  "  The  wheat  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  in  consequence  of  the  larger 
quantity  of  gluten  it  contains,  is  peculiarly  fitted 
for  making  viucaroni  and  other  preparations  of 
flour,  in  which  a  glutinous  quality  is  considered 
as  an  excellence."  f  The  macaroni  is  formed 
into  different  sized  tubes,  by  the  dough  being 
pressed  from  a  machine  in  broad  fillets,  the  e<lges 
of  which  are  brought  into  contact  and  adliere 
while  the  dough  is  yet  moist.  Macaroni  makes 
the  finest  flavoured  dish  with  I'armesan  cheese. 

1903.  A  crop  of  wheat,  yielding  30  bushels  per 
acre, weighing  l!i001bs.,afi"ordsof  nutritive  matter 
270  lbs.  of  husk  or  woody  fibre  ;  JiOO  lbs.  of 
starch,  sugar,  ^c. ;  1 80  to  340  lbs.  of  gluten,  &c. ; 
3(>  to  7*2  lbs.  of  oil  or  fat  ;  and  36  lbs.  of  saline 
matter.  :J; 

1904.  "  It  is  a  very  remarkable  circumstance," 
as  observed  by  Dr  Lindley,  "  that  the  native 
country  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye  should 
be  entirely  unknown  ;  for  although  oats  and 
barley  were  found  by  Colonel  Chesney,  appa- 
rently wild,  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  it  is 
doubtful  whetlier  they  were  not  the  remains  of 
cultivation.  This  has  led  to  an  opinion,  on  the 
part  of  some  persons,  that  all  our  cereal  plants 
are  artificial  productions,  obtained  accidentally, 
but  retaining  their  habits,  which  have  become 
fixed  in  the  course  of  ages.  This  curious  sub- 
ject has  been  discussed  in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle 
for  1844,  p.  56'5,  779,  &c.,  whither  the  reader 
is  referred  for  farther  information."  § 


1902.  Wheat  is  used  in  .«<(irr/j-making.  "  In 
starching  linen,"  says  Raspail,  "  the  fecula  of 
the  potato,  of  the  horse-chestnut,  &c.,  may  be 
used,  as  well  as  that  of  wheat  ;  and  it  may  be 
nsed  either  hot  or  cold,  in  the  state  of  starch 

*  Raspail's  Orf/aiiic  Clicniislrif,  p.  135. 

t  Davy's  Aiiriculturnl  (luiiiisfry,  p.  136,  edition  of  1839. 

X  Johnston's  Lectvrtu  ou  A>jrict(IUir(il  ( lumhtr>j,  2d  edition,  p.  928. 

§  Lindley 's  VejctaUe  Kiriijil<im,\K  112. 


1905.  "Under  the  name  of  wheat  are  com- 
prised an  immense  number  of  varieties,  produced 
during  a  cultivation  of  many  centuries.  Two 
principal  varieties  are  usually  recognised,  viz. 
Triticum  cestitum  and  Triticuin  hibenium — sum- 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


445 


tlip  importance  of  this  precious  cereal.  The 
isodieiiiial  curve  of  OU"  or  69°,  which  appears  to 
be  the  extreme  limit  of  the  possible  cultivation 
of  wheat  towards  the  equator,  oscillates  between 
lat.  "-'0°  and  'Jo°.  The  cultivation  of  wheat  is 
very  productive  in  Chili  and  in  the  united  state 
of  Rio  de  la  I'lata.  On  the  plateau  of  southern 
Peru,  Meyer  saw  most  luxurious  crops  of  wheat 
at  a  height  of  if") 00  feet,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
volcano  of  Arequipo,  at  a  height  of  10,600  feet. 
Near  the  lake  of  Tibicaca,  (12,795  feet  high,) 
where  a  constant  spring  heat  pre va-ils,  wheat  and 
rye  do  not  ripen,  because  the  necessary  sum- 
mer lieat  is  wanting  ;  but  Meyer  saw  oats  ripen 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake."* 

1906.  Barley. — Its  botanical  position  is  the  3d 
class  Triatidr'ia,  2d  order  Diji/iiia,  genus  Hor- 
d'ldii,  of  the  Liuniean  system ;  and  in  the  natural 
order  of  Gramiiiece  by  Jussieu.  Dr  Lindley 
places  barley,  in  his  natural  system,  in  class  iv. 
Kndo(/ens;  alliance  7,  Glumahs  ;  order  29, 
Graminacece,  and  genng  \\,  Hordei,  the  same 
position  as  wheat.  Professor  Low  divides  the 
cultivated  barleys  into  two  distinctions,  namely, 
the  2-rowed  and  the  6-rowed,  and  these  com- 
prehend the  ordinary,  the  naked,  and  the  sprat 
or  battledoor  forms.f  Mr  Lawson  describes 
20  varieties  of  barley  ;i  while  the  Museum  of 
the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  contains 
specimens  of  30  varieties.  §  The  natural  classi- 
iicatioa  of  barley  by  the  ear  is  obviously  of  three 
kinds — 4-rowed,  6-rowed,  and  2-rowed.  Fig.  180 


mer  and  winter  wheat — the  limits  of  which,  both 
polar  and  equatorial,  must  differ  somewhat ;  but 
this  difference  is  not  ascertained,  because  travel- 
lers, and  even  botanists,  seldom  allude  to  the  dis- 
tinction. Wheat  is  cultivated  in  Scotland  to  the 
vicinity  of  Inverness,  (lat  58°  ;)  in  Norway  to 
Drontheim,  (lat.  64° ;)  in  Sweden  to  the  parallel 
of  lat.  62°  ;  in  western  Russia  to  the  environs  of 
St  Petersburg,  (lat.  60°  15'  ;)  while  in  central 
Russia,  the  polar  limits  of  cultivation  appear  to 
coincide  with  the  parallel  of  59°  or  60°.  Wheat 
is  here  almost  an  exclusive  cultivation,  espe- 
cially in  a  zone  which  is  limited  between  the  lati- 
tudes of  Tchernigov,  lat.  51°  and  Eeateriuoslav, 
lat.  48°.  In  America  the  polar  limits  of  wheat  are 
not  known,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  cultiva- 
tion in  the  northern  regions.  The  physical  con- 
ditions of  these  limits  are,  in  the  different  coun- 
tries where  cultivation  has  been  carried  to  the 
utmost  extent,  as  follows  :  — 

Mean  temperature,  Falir. 
Lat.    Year.   Winter.  Summer. 
Scotland,  (Ross-shire,)      58"     46°         3.50         570 
Norwav,  (Drontheim,)      64       40  25  59 

Sweden,      .         .         .62       40  25  59 

Russia,  (St  Petersburg,)    6015'38  16  61 

This  table  shows  how  little  influence  winter  cold 
has  in  arresting  the  progress  of  agriculture  to- 
wards the  north  ;  and  this  is  confirmed  in  the 
interior  of  Russia,  where  Moscow  is  much  within 
the  limits  of  wheat,  although  its  mean  winter 
temperature  is  (according  to  Sehonw)  53°  2'. 
The  spring-sown  wheat  escapes  the  cold  of 
winter,  and  wheat  sown  in  autumn  is  protected 
during  winter  by  a  thick  covering  of  snow.  The 
farther  in  advance  to  the  north,  the  more  deep 
and  enduring  is  the  covering.  The  temperature 
of  air,  during  the  severe  season,  can  therefore 
have  no  direct  action  on  plants  which  are  annual, 
or  at  least  herbaceous,  and  buried  under  the 
snow.  The  isothermal  curve  of  57°  2',  which 
appears  to  be  the  minimum  temperature  re- 
quisite for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  passes  in 
North  America  through  the  uninhabited  regions 
of  Canada.  At  Cumberland  House,  which  is  situ- 
ated in  the  middle  of  the  continent  of  North  .Ame- 
rica, in  lat.  54°  N.,  long.  102°  20'  W.,  the  officers 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  established 
a  prosperous  agriculture.  Captain  Franklin 
found  fields  of  barley,  wheat,  and  even  maize, 
(Indian  corn,)  growing  here,  notwitlistanding  the 
extraordinary  severity  of  the  winter.  The  polar 
limits  of  the  cultivation  of  wheat  is  the  more  im- 
portant, since,  during  a  part  of  their  course,  they 
Coincide  with  the  northern  limits  of  those  fruit 
trees  which  yield  cider ;  and  in  some  parts  also 
with  the  limits  of  the  oak.  Agriculture  and 
forests,  therefore,  both  undergo  a  sudden  ami 
remarkable  change  of  appearance  on  approach- 
ing the  isothere  of  57°  2'.  In  middle  and  western 
Europe,  wheat,  {I'riticum  vul<iare)  is  cultivated 
chiefly  in  the  zone  between  lat.  36°  and  50°  ; 
farther  north,  rye  [Stcale  cerenh)  is  generally 
preferred.  To  the  south  of  this  zone,  new  com- 
binations of  heat,  with  humidity,  and  the  addi- 
tion of  many  other  cultures,  sensibly  diminish 

*  Johnston's  rhi/sical  Atlas — Phytologii,  Map  No.  2. 

f  Low's  Elemeutf  of  Practical  Agriculture,  p.  244. 
X  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  33.  §  Catalogue  of  the  Museum,  p.  60. 


2-ROWKD. 


446 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


represents  the  3  forms,  where  a  is  the  4-rowed, 
or  bere  or  bigg;  e  is  the  6-rowed  ;  and  6  the 
2-rowed  ;  all  wliicli  figures  represent  the  ear  in 
balf  its  natural  size.  Of  these  the  bere  or  bigg 
was  cultivated  until  a  recent  period,  when  the 
2-rowed  has  almost  entirely  supplanted  it,  and 
is  now  the  most  commonly  cultivated  variety,  the 
6-rowed  being  rather  an  object  of  curiosity  than 
culture. 

1907.  In  classifying  barley  by  the  grain,  there 
are   just  two  kinds,  btre   or   Oi']^,   and    barley. 


Fig.  181. 


and,  though  both  are 
awned,  they  are  suffi- 
ciently marked  to  con- 
stitute distinct  varieties. 
In  the  bere,  fig.  181, 
the  median  line  of  the 
bosom  is  so  traced  as  to 
give  the  grain  a  twisted 
form,  by  which  one  of 
SCOTCH  BKRE  OR  BIGG,  jts  sides  Is  larger  than 
the  other,  and  the  lengthened  point  is  from  where 
the  awn  has  been  broken  off.  The  figures  repre- 
sent the  grain  of  the  natural  size. 


Fig.  182. 


%k 


w 


ENGLISH  BARLEY. 


1908.  In  the  barley,  fig. 
182,  the  median  line  passes 
straight,  and  divides  the 
grain  into  two  equal  sides, 
and  whose  shortness  and 
plumpness  give  it  a  cha- 
racter of  superiority.  The 
cluster  of  grain  is  of  the 
natural  size. 


1909.  The  bigg  was  long  chiefly  cultivated  ia 
Scotland,  and  a  2-rowed  variety,  under  the  name 
of  common  or  Scotch  barley,  has  long  been  in 
cultivation  ;  but  several  of  the  English  varieties 
are  now  naturalised,  and  in  their  new  sphere 
show  a  brighter  and  fairer  colour,  plumper  and 
shorter  grain,  quicker  in  the  property  of  malting, 
though  less  hardy  and  prolific,  than  the  common 
barley. 

1910.  The  crenulated  or  shrivelled  skin  across 
both  sides  of  the  median  line  in  the  English 
barley  is  a  good  criterion  of  malting  ;  and  as  most 
of  the  barley  raised  in  this  country  is  converted 
into  beer  or  spirits,  both  of  which  require  malt  to 
produce  them  of  the  finest  quality,  it  is  not  siir- 
prisinir  that  tho>e  varieties  of  barley  which  yield 
the  greatest  return  of  malt  should  always  realise 
the  highest  prices. 

1911.  A  good  crop  of  barley  yields  a  return 
of  from  48  to  60  bushels  the  imperial  acre. 
Good  barley  weighs  from  55  lbs.  to  59  lbs.  per 
bushel.  A  crop  of  CO  bushels  per  acre  will 
yield  of  stmw,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  town,  176 
stones  of  14  lbs.  to  the  stone,  or  1^*5  ton,  and 
the  weiuht  of  the  grain  of  that  crop,  at  56  lbs. 
per  bu-hel,  will  be  IJ  ton.  It  takes  of  bigg 
111  grains  to  weigh  1  drachm;  of  6-rowed 
barley,  93  ;  and  of  Chevalier  barley,  75  grains. 


Of  the  three  kinds,  the  Chevalier  is  much  the 
heaviest  ;  and  taking  the  number  of  grains  in  % 
drachm  at  75,  and  the  weight  per  bushel  57  lbs. 
the  number  uf  grains  of  Chevalier  barley  in  a 
bushel  will  be  547,200. 

1912.  By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
best  barley  grown  in  this  country  is  converted 
into  mull  tor  making  uialt  liquor  and  spirits,  and 
barley  is  also  used  for  distillation  in  the  raw  state. 
In  1831  and  1841  the  following  quantities  of 
malt  paid  duty  at  2s.  7d.  pt-r  bushel,  viz  : — 


England  and  Wales.  1  Sotlaiid.     Ireland- 


Total. 


Jiii&hels.       j  Bu^lielt-.    {  Bushels.  |     Bu»liels. 

1831  (  32,.%-3,470  4,1  >!6,9.55  2,101,8441  39,2.52,269 
Ihitv  \  i;4,l.-}l,879  £.V24,8M  £263,4.5!/  £4,i>20,l48 
1841  j  30,9.56,348  4.058,2-i6  1,l4.'t,6-.91  3 ',11  4,285 
Duty  t  £3,87.'>,7;'l  i:o08,»  90'£144, 1 10  £4,532,591 ! 


1913.  The  use  of  malt  in  this  country  has  fallen  off 
materially  during  the  last  hundred  years,  when 
compared  with  the  number  of  the  people  ;  but  it 
would  not  be  correct  to  attribute  the  circum- 
stance wholly  to  the  effect  of  taxation,  although 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  consumption  has 
been  materially  checked  by  the  duty  imposed. 
The  introduction  of  tea  and  coffee  into  extensive 
use  throughout  the  kingdom  must  necessarily 
have  interfered  with  the  consumption  of  beer  ; 
and  the  same  effect  must  have  followed  the 
increased  use  of  spirits,  only  a  small  proportion 
of  which  is  distilled  troni  malted  grain. 

1914.  An  increase  of  consumption  in  the  last 
15  years  was  occasioned  by  the  repeal  of  the 
duty  on  beer,  which,  while  it  existed,  was  in  fact 
an  additional  duty  on  malt,  but  nevertheless  the 
consumption  has  fallen  off  in  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  population,  as  thus  : — 

Consumption 

Bushels  used.  Population.        of  bushels 

per  head. 

In  1831,     39,2.52,209  24,029,702  163 

1841,      36,164,285  26,711,694  1-35 

1915.  "The  importation  of  malt  from  foreign 
countries  is  strictly  prohibited  ;  and  as  from 
some  cause  or  other,  not  very  well  understood, 
barley  brought  from  beyond  seas  cannot  be 
profitably  malted  here,  our  landowners,"  ob- 
serves >lr  Porter,  "enj'>y  the  practical  monopoly 
of  the  home  market.  The  foreign-grown  barley 
that  is  sometimes  imported  is  used  for  grinding, 
and  other  pur]>ose<  for  which  inferior  qualities 
are  adapted,  and  thereby  admits  of  a  more  ex- 
tensive use  of  the  superior  home-grown  barley 
in  the  form  of  malt.  When  the  corn  trade  was 
free,  and  tlie  duty  on  malt  was  more  reasonable 
than  it  h.is  been  of  late  years,  the  barley  districts 
of  Enuland  afforded  an  abundant  supply  of  a 
quality  adajited  to  the  use  of  the  maltster.'"* 

1916.  Pot  and  pearl  barley  are   made  from 

barley  for  culinary  purposes  ;  and  both  meal  and 


•  Porter's  Progreu  of  tkt  Nation,  p.  563-5, 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


447 


flour  are  manufactured  from  barley  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  making  unleavened  bread,  vvhioli  is  eaten 
by  the  labouring  class  in  some  parts  of  the 
country,  and  barley  bannocks  are  esteemed  a 
luxury  by  people  in  towns.  Porridge  of  barley- 
meal,  with  rich  milk,  is  accounted  a  pleasant 
and  light  supper,  and  less  heating  than  that  of 
oatmeal.  Of  the  states  of  barley  the  soft  is  best 
adapted  for  making  into  malt  and  meal,  and  the 
flinty  into  pot  barley. 

1917.  It  was  supposed  that  the  reason  for  the 
flinty  barley  makfng  the  best  pot  barley  was, 
that  it  contains  the  most  gluten  or  nitrogen;  but 
Professor  Johnston  showed  by  analysis  that  it 
contained  less  gluten  than  the  soft  barley,  in  the 
proportion  of  8-03  to  10-93. 

1918.  Though  the  composition  of  barley  is  of 
similar  materials  to  that  of  wheat,  the  whole 
grains  of  two  varieties  grown  at  Hohenheim 
contained — 

GLUTEN,  &c. 
Ordinary 
Water.        state.       Dry  state. 
Jerusalem  barley,      .     .  16.79         12.2f)         14.74 
Common  winter  barley,  13  80         15.35         17.81 

yet  barley  thus  contains  little  gluten  compared 
to  wheat.  If  barley-meal  be  made  into  a  dough, 
and  washed  with  water  upon  a  sieve,  nearly  the 
whole  passes  through,  the  husk  almost  alone 
remaining. 

1919.  The  composition  of  barley-meal  is — 


Water,  . 

Gluten,  albumen,  &c. 

Starch, 

Fatty  matter, 

Saline  matter,  or  ash. 


14 
14 
68 


100 


I  have  already  given  the  composition  of  barley 
ash  in  (1288.)* 

1920.  The  grains  of  the  fecnia  of  the  barley 
are  very  fine,  not  exceeding  .00098  of  an  inch 
in  size.  Barley  flour  only  contains  3  per  cent  of 
gluten,  and  is  tlierefore  much  less  nutritive  than 
wlieaten  flour.  The  hirdcin,  ascribed  by  Proust 
to  act  so  important  a  part  in  the  germination  of 
barley,  is  asserted  by  Raspail  to  be  notliing 
more,  under  the  microscope,  than  bran.  "  That 
this  is  the  case,"  be  says,  "  is  proved  by  dissec- 
tion ;  for  if  we  make  a  transverse  slice  of  each 
of  the  grains  of  wheat  and  barley,  we  shall 
perceive  that  the  pericarp  of  the  wheat  peels  off 
entire  like  a  circular  ban<l,  while  that  of  the 
barley  can  only  be  detached  in  very  small  frag- 
ments. Now,  what  takes  place,  under  tlie  edge 
of  the  scalpel,"  he  alleges,  "  will  also  happen 
under  the  pressure  of  the  millstones  ;  conse- 
quently, the  bran  will  be  much  more  minutely 
divided  in   the   farina  of  barley  than  in  that  of 


wheat.  In  boulting  flour,  therefore,  it  will 
remain  in  the  sieve  ;  while,  in  the  other,  its 
almost  microscopic  fragments  will  pass  through 
with  the  fecula  and  gluten,  and  will  be  almost 
inseparable,  by  mechanical  means,  from  the 
farina."  Hence,  if  pearl  barley  "  be  ground,  we 
obtain  from  it  a  farina  as  white  as  that  of  wheat, 
and  containing  only  a  very  minute  portion  of 
hordein,  equivalent  to  the  amount  of  those  frag- 
ments of  the  pericarp  which  had  been  protected 
by  their  situation  in  the  posterior  groove  of  the 
grain. "t 

1921.  "The  meal  so  highly  commended  by 
the  Greeks  was  prepared  from  barley.  .  .  . 
It  was  not  until  after  the  Romans  had  learnt  to 
cultivate  wheat,  and  to  make  bread,  that  they 
gave  barley  to  the  cattle.  They  made  barley- 
meal  into  balls,  which  they  put  down  tiie  throats 
of  their  horses  and  asses,  after  the  manner  of 
fattening  fowls,  which  was  said  to  make 
them  strong  and  lusty.  Barley  continued  to  be 
the  food  of  the  poor,  who  were  not  able  to  pro- 
cure better  provision  ;  and  in  the  Roman  camp, 
as  Vegetius  has  informed  us,  soldiers  who  had 
been  guilty  of  any  offence  were  fed  with  barley 
instead  of  bread  corn. "J 

1922.  3faltlnc/. — This  process  produces  a  con- 
siderable change  in  the  constitution  of  the  grain. 
The  bnrley  is  steeped  in  cold  water  for  at  least 
40  hours,  according  to  law.  Here  it  imbibes 
moisture,  increases  in  bulk,  and  emits  a  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  not  exceeding  2  per  cent. 
The  moisture  imbibed  is  0.47,  tlicit  is  to  say, 
every  100  lbs.  of  barley,  when  taken  out  of  the 
steep,  vi-eighs  147  lbs.  The  increase  of  bulk  is 
one-fifth,  that  is,  100  bushels  of  grain  measures 
out  120  bushels.  The  steep  water  dissolves 
from  /ij  to  iJo  of  the  husk  of  tb.e  barley,  and 
hence  barley  becomes  paler  by  steeping.  The 
steeped  barley  is  then  put  on  a  floor  in  a  heap 
16  inches  deep,  to  remain  so  for  26  hours.  It 
is  then  turned  with  wooden  shovels,  and  dimin- 
ished in  depth  to  a  few  inches  by  repeated 
turnings.  In  96  hours  the  grain  becomes  10° 
hotter  than  the  air,  and  tlien  swfats.  when  it  is 
frequently  turned,  the  temperature  being  pre- 
served in  the  grain  from  55°  to  62°.  The  roots 
now  begin  to  afipear,  the  stem  called  acroi^pire, 
springs  from  the  same  end, -and  advances  within 
tlie  husk  to  the  other  end  of  the  grain  ;  but  the 
process  of  malting  is  stopped  by  kiln-drying 
befre  the  term  has  made  much  progress.  Tiie 
kiln,  at  first  90°,  is  raised  gradually  to  140°. 
The  malt  is  then  cleaned,  and  the  rootlets  re- 
moved, as  they  are  considered  injurious,  and  are 
called  comhis.  Miilt  is  from  2  to  3  per  cent 
greater  in  bulk  than  the  barley,  and  it  loses  one 
fifth  or  20  per  cent  in  weight,  of  which  12  per 
cent  is  lost  by  drying  ;  so  the  real  loss  is  only  8 
per  cent,  accounted  for  by  the  steep  water 
carrying  away  Ij  per  cent,  dissijjated  on  the 
floor  3  per  cent,  roots  cleaned  away  3  per  cent, 
and  waste  .|  per  cent.     The  roots  take  away  the 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Aqricultural  Chemhtry,  2d  edition,  p.  881-3. 

+  Raspail's  Onja»ic  Cliemikry,  p.  120-206. 

J  Phillips'  History  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  vol.  i.  p.  50. 


448 


TRACTICE— WINTEll. 


glutinous  portion  of  the  grain,  and  the  starch  is 
converted  iuio  a  sort  of  sugar. 

1923.  Bfr. — Beer  is  a  beverage  of  great  an- 
tiquity. "The  earliest  writer  who  meiitiuiis 
6«r,"  commences  Dr  Thomson,  in  his  account  of 
the  proee.-s  of  malting,  of  which  the  foregoing 
paragraph  is  the  subsiaace,  "  is  Herodotus,  who 
waa  born  in  the  first  year  of  the  74th  Olympiad, 
or  444  years  before  the  commeuceuieiit  of  the 
Christian  era.  He  informs  us  that  beer  was  the 
common  dr.nk  of  the  Egyptians,  and  that  it  was 
manufactured  from  barley,  because  vines  did  not 
grow  in  their  country.  In  the  time  of  Tacitus, 
whose  treatise  on  the  Manners  of  the  Germans 
was  written  about  the  end  of  the  first  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  beer  was  the  common  drink  of 
the  Germans.  Pliny  mentions  beer  as  employed 
iu  Spain,  under  the  names  of  ecelia  and  ceria, 
and  in  Gaul  under  the  name  of  cervisia.  Almost 
every  species  of  corn  has  been  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  beer.  In  Europe  it  is  usually 
made  from  barUi/,  in  India  from  rice,  in  the 
interior  of  Africa,  according  to  Park,  from  the 
seeds  of  the  IIolcus  fpkatui.  But  whatever 
grain  is  employed,  the  process  is  nearly  the  same, 
and  it  is  iisjuj  in  the  first  place  to  convert  it 
into  malt.''* 

1924.  "Barley  is  cultivated  farther  north  than 
any  of  the  other  grains  :  fields  of  it  »re  seen  in 
the  northern  extremity,  in  the  Orkney  Islands, 
and  in  Shetland  (lat.  61°  >'.,)  and  even  at  the 
Faroe  Islands  (lai.  61°  to  62°  1.5'  N.)  Iceland 
(lat.  63°  30'  to  66°  N.)  does  not  produce  it, 
although  au  industrious  population  have  made 
every  exertion  to  acquire  some  species  of  cereal  ia. 
In  western  Lapland,  the  limit  of  barley  is  under 
lat.  70'  near  Cape  North,  the  northern  extre- 
mity of  Europe.  In  Russia,  on  the  shores  of 
the  White  Sea,  it  is  between  the  parallels  of 
67°  and  68°  on  the  western  side,  and  about  66° 
on  the  eastern  side,  beyond  Archangel.  In  cen- 
tral Siberia,  between  lat.  58°  and  50°.  Such  is 
the  sinuous  curve  which  limits  the  cultivation  of 
barley,  and  consequently  that  of  all  the  cereals. 
A  little  farther  north,  all  employment  of  vege- 
tables ceases,  at  least  as  an  important  object  of 
nourishment -the  people  live  on  the  product  of 
their  cattle,  as  in  the  high  Alps,  or  by  hunting 
and  fishing,  according  to  locality.  But  beyond 
the  limits  of  barley  there  occurs  a  narrow  and 
indeterminate  zone,  iu  which  certain  early  pota- 
toes are  cultivated,  and  where  the  snow  does  not 
cover  the  ground  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  prevent  the  raising  of  some  liiliens,  some 
fruits,  barks,  or  wild  roots,  fit  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  man.  As  the  introduction  of  the  potato 
is,  in  comparison  to  barley,  recent  in  these 
regions,  it  almost  every  where  forms  the  limit 
between  the  agricultural  aud  the  pastoral  or 
nomad  life.  From  the  importance  of  the  culti- 
vation of  barley  in  the  north,  it  is  evident  that 
wherever   the   human   species   has  attaiued  the 


fir-t  stage  of  civilisation,  the  attempt  will  haw 
been  made  t«  a<lvance  it  as  far  as  possible  to- 
wards the  p<de.  It,  then,  it  is  liiuited  hj  a 
sinuous  curve,  as  already  e.vplaiucd,  it  i.-  because 
circumstances  of  a  purely  |di\sical  nature  oppose 
to  it  an  instirmoiiiiiable  barrier.  A  mean  tem- 
perature of  'iS"  4'  during  summer  seems  to  be,  for 
our  c^atiueut,  the  ouly  iiidispensuble  cunditiou 
for  the  cultivation  of  barley  ;  in  the  inlands  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  summer  temperature  of 
three  or  four  degrees  higher  appears  to  be  neces- 
sary for  its  succes-.  Iceland,  ludeed,  where  this 
grain  cauuot  be  cultivated,  presents  in  its 
southern  districts  at  lleikavik,  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  37°. 4'  lor  the  year—  24°  for  the  winter, 
aud  49°. 4'  for  the  r^umnier.  It  appears  that  here 
Considerable  raui<  are  the  means  of  preventing 
the  cultivation  of  cerealia.  Thus  the  limit  of 
barley  in  the  countries  where  its  cultivation  is 
of  the  most  importance,  varies  between  46°.4' 
and  49°  of  mean  temperature,  during  summer. 
In  the  continental  regions  46". 4'  is  sufficient  ;  but 
in  the  islands  the  excessive  humidity  requires  to 
be  compensated  by  a  little  heat  in  summer. 
Barley  is  cultivated  as  an  alimentary  plant  as 
far  as  the  northern  limit  of  rye  and  oats.  Farther 
north  it  loses  its  importance,  and  is  very  little 
cultivated.  Between  the  tropics  this  cereal  does 
not  succeed  in  the  plains,  because  it  suffers  from 
heat  more  than  any  of  the  other  cultivated 
grains."  + 

1925.  O'lts. — Oats  are  cultivated  on  a  large 
extent  of  ground  in  Scotland — one-fifth  of  the 
amble  groun<l  ;  aud  it  is  believed  that  no  country 
produces  of  them  greater  crops  of  finer  quality. 
The  plant  belongs  to  the  natural  order  of  Gru- 
mtiiffr,  of  the  Ju>sieun  sy>tera,  aud  it  occupies 
the  class  Truintirin,  order  Di<iyttia,  genus 
Arena,  of  the  Linna>an  system.  In  Limiley's 
natural  system  it  occupies  class  iv.  Endogen/, 
alliance  7,  GlvmaUs,  order  29,  Gram'ttiacfce,  and 
genus  9,  Arenece.  Its  ordinary  botanical  name 
is  Arena  satira,  or  cultivated  oat.  The  terra 
oat  is  of  obscure  orifiin.  Paxton  conjectures  it 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Celtic  dan,  to 
eat.:J:  There  are  a  great  number  of  varieties  of 
this  grain  cultivated  in  this  country.  Mr  Law- 
son  describes  38  ;  §  and  54  are  deposited  in  the 
Highland   aud  Agricultural   Society's  Museum. Ii 

1926.  The  natural  classification  of  the  oat  by  the 
Fig.  183.  grain  consists  only  of  two 

forms — one  plump  and  short 
and  beardless,  as  iu  fig.  IU3, 
which  represents  grains  of 
/n     LjIV\  /Tl     the  potato-oat,  in  different 
///      W  ^A  I  1     positions,  beardless,  plump, 
smooth-skinned,  and    shin- 
ing, having  the  base,  from 
which  the  rootlets  emerge, 
THE  POTATO  OAT.      well  marked,  and  the  end 
from  which  the  germ  rises  short,  and   bluntly 
pointed. 


•  Thomson's  Ornanie  Chemistni—VegetabUr,  p.  1011-12. 
t  Johnstou's  PA^»i<-a/ j4//u»— Phytoiogy,  Map  No.  2. 
Paxton's  Botanical  Lictionsr;/,  art.  Arenn.  §   Lawson's  A<jriculturi*Vi  ManitU,  p.  44. 

U   Catalogue  of  tht  Museum,  p.  59. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


449 


1927.  The  other  form  of  grain,  fig.  184,  is  long 
and  thin,  and  has  a  tendency  to  produce   long 


Fig.  184. 


THE  WHITE  SIBERIAN 
EARLY  OAT. 


awns,  or  a  beard.  The 
specimens  are  of  the 
white  Siberian  early 
oat,  which  does  not 
grow  on  an  ear  having 
the  panicles  on  one  side 
of  the  rachis,  as  is  the 
case  withtlie  Tartarian 
oat,  fig.  186,  but  on  a 
regularly  balanced  ear, 
like  fig.  185.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  poorer 
soils  and  higher  districts,  resists  the  force  of  the 
wind,  and  yields  a  grain  well  adapted  for  the 
support  of  fiirra-horses.  The  straw  is  fine  and 
pliable,  and  makes  an  excellent  dry  fodder  for 
cattle  and  horses,  the  saccharine  matter  in  the 
joints  being  very  sensible  to  the  taste.  It  comes 
early  to  maturity,  and  hence  its  name. 

1928.  The  natural  classification  ofthe  oat  by  the 
earisobvious.    One  kind,  fig.  185,  has  its  branches 
spreading  equally 
*  'g-  ^"^-  on  all  sides,  short- 

ening gradually 
towards  the  top  of 
the  spike  in  a  coni- 
cal form,  and  the 
panicles  are  beard- 
less. This  is  the 
potato  oat.  While 
the  ear  is  yet  re- 
cent, the  branches 
are  erect,  but  as 
the  seeds  advance 
towards  maturity, 
and  become  full 
and  heavy,  they 
assume  a  depend- 
ent form.  By  this 
position,  the  air 
and  light  have  free 
access  to  the  ripen- 
ing grain,  while 
the  rain  washes  off 
the  eggs  or  larvae 
of  insects  that 
would  otherwise 
prey  upon  the 
young  seed.  This 
variety  is  exten- 
sively cutivated  iu 
Scotland  on  ac- 
count of  the  tine 
and  nourishing 
quality  of  its 
meal,  which  is 
largely  consumed 
by  its  people.  It 
is  cultivated  in 
the  richer  soils  of  the  low  country.  The  plant  is 
tender,  and  the  grain  is  apt  to  be  shaken  out  by 
the  wind.  The  straw  is  long  and  strong,  inclin- 
ing too  much  to  reediness  to  make  good  fodder. 
It  is  late  in  coming  to  maturity.  Its  peculiar 
name  of  the  potato  oat  is  said  by  one  writer  to 


THE  POTATO  OAT. 


have  been  derived  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
first  plants  having  been  discovered  growing  acci- 
dentally on  aheap  of  manure,  in  company  with 
several  potato  plants,  the  growth  of  wliich  was 
equally  accidental,*  while  another  writer  says 
plants  of  it  were  first  found  in  1789  in  Cumber- 
land, growing  in  a  field  of  potatoes.  The  ear  in 
the  figure  was  taken  from  the  stack. 

1929.  The  other  kind  of  the  ear  ofthe  oat  has  its 
panicles  shorter,  nearly  of  equal  length,  all  on  the 

Fig.  186.  s^™^    side    of 

the  rachis,  and 
bearded.  Fig. 
186,  a  head  of 
Tartarian  oat, 
taken  from  the 
stack,  repre- 
sents this  kind 
of  ear.  The 
seeds  of  this 
variety  of  form 
also  assume 
the  dependent 
form,  and  from 
this  circum- 
stance, as  Well 
as  that  of  pos- 
sessinga  beard, 
it  is  of  such  a 
hardy  nature 
as  to  thrive  in 
soils  and  cli- 
mates where 
the  other 

grains  cannot 
be  raised.  Of 
this  variety  of 
form  the  Tar- 
tarian oat  is 
most  exten- 
sively culti- 
vated, the  wild 
oat  being  re- 
garded as  a 
troublesome 
weed  amongst 
THE  TARTARIAN  OAT.  the    Cultivated 

grain.  This  variety  derives  its  name,  most  pro- 
bably, from  having  been  brought  originally  from 
Tartary.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  England,  and 
not  at  all  in  Scotland.  It  is  a  coarse  grain,  more 
fit  fur  horse-feed  than  to  make  into  meal.  The 
grain  is  dark-coloured,  awny  ;  the  straw  coarse, 
harsh,  brittle,  and  rather  short. 

1930.  The  crop  of  oats  varies  from  36  to  72 
bushels  per  imperial  acre,  according  to  the  kind, 
and  the  circumstances  of  soil  and  situation.  Oats 
vary  in  weight  from  36  lbs.  to  48  lbs.  per  bushel. 
Whiteness,  of  a  silvery  hue,  and  plumpness,  are 
the  criteria  of  a  good  sample.  The  potato  oat, 
47  lbs.  per  bushel,  gave  134  grains  to  1  drachm  ; 
the  Siberian  early  oat,  weighing  46  lbs.  per 
bushel,  gave  109  grains;  and  the  white  Tarta- 
rian oat,  weighing  42  lbs.,  gave  136  grains;  so 
that  these  kinds  respectively  will  afford  806,144, 
641,792,  and  731,136  grains  of  oats  per  bushel. 


Rhiud's  Ilistory  ofthe  Vf^etuble  Kingdom,  p.  218. 


VOL.  I. 


2f 


460 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


A  crop  of  potato  oats,  yielding  CO  busliels  to  the 
acre,  at  47  lbs.  per  bushel,  will  weigh  of  grain  1 
ton  5  cvvis.  '20  lbs.,  and  will  yield  of  straw  1  ton  5 
cwt.s.  lii  lbs.,  in  the  neiglibonrhood  of  a  large 
town  ;  or,  in  other  words,  will  yield  (5  keniplus 
of  40  windliiigs  each,  and  each  windling  9  lbs.  in 
weight.  Hut  I  have  been  made  acquainted  with 
a  crop  of  Hopetuun  oats  near  Edinburgh,  of  no 
more  than  60  bushels  to  the  imperial  acre,  yield- 
ing 2  tons  1 8  cwts.  16  lbs.  of  straw.  The  common 
oats  yield  more  straw,  in  proportion  to  the  grain, 
than  the  potato  variety.  In  particular  spots,  such 
as  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Islay,  near  Coupar- 
Angus,  1 1 4  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  of  potato 
oats,  have  been  frequently  reaped. 

1931.  The  portion  of  the  oat  crop  consumed  by 
man  is  manufactured  into  meal.  It  is  never  called 
flour,  as  the  millstones  are  not  set  so  close  in 
grinding  it  as  when  wheat  is  ground,  nor  are  the 
stones  for  grinding  oats  made  of  the  same  mate- 
rial, but  most  freijueiitly  only  of  sandstone — the 
old  red  sandstone  or  greywacke'.  Oats,  unlike 
•wheat,  are  always  kiln-dried  before  being  ground ; 
and  they  undergo  this  process  for  the  purpose  of 
causing  the  thick  husk,  in  which  the  substance  of 
the  grain  is  enveloped,  to  be  the  more  easily 
ground  off,  which  it  is  by  the  stones  being  set 
wide  asunder  ;  and  the  husk  is  blown  away,  on 
being  winnowed  by  the  fanner,  and  the  grain 
retained,  which  is  then  called  groats.  The  groats 
are  ground  by  the  stones  closer  set,  and  yield  the 
meal.  The  meal  is  then  passed  through  sieves, 
to  separate  the  thin  husk  from  tlie  meal.  The 
meal  is  made  in  two  states:  one/n<?,  which  is  the 
state  best  adapted  for  making  into  bread,  in  the 
form  called  oat-cake  or  bannocks  ;  and  tlie  other 
is  coarser  or  rounder  ground,  and  is  in  the  best 
state  for  making  the  common  food  of  the  cnuntry 
people — porridge,  .S'(;o«(ce,parritch.  A  difference 
of  custom  prevails  in  respect  to  the  use  of  these 
two  different  states  of  oatmeal,  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  the  fine  meal  being  best  liketl  tor 
all  purposes  in  the  northern,  and  the  round  or 
coarse  meal  in  the  southern  counties;  but  as  oat- 
cake is  chiefly  eaten  in  the  north, the  meal  is  there 
made  to  suit  the  purpose  of  bread  rather  than  of 
porridge  ;  whereas,  in  the  south,  bread  is  made 
from  another  grain,  and  oatmeal  is  there  used 
only  as  porridge.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
round  meal  makes  the  best  porridge,  when  pro- 
perly made — that  is,  seasoned  with  salt,  and 
boiled  as  long  as  to  allow  the  particles  to  swell 
and  burst,  wlien  the  porridge  becomes  a  pulta- 
ceous  mass.  So  made,  with  rich  milk  or  cream, 
few  more  wholesome  dishes  can  be  partaken  by 
any  man,  or  upon  which  a  harder  day's  work 
can  be  wrought.  Children  of  all  ranks  in  Sect- 
land  are  brought  up  on  this  diet,  verifying  the 
poet's  assertion, 

"  The  halesome  parritch,  chief  o'  Scotia's  food." 

IJiniNS. 

Forfarshire  has  long  been  famed  for  the  quality 
of  its  brose  and  oat-cake,  while  the  porridge  of 


the  Borders  has  as  long  been  equally  famons. 
It  is  so  every  where,  the  sharp  soil  producing  the 
finest  cake-meal,  and  clay  land  the  best  meal  for 
boiling.  Of  meal  from  the  varieties  of  the  oat 
cultivated,  that  of  the  common  Angus  oat  is  the 
most  thrifty  for  a  poor  man,  though  its  yield  in 
meal  is  less  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  corn. 

1 932.  In  regard  to  the  i/ifld  of  meal  from  any 
given  (juaulity  of  oats,  when  they  give  half  their 
weight  of  meal,  they  are  said  to  give  creu  meal. 
Supposing  a  boll  of  oats  of  G  bushels  to  weigh  16 
stones,  it  slmuld  give  It  stones  or  1 6  pecks  of  meal, 
and,  of  cour.-e,  «  stones  of  refuse  to  yield  even 
meal.  But  the  finer  class  of  oats  will  give  more 
meal  in  proportion  to  weight  than  this— some 
nearly  9  stones,  and  others  as  much  as  12  sloiies. 
The  market  value  of  oats  is  therefore  estimated 
by  the  meal  they  are  supposed  to  yield,  and,  in 
discovering  this  property  in  the  sample,  millers 
become  very  bxpert.  When  oats  yield  less  than 
even  meal  they  are  considered  to  give  ill,  or  are 
unprofitable  to  make  into  meal,  and  are  disposed 
of  for  horses,  or  kept  at  home  for  that  purpose. 

1933.  "The  farina  of  the  oat  seems,  to  the 
unassisted  eye, cottony,  or,  as  it  were,  felled,  from 
the  presence  of  an  innumerable  quantity  of  hairs 
with  which  the  seeds  are  covered,  'i'lie  grains 
of  the  fecula  have  a  size  of  about  '00276  by 
•0018  of  an  inch.  They  appear  in  general 
yellowish,  and  strongly  shaded.  Some  of  these 
have  the  appearance,  but  not  the  form,  of  the 
fecula  of  the  potato."* 

1934.  The  chemical  analysis  of  the  oat  has 
been  carefully  investigated,  within  these  few 
years,  by  Mr  Norton,  of  Nevvhaveu,in  the  United 
States  of  America,  whilst  an  assistant  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Chemistry  Association  of  Scot- 
land in  Edinburgh;  and  some  of  the  results  thus 
obtained  I  have  already  given,  such  as  the  com- 
position of  the  grain  of  the  oat  in  (1292.)  the 
per-centage  of  ash  in  it  in  (462,)  and  the  com- 
position of  the  ash  in  (1294.)t 

1935.  "  We  find  no  mention  made  of  oats  in 
Scripture,"  says  Phillips,  "  which  expressly  states 
that  Solomon's  horses  and  dromedaries  were  fed 
with  barley  ;"  but  "  the  use  of  oats  as  a  proven- 
der for  horses  appears  to  have  been  known  in 
Rome  as  early  as  the  Christian  era,  as  we  find 
that  that  capricious  and  profligate  tyrant,  Cali- 
gula, fed  Incitatug,  his  favourite  horse,  with  (lilt 
uats  out  of  a  golden  cup."  Oats  are  mixed  with 
barley  in  the  distillation  of  spirits  from  raw 
grain  ;  ar.d  "  the  Muscovites  make  an  ale  or 
drink  of  oats,  which  is  of  so  hot  a  nature,  and 
so  strung,  that  it  intoxicates  sooner  than  the 
richest  wine. "J 

1936.  "The  oat  Carena  satiraj  is  cultivated 
extensively  in  Scotland,  to  the  extreme  north 
point,  in  lat.   58°  40'.      In  Norway  its  culture 


•  Raspail's  Or(7a7ijc  C//rmi.s«rv,  p.  113. 

+  This  highly  interesting  Meiuuir  by  Mr  Norton  may  be  perused  in  the  Transactiom  of  the  High' 
land  and  Atiricultiiral  Society  for  July  1846,  p.  321-56. 
X  Phillips'  Uistorj  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  vol.  ii.  p.  9. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


451 


extends  to  lat.  56°  ;  in  Sweden  to  lat.  63°  30'. 
In  Russia,  its  polar  limits  appear  to  correspond 
with  those  of  rye.  Whilst,  in  general,  oats  is 
cultivated  for  the  feeding  of  horses,  in  Scotland 
and  in  Lancashire,  it  forms  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  usual  food  of  the  people.  This  is  also  the 
case  in  some  countries  of  Germany,  especially  in 
the  south  of  Westphalia,  where  the  inhabitants 
of  the  "  Sauerlands"  live  on  oaten  bread.  South 
of  the  parallel  of  Paris  oats  is  little  cultivated; 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  it  is  scarcely  known;  yet 
it  is  cultivated  with  considerable  advantage  in 
Bengal,  to  the  parallel  of  lat.  25°  N."* 

1937.  Oatmeal  has  long  been  the  ordinary 
food  of  the  Scottish  ploughman,  and  in  several 
districts  of  that  country  he  lives  upon  it  three 
times  a-day,  consuming  a  stone  every  week  ;  and 
a  stouter  and  more  healthy  man  cannot  be  seen. 
It  was  considered  a  rather  anomalous  circumstance 
to  find  men  thriving  as  well  on  oatmeal  as  on 
wheat  bread  and  butcher  meat  ;  but  the  anomaly 
has  been  cleared  up  by  the  investigations  of 
chemistry.  In  the  analysis  of  the  oat  in  (1292,) 
it  may  be  seen  that  the  grain  contains  fully  7 
per  cent  of  oil  or  fat,  and  17  per  cent  of  avenine — 
a  protein  compound,  as  the  gluten  of  wheat  is — 
making  together  24  per  cent  of  really  nutri- 
tive matter,  capable  of  supporting  the  loss  in- 
curred by  labour  of  the  fibrous  portion  of  the 
body.  AH  vegetables  contain  fat,  and  the 
largest  proportion  of  vegetable  fats  contain  the 
elaic  and  margaric  acids,  mixed  with  a  small 
proportion  of  the  stearic.  The  elaic  is  always  in 
a  fluid  state,  and  the  margaric  and  stearic  in  a 
solid;  and  of  the  latter  two,  the  margaric  is  much 
less,  and  the  stearic  acid  very  much  greater  in 
animal  fat  than  in  those  of  plants,  (1600.)  It  is 
by  the  dissipation  of  this  oil  or  fat  by  heat, 
in  baking,  that  the  agreeable  odour  of  the  oat- 
cake is  at  once  recognised  on  approaching  the 
humble  cottage  of  the  labouring  man. 

1938.  Dr  Robert  D.  Thomson  recommends 
that,  "  when  it  is  proposed  to  make  a  loaf  of 
oatmeal  and  flour,  the  common  oatmeal  should 
be  sifted  so  as  to  obtain  the  finest  portion  of  the 
meal,  or  it  may  be  ground  to  the  proper  consis- 
tence. This  should  be  mixed  with  an  equal 
weightof  bestflour — Canadian, for  example — and 
fermented.  I  have  not  succeeded  in  making  a 
good  loaf  with  a  smaller  amount  of  flour  than  a 
half,  although  I  have  tried  it  in  various  propor- 
tions. If  we  were  to  attempt  to  raise  oatmeal 
without  an  admixture  with  flour,  in  con^Jeqllence 
of  the  absence  of  gluten,  that  principle  which  re- 
tains the  carbonic  acid  of  fermentation,  we  should 
obtain  only  a  sad,  heavy,  doughy  piece  of  moist 
flour.  This  form  of  bread,  it  appears  to  me,  and 
to  many  wlio  have  examined  it,  would  be  a  great 
improvement  on  the  hard,  dry  oat-cakes,  so 
much  used  in  the  more  unfrequented  parts  of 
our  country,  where  the  inhabitants  have  scarcely  as 
yet  commenced  to  share  in  what  are  in  other 
localities  considered  to  be  necessaries  of  life."  + 


1939.  When  Dr  Thomson  avers,  "If  we  were 
to  attempt  to  raise  oatmeal  without  an  admixture 
with  flour,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 
gluten,  that  principle  which  retains  the  carbonic 
acid  of  fermentation,  we  should  obtain  only  a  sad, 
heavy,  doughy  piece  of  moist  flour,"  he  must 
never  have  seen  or  tasted  the  fine  barm-raised 
Fiff  18"  O'^*'"^^^  loaves,  used  with  beer,  at 
the  harvest-dinners  in  Forfarshire, 
and  which  are  relished  by  the  work- 
people there  much  better  than  the 
best  wheaten  bread.  Such  an  oat- 
loaf,  with  fresh  butter  and  new 
honey,  forms  a  most  delightful  relish 
at  the  farmer's  harvest  breakfast  or 
tea  table. 


1 940.  Bye. — Botanically,this  plant 
occupies  the  class  Trlandria,  order 
Z)ii7)/nta, genus  )SVca/e,of  the  Linna;aa 
system  ;  the  order  Gravihiece  of 
Jussieu ;  and  class  iv.  Eudo<jens,  alli- 
ance 7,  Glitmales,  order  29,  Gravii- 
vacece,  genus  1 1  S'ecafe,  of  the  natu- 
ral system  of  Lindley.  It  is  the 
Secale  cereale  of  the  botanists,  so 
called,  it  is  said,  from  d  secando,  to 
cut,  as  opposed  to  leguminous  plants, 
whose  fruits  used  to  be  gathered  by 
the  hand.  A  figure  of  the  spike  of 
rye  is  shown  in  fig.  187,  and  is  not 
unlike  the  spike  of  a  hungry  bearded 
wheat.  There  is  only  one  known 
species  of  this  plant,  which  is  said  to 
be  a  native  of  Caudia,  and  was 
known  in  Egypt  3300  years  ago;  but 
there  are  several  varieties  which  are 
raised  as  food,  4  of  which  are  de- 
scribed by  Mr  Lawson,+  and  7  to  be 
seen  in  the  Museum  of  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society .§ 


1941.  The  grains  of  rye  are  long  and  narrow, 
Fig.  188.  not  unlike  shelled  oats  or 

groats,  but  more  flinty  in 
appearance.  They  are 
shown  in  various  positions 
in  fig.  188,  and  are  of  the 
GRAiN.s  OF  RYE.       natural  size. 

1942.  The  rye  is  not  much  cultivated  in  thia 
country,  particularly  in  Scotland,  where  only  a 
patch  here  and  there  is  to  be  seen.  It  is,  how- 
ever, exten.-ively  cultivated  on  the  Continentj 
especially  in  sandy  countries,  where  it  forms  the 
principal  article  of  food  of  the  labouring 
classes. 

1943.  The  produce  of  rye  may  be  about  24 
bushels  per  acre,  and  the  weight  of  the  grain  is 
stated  at  from  52  lbs.  to  57  lbs.  per  butihel  ;  the 
number  of  grains  in  1  drachm  being  1()5,  at  55 
lbs.,  the  bushel  should  contain  1,161,600  grains. 

1944.  The  grain  of  rye,  according  to  Bous- 


*  Johnston's  J'hysicnl  Atlns, —  Phytology,  Map  No.  2. 

■j-  Thomson's  Researches  on  the  Food  of  Aniuuils,  p.  176. 

X  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  31.  §  Catalogue  of  the  Museum,  p.  62. 


452 


PRACTICE-WINTER. 


irtngault,  yields  24   per  cent  of  bran  and   ': 
flour.     The  composition  of  tlie  grain  is  : — 


6   of 


Gluten,  albumen,  &c.. 

.     10-5 

Starch,       .         .         .         . 

.    64-0 

Fatty  matter,     , 

.      3-5 

Sugar,        .          .         .         . 

,       3-0 

Gum,         .         .         .         . 

.     11-0 

F^pidennis  and  salts, 

.       6-0 

Loss,         .... 

.      2-0 

100-0 

"  The  gluten  of  rye,"  says  Dr  Thomson,  "  differs 
in  several  particulars  from  that  of  wheat.  It  is 
less  tenacious  and  more  soluble.  When  it  was 
allowed  to  ferment,  Eiuhoff  perceived  a  strong 
smell  of  nitric  acid,  which  is  peculiar  to  this 
species  of  gluten.  The  starch  of  rye  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  wheat.  Like 
tlii^  last,  it  does  not  form  a  colourless  solution 
with  boiling  water,  and  always  precipitates  at 
last,  when  the  solution  is  left  a  sufficient  time  to 
rest."* 

1P4.5.  The  grains  of  the  fecula  of  rye  meal  are 

peculiarly  shaped.  "  The  largest  grains  of  this 
fectihi,"  says  Raspail,  "  are  about  "002  of  an 
inch  in  size  ;  but  what  distinguishes  them  from 
all  the  other  varieties  is,  that  they  are  flattened, 
and  with  sharp  edges  like  discs,  and  for  the 
most  part  marked  on  one  of  their  sides  with  a 
black  cross,  or  three  black  rays  united  at  the 
centre  of  the  grain. "t 

1046.  In  a  crop  of  25  bushels  to  the  acre, 
weighing  1300  lbs.,  the  nutritive  matter  derived 
from  rye  consists  of  1 30  lbs.  to  260  lbs.  of  husk 
or  woody  fibre  ;  780  lbs.  of  starch,  sugar  &c.  ; 
130  11)3.  to  230  lbs.  of  gluten,  &c.  ;  40  lbs.  to  50 
lb.-,  of  oil  or  fat  ;  and  26  lbs.  of  saline  matter. 

1947.  The  grain  of  rye  leaves  2'425  per  cent, 
of  ash,  which  is  thus  compo-ed  : — 

Will  &  Fresenius.  Bichon. 

(ilESSEN.  CLKVKS.  MEAN. 

Pftash, 

So.la, 

Lime, 

IVIagnesia, 

Oxide  of  iron, 

Phosph<iric  acid, 

Sulphuric  acid,    . 

Silica, 


3-'-76 

1 1  -43 

■    22-n!( 

.       4-45 

18  89 

11-67 

.      2-<)2 

7-05 

4-93 

,     10-13 

10  •.")7 

10  •.•55 

.      0-112 

1-90 

1-36 

.     47-2.0 

51-81 

49-:)5 

.       1-46 

o-.-,i 

0  98 

.       017 

0-69 
102-85 

0-43 

100  00 

101-35 

1948.  "Rye  f Secnir  cereale)  is  cultivated  in 
Scandinavia,  on  the  western  side  to  the  parallel 
of  lat.  67°  N.,  and  on  the  eastern  side  to  lat. 
65"  or  66°  N.  In  Russia,  the  polar  limit  of  rye 
is  indicated  by  the  parallel  of  the  city  of  Ja- 
rciibk,  in  the  government  of  Wologda,  lat.  62° 
30'.  .  .  .  It  is  as  common  in  Russia,  Ger- 
many, and  some  parts  of  France,  as  it  is  rare  in 


the  Rritish  islands.  Rye-bread  still  forms  the 
principal  sustenance  of  at  least  one-third  of  the 
population  of  Europe  ;  it  is  the  characteristic 
grain  of  middle  and  northern  P^urope  ;  in  the 
southern  countries  it  is  seldom  cultivated. "g 

1949.  Rye-bread  is  heavy,  dark-coloured,  and 
sweet ;  but,  when  allowed  to  ferment,  becomes 
sour.  In  Russia,  100  lbs.  of  rye  flour,  containing 
16  per  pent  of  water,  yield  from  150  lbs.  to  160 
lbs.  of  bread.  There,  horses  get  it  on  a  journey, 
in  lieu  of  corn. 

1950.  Beans. —  Beans  belong  to  a  very  diffe- 
rent tribe  of  plants  to  what  we  have  been  con- 
sidering. They  belong  to  the  natural  order  Le- 
gumliwsce  of  Jussieu,  because  they  bear  their 
fruit  in  legumes  or  pods  ;  and  in  the  LinnnNin  sys- 
tem they  occupy  the  class  and  order  I)iadflfihia 
decnndrla.  In  Lindley's  natural  system  they 
occupy  the  sub-class  iii.  Peri<ji/nousE,zo<jeiif,a.\\\- 
ance  42,  liosiilcs,  order  209,  Fahiacece,  and  tribe 
5,  Phascolea;.  Their  ordinary  generic  term  is 
Fabn  vulgaris  ;  formerly  they  were  classed 
amongst  the  vetches,  and  called  Vic'ta  Faba. 
The  common  bean  is  divided  into  two  clas.ses, 
according  to  the  mode  of  culture  to  which  it  is 
subjected,  that  is,  the  field  or  the  garden.  Those 
cultivated  in  the  field  are  called  Faba  ruli/aris 
arre)m$,  or,  as  Loudon  calls  them,  Faba  ru/i/aris 
equina,  hecAwse  they  are  cultivated  chiefly  for  the 
use  of  horses,  and  are  usually  termed  horse- 
beans.  With  the  garden  bean  we  have  nothing 
to  do,  though  some  farmers  attempt  to  raise 
a  fe\t  varieties  of  them  in  the  field,  but  I  believe 
without  success.  Ail  beans  have  butterfly  or 
papilionaceous  flowers.  Mr  Lawson  has  described 
8  varieties  of  the  field  bean  ;  and  10  varieties  are 
placed  in  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's 
Museum. II  The  variety  in  common  field-culture 
is  thus  well  described  by  Mr  Lawson  :  "  In  length 
the  seed  is  from  a  half  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch, 
by  three-eighths  in  breadth, generally  slightly  or 
rather  irregularly  compressed  and  wrinkled  on  the 
sides,  and  frequently  a  little  hollowed  or  flattened 
at  the  end  ;  of  a  whitish  or  light  brown  colour, 
occasionally  interspersed  with  darker  blotches, 
particularly  towards  the  extremities  ;  colour  of 
the  eye  black  :  straw  from  3  to  5  feet  rn  length. 
There  is  perhaps,"  continues  Mr  Lawson, '' no 
other  grain  over  the  shape  and  colour  of  which 
the  climate,  soil,  and  culture,  exert  so  much  in- 
fluence as  in  the  bean.     Thus,  in  a  dry  warm 

summer  and  harvest, 
the  sample  is  always 
more  plump  and 
white  in  colour  than 
in  a  wet  and  cold  sea- 
son ;  and  these  more 
60  in  a  strong  rich 
soil  than  in  a  li^ht, 
and  more  so  in  a  drill- 


Fig.  189. 


THK  HORSK-BBAN. 


ed  crop  than  in  one  sown  broadcast."  *1I       Fig. 
189  represents  the  horse-bean  of  its  natural  size. 


•  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistr;/,— Vegetables,  p.  878.        t  Raspail's  Organic  Cliemiilry,  p.  116. 

%  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Cliemistrit,  2d  edition,  p.  372,  889,  .928. 

§  Johnston's  Thysical  Atlas, —  I'hytology,  Map  No.  2. 

II  Catalogue  of  the  Museum,  p.  68.  %  Lawson's  Agriculturist  $  Manual,  p.  62. 


THKASIIING  AND  WINNOWI.NG  OF  GRAIN. 


453 


1951.  "The  leguminous  order,"  observes  Dr 
Lindley,  beautifully,  "  is  not  only  among  the 
most  extensive  that  are  known,  but  also  are  of 
the  most  important  to  man,  whether  we  consider 
the  beauty  of  the  numerous  species,  which  are 
among  the  gayest-coloured  and  most  graceful 
plants  of  any  region,  or  their  applicability  to 
a  thousand  useful  purposes.  The  cercis,  which 
renders  the  gardens  of  Turkey  resplendent  with 
its  myriads  of  purple  flowers  ;  the  acacia,  not 
less  valued  for  its  airy  foliage  and  elegant  blos- 
soms than  for  its  hard  and  durable  wood  ;  the 
braziiletto,  logwood,  and  rosewoods  of  commerce  ; 
the  laburnum  ;  the  classical  cytisus  ;  the  furze 
and  the  broom,  both  the  pride  of  the  otherwise 
dreary  heaths  of  Europe  ;  the  bean,  the  pea,  the 
vetch,  the  clover,  the  trefoil,  the  lucerne,  all 
staple  articles  of  culture  by  the  farmer,  are  so 
many  leguminous  species.  The  gums,  Arabic 
and  Senegal,  kino,  seuna,  tragacauth,  and  various 
other  drugs,  not  to  mention  indigo,  the  most 
useful  of  all  dyes,  are  products  of  other  species  ; 
and  these  may  be  taken  as  a  general  indication 
of  the  purposes  to  which  leguminous  plants  may 
be  applied.  There  is  this,  however,  to  be  borne 
in  mind,  in  regarding  the  qualities  of  the  order 
in  a  general  point  of  view — viz.,  that,  upon  the 
whole,  it  must  be  considered  poisonous,  and  that 
those  species  which  are  used  for  food  by  man 
and  animals  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  ; 
the  deleterious  juices  of  the  order  not  being  in 
such  instances  sufficiently  concentrated  to  prove 
injurious,  and  being  in  fact  replaced,  to  a  consi- 
derable extent,  by  either  sugar  or  starch."  * 

1952.  The  produce  of  the  bean  crop  varies 
from  20  to  40  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  the 
prolifi£3,cy  of  the  crop  palpably  depending  on  the 
natui^oP'.the  season.  The  average  weight  may 
be  state(J>at  66  lbs.  per  bushel.  It  only  requires 
5  beans  to  weigh  1  drachm,  so  that  a  bushel  only 
contains  42,240  grains  of  beans.  1  have  not  cul- 
tivated the  bean  so  much  as  to  enable  me  to  ascer- 
tain the  weight  of  a  good  crop  of  straw  or  haulm, 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  grain,  for  it  is 
seldom,  that  the  same  season  gives  the  largest 
return  of  both  ;  but  1  have  seen  it  stated,  that 
"  it  has  been  known  to  yield  2  tons  per  acre."-f- 
A  crop  of  40  busliels,  at  66  lbs.  per  bushel,  gives 
1  ton  3  cwts.  64  lbs.  per  acre. 

1953.  Beans  are  given  to  the  horse,  whole, 
boiled,  raw,  or  bruised.  They  are  given  to 
cattle  in  the  state  of  meal — that  is,  the  husk  and 
grain  ground,  not  very  finely,  overhead.  Beans, 
however,  can  be  ground  into  fine  flour  ;  and  in 
this  state  is  used  to  adulterate  the  flour  of  wheat. 
Its  presence  is  easily  detected  by  the  peculiar 
smell  arising  from  the  flour  when  warm  water 
is  added  to  it.  Beans  impart  essential  service 
to  horses  having  fatiguing  work.  "  If  beans  do 
not  afford  more  nutriment,"  observes  Stewart, 
"  weiglitfor  weight,  than  oats,  they  at  least  pro- 
duce more  lasting  vigour.  To  use  a  common 
expression,  they  keep  the  stomach  loiujer.  The 
horse   can   travel  farther  ;    he   is   not   so   soon 

*  Lindley's  Vegetable  Kingdom,  p.  546-7. 


exhausted In  the  coaching  stables, 

beans  are  almost  indispensable  to  horses  that  have 
to  run  long  stages.  They  afford  a  stronger  and 
more  permanent  stimulusthan  oats  alone, however 
good.  Washy  horses — those  of  slender  carcass — 
cannot  perform  severe  work  without  a  liberal 
alluwance  of  beans  ;  and  old  horses  need  them 
more  than  the  young.  The  quantity  varies  from 
3  to  6  lbs.  per  day  ;  but  in  some  of  the  coaching 
stables  the  horses  get  more,  1  lb.  of  oats  being 
deducted  for  every  1  lb.  of  beans.  Cart-horse3 
are  often  fed  on  beans,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
other  corn,  but  they  are  always  given  with  dry 
bran — which  is  necessary  to  keep  the  bowels  open, 
and  to  insure  mastication — and  for  old  horses 
they  should  be  always  broken."  "  There  are 
several  varieties  of  the  bean  in  use  as  horse- 
corn  ;  but  I  do  not  know  that  one  is  better  than 
another.  The  small  plump  bean  is  preferred 
to  the  large  shrivelled  kind.  Whichever  be  used, 
the  bean  should  be  old,  sweet,  and  sound  ;  not 
mouldy,  nor  eaten  by  insects.  New  beans  are 
indigestible  and  flatulent  ;  they  produce  colic, 
and  founder  very  readily.  They  should  be  at 
least  a  year  old. "J     All  kinds  are  constipating. 

1954    According  to  Einhoff,  the  field  bean  is 
composed  of 


Water, 

Husk, 

1  cgumen,  albumen,  &c.. 

Starch, 

Sugar, 

Gum,  &c., 

Oil  and  fat,     . 

Salts  and  loss, 


15-6 
10-0 
11-7 
50-1 

.    8-2 


4-4 


100-0 


"  Vaquelin  could  detect  no  sugar  in  it.  He  and 
Cornea  de  Serra  found,  in  the  skins  of  the  bean, 
tannin  striking  a  blue  with  the  persalts  of  iron, 
animo-regetable  matter  mixed  with  tannin,  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  in  potash.  The 
cotyledons  contained  a  sweet-tasted  substance, 
starch,  legumen,  albumen,  an  uncombined  acid, 
with  carbonate  of  potash,  phosphates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  and  iron.  The  ijenneu  of  the  beau 
contained  white  tallow,  legumen,  albumen,  phos- 
phate of  lime,  and  irou."§  The  legumen  of  the 
bean  is  analogous  in  substance  to  the  gluten  of 
the  wheat. 

1955.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  bean 
I  have  already  given  in  (1300,)  and  the  nutri- 
tious matter  in  an  acre  of  beans  in  (1298.) 

1956.  The  grains  of  the  fecula  of  the  bean 
"  are  egg  or  kidney  shaped,  often  presenting  au 
interior  grain,  as  if  enclosed  in  the  principal  one. 
Some  of  them  are  broken  down  and  empty.  They 
attain  the  size  of  '002  of  an  inch.'"|l 

1957.  The  ancients  entertained  some  curious 
notions  in  regard  to  the  bean.  The  Egyptian 
priests  held  it  a  crime  to  look  at  beans,  judging 

+  British  Ilushandnj,  vol  ii.,  p.  215. 


Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  p.  205-6.        §  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry,— Vegetables,  p.  887 
II  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistry,  p.  116. 


454 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  verj'  sight  unclean.     But  the  bean  was  not 
every    where    thus    contemned,    for    Columella 
notices  them   in  his  time  as  food  for  peasants, 
and  lor  them  only — 
"  Aud  herbs  they  mix  with  beans  for  vulgar  fare." 

"  The  Roman  husbandmen  had  a  religious  cere- 
mony respecting  beans  somewhat  remarkable  : 
When  they  sowed  corn  of  any  kind,  they  took 
care  to  bring  some  beans  from  the  field  for  good 
luck's  sake,  superstitiousjy  thinking  that  by  such 
means  their  corn  would  relurn  home  again  to 
them.  The  Romans  carried  their  superstition 
still  farther,  for  they  thought  tliat  beans,  mixed 
with  goods  ofiered  for  sale  at  the  ports,  would 
infallibly  bring  good  luck  to  the  seller."  They 
used  beans,  however,  more  rationally,  when  they 
were  employed  "  in  gathering  the  votes  of  the 
people,  and  for  electing  the  magistrates.  A 
white  bean  signified  absolution,  and  a  black  one 
condemnation.  From  this  practice,  we  imagine, 
was  derived  the  plan  of  ilac^-b'ili'nuj  obnoxious 
persons."  *  It  would  appear,  from  what  Mr 
Dickson  states,  that  the  faba  of  the  Romans^a 
name,  by  the  way,  said  to  be  derived  from  Haba, 
a  town  of  Etruria,  where  tlie  bean  was  cul- 
tivated— is  the  same  as  the  small  beau  of  our 
fields.t 

1958.  Pease. — The  pea  occupies  a  similar  posi- 
tion, in  both  the  natural  and  artificial  systems  of 
botany,  as  the  bean.  The  plant  is  cultivated 
both  in  the  field  and  in  the  garden,  and  in  the 
latter  place  to  great  extent  and  variety.  The 
natural  distinction  betwixt  the  field  and  garden 
pea  is  founded  in  the  flower,  the  field-pea  always 
having  a  red-coloured,  and  the  garden  almost 
always  a  white  one;  at  least  the  exceptions  to  this 
mark  of  distinction  are  few.  The  botanical  name 
of  the  pea  is  Pisiim  satinim,  the  cultivated  pea; 
and  those  varieties  cultivated  in  the  field  are 
called  in  addition  arrenfe,  and  those  in  the 
garden  horteuse.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  from  a  town  called 
Pisa,  in  Elis,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  this 
pulse  was  cultivated  to  great  extent :  Mr  Paxton 
derives  the  name  from  the  Celtic  word  jm,  the 
pea,  whence  the  Latin  p\sum.%  Mr  Lawson  has 
described  9  varieties  of  the  field  pea  ;  and  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Museum 
contains  14  varieties.  §  Of  these  a  late  and  an 
early  variety  are  cultivated:  the  late  kind,  called 
the  common  gray  field-pea,  or  cold-seed,  is  suited 
for  strong  laud  in  low  situations;  and  the  early, 
the  partridije,  gray  maple,  or  Marlborouijh  pea, 
adapted  to  light  soils  and  late  situations,  is  su- 
perseding the  old  gray  Hastings,  or  hot-seed  pea. 
The  gray  pea  is  described  as  having  *'  its  pod 
semi-cylindrical,  long,  and  well  filled,  often  con- 
taining from  6  to  8  peas.  The  ripened  straw 
indicates  3  varieties — one  spotted  with  a  bluish 
green  ground,  one   light  blue,  and   one   bluish 


green  without  spots."     The  partridge  pea  has  its 
"  pods  broad,  and  occasionally  in  pairs,  contaiu- 
Fig.  190.  "'g  {Turn  5  to  7  peas, 

of  a  medium  size, 
roundish,  and  yel- 
lowish-brown speck- 
led, with  light-co- 
loured  eyes.       The 

THK  PARTRIDI.E  FIELD  PKA.     ^ipe    straw    is    thick 

and  soft-like,  leaves  large  and  broad,  and  average 
height  4  feet."  ||  Fig.  190  shows  a  group  of  the 
partridge  field  pea  of  the  natural  size. 

1959.  The  produce  of  the  pea-crop  is  either 
in  abundance  or  a  complete  failure.  In  warm 
weather,  with  occasional  showers,  the  crop  may 
amount  to  48  bushels,  and,  in  cold  and  wet,  it 
may  not  reach  12  bushels  the  acre.  The  grain 
weighs  64  lbs.  the  bushel,  and  affords  13  grains 
to  1  drachm ;  consequently  a  bushel  contains 
106,496  peas. 

1 960.  The  composition  of  the  pea,  according 
to  Braconnet,  is  this  :  — 

Water,              .  .  .  12-5 

Husk,              .  .  .  8-3 

Legumen,  albumen,  &c.,  .  2l)'4 

Starch,             .  .  .  4:i-6 

Sugar,               .  .  .  2-0 

(lum,  &c.,        .  .  .  4'0 

Oil  aud  fat,      .  .  .  1-2 

Salts  and  loss,  .  .  2-0 


100-0  If 

1961.  I  have  given  the  composition  of  the  ash 
of  the  pea  in  (1300,)  and  the  nutritive  matter  in 
an  acre  of  pease  in  (1296.) 

]  9G2.  "  The  grains  of  the  fecula  of  the  pea  are 
nearly  of  the  same  size  as  those  of  the  beau,  and 
of  the  form  of  those  of  the  potato.  When  fresh, 
they  are  as  strongly  shaded  at  the  edges  as 
those  of  the  bulbs  of  the  Alstrasmeria  pelegrina. 
Their  surface  is  unequal.  The  largest  of  them 
is  about  "002  of  an  inch."  ** 

1963.  The  pea  was  formerly  much  cultivated 
in  this  country  in  the  field,  and  even  used  as  food, 
both  in  broth  aud  in  bread,  pease  baniiorks  hav- 
ing been  a  favourite  food  of  the  labouring  class ; 
but,  since  the  extended  culture  of  the  potato,  its 
general  use  has  greatly  diminished.  It  is  novr 
chiefly  given  to  horses,  and  also  split  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  such  as  making  pea-soup, — a 
favourite  dish  with  families  in  winter.  Its  flour 
is  used  to  adulterate  that  of  the  wheat,  and  is 
easily  detected  by  the  peculiar  smell  .wjiich  it 
gives  out  with  hot  water.  Pease-meal  in  hrose 
is  administered  in  some  cases  of  dyspepsia. 
Pea-pudding  is  eaten  as  an  excellent  accom- 
panimeat  to  pickled  pork.  Pea  and  barley  bread 
is  eaten   on  the  Borders  by  the  peasantry.      It 


•  Phillips'  History  of  Ciiltirated  Vcgetablts,  vol.  i.  p.  67-8. 

+  Di<'kson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  ii.  p.  182-4. 

t  I'uxtov's  l}otanic<d  Dietiotinry,  art.  PisuiH.  §  Catalogue  of  the  3Iusi:um,  p.  68, 

II  Lawsou's  Agriculturist's  ilruiual,  p.  70. 

^  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  896. 

*•  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistry,  p.   116. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


455 


was  customary  in  the  country  to  burn  peas  in 
the  sheaf,  and  mix  them  with  butter  for  sup- 
per, under  the  name  of  car/ins.  In  some  towns 
where  ancient  customs  still  linger,  roabted  peas 
are  sold  in  winter  in  the  hucksters'  stalls.  Pigeons 
are  excessively  fond  of  the  pea,  and  I  have  heard 
it  alleged  that  they  can  devour  their  own  weight 
of  them  every  day. 

1964.  Wheat  straw. — Wheat  straw  is  generally 
long.  I  have  seen  it  upwards  of  6  feet  in  length  in 
the  Carse  of  Gowrie,and  it  is  always  strong,  what- 
ever may  be  its  length.  Of  the  two  sorts  of 
wheat,  white  and  red,  the  straw  of  white  wheat 
is  softer,  more  easily  broken  by  the  thrashing- 
mill  and  decomposed  in  the  dunghill.  Red 
wheat  straw  is  tough.  It  is  used  for  stuffing 
horse-collars.  The  strength  and  length  of  wheat- 
straw  render  it  useful  in  thatching,  whether 
houses  or  stacks.  It  is  yet  much  employed  in 
England  for  thatching  houses,  and  perhaps  the 
most  beautifully -thatched  roofs  are  in  the 
county  of  Devon.  Since  the  general  use  of 
slates  in  Scotland,  the  thatching  of  houses  there 
with  straw  has  almost  fallen  into  desuetude. 
Wheat  straw  makes  the  best  thatching  for  corn- 
stacks,  its  length  and  straightness  insuring 
safety,  neatness,  and  despatch  in  the  process,  in 
the  busy  period  of  securing  the  fruits  of  the 
earth.  It  forms  an  admirable  bottoming  to  the 
littering  of  every  court  and  hammel  of  the  stead- 


Potash,  ) 
Soda,  / 
Lime,  . 

Magnesia, 
Oxide  of  iror, 
Phosphoric  acid, 
Sulphuric  acid. 
Chlorine, 
Silica, 


Bpi-thier. 
10-8t) 


5-36 


ing.  As  litter,  wheat  straw  possesses  superior 
qualities.  It  is  not  so  suited  for  fodder,  its 
hardness  and  length  being  unfavourable  to  mas- 
tication ;  yet  I  have  seen  farm-horses  very  fond 
of  it.  Horses  in  general  are  fond  of  a  liard  bite, 
and,  were  wheat  straw  cut  for  them  by  the  chaff- 
cutter,  I  have  no  doubt  they  would  prefer  it  to 
every  other  kind  of  straw.  It  is  imagined  that, 
were  wheat  straw  cut  in  short  lengths,  say  of  4 
inches,  it  would  make  not  only  a  more  economical 
litter  for  stables  and  courts  than  long  straw, 
but  that  the  manure  derived  from  it  would  be 
more  equally  decomposed  in  the  soil.  Of  late 
years  upholsterers  have  introduced  wheat  straw 
as  stuffing  in  mattresses  for  beds,  under  the  name 
of  paillasse,  but  such  a  mattress  is  a  miserable 
substitute  for  crisp,  curled,  elastic  horse  hair. 

]  965.  The  chnjfoi  wheat  does  not  seem  to  be 
relished  by  any  stock,  and  is  therefore  strewn 
on  the  dunghill,  or  upon  the  lairs  of  the  cattle 
within  the  sheds.  When  it  ferments,  it  causes 
a  great  heat,  and  on  this  account  I  suppose  it 
would  make  a  valuable  ingredient  in  maintain- 
ing a  heat  around  the  frames  of  forcing-pits. 
The  odour  arising  from  wheat  straw  and  chaff 
fresh  thrashed  is  glutinous. 

1 966.  No  analysis  has  yet  been  made  of  wheat- 
straw  and  chaff,  but  the  ash  of  wheat  straw  has 
been  found  to  contain  the  following  ingredients  : 
Mean  of 
Boussingault.         Fromberg.        the  two  last. 
9-5(;  15-52  12'44 

0-31  ...  016 

8-ii;$  4-58  6-70 

5-19  2-45  3-82 

1-04  156  1-30 

3-22  2-.'J2  3-07 

1-04  10-59  5-82 

0  62  1-5G  1-09 

7019  60-58  65-38 


100-00 


100-00 


99-76 


99-78 


Per  centage  of  ash,  4-40 

1967.  The  nutritive  matter  derived  from  an 
acre  of  wheat  straw,  weighing  3000  lbs.,  consists 
of  1500  lbs.  of  husk  or  woody  fibre  ;  900  lbs.  of 
starch,  sugar,  &c. ;  40  lbs.  of  gluten,  &c.;  60  lbs. 
to  100  lbs.  of  oil  or  fat;  and  150  lbs.  of  saliue 
matter. 

1968.  Barley  straw  is  always  soft,  and  has  a 
somewhat  clammy  feel,  and  its  odour,  witli  its 
chaff,  when  new  thrashed,  is  heavy  and  malt-like. 
It  is  relished  by  no  sort  of  stock  as  fodder  ;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  said  to  be  deleterious  to  horses, 
on  whom  its  use  is  alleged  to  engender  grease 
in  the  heels.  Barley  straw  is  thus  only  used  as 
litter,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  much  inferior  to 
wheat  straw,  either  for  cleanliness,  durability,  or 
comfort.  It  does  not  make  a  good  thatch  for 
stacks,  being  too  soft  and  difficult  to  assort  in 
lengths,  apt  to  let  through  the  rain,  and  rot. 

1969.  Barley  chaff  is  much  relished  by  cattle 
of  all  ages,  and,  rough  as  the  awns  are,  they 
never  injure  their  mouths  in  mastication.  It 
soon  heats  in  the  chaff-house,  and,  if  not  removed 


7-00 

in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days — dependent  on 
the  state  of  the  air — decomposition  will  rapidly 
ensue.  Both  barley  straw  and  chaff  seem  to  con- 
tain some  active  principle  of  fermentation. 

1970.  The  ash  of  barley  sttaw  contains  these 
ingredients: — 

Boussingault.  Sprengel.  Mean. 

Potash,         .         9-20  3-43  6-31 

Soda,           .        0-30  0-.92  0-61 

Lime,           .        8-50  1057  9-53 

Magnc.Ma,     .         500  1-45  3-22 
Oxidt'of  iron,  and 
a  little  oxide  of 

manganese,        1-00  0-65  0-83 

,      Alumina,     .          ...  2-78  1-39 

Pbo.spnoiic  acid,  3-10  3-06  3-08 

Sulphuric  acid,     1-00  2-25  1-63 

Chlorine,      .         0-60  1-33  0-97 

Silica,           .       67-60  73-56  70-58 


9630         10000 


Per  centage 
of  ash, 


7-00 


5-24 


98-15 
6-12 


456 


PRACTICE— WINTER, 


1971.  The  nutritive  matter  derived  from  an 
acre  of  barley  gtraw  weighing  2100  lbs.,  consists 
of  1050  lbs.  of  husk  or  woody  fibre;  630  lbs.  of 
starch,  sugar,  &c.;  28  lbs.  of  gluten,  &c.;  oil  or 
tkt !;  and  105  lbs.  of  saline  matter. 

1972.  Oat  straw. — This  straw  is  most  commonly 
used  as  fodder,  being  considered  too  valuable  to 
be  applied  in  litter.  It  makes  a  sweet  soft  fod- 
der, and,  when  new  thrashed,  its  odour  is  refresh- 
ing. It  is  very  clean,  raising  little  or  no  dust. 
Sheep  are  very  fond  of  oat  straw,  and  will  prefer 
it  to  bad  hay  ;  and,  even  on  the  threatening  of 
a  coming  storm,  when  on  turnips,  I  have  seen 
them  prefer  it  to  good  hay.  Of  the  different  sorts 
of  oat  straw,  that  of  the  common  oats  is  preferred, 
being  softer,  sweeter,  and  more  like  hay  than 
that  of  the  potato-oat.  When  oats  are  cut  a  little 
green,  the  straw  is  much  improved  as  fodder, 
and  it  has  been  recommended  to  be  cut  green 
and  won,  and  used  like  hay,  under  the  name  of 
oat-hay  *  In  Holland,  oat-straw  is  built  in  the 
hay-stack,  and  both  are  cut  together  and  used 
as  fodder  by  horses  and  cows. 

1973.  Oat  chaff  is  not  much  relished  by  cattle. 
It  is  very  clean,  and  on  this  account,  as  well  as  its 
elasticity,  is  very  commonly  used  in  the  coun- 
try to  fill  the  tickings  of  beds,  for  which  purpose 
the  chaff  is  riddled  through  an  oat-riddle,  and 
the  grosser  refuse  left  in  the  riddle  thrown  aside. 

1974.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  oat  straw 
is  as  follows: — 


a  writer,  gave  as  much  as  £5  per  load  for  it  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London,  in  the  winter  of 
1834-5,  but  for  what  particular  reason  is  not 
mentioned.f  Its  ordinary  price  is  £2  per  load. 
Rye  straw  is  sometimes  three  or  four  times  as 
heavy  as  the  grain,  which  is  a  remarkable  feature 
in  this  straw. 

1977.  The  plaiting  of  rye  straw  for  hats  was 
practised  as  long  ago  as  the  ancient  Hritjns.  I 
have  seen  very  good  hats  and  bonnets  for  daily 
use  made  by  field-workers  from  the  upper  joint 
of  wheat  straw.  Bee-hives  and  rusk'uf — that  is, 
baskets  for  supplying  the  sowers  with  seed — are 
beautifully  and  lightly  made  cf  rye  straw;  but 
where  that  commodity  is  scarce,  which  is  usually 
the  case  in  Scotland,  wheat  straw  is  substituted. 

1978.  The  ash  of  rye  straw  contains  these  in- 
gredients : — 


WiU  and  Fresenius. 

Potash, 

17:w 

Soda,    . 

0-31 

Lime, 

9-06 

Magnesia, 

2  41 

Oxide  of  iron, 

1-36 

Phosphoric  acid, 

3-82 

Sulpiiuric  acid, 

0-83 

Chlorine, 

046 

Silica,  . 

64-50 

Per  centage  of  ash,  about 


lOO-ll 


4  00 


Levi. 

Boussingault. 

KrRHESS. 

Alsvace. 

Mean. 

Potash, 

1218 

26-09 

19.14 

Soda,     . 

14-69 

4-69 

9-60 

Lime,     . 

7-29 

8-84 

8-07 

Magnesia, 

4-58 

2-98 

3-78 

Oxide  of  iron, 

1-41 

2-24 

1-83 

Phosphoric  acid. 

1-94 

3-19 

2-56 

Sulphuric  acid. 

2-15 

4-37 

3-26 

Chlorine,       , 

1-50 

5-00 

3-25 

Silica, 

54-25 

42-60 

10000 

5-10 

4842 

99-99 

10000 

Per  centage  of  ash. 

1979.  The  nutritive  matter  supplied  by  an 
acre  of  rye  straw,  weighing  4000  lbs.,  is,  of  husk 
or  woody  fibre,  1800  lbs.;  starch,  sugar,  (Sec,  1500 
lbs.;  gluten,  &c.,  64  lbs.;  oil  or  tat  I;  and  of  valine 
matter,  160  lbs. 

1980.  Pea  and  Bean  Straw,  or  llavlm. — It 
is  difficult  in  some  seasons  to  preserve  the  straw 
of  the  pulse  crops,  but,  when  properly  pieterved, 
no  kind  of  straw  is  so  great  a  favourite  as 
fodder  with  every  kind  of  stock.  An  ox  will  eat 
pease  straw  as  greedily  as  he  will  hay;  and  a 
horse  will  chump  bean  straw  with  more  gusto 
than    ill-made    rye-grass    hay.       Sheep  .  enjoy 

1975.  The  nutritive  matter  afforded  by  an  acre  pease  straw  much.  The  product  of  tlie  pulse 
of  oat  straw  weighing  2700  lbs.,  is,  of  husk  or  crops  is  considered  much  too  valuable  to 
woody  fibre,  1210  lbs.;  of  starch,  sugar,  &c.,  950  be  given  as  litter.  Since  bean  chaff  is  so 
lbs.;of  gluten,  &c.,  36  1bs.;of  oil  or  fat  ?  ;audof  much  relished  by  cattle,  there  is  little  doubt 
x._  1    r  1  ^j^_^^  bean  and  pea  haulm,  cut   into  chaff,  would 

not  only  be  relished,  but  be  economically  admi- 
nistered; and  were  this  practice  attended  to  in 
spring,  the  hay  usually  given  to  horses  at  that 
season  might  be  dispensed  with  on  farms  which 
grow  beans  and  pease.  It  is  said  that,  when 
work-horses  are  long  kept  on  bean  straw,  their 
wind  becomes  affected.  This  may  be  the  effect  of 
new  or  ill-win  bean  straw,  but  1  cannot  suppose 
that,  when  well  win,  it  can  have  any  such  effect. 


saline  matter  175  lbs. 

1976.  Rye  Straw. — This  straw  is  always  small, 
hard,  and  wiry,  quite  unfit  for  fodder,  and  per- 
haps would  make  but  uncomfortable  litter  in  a 
stable,  though  it  would  no  doubt  be  useful  in  a 
court,  for  laying  a  durable  bottoming  for  the 
dunghill ;  but  as  it  forms  most  beautiful  thatch 
for  houses,  of  course  it  would  do  for  stacks,  if  it 
were  not  too  expensive  an  article  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  much  sought  for  by  saddlers  for  stuffing 
collars  of  posting  and  coach-horses,  and,  in  want 
of  it,  wlieat  straw  is  substituted.  It  is  also  in 
great  request  by  brick-makers,  who,  as  stated  by 


1981.  Young  cattle  are  very  fond  of  bean  chaff, 
and,  with  turnips,  thrive  well  upon  it.  Cows 
also  relish  it  much. 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Illnhfand  and  A(jricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.  p.  148. 
■f  British  Husbandry,  vol.  ii.  p.  170,  note. 


THRASHING  AND  WINNOWING  OF  GRAIN. 


457 


1982.  According  to  Sprengel,  the  asli  of  the 
straw  of  the  bean  and  pea  contains  tlie  following 
ingredients: — 


Field-bean. 

Field-pea. 

Potash, 

5;5-08 

4-73 

Soda, 

l-dO 

Lime, 

19-99 

54-91 

Magnesia, 

6-6'9 

6-88 

Alumina, 

0-32 

1-21 

Oxide  of  iron. 

0-22 

0-40 

0.\ide  of  manganese, 

0-16 

0-15 

Phusphoiic  acid, 

7-24 

4-83 

Sulphuric  acid, 

1-09 

6-77 

Chlorine, 

2-5() 

•   0-09 

Silica, 

7-05 

20-03 

100-00 

100-00 

Per-centage  of  ash,  from  4  4  to  6. 

1983.  The  nutritive  matter  derived  from  an 
acre  of  pease  straw,  weighing  2700  lbs.,  consists, 
of  husk  ur  woody  fibre,  675  lbs.;  starch,  sugar, 
&c.,  1200  lbs.;  gluten,  &c.,  3;s0  lbs.;  oil  or  fat, 
40  lbs.;  and  saline  matter,  135  lbs.* 

1984.  100  lbs.  of  the  ash  of  each  of  these  sorts  of 
straw,  gave  the  following  quantities  of  each  of  its 
constituents: — 


CONSTITOENTS. 

Wheat 
straw. 

Farley 
straw. 

o  S 

n 

is* 

lbs.     lbs. 

lbs. 

lb.,. 

Iha. 

lbs. 

Potasli,    . 

0* 

U 

\b 

1 

bSh 

4^ 

Soda, 

OS 

1 

a  trace 

Oh 

u 

_1 

Lime, 

7 

lOA 

n 

6 

20 

54? 

Magnesia, 

1 

U 

Ok 

Oh 

6* 

fit 

Alumina, 
Oxide  of  iron, 

2J 

3 

a  trace 

}^ 

Oi 

}« 

1 

Oh 

Oxide  of  manganese. 

I' 

OJ  a  trace 

Oi 

Sulphuric  acid,    . 

1 

2         \h 

6 

fif 

Phosphoric  acid. 

5 

3         Oi 

2 

n 

4? 

Chlorine, 

1 

\h  a  trace 

0? 

2f 

0* 

Silica, 

1 
1 

81 

73^ 

80 

82i 

7 

20 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100  jioo 

On  comparing  these  numbers,  we  cannot  fail  to 
remark  how  large  a  proportion  of  potash  'bean- 
straw  contains  ;  how  small  a  trace  of  soda  exists 
in  all  the  straws ;  how  large  a  proportion  of  lime  is 
in  pease  straw,  compared  with  bean  straw,  and 
with  the  grain  of  the  pea  itself  ;  how  large  a 
proportion  of  silica  is  in  pease  straw  compared 
with  bean  straw  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  how 
large  a  proportion  of  phosphoric  acid  is  in  bean 
straw  compared  to  pease  straw. 

1985.  Of  all  the  different  kinds  of  straw,  it  ap- 
pears that  wheat,  oats,  pease,  and  bean  straw 
are  used  for  fodder,  and  barley  straw  is  only  fit 
for  litter;  and  where  a  sufficiency  of  oat  and  bean 
straw  exists,  wheat  straw  might  be  dispensed 
with  for  fodder.  This  being  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  different  kinds  of  straw,  their  supply 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  waste  of 
fodder-straw  in  litter;  and  this  may  easily  be 
accomplished  by  having  oat  straw  in  the  straw- 


barn  with  barley  or  wheat  straw.  The  procedure 
should  be  in  this  wise:  In  the  early  part  of 
winter,  the  grain  chiefly  in  demand  ie  barley. 
Barley  straw  should  therefore  be  supplied,  stack 
after  stack,  until  all  the  stock,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  seed-corn,  is  disposed  of.  During 
winter,  the  corn  for  the  horses  should  be  thrashed, 
and  laid  up  in  granary,  and,  as  common  oats  are 
usually  given  to  horses,  the  straw  of  them  would 
form  the  best  sort  of  fodder  to  be  supplied  simul- 
taneously with  the  litter-straw  of  barley.  After  the 
barley  is  disposed  of,  towards  spring,  the  demand 
for  wheat  commences,  and  then  the  wheat  straw 
should  come  in  lieu  of  barley  straw  for  litter.  Far- 
ther on  in  spring,  the  bean  straw  comes  in  lieu  of 
oat  straw  for  fodder.  In  this  way,  provision  is 
made  both  in  fodder  and  litter  until  the  grass  is 
ready  for  stock. 

1986.  The  colour  of  the  fodder  affects  that  of 
the  dung  of  the  various  animals;  thus,  pease  and 
bean  straw  and  chaff  make  the  dung  quite  black, 
wheat  straw  gives  a  bleached  appearance  to  the 
dung  of  horses,  and  oat  straw  a  yellow  hue. 

1987.  I  don't  know  that  the  specific  gravity  of 
straw  has  ever  been  ascertained  by  experiment; 
but  I  should  say,  judging  by  hand,  that  barley 
straw  is  the  lightest,  and  wheat  straw  the  heavi- 
est, not  speaking  of  the  weight  of  rye  straw,  of 
which  I  have  no  experience.  This  is  the  order 
of  tlic  quantity  of  silica  which  each  kind  of  straw 
contains,  as  seen  in  (1984,)  but  this  circumstance 
cannot  determine  the  point,  as  pease  straw  con- 
tains nearly  three  times  as  much  silica  as  bean 
straw,  and  yet  bean  straw  is  certainly  heavier 
than  pea  straw. 

1988.  Such  are  the  kinds,  uses,  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  straw  usually  raised  on  farms  ;  and 
the  proper  management  of  them,  so  as  to  confer 
the  greatest  comfort  to  stock,  and  procure  the 
largest  amount  of  manure  to  the  farm,  is  a  matter 
deserving  of  much  consideration.  I  fear  there  is 
too  much  truth  in  the  observation  of  Sir  .John 
Sinclair,  when  he  says  that  "  the  subject  of 
straw  is  of  greater  importance  than  is  commonly 
imagined;  and  the  nature  of  that  article,  taken 
in  the  aggregate,  entitles  it  to  more  attention 
than  has  hitherto  been  be.stowed  upon  it.  Far- 
mers are  apt  to  consider  it  as  of  little  or  no  worth, 
because  it  is  not  usually  saleable,  and  is  rarely 
estimated  seiiarately  from  the  yearly  produce  of 
the  soil.  But,  though  seldom  saleable,  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  towns,  it  has  an  intrinsic  value  as 
a  fund  for  manure,  and  a  means  of  feeding 
stock."  + 

1989.  The  proper  management  of  straw  to 
which  I  refer  is,  that  the  respective  kinds  shall 
always  be  appi-opriated  to  their  best  uses — that 
is,  the  straw  best  adapted  for  litter  shall  not  be 
given  as  fodder,  for  if  it  be,  the  animals  will  be 
rendered  discontented.  If  barley-straw,  for  in- 
stance, is  put  hotore  cattle  that  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  oat-straw,  they  will  not  only  not  eat  the 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  A<jnrAtUurnl  C'hfmiftry,1>i.  edition,  pp.  305-79  and  928. 
+  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  p.  361. 


458 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


osnal  quantity  of  fodder,  but  will  eat  the  dimi- 
nished quantity  with  disrelish.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  fodder-straw  is  strewn  abuut  for  litter, 
it  is  not  used  to  the  best  advantage,  being  partly 
wasted.  Again,  if  more  straw  is  thrashed  at  a 
time  than  can  be  consumed  in  a  few  days  ia 
fodder,  what  of  it  remains  to  the  last  becomes 
dry  and  brittle,  and  unfit  for  the  use  of  stock; 
and  even  litter-straw,  if  kept  for  a  long  time 
before  it  is  used,  becomes  much  lighter,  and 
loses  a  portion  of  its  value.  So  far,  therefore,  as 
the  straw  is  concerned,  it  is  bad  practice  to  stack 
up  thrashed  straw  for  a  lung  time,  as  some 
farmers  seem  fond  of  doing,  for  certainly  some  of 
its  properties  as  fodder  or  litter  are  wasted.  The 
plan  is,  to  thrash  the  straw  when  and  as  often  as 
it  is  required,  both  for  fodder  and  litter,  and  it 
will  be  always  in  the  freshest  state  for  use  in 
both  ways.  But  to  follow  out  this  plan  success- 
fully, requires  the  previous  consideration,  whether 
there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  stacks  in  the  stack- 
yard for  the  purposes  of  fodder  and  litter  through- 
out the  season;  and  if  so,  those  should  be  selected 
best  suited  for  each  purpose,  during  the  winter, 
when  good  straw  is  must  appreciated.  The 
remainder  can  be  used  fur  the  inferior  purposes 
of  bottoming  the  courts  and  stacks  of  the  ensuing 
crop  and  season.  Should  the  whole  quantity  of 
straw,  however,  be  inadequate  to  the  demands 
upon  it,  it  should  be  thrashed  only  as  required, 
and  dealt  out  with  an  economical  hand,  so  that 
no  part  of  the  season  shall  be  inadequately  sup- 
plied. Do  these  considerations  usually  engage 
the  attention  of  farmers  ?  I  fear  not,  and  cer- 
tainly not  so  much  as  they  deserve.  I  am  aware 
it  may  be  replied,  that  it  is  of  greater  interest  to 
tlie  farmer  to  meet  the  market  of  grain,  than  lose 
the  advantage  by  not  thrashing  out  the  straw. 
Such  a  necessity  may  occasionally  happen,  but,  in 
following  it,  it  behoves  him  to  consider,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  probable  injury  arising  to  his 
stock  and  manure  from  inattention  to  the  state  of 
the  straw?  I  suspect  the  subject  has  received  but 
little  consideration  in  this  view  of  the  matter. 

1990.  At  one  time  it  was  a  prevalent  notion 
thai  straw  could  not  be  converted  into  good 
manure  uuless  it  were  consumed  by  the  cattle  and 
horses;  and  the  celebrated  Bakewell  carried  this 
idea  to  such  a  height,  that  if  he  had  not  stock 
sufficient  of  his  own  to  consume  all  his  straw,  he 
took  in  those  of  others  fur  the  purpose.  But  he 
lived  to  see  his  error.  Opinion  changed  to  the 
opposite  extreme,  so  much  so,  that  many  farmers 
persuaded  themselves  that  straw  consutned  by 
Stock  was  wasted,  and  should  only  be  used  for 

NVheat-straw,  9  kemples  of  16  st.  of 
Barley,     „       7         „ 
Oat,  „       8         „ 

Average,     8         „  „ 

or  1  ton  5  cwt.  16  lbs.  per  Scotch,  or  1  tonO  cwt. 
13  lbs.  per  imperial  acre.  On  comparing  this 
result — from  the  vicinity  of  a  large  town,  where 
a   large   supply  of  manure    can   always   be  ob- 


litter.  This  latter  opinion  is  nearer  the  truth  than 
the  former,  but  gues  beyond  the  truth ;  fur  although 
it  is  correct  to  say  that  stock  ought  to  depend  on 
green  ciops  to  fatten  them,  it  is  also  true  that 
these  are  much  assisted  in  their  assimilation 
into  the  animal  system  by  the  fodder.  The 
stomach  requires  to  be  distended  by  food,  and 
nothing  does  so  as  easily  as  sweet,  dry  fodder, 
and  it  is  an  agreeable  change  to  the  ox  after  a 
hearty  meal  of  turnips.  Fattening  stork  really 
consume  very  little  fodder;and,wheu  placed  before 
them  at  pleasure, they  pick  out  a  few  choice  straws 
sufficient -for  their  purpose.  The  animals  are 
thus  afforded  as  much  liberty  of  choice  in  their 
food  as  their  confined  situation  will  admit.  Abuve 
all,  when  prepared  food  is  becoming  more  and 
more  common  on  farms,  it  cannot  be  prepared  in 
the  best  manner  without  chopped  straw. 

1991.  Tlie  ralxie  of  straw  may  be  estimated 
from  the  quantity  usually  yielded  by  the  acre, 
and  the  price  which  it  realises.  Arthur  Young 
estimated  the  straw  yielded  by  the  different 
crops — but  rejecting  the  weaker  soils — at  1  ton 
7  cwt.,  or  30_'4  lb.  per  English  acre.  Mr  Middle- 
ton  estimated  the  different  crops  in  these  propor- 
tions : — 


■\Vheat  straw,    . 

,     31  or 

lUB. 

3472  per  acre. 

Barley,     „ 

.    20 

2440      „ 

Uats,         ,, 

.    25 

2800      „ 

Beans,      „ 

.    25 

2800      „ 

Pease,      „ 

.    25 

2800      „ 

Average  rather  more  than     25  or  2862       „ 

or  1  ton  5  cwt.  62  lbs.  per  English  acre. 

1992.  Mr  Brown,  Markle,  East  Lothian, 
computed  the  produce  of  straw  as  follows  in 
stones  of  22  lbs.  per  Scotch  acre,  which  I  con- 
trast with  tlie  imperial  : — 

Stones.        lbs.      cwt.  lbs. 
Wheat-straw,     160  or  3520  or  31   48  per  Scotch  acre. 
Barlev,    „     .     IdO       2200       19  72  „ 

Oats,'      „    .     130      2860      25  60  „ 

Beans  &  pease,  130      2860      25  60  „ 


Average,  .     1 30  or  2860  or  25  60  per      „ 

or  1  ton  5  cwt.  60  lbs.  per  Scotch  acre,  and  1  ton 
0  cwt.  76  lbs.  per  imperial  acre.* 

1993.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Edinburgh, 
the  produce,  both  in  Scotch  and  imperial  mea- 
sures, per  acre,  is  this  : — 

Stones.      lbs.  ton.  cwt.  lbs. 

22  lbs.  =  144  or  Slb'S  or   1     8     32 

„          =  112       2464  1     2       0 

=  128      2816  1     5    16 


=  128  or  2816  or  1     5     16 


tained — with  Mr  Brown's  general  estimate  for 
the  whole  country,  and  finding  the  quantity  less, 
we  must  conclude  that  Mr  Brown's  estimate  is 
above  the  mark  as  an  average  for  the  country  ; 


•  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  p.  362-3. 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  IN  WINTER. 


459 


and  unless  the  produce  of  straw  be  very  much 
greater  in  England  than  in  Scotland,  we  must 
also  conclude  that  the  estimates  of  both  Artliur 
Young  and  Mr  Middleton  are  above  the  gene- 
ral average  ;  1  ton  tlie  imperial  acre  of  straw 
is  too  hijih  au  average  for  Scotland. 


1994.  In  regard  to  the  market  value  of  straw, 

it  being  usually  prohibited  to  be  sold  except  in 

Wheat-straw,  144  st.  of  '22  lbs.  at  SW.  per  st 

4  bushels, 
Oat,        „      128 


the  vicinity  of  towns  where  manure  can  be 
r>?ceived  in  return,  it  is  only  from  the  price 
received  f  r  it  in  towns  that  we  can  form  an 
estimate  of  its  value.  In  Edinburgh,  the  usual 
price  of  wlieat  straw  is  12s.  per  kemple  of  16 
stones  of  22  lbs.,  or  9d.  per  stone  ;  and  of  oat 
straw,  10s.  the  kemple,  or  T^d.  per  stone.  These 
quantities  are  thus  contrasted  in  Scotch  and 
imperial  measures  : — 

=  £5,  6's.  4d.  per  Scotch  acre,  of  10  bolls  of 
10s.  7d.  per  boll. 
7.id.  „         =  £4,  Os.  Od.  „        „  10  bolls  of 


6  bushels,  =  8s.  per  boll. 

Equivalent  to 
Wheat-straw,  181  st.  of  14  lbs.  at  S^d.  perst.=  £4,  6s.  Od.  per  imp.  acre  of 

32  bushels,  =  2s.  8d.  per  bushel. 
Oat,        „       IGI        „  „   43d.  „  =  £3, 4s.  Od,   „        „        „ 

48  bushels,  =  Is.  4d.  per  bushel. 

1995.  In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  wheat  straw  is  6s.  per  boll  of  4  bushels,  and 
straw,  with  its  corn,  is  allowed  to  be  sold  on  oat  straw  5s.  per  boll  of  6  bushels.  The  quan- 
foot — that  is,  as  it  grows  in  the  field,  but  pro-  tity  of  straw  per  boll  and  per  bushel  will  stand 
hibited  from  being  sold  by  itself — the  price  for     thus  : — 

Wheat  straw,  14  st.     8  lbs.  of  22  lbs.  per  boll  of  4  bushels  =  3  st.  11  lbs.  per  bushel. 
Oat,        „        12   „   17  „  „^  ,,  6      „       =  2  „     3  „        „ 

Equivalc7it  to 
Wheat,    „        18   „     1   „        14    „  „  4      „       =  4  „     7  „        „ 

Oat,         „        Id   „     1   „  „  „  6      „       =  2  „     9  „        „ 


1996.  The  Romans  used  straw  as  litter,  as 
well  as  fodder,  for  cattle  and  sheep  They  con- 
sidered millet-straw  as  the  best  for  cattle,  then 
barley-straw,  then  wheat-straw.  This  arrange- 
ment is  rather  against  our  ideas  of  the  compa- 
rative qualities  of  barley  and  wheat-straw  ;  but 
the  hot  climate  of  Italy  may  have  rendered  the 
quality  of  barley  straw  better,  by  making  it  drier 
and  more  crisp,  and  the  wheat-straw  too  hard  and 
dry.  The  haulm  of  pulse  was  considered  best  for 
sheep.  They  sometimes  bruised  straw  on  stones 
before  using  it  as  litter,  which  is  analogous  to 
having  it  cut  with  the  chaff-cutter. 

1997.  Where  straw  is  scarce,  they  recommend 
the  gathering  of  fern,  leaves,  &c.,  which  is  a 
practice  that  may  be  beneficially  followed  in  this 
country,  where  opportunity  occurs. 

1998.  Varro  says,  "it  is  the  opinion  of  some 
that  straw  is  called  sframentum,  because  it  is 
strewed  before  the  cattle."* 


ON  THE  FORMING  OF  DUNGHILLS  IN 
WINTER. 

1999.  Towards  the  close  of  winter,  the 
dung  will  have  accumulated  so  high  in  the 
large  courts  I  and  K,  Plate  II,  as  to  be- 
come nearly  level  with  the  feeding-troughs, 
thereby  making  them  inconveniently  low 
for  the  cattle.  Before  such  an  inconveni- 
ence occurs,  the  dung  should  be  removed, 
and  formed  into  dunghills,  in  tlie  fields  in- 
tended  to   be    manured    in    the    ensuing 


season ;  and  the  most  convenient  and 
proper  time  to  do  this  is  when  the  frost, 
snow,  or  rain,  prevents  the  ploughing  of 
the  land.  The  court  K,  besides  its  own 
litter  and  the  refuse  from  the  corn-barn 
C,  contains  the  litter  of  the  work-horse 
stable  O,  and  of  all  the  pig-sties;  and  the 
court  I  only  contains  its  own  manure.  The 
dung  from  the  cows'  courts  /  and  o'  should 
also  be  taken  away,  to  save  annoyance  to 
the  cows  heavy  in  calf  wading  in  deep 
litter ;  but  the  well-trodden  litter  in  the 
hammels  M  and  'N,  seldom  becomes  in- 
conveniently high. 

2000.  I  am  thus  particular  in  detailing 
the  contents  of  each  court,  because,  being 
different  in  their  constituent  parts,  they 
should  be  appropriated  to  the  crop  most  in 
want  of  the  particular  manure.  For  ex- 
ample, the  court  K  contains  a  large  ]:ro- 
portion  of  stable  litter,  and  not  a  little 
from  that  of  the  pig-sties ;  so  its  contents 
are  somewhat  of  a  diff'erent  nature  from 
those  of  the  court  I,  and  of  the  hammels 
M,  which  contain  nothing  but  the  litter  of 
cattle.  If  it  is  desired  to  raise  the  crop 
which  thrives  best  with  a  large  proportion 
of  horse-dung,  the  court  K  would  supply 
it ;  while  the  court  I  and  the  cows'  courts 
laudo'  supply  only  cow-dung  for  the  crop 
most  suitable  for  it.     Or  should  the  crop 


Dickson's  Husbandrt/  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  ii.  p.  407. 


460 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


require  a  manure  of  niediuin  pniportidii, 
then  the  contents  of  all  the  courts  i-hould 
be  niixeii  toijether.  Tlie  a|)pr<ij)riati()n  of 
dung  to  the  particular  crop  best  suited  for 
it  is  not  so  much  attended  to  hy  farmers  as 
it  deserves ;  and  it  is  not  urged  by  me  as 
a  theoretical  suggestion,  but  as  practically 
being  the  best  mode  of  applying  the 
manure  of  the  farm  to  raise  crops  to  the 
best  advantage.  To  make  myself  more 
intelligible,  I  shall  suppose  that  carrots 
are  to  be  raised  on  a  field  of  light  land  ; 
then  the  land  should  be  dunged  in  the 
autumn  with  a  manure  such  as  the  contents 
of  the  court  K,  because  it  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  horse-litter.  When  potatoes 
are  desired  to  be  raised  on  heavy  soil, 
which  is  not  their  natural  one,  horse-litter 
also  should  be  used.  Turnips  grow  best 
with  cow-dung,  and  therefore  the  contents 
of  the  courts  I  and  /,  and  of  the  hammels 
M,  would  be  best  for  them.  Should 
carrots  not  be  raised,  and  the  soil  be 
naturally  favourable  to  the  potato,  and 
therefore  horse-dung  not  be  specially 
wanted,  all  the  diflerent  sorts  of  dung 
should  be  mixed  together,  to  form  dung- 
hills possessing  general  properties. 

2001.  There  is  another  matter  which 
deserves  consideration  before  the  courts 
are  begun  to  be  cleared  of  their  contents, 
which  is  the  position  the  dunghills  should 
occupy  in  the  field ;  and  this  point  is  de- 
termined partly  by  the  form  which  the 
surface  of  the  field  presents,  and  jiartly 
from  the  point  of  access  to  the  field. 
In  considering  this  point,  which  is  of  more 
importance  than  it  may  seem  to  possess, 
it  should  be  held  as  a  general  rule,  that 
the  dunghill  should  be  placed  in  the  field 
where  the  horses  will  have  the  advantage 
of  going  down-hill  with  the  loads  from 
it,  when  the  manure  is  applied  to  the  land. 
Wherever  practicalh.,  this  rule  should 
never  be  violated,  as  facilities  awarded  to 
labour  in  the  lusi/  season  are  of  great  im- 
portance. If  a  field  has  a  uniformly  slop- 
ing surface,  the  dunghill  should  be  placed 
at  the  highest  side ;  but  the  access  to  the 
field  may  only  be  at  the  lowest  side,  and 
it  may  be  impracticable  to  reach  the 
highest  side  by  any  road.  In  such  an 
untoward  case,  the  loads  should  be  taken 
to  the  highest  side,  up  a  ridge  i.f  the  field  ; 
and  frosty  weather  be  chosen  to  furm  the 
dunghill   in    it,   as    the    cart-wheels   and 


horses' feet  will  then  have  firm  ground  to 
move  on.  But  if  it  is  impracticable  to  lead 
dung  there,  on  account  of  the  continued 
soft  state  of  the  land,  or  of  the  steepness  of 
the  ascent,  the  only  alternative  is  to  form 
the  dunghill  at  the  side  nearest  the  access. 
When  the  field  has  a  round-bucked  form, 
the  dunghill  should  be  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  height,  to  allow  the  load  to  go  down- 
hill on  both  sides  of  the  dunghill ;  and,  to 
form  a  proper  site  for  a  dunghill  in  such  a 
case,  a  lieadridge  should  have  been  formed 
for  it  along  the  crest  of  the  height,  at  the 
time  the  stubble  was  ploughed.  In  a  level 
field,  it  is  immaterial  which  side  the  dung- 
hill occupies. 

2002.  The  precise  spot  which  a  dungbill 
should  occupy  in  a  field  is  thus  not  a 
matter  of  inditierence.  I  have  seen  a 
dunghill  placed  in  the  very  centre  of  a 
field  which  it  was  intended  wholly  to 
manure.  From  this  point,  it  is  obvious, 
the  carts  must  either  go  across  every  ridge 
between  the  one  which  is  being  manured 
and  the  dunghill,  or  go  direct  to  a  head- 
ridge,  and  thence  along  it  to  the  ridge  to 
be  manured.  This  latter  alternative  must 
be  adopted  if  the  dung  is  to  be  deposited 
in  drills ;  and  if  not,  the  drills  prepared 
for  the  dung  will  be  much  cut  uj>  by  the 
passage  of  the  carts  across  them — a 
practice  which  should  never  be  allowed 
when  neat  work  is  desired.  The  dung- 
hill shouhl  be  placed  on  a  head-ridge  or  a 
side-ridge  of  the  field ;  and  of  these  two 
places  I  prefer  the  side-ridge,  because  the 
abutting  length  of  every  dunghill  prevents 
the  ends  of  all  the  ridges  opposite  them 
being  i)loughed  or  drilled  to  their  proper 
length.  The  dunghill  on  a  side-ridge  cur- 
tails only  a  portion  of  the  single  ridge 
w  hich  it  occupies.  When  a  field  rcfpiires 
two  dunghills,  the  one  first  to  be  used 
should  be  placed  along  a  ridge  at  such  a 
distance  beyond  the  space  of  ground  the 
manure  it  contains  will  just  cover,  measured 
from  the  side  of  the  field  from  which  the 
manuring  is  to  commence,  as  that  the  ridge 
occupieil  by  the  dunghill  may  bej>U>ughed 
to  its  end  before  it  is  manured ;  and  the 
dunghill  to  be  used  second  should  be 
])iaced  along  the  farthest  side-ridgo;  but 
this  second-used  dunghill  should  be  first 
formed,  being  farthest  oflT.  Should  the 
weather  he  fresh  and  the  ground  soft,  a 
dunghill  should  be  made  on  the  side-ridge 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  IN  WINTER. 


461 


nearest  tlie  gateway,  and,  should  no  frost 
occur,  this  one  should  be  made  large  enough 
to  manure  the  whole  field.  A  large  dung- 
hill in  one  place  will  doubtless  take  more 
time  to  manure  the  field  at  the  busy 
season,  than  two  dunghills  at  different 
places ;  but,  in  soft  weather  and  soil,  it  is 
better  to  incur  future  inconvenience  in 
good  weather,  than  make  the  horses  drag 
half-loads  axle-deep  along  a  soft  head- 
ridge.  When  projier  sites  can  be  chosen 
for  dunghills  in  fields,  the  loads,  in  the 
busy  season,  will  not  only  have  a  pas- 
sage downhill,  but  the  dung  will  be  situ- 
ate at  the  shortest  distance  from  the  place 
it  is  wanted,  and  the  ploughed  or  drilled 
land  uninjured  by  cart-wheels  and  horses' 
feet. 

2003.  The  fields  in  which  dunghills 
should  be  formed,  are  those  to  be  fallowed 
in  the  ensuing  season ;  that  is,  to  grow  the 
green  crops,  such  as  potatoes  and  turnips, 
and  for  the  bare  or  sunimer  fallow — if 
there  be  any — which  depends  on  the  state 
of  the  soil,  whether  it  be  foul  or  dirty,  or 
whether  or  not  the  land  can  grow  green 
crops.  The  potato  coming  first  in  order, 
the  land  for  them  should  first  have  its 
manure  carried  out  and  formed  into  a 
dunghill.  The  turnips  come  next,  and, 
lastly,  the  bare  fallow.  All  the  dung- 
hills should  of  course  be  respectively  made 
of  such  a  size  as  to  manure  the  extent  of 
land  to  be  occupied  by  each  crop.  The 
manure  for  bare  fallow,  not  being  required 
till  much  later  in  the  season,  may  be  left 
untouched  in  the  courts,  or  made  in  pur- 
pose in  summer. 

2004.  I  have  already  said  (in  1086, 
1087,  and  1088)  that  the  courts  ought 
to  be  completely  littered  before  being 
occupied  by  the  cattle  ;  but  as  no  one 
would  believe  the  care  that  is  requisite  in 
laying  down  straw  in  a  court,  except  those 
who  have  witnessed  the  inconvenience  and 
loss  of  time  incurred  in  removing  dung 
from  it,  this  seems  a  befitting  time  to 
show  how  the  inconvenience  does  really 
arise.  The  courts  are  usually  cleared 
during  frost,  when  time  is  erroneously  re- 
garded of  little  value,  because  the  plough 
is  rendered  useless;  but,  notwithstanding 
this  common  opinion,  a  loss  of  a  small 
portion  of  time,  even  at  this  season,  may 
have  a  material  effect  upon  several  future 


operations.  For  example  :  the  hard  state 
of  the  ground  may  favour  the  carriage  of 
manure  to  a  distant  field,  to  gain  which, 
most  of  the  time  is  spent  upon  the  road. 
Sui)p()se  frost  continued  as  long  as  to  allow 
time  to  carry  as  much  manure  as  would 
serve  the  whole  field,  provided  ordinary 
diligence  were  used  on  the  road,  and  no 
interruption  occurred  in  the  courts.  Sup- 
pose further,  on  manuring  the  field  in  sum- 
mer, there  was  found  to  be  less  manure  in 
the  dunghills,  by  a  small  quantity,  than 
was  wanted,  and  that  half-a-day,  or,  at 
most,  a  whole  day's  driving  from  the 
steading  would  havesuj)plied  the  requisite 
quantity,  it  is  clear  that  the  one  day's 
driving  could  have  been  accom])lished  in 
frost  at  much  less  trouble  than  at  the  sea- 
son when  the  manure  is  wanted.  But 
this  sacrifice  of  time  must  be  made  at  the 
instant,  or  the  field  will  be  deprived  of  its 
due  i)roportion  of  manure.  Tliis  is  no 
hypothetical  case  ;  it  has  occurred  in  every 
farmer's  experience.  Now,  what  is  the 
primary  cause  of  this  dilemma?  Either 
too  much  time  had  been  spent  upon  the 
road  in  driving  the  manure,  or  interruption 
experienced  in  the  courts.  To  which  of 
these  two  causes  ought  the  waste  of  time 
to  be  properly  attributed  ?  With  regard  to 
driving,  larm-horses  get  into  so  regular  a 
pace  ujion  the  farm  road  at  all  times,  that 
little  loss  or  gain  of  time  can  be  calculated 
on  their  speed;  and  besides,  when  a  head 
of  carts  is  employed  at  any  work,  each 
cart  must  maintain  its  position  in  the 
order,  otherwise  it  will  either  be  over- 
taken by  the  one  behind,  or  be  left  too  far 
behind  by  the  one  before.  The  probability 
therefore  is,  that  the  loss  of  time  is  incurred 
in  the  courts,  and  the  reason  is  this : — 
The  usual  mode  of  taking  away  the  wet 
litter  from  the  work-horse  stable  is  to  roll 
as  much  of  it  together  with  a  graip  as  one 
man  can  lift,  and  throw  it  into  a  barrow, 
in  which  it  is  wheeled  into  the  court,  and 
emptied  on  any  si)ot  to  get  quit  of  it  in 
the  shortest  time,  and  left  in  heaps  to  be 
trampled  down  by  the  cattle.  Backloads 
of  thatchings  of  stacks,  not  always  dry, 
are  carried  into  the  courts,  put  down  any 
where,  and  partially  s[)read.  Long  straw 
ropes,  which  bound  down  the  thatching  of 
the  stacks,  are  ])ulled  along  the  court.  la 
doing  all  this — and  it  is  not  all  done  at 
one  time — no  idea  ever  enters  the  head  to 
facilitate  the   lifting  of  the   straw  after- 


462 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


wards  ;  and  wlicn  it  is  lifted  before  it  he- 
comes  short  by  fermentation,  considerable 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  the  removal 
of  it.  A  lump  of  long,  <lamp  straw  is 
seized  in  one  part  by  a  graip,  and  theotlier 
part,  being  coiled  in  the  heap  it  was 
tirst  laid  down,  cannot  be  sejiaratcd  with- 
out much  exertion  on  the  part  of  the 
ploughman,  pulling  it  this  way  and  tiiat ; 
and  in  a  court  occujjied  by  young  cattle, 
it  is  too  soft  to  be  cut  with  thedung-knife. 
Another  graip  encounters  a  long  straw- 
rope,  which,  after  much  tugging,  is  broken 
or  pulled  out,  and  thrown  upon  the  cart 
with  its  ends  dangling  down.  In  short, 
not  a  single  graipfid  is  easily  raised,  and 
the  work  is  not  expedited  when  a  heap  of 
chaflf  evades  the  grasp  of  the  graip.  Add  to 
this  the  few  hands  generally  sent  to  assist 
the  ploughman  to  fill  the  carts,  and  the 
consequent  time  spent  by  the  team  in  the 
court,  and  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
causes  which  wastes  much  time  in  this 
necessary  work.  It  is  not  that  the  men 
are  actually  idle,  for  in  these  circumstances 
they  may  be  worked  ver^'  hard,  and  yet 
show  but  a  small  result  for  their  exertion  ; 
but  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that,  in  this  way, 
much  time  may  be  uselessly  thrown  away, 
which  migiit  liave  been  saved  by  previous 
proper  arrangement,  and  as  much  time 
lost  in  clearing  all  the  courts  as  would 
have  given  all  the  carts  a  half  or  whole 
day's  driving,  which  is  just  what  was  re- 
quired to  remove  the  dilemma  experienced 
in  manuring  the  field.  The  only  eflectnal 
method  of  preventing  the  recurrence  of  so 
great  delay  in  carrying  out  manure,  is  to 
put  down  tlie  liner  so  as  it  may  be  easily 
lifted  ;  and  to  afford  as  much  assistance  in 
the  court  as  to  detain  the  horses  only  a 
short  time,  and  keep  them  constantly  on 
the  road  :  and  a  constant  walk  for  a  short 
winter  day  will  not  fatigue  them. 

200.5.  The  Utter  should  he  laid  down  at 
Jir.it,  and  continued  to  be  so,  in  this  man- 
ner. On  fixing  on  the  gate  of  the  court 
throiigh  which  the  loaded  carts  should  pass 
to  the  nearest  road  to  the  fields  requiring 
the  manure  in  the  ensuing  season,  and, 
after  covering  the  ground  of  the  court 
evenly  with  straw,  as  mentioned  in  (1087,) 
the  litter  should  be  laid  above  it  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  beginning  at  the  end 
of  the  court  farthest  from  that  gate.  The 
litter  should  be  spread  with  the  slope  of  its 


lower  part  towards  the  gate,  and  carried 
gradually  forwanl  every  day  until  it 
reaches  the  gate  ;  and  every  kind  of  litter, 
whether  from  the  work- horse  stable,  the 
stack-yard,  or  straw-barn,  shoidd  be  inter- 
mixed and  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
The  straw-ropes,  as  I  mentioned  before, 
(1,722,)  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces, 
and  spread  about,  and  the  chat!"  not  fit  for 
fodder  sprinkled  about,  and  not  laid  down 
in  heaps.  Thus  layer  above  layer  is  scat- 
tered, until  they  make  a  mass  of  manure 
of  sufficient  height  to  be  carried  out  and 
formed  into  dunghills  in  the  fields.  Were 
all  the  straw  for  litter  cut  short  with  a 
chaff-cutter,  as  has  been  proposed,  no  pre- 
caution would  be  necessary  to  spread  it 
about,  and  the  dung  would  be  more  easily 
removed  with  the  graip  than  the  present 
plan. 

2006.  When  the  time  has  arrived  for 
emptying  the  courts,  the  process  is  begun 
at  the  gate  through  which  the  loaded  carts 
are  to  pass,  and  the  dung  first  lifted  there 
will  come  up  in  slo])iug  layers,  having 
an  inclination  from  the  ground  to  the  top 
of  the  dung-heap,  not  in  entire  layers  of 
the  whole  (iej)th  of  the  dung  hcaj),  but  in 
successive  small  detached  layers,  one  beside 
the  other,  and  succeeding  one  after  tlie 
other,  from  the  gate  to  the  farther  end  of 
the  court.  The  cnij)ty  carts  enter  the 
court  by  another  gate,  if  there  be  one, 
and,  without  turning,  take  uptheir  position 
where  the  loadctl  cart  was  before,  and  has 
just  passed  through  the  gate  appointed  for 
it.  When  there  is  oidy  one  gate  to  a 
court,  and  the  court  not  very  large,  and 
the  l(»t  of  beasts  obliged  to  be  kept  in  it, 
for  want  of  room  to  i)ut  them  elsewhere, 
it  is  better  for  the  empty  cart  to  wait  on 
the  outside  until  the  loaded  one  has  gone 
away.  AVhen  the  court  is  large,  with 
oidy  one  gate,  the  empty  cart  should  go 
in,  and  turn  round  to  be  ready  to  succeed 
the  one  being  filled.  On  dropping  work 
at  mid-day,  it  will  save  time,  at  starting 
again  after  dinner,  to  fill  the  first  cart  re- 
turning eiii])ty  from  the  field,  that  has  not 
time  to  reach  it  again  loaded,  and  return 
before  dinner-time  ;  and  allow  it  to  stand 
loaded,  without  the  horses,  until  the  time 
for  yoking,  when  the  horses  are  i)ut  to 
it,  and  it  then  forms  the  first  load  ready 
to  start  for  the  field  immediately  at  the 
hour  of  yoking. 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  IN  WINTER. 


463 


2007.  On  clearing  a  court,  or  any  part 
of  it,  it  should  be  cleared  to  the  (jround; 
because  the  manure  made  from  a  dung-heap 
tbathas  been  simultaneously  formed,  will  be 
more  uniform  in  its  texture  than  that  made 
from  a  heap  composed  entirely  of  new  dry 
straw  on  the  top,  or  of  old  and  wet  straw  at 
the  bottom.  Besides,  it  is  much  better,  for 
the  future  comfort  of  the  cattle,  that  the 
court  receive  a  fresh  dry  littering  frum  the 
bottom,  than  that  the  wet  bottoming  should 
remain. 

2008.  Cattle  sometimes  are  injured  by 
a  cart  or  horse  when  the  court  is  emptying ; 
and,  to  avoid  the  risk,  they  should  be  con- 
fined in  the  shed  as  long  as  the  people  are 
at  work  in  the  coui't. 

2009.  To  form  a  dunghill  in  the  field 
requires  some  art.  A  dunghill  having  a 
breadth  of  15  feet,  and  of  four  or  five 
times  that  length,  and  of  proportionate 
height,  will  contain  as  much  manure  as 
should  be  taken  from  one  spot  in  manuring 
afield  quickly.  Suppose  that  15  feet  is 
fixed  upon  for  the  widtli,  the  first  carts 
should  lay  their  loads  down  at  the  nearest 
end  of  the  future  dunghill,  in  a  row  across 
the  whole  width,  and  these  loads  should 
not  be  spread  very  thin.  Tlius,  load  after 
load  is  laid  down  in  succession  upon  the 
ground,  maintaining  the  fixed  breadth,  and 
passing  over  the  loads  ^^''^^viously  laid 
down.  On  frosted  ground  the  bottoming 
is  easily  formed.  After  the  bottom  of  the 
dunghill  has  thus  been  formed  of  the  de- 
sired breadth  and  length,  the  further  end 
is  made  up,  by  layer  after  layer,  into  a 
gradual  slope  upwards  from  the  nearest  to 
the  farthest  extremity.  This  is  d(Uie  with 
a  view  to  effecting  two  purposes  ;  one  to 
afl"ord  an  easy  incline  for  tlie  loaded  carts 
to  ascend,  the  other  to  give  ease  of  draught 
for  the  liorses  to  move  along  the  dunghill 
to  all  parts,  to  compress  it  firmly  with  the 
carts.  Every  cart-load  laid  down  above 
the  bottom  layer  is  spread  around,  in  order 
to  mix  the  different  kinds  of  dung  together, 
and  to  give  a  uniform  texture  to  the  whole 
heap  of  manure.  To  effect  this  purpose 
the  better,  a  field-worker  should  be  em- 
ployed to  spread  the  loads  on  the  dungiiill 
as  they  are  laid  down;  the  ploughmen 
being  apt  to  spread  it  as  little  as  possible. 
When  the  centre  has  reached  the  height 
which  will  enable  the  dunghill  to  contain 


the  desired  quantity  of  manure,  that  height 
is  brought  forward  towards  the  nearer  end  ; 
though  the  centre  will  first  attain  the 
greatest  elevation,  as  a  slope  at  both  ends 
is  required — one  to  allow  the  carts  to  take 
up  the  requisite  quantity  of  dung  from  one 
end,  and  another  to  allow  them  to  come 
easily  oft'  at  the  other  end.  It  is  essential 
to  have  the  whole  dunghill  equally  com- 
pressed, with  a  view  to  making  the  manure 
of  similar  texture  throughout.  Alter  the 
carting  is  over,  the  scattered  portions  of 
dung  around,  and  the  thin  extreme  ends 
of  the  dunghill  should  be  thrown  upon  the 
top,  and  trampled  down,  and  the  entire 
top  brought  to  a  level.  Such  a  finishing 
to  a  dunghill  is  very  generally  neglected. 

2010.  The  object  aimed  at  hy  the  com- 
pression of  the  dunghill  by  the  loaded 
carts,  is  to  prevent  immediate  fermenta- 
tion. So  long  as  the  temperature  continues 
at  its  average  degree  in  winter  of  45°, 
tiiere  is  little  chance  of  much  activity  in 
the  interior  of  a  dunghill  ;  but  towards 
spring,  when  the  temperature  increases,  it 
vi  ill  show  symptoms  of  action ;  but  even 
then  a  temperature  of  65°  is  required  to 
begin  the  second  stageof  fermentation.  The 
firstferiiientation  only evaporatostiie  water, 
and  the  destruction  of  fibre  only  commences 
with  the  second  stage  of  fermentation. 

2011.  Covering  the  dunghill  in  the 
field  with  a  thick  layer  of  earth,  with  a 
view  to  exclude  the  air  and  ciieck  fermen- 
tation, is  unnecessary  in  the  coldest  months 
of  winter,  though  of  service  in  spring  to  a 
dungiiill  which  is  not  to  be  imme<liately 
turned.  A  dunghill,  made  up  in  a  loose 
manner  at  once  in  graipfuls  from  each 
cart-load,  gives,  in  effect,  tlie  dung  a  turn- 
ing, and,  when  even  covered  with  eartli. 
soon  becomes  fermented  enough  for  an 
early  crop,  such  as  beans;  but  if  it  is  not 
to  be  used  until  an  advanced  period  of  the 
season,  when  the  temperature  will  have 
increased  considerably,  the  loose  dung 
will  ferment  too  rapidly.  The  new-made 
dunghill  thus  formed  should  theretore  be 
covered  with  earth  or  not,  according  to 
the  use  to  be  nuide  of  it. 

2012.  The  dung  in  the  hammels,  and 
especially  in  the  hammels  M,  will  be 
found  nmch  mr)re  compressed  than  that  in 
the  large  courts  I  and  K,  in  consequence  of 


464 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


the  heavy  cattle  moving  over,  it  so  often 
within  a  limited  space.  It  is  sometimes 
so  coin  pressed  as  almost  to  resist  the  en- 
trance of  the  graip.  To  enable  it  to  be 
easily  lifted,  it  slionlJ  be  cut  in  parallel 
divisions   with  the  dung  spnde^  fig.   191. 


Fig.  191. 


This  consists  of  a  heart- 
shaped  blade  of  steel,  thin- 
ned to  a  sharp  edge  along 
both  faces  ;  and  its  cross- 
head,  or  helve,  is  fastened 
to  it  with  nails  into  a  split 
socket.  The  height  of  the 
spade  is  3  feet,  length  of 
the  cross-head  18  inches, 
length  of  the  helve  18 
inches,  and  length  of  the 
blade  16  inches,  its  breadth 
10  inches.  It  is  sharpened 
THE  DUNG  SPADE.  „.ith  3  scythe-stonc.  In 
using  this  spade,  it  is  raised  with  both 
hands  by  the  cross-head,  and  its  point 
thrust  with  force  into  the  dnng-heap,  mak- 
ing a  rut  across  the  dunghill.  The  blade, 
it  will  be  observed,  is  heart-shaj^ed,  not 
squared  like  a  common  spade,  because, 
when  cutting  the  dung-heap  to  a  greater 
depth  than  the  length  of  the  blade,  the 
rounded  ears  escape  catching  the  dung 
which  square  ones  would,  on  the  blade 
being  drawn  up.  A  man's  strenirth  is 
required  to  use  this  spade  effectively,  a 
woman's  being  too  weak.  Another  instru- 
ment for  cutting  dung  is  like  the  common 
hay-knife,  and  used  in  like  manner,  but  is 
not  so  etiicient  as  this  implement. 

2013.  It  is  a  practice  of  some  farmers 
to  keej)  the  dung  from  the  cow-byres  in  a 
loose  state  in  a  dung-court,  enclosed  with 
astout  wall3or  4  feet  in  height,  into  which 
the  dung  is  wheeled  as  it  comes  from  the 
byre,  on  a  plunk  as  a  roadway  for  the  bar- 
row to  ascend,  and  it  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late to  the  height  of  the  walls,  or  even  more. 
The  dung  never  rctpiires  turning,  and  soon 
becomes  in  a  state  fit  for  potatoes  or  turnips. 
This  i)lan  saves  the  trouble  of  turning  the 
dung,  but  the  dung  must  be  led  direct 
from  the  court  to  the  field  at  a  season  when 
labour  is  precious,  and,  when  the  field  is 
distant,  the  extra  time  spent  in  taking  out 
the  manure  may  more  than  counterbalance 
the  cost  of  turning.  This  dung  may  be 
reserved  for  a  near  field,  but  the  nearest 
may  be  found  to  bo  at  an  inconvenient 
distance  in  the  busy  season. 


*2014.  or  late  years  the  carting  out  of  dung,  M 
de.-icnb:U  above,  lias  been  objecteil  to,  because,  U 
alleged,  the  gas>e-i  u»e!ul  to  ve>;etatii>ii  aro  there- 
by dissipated.  I  do  not  see  the  force  of  this  ob- 
jection in  winter,  when,  certainly,  no  dfompoting 
process  can  naturally  originate  or  proceed  in  the 
dung-heap.  Water,  it  is  true,  may  be  evaporated 
at  a  very  low  temperature,  even  below  50°,  but 
what  harm  can  accrue  from  this  \  and  if  dung 
must  be  prepared  by  fermentation  for  some  crop, 
of  what  avail  is  it  to  prevent  fermentation,  if  the 
manure  is  no  more  than  sufficiently  prepared 
wlien  applied  ?  Of  course,  vngte  of  the  materials 
of  the  dnng-heap  should  be  provided  against.  To 
provide  against  waste  from  fermentation,  it  has 
been  suggested  to  make  the  dunghills  under 
cover,  instead  of  in  the  open  air,  in  order  to 
ward  oiF  the  rain  and  keep  the  heap  dry,  as  the 
rain  may  dissolve  and  carry  off  the  soluble  salts 
of  tlie  dung.  The  shed  would  certainly  keep  the 
dunghill  dry,  and  thereby  retard  its  fermentation, 
but  wjiether  the  dung  would  be  as  good  by  the 
treatment,  would  depend  upon  circumstances. 
If  the  large  courts,  as  also  those  of  the  hammeU 
—  which  are  at  present  open  to  the  air  —  were 
covered,  so  as  to  prevent  the  rain  falling  on  the 
dung-litter,  the  state  of  the  dung  would  be  the 
same  as  that  is  at  present  which  is  made  under 
the  .^heds  of  the  courts  and  hammels,  and  wliich 
is  avowedly  too  dry  to  make  good  manure,  and 
could  never  make  good  manure  at  all,  unless  it 
were  mixed  with  tlie  wet  dung-hespof  the  open 
Courts.  To  have  the  dung-litter  moist  enough 
by  the  urine  alone  of  the  animals,  less  litter  must 
be  laid  down  in  the  courts  so  covered,  than  is  at 
present  in  tlie  open  courts.  So  little  straw  would 
then  be  required  to  be  used  in  litter,  that  th? 
dung-litter  would  be  unable  to  support  the  weight 
of  ihe  cattle,  and  their  limbs  would  peiketrate 
through  it — a  state  to  which  cattle  ought  not  to 
be  subjected.  It  thus  seems  to  be  desirable,  for 
the  sake  of  both  cattle  and  the  manure,  to  use  the 
straw  in  litter,  so  as  to  make  the  dung-heap  as 
moist  as  will  make  good  manure,  and  as  firm  a,s 
will  easily  and  comfortably  support  the  weight 
of  the  cattle.  BotJi  these  requisites  cannot  be 
obtained  under  a  covered  shed;  and  if  the  present 
mode  is  really  injurious  to  the  manure,  tlie  only 
alternative  is  to  put  the  cattle  under  cov^r,  in 
byre-i,  and  manufacture  the  manure  as  desired  ; 
but  before  such  a  change  can  be  accomplished, the 
treatment  of  young  cattle  in  winter,  and  the  plans 
of  steadings,  would  require  to  be  entirely  altered. 

201 5.  It  has  been  made  a  subject  of  complaint 
again>-t  farmers,  that  uncovered  courts  receive  so 
much  rain  so  to  dissolve  and  carry  off  a  large 
proportion  of  the  valuable  salts  contained  in  the 
urine  and  dung  of  the  cattle.  This  evil,  in  n.y 
opinion,  does  not  arise  so  much  from  the  want  of 
a  cover  over  the  courts,  as  the  want  of  water- 
spouts along  the  eaves  of  tho^e  parts  of  the 
steading  which  immediately  bonier  uj)on  the 
courts.  The  courts  can  receive  no  more  rain  than 
falls  on  their  areas,  and  this,  we  have  seen,  (in 
Co4,)does  not  exceed,  during  the  winter  quarter 
at  least,  192  inch  in  depth- a  quantity  which 
could  easily  be  absorbed  and  retained  in  the 
litter,  were  the  rain  to  fall  gradually.     The  roofs 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  IN  WINTER. 


465 


of  the  buildings  send  down  a  large  proportion 
of  all  the  rain  received  in  the  courts,  and  they 
send  it  down  in  quantities  at  a  time — a  con- 
dition which  empowers  the  rain  to  carry  off  for- 
cibly a  part  of  the  products  of  the  dung.  But 
this  result  is  clearly  not  attributable  to  the  want 
of  cover  to  the  courts,  but  the  want  of  spouts  to 
the  houses. 

2016.  But  allowing  the  courts  to  be,  as  they 
generally  are,  uncovered,  and  the  buildings  un- 
supplied  with  rain-water  spouts,  it  is  still  subject 
for  consideration,  whether  or  not  the  wet  dung- 
litter  of  the  courts  should  be  put  under  cover, 
when  formed  into  dunghills,  so  as  to  prevent, 
at  the  least,  the  carrying  off  the  products  of  the 
dung  by  the  rain  that  may  fall  from  the  time 
the  dunghill  is  formed  until  it  is  used  ;  whether, 
in  short,  the  covering  of  dunghills  is  practi- 
cable in  the  fields?  The  object  of  the  cover 
seems  to  be  entirely  to  prevent,  or  at  least 
to  retard,  the  fermentation  of  the  dung-heap, 
80  as  the  gases  forming  the  constituents  of 
the  dung  shall  not  be  generated  and  dissipated 
in  the  air,  but  retained  in  the  dung-heap,  and, 
after  being  ploughed  into  the  soil,  evolved  only 
when  wanted  by  the  plants.  Could  a  plan  be 
devised  which  would  give  so  complete  a  command 
over  the  fermentation  of  the  dung-heap,  it  would 
be  worthy  of  adoption  by  all  farmers;  but  is  such 
a  result  certain?  Let  us  cogitate  on  all  the 
particulars  required  to  be  provided  for  the 
adoption  of  such  a  plan.  It  is  easy  to  erect  a 
shed  in  every  field,  but,  to  answer  its  purpose,  it 
would  require  to  be  constructed  of  a  peculiar 
form,  and  in  a  particular  manner.  If  it  is  desir- 
able to  retard  the  fermentation  of  the  dung-heap — 
and  the  desire  to  cover  it  implies  that  condi- 
tion— the  heap  must  be  compressed,  and  there  is 
no  means  so  ready  of  compressing  it,  as  by 
the  weight  of  the  horses  and  carts.  Now  a  shed, 
to  afford  head-room  for  the  depth  of  the  future 
dunghill,  to  take  horses  and  carts  under  it, 
sliould  be  of  considerable  height,  and  would 
be  an  expensive  structure.  Were  the  dung 
put  under  the  cover  without  compression — that 
is,  wheeled  in  barrows  by  the  cart-loads,  as 
laid  down  by  the  carts — the  dung  would  in  effect 
receive  a  complete  turning,  and  be  strongly 
encouraged  to  fermentation.  To  avoid  this  risk, 
were  the  dung  retained  in  the  courts  until  the 
season  arrived  when  the  dung  ought  to  be  turned, 
the  dung-litter  will  have  accumulated  to  an  in- 
convenient height  in  the  courts  and  hammels. 
To  avoid  this  inconvenience,  and  to  secure 
the  retardation  of  the  fermentation,  were  the 
walls  and  feeding-troughs  of  the  courts  and  ham- 
mels raised  so  high  as  to  contain  the  season's  dung, 
the  troughs  would  be  placed  inconveniently  high 
for  the  cattle  to  reach  the  turnips  in  the  early  part 
of  the  feeding  season.  I  think  all  these  conflicting 
circumstancesmight  be  compromised  in  thisway  : 
Let  the  dung  be  taken  out  of  the  courts  when 
the  frosty  weather  permits  it,  and  compressed, 
as  at  present,  by  the  carts  on  one  of  the  side-ridges 
of  the  field,  and,  as  long  as  the  cold  weather  con- 
tinues, there  is  very  little  chance  of  destructive 
fermentation  occurring.  Let  a  shed  be  erected 
in  the  fence  of  the  field,  parallel  with  the  side- 
VOL.  I. 


ridge  of  the  field,  and  the  dung-heap  should  be 
formed  along  the  side  of  the  shed.  Let  the  shed 
have  permanent  walls  and  a  permanent  roof, 
and  let  the  sides  be  made  capable  of  being  closed 
in:  and,  as  to  the  dimensions  of  such  a  shed, 
suppose  the  field  to  be  manured  contains  25 
acres,  and  allowing  20  cart-loads  to  the  acre, 
accommodation  would  require  to  be  made  for  500 
cubic  yards  of  dung,  which  contain  13,500  cubic 
feet. 

2017.  Now  the  form  of  such  a  shed  requires 
consideration,  if  we  desire  to  have  the  manure  in 
its  best  condition.  Mr  Rowlandson,  of  Bootle 
Village,  near  Liverpool,  has  considered  this  sub- 
ject practically,  and  this  is  his  opinion  of  it: — 
"  The  fermentation  of  manure  heaps,"  he  ob- 
serves, "  depending  upon  the  presence  of  heat, 
moisture,  and  the  atmosphere,  the  skilful  farmer 
will  avail  himself  of  the  means  in  his  power  to 
promote  or  retard  fermentation,  by  dispensing 
with  or  admitting  one  or  other  of  these  agents,  as 
the  case  may  require.  This  is  done  in  several 
ways.  .  .  .  The  free  admission  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  excess  of 
fermentation;  and  Boussingault,  although  he  does 
not  state  this  to  be  the  cause,  admits  that  'it  is  of 
much  importance  that  the  heap  be  pretty  solid, 
in  order  to  prevent  too  great  a  rise  of  temperature, 
and  too  rapid  a  fermentation,  which  is  always 
injurious.  At  Bechelbronn,  our  dung-heap  is  so 
firmly  trodden  down  in  the  course  of  its  accumu- 
lation, by  the  feet  of  the  workmen,  that  a  loaded 
waggon,  drawn  by  four  horses,  can  be  taken 
across  it  without  very  great  difficulty.'  Not- 
withstanding what  has  just  been  stated,  many 
able  writers  on  the  matter  have  asserted  that 
tramping  down  manure  is  injurious.  It  is  obvious 
thateach  party  isright  accordingto  circumstances. 
If  a  manure-heap  is  required  almost  for  imme- 
diate use,  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  a  free 
admission  of  the  atmosphere  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  promote  free  and  rapid  fermentation;  but  this 
is  done  at  the  expense  of  a  considerable  escape 
of  its  volatile  contents.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
intended  to  lie  for  some  months,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  pressure,  and  consequent  absence  of  a 
great  portion  of  atmospheric  air,  is  advantageous, 
fermentation  being  by  this  means  retarded,  ^nd 
generally  proceeds  more  equally  throughout  the 

mass 

By  restricting  the  admission  of  air,  we  have  a 
direct  command  over  the  fermentation  of  the 
manure-heap;  and  this  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  placing  the  manure  in  pits.  If  they  have  a 
rough  covering,  so  much  the  better.  The  usual 
shape  of  a  manure-heap  is  that  of  a  cube  or 
paralleloj)epidon,  each  being  a  figure  of  six  sides, 
five  of  which  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  bottom  only  not  being  surrounded 
by  it.  By  the  pit  we  shall  completely  reverse 
the  order,  one  side,  the  top,  only  being  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere  ;  and  that  is  also  the  side, 
from  the  altered  circumstances  of  the  heap,  into 
which  the  air  will  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
penetrating.  In  fact,  from  the  absence  of 
draught  from  the  sides,  fresh  volumes  of  air  will 
only   penetrate    the    top  by  means  of  pressure. 

The   best  formed  manure,  in  the 

2  G 


466 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


shortest  period,  that  I  ever  witnessed,  was  that 
from  tiie  pit  belonging  to  an  extensive  cart  pro- 
prietor. In  the  stable  there  were  usually  about 
thirty  horses  ;  the  pit  was  formed  in  the  yard, 
and  covered  over  with  thick  planks,  part  of 
which  was  covered  over  with  earth,  and  paved, 
only  a  few  boards  remaining  loose  for  the  con- 
venience of  removing  the  manure,  with  a  trap- 
door for  tiie  purpose  of  putting  the  manure  into 
the  ])it.  The  yard  was  roofeii  in,  so  that  no 
extraneous  moisture  could  be  admitted— so 
circumstanced  that,  in  summer,  the  whole  of  the 
mass,  except  the  accumulation  of  the  last  few 
days,  was  converted  into  a  well-fermented 
workable  state  in  the  course  of  ten  days  or  a 
fortnight :  in  winter  it  took  about  three  weeks 
to  accomplish  tlie  same.  It  might  be  supposed 
that  serious  annoyance  would  be  felt  at  the 
escape  of  ammonia,  and  that  a  most  extraordi- 
nary heat  would  be  generated  ;  but  such  was 
not  the  case.  I  have  been  present  when  Buch 
a  pit  was  being  emptied,  but  the  heat  was  not 
nearly  so  intense  as  that  frequently  observed  in 
ordinary  farm-yard  heaps  ;  and,  unlike  the  latter, 
it  was  not  entirely  confined  to  the  centre,  whilst 
the  sides  were  comparatively  cool,  but  pervaded 
the  whole  mass  in  an  equal  degree.  No  per- 
ceptible smell  of  ammonia  was  perceived,  but  a 
very  copious  amount  of  aqueous  vapour  was 
evolved  in  the  course  of  its  removal— so  much  so, 
that  you  could  not,  at  times,  see  the  workmen 

iu  the  pit  when  removing  the  manure 

Another  advantage  to  be  derived  by  using  pits  is, 
that,  in  winter,  the  caloric  arising  from  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  heap  could  not  be  dissipated 
80  speedily  as  it  is  under  the  present  system, 
when  surrounded  by  a  cold,  perhaps  a  frosty 
atmosphere.  It  is  so  well  known  that  ma- 
nure-heaps formed  in  winter  do  not  ferment 
equally,  or  scarcely  at  all,  that  it  has  given  rise 
to  the  axiom,  that  one  load  of  manure  formed  in 
summer  is  worth  two  formed  in  winter."  *  The 
last  observation  is  a  strong  argument  against 
turning  dung-heaps  in  winter,  and,  of  course,  in 
favour  of  keeping  them  in  a  compressed  state  un- 
til a  short  time  before  the  fermeuted  manure  is 
wanted  to  be  applied  to  the  soil. 

2018.  From  what  has  been  stated,  and  from 
the  circumstances  of  the  case,  the  construction 
of  a  shed  for  containing  the  manure-heap,  when 
preparing  in  the  field  for  laying  on  the  land, 
should  be  to  have  a  stone-and-lime  wall  to  sup- 
port a  permanent  roof;  and,  to  put  the  eaves  of 
the  roof  beyond  the  reach  of  the  cattle,  when 
grazing  in  the  field  in  siininipr,  the  wall  .should  be 
C  feet  above  the  ground.  The  width  of  the  shed 
should  not  be  more  than  what  a  man  can  reach 
across  with  the  graip,  when  emptying  the  dung 
out  of  it  into  the  carts  ;  and  this  .space  may  be 
taken  at  10  feet,  which  width  would  admit  of  a 
cheap  roof,  in  as  far  as  the  timber  is  concerned. 
To  form  the  shed  into  a  pit,  and  give  scope  to 
fermentation  when  it  is  wanted,  the  dung- 
heap  should  be  fermented  at  about  .9  feet  in 
tliickness,  which  would  cause  the  pit  to  be  3  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  ground.   To  enable  the  floor 


to  keep  out  water,  the  shed  should  be  thoroughly 
drained  all  round,  and  the  floor  should  be  well 
pudilled  to  retain  the  dwug  water.  To  contain 
13,.500  cubic  feet  of  dung  in  a  shed  10  feet  wide 
and  9  feet  deep,  would  require  it  to  be  l.'JO  feet 
in  length  ;  but  as  it  would  be  more  convenient  to 
have  two  shed.s,  tu  contain  half  the  quantity  at 
the  oppo!-ite  sides  of  the  fii-ld,  tlian  tlie  whole 
quantity  in  one  place,  a  shed  on  each  side,  of  75 
feet  in  length,  with  the  other  dimensions  given 
above,  would  contain  all  the  dung.  And,  when 
these  sheds  were  inaile  in  the  line  of  the  fence, 
they  would  be  useful  to  the  fields  on  both  sides 
of  them  ;  and,  when  erected  in  the  angle  where  4 
fields  meet,  one  shed  would  serve  the  pur|)o.se  of 
all  the  fields ;  and  at  that  point  they  would  be  most 
conveniently  placed  for  using  the  head-ridges 
by  the  carts.  A  part  of  the  wall  in  the  centre 
of  each  side  of  the  shed  should  be  made  only  3 
feet  high  and  6  feet  wide,  to  allow  the  carts  to 
back  to  and  get  loaded  when  the  dung  was  re- 
moving to  the  field.  A  similar  form  of  shed  h' 
may  be  seen  alongside  the  figure  of  tlie  liquid- 
manure  tank  A;',. Plate  11. 

2019.  What  I  have  suggested  in  regard  to  the 
general  treatment  of  the  dung-heap  seems,  there- 
fore, a  feasible  one — namely,  to  cart  out  the  dung 
iu  winter,  and  to  compress  it  in  a  heap  by  the  side 
of  the  shed  with  the  carts  and  horses  j  and,  as 
the  season  advances,  and  the  heat  may  promote 
fermentation  naturally,  to  wheel  the  dunghill 
into  the  shed  to  ferment,  and  where  it  may  be 
expected  to  be  ready  for  use  in  the  course  of  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  weather  and  the  material  it  is  com- 
posed of,  being  aware  that  horse-dung  ferments 
more  quickly  and  actively  than  cow-dung.  The 
cover  of  the  shed  will  protect  the  fermenting 
mass  from  rain,  anil,  when  the  space  which 
allowed  the  dung  to  be  put  into  the  shed 
is  boarded  up,  very  little  free  air  will  find  ad- 
mission into  the  inside  of  the  shed.  Out  of  such 
a  shed  will,  of  course,  cause  more  trouble  to 
cart  away  the  dung  than  from  the  open  field  ; 
but  if  the  dung  is  preserved  in  a  better  condition 
in  it,  the  advantage  will  more  than  counterbalance 
the  additional  expense  of  taking  it  out,  whiidi  is 
only  manual  labour. 

2020.  But  it  may  be  remarked,  that  when 
the  dunghill  is  left  in  the  air,  when  first  formed 
from  the  courts,  the  rain  or  snow  will  find 
their  way  through  it,  and  injure  the  quality  of 
its  contents  by  wa.shing  away  the  soluble  por- 
tions of  the  dung.  No  doubt  this  may  take  place 
to  a  certain  degree ;  but,  as  long  as  there  is  no 
active  fermentation  in  a  dunghill,  and  it  has  been 
well  compressed,  and  covered  on  the  top  with 
earth,  or  any  other  material  that  would  ward  off 
rain,  the  oozing  from  it  will  be  very  small,  and, 
at  all  events,  the  loss  will  not  be  great.  "  The 
amount  of  my  observation,"  remarks  Mr  Uow- 
landson,  in  the  paper  quoted  above,  ''  that  in 
heaps,  as  usually  formed,  with  free  access  to  the 
atmosphere,  a  larger  amount  of  humie  acid, 
soluble  in   alkalies,  is    formed  than  when   the 


*  Journal  of  Agriculture  for  October  1845,  p.  75-8. 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  EST  WINTER. 


4G7 


manure  is  placed  in  pits,  and  access  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  limited.     lu  the  latter  case,  some 
humic  acid  is  formed ;  in  both  cases,  the  humic 
acid  is  in  the  same  state  as  that  which  is  found 
in  barren  mosses,  as  I  have  determined  by  re- 
peated  experiments.     The    humic    acid   has   a 
strong  affinity  to  combine  with  the  alkalies,potash, 
soda,  and  ammonia,  in  manure-heaps,  and  this 
forms    the    brown-coloured    solution   which    is 
observed  running  from  them  after  rain.     It  is 
perfectly  obvious,  therefore,  that  every  drop  of 
the  brown-coloured  liquid  which  oozes  from  the 
manure-heap  contains,  in  combination,  one   or 
other  of  the  above  named  alkalies,  two  of  which, 
potash  and  ammonia,  are  of  so  much  importance 
as  fertilisers.     The  mode  I  have  suggested  of 
placing  the  manure  in  pits  may  be  said  to  remedy 
this  evil,  as,  at  all  events,  it  will  prevent  the 
liquid  from  running  away.     It  is  of  no  impor- 
tance, however,  preserving  the  liquid  of  manure- 
heaps  in  the  state  described,  as  I  have  repeat- 
edly found  that  no  beneficial  effects  are  derived 
from  the  use  of  it."     It  will  be  observed  that 
these  remarks  apply  to  the  dung-heap  in  a  state 
of  fermentation,  but,  when  not  fermenting,  the 
dung-heap,  in   winter,   parts    with    very   little 
liquid  ;  and,  by  the  time  it  would  part  with  more, 
it  will  have  been  placed  in  the  shed.    All  oozing 
would,  of  course,  be  prevented,  were  the  dung 
placed  in  the  shed  at  once  ;  but  it  would  be  too 
soon  fermented,  if  not  tramped  down,  and  it  could 
not  be  so  by  men,  as  Boussingault  practises  ;  as 
such    a  mode  would    be  too  expensive    in    this 
country,  and  not  so  effectual  as  with  horse  and 
cart;  and,  what  is  still  more  objectionable,  the 
dung  so   compressed  in   such   a   pit  could  not 
be  turned  for  fermentation  but  with  inordinate 
trouble.     The  first  breadth  to  be  turned  would 
have  to  be  thrown  and  wheeled  out,  and  again 
wheeled  in  to  fill  up  the  last  breadth ;  and,  in 
the   mean  time,  every  breadth  would  be  turned 
with  much  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time.    I  am 
certain  the  value   of  all  the  oozings  lost  would 
never  compensate  for  this  additional  trouble,  and 
the  bad  work  in  the   turning ;  and  the  oozings, 
after  all,  are  not  entirely  lost,  as  the  midden- 
stance  requires  no  more  manure. 

2021.  As  the  subject  of  dung-pits  in  fields  is 
new  in  the  husbandry  of  this  country,  I  shall 
give  a  figure  of  one  which  I  think  might  answer 
tlie  purpose  in  any  part  of  the  fence  of  a  single 
fielil,  or  in  the  point  of  section  of  two  fences  in 
the  corners  where  four  fields  meet.  Fig.  192  is 
such  a  place,  where  a  is  the  shed,  80  feet  lung 
and  V2h  fec-t  broad,  over  walls,  standing  either 
E.  and  W.,  or  N.  and  S.,  whichever  is  most  con- 
venient for  the  dung  to  be  brought  from  the 
steading  to  the  corners  of  the  four  fields,  of 
which  bb  cc  are  each  a  fence;  dd  are  the  middeu- 
stances,  18  feet  wide  each,  upon  which  the  dung 
is  first  formed,  when  taken  out  of  the  courts 
early  in  winter,  but,  if  towards  the  end  of  winter, 
it  should  be  put  into  the  shed  at  once  ;  the  one 
stance  being  for  the  use  of  the  fields  b  b,  and  the 
other  for  that  of  the  fields  c  c.  As  most  of  the 
dung  experiences  much  warmth  from  a  high 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  before  it  is 
ploughed  into  the  ground,  a  screen  of  larch  plan- 


tation, 12  feet  in  width,  a,s  hhh  h,  may  be  of  use 
in  some  seasons,  and  it  may  also  be  of  service  in 

Fig.  192. 


A  DUNG- PIT  FOR  FOUR  FIELDS. 

protecting  the  outside  of  the  midden  from  heavy 
rains  from  any  quarter  in  winter  ;  e  e  are  the 
slip-gates,  10  feet  wide,  for  taking  the  dung  in 
and  out  to  the  fields  b  b,  and  //those  for  the 
fields  c  c.  Of  course,  the  midden-stances  d  d 
should  be  firmly  causewayed  or  macadamised. 
Such  an  arrangement,  shed,  stances,  and  fences, 
would  occupy  a  space  of  134  feet  long  by  84-4  feet 
broad,  or  just  about  a  quarter  of  an  acre.  The 
fences  of  the  four  fields  meet  that  of  the  midden- 
stance  at  the  points  /* ;  gg  is  a  passage  for  carts 
at  both  ends  of  the  shed. 

2022.  A  rather  curious  and  entirely  unlooked- 
for  effect  took  place  from  the  oozings  of  dunghills 
in  two  fields,  on  the  estate  of  Pumpherston,  near 
Mid-Calder,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  in 
March  1848.  Tile-drains,  that  had  been  made  in 
the  autumn  preceding,  were  found  to  be  choked 
in  spring,  and  bursting  out  water  to  the  day. 
On  opening  them,  the  tiles  within  a  limited  space 
were  completely  filled  with  a  peculiar  substance. 
The  subsoil  in  one  field  was  gravelly,  and  the 
drains  three  feet  deep  ;  that  of  the  other,  clay, 
with  drains  of  twenty  inches  deep.  In  both 
cases  the  drains  leading  from  a  dnnghiJl 
were  only  so  affected,  and  the  conclusion  ar- 
rived at  "was,  that  the  oozings  from  the  dung- 
hills had  induced  the  growth  of  the  substance 
found  in  the  tiles.  The  substance  was  of  a  dirty 
gray  colour,  slimy,  tenacious,  some  pieces  of  it 
resembling  fragnients  of  skin,  but  appearing  to 
consist,  when  pulled  asunder,  of  minute  fibres,  too 
fine  to  be  easily  observed  by  the  unassisted  eye. 
It  had  an  extremely  offensive,  putrid,  animal 
odour,  having  a  distinct  resemblance  to  that  of 
cow-dung.  It  was  impregnated  with  a  good 
deal  of  earthy  matter  which  long  washing  with 
water  could  not  entirely  separate.  It  was  pro- 
nounced by  Dr  Greville,  the  famed  cry  ptogamist, 
to  be  a  plant — the  Coiiferta  bombycina — the  fila- 
ments of  which  are  exceedingly  fine,  and  act 
as  a  cobweb  in  catching  and  retaining  minute 
insects,  larvse,  and  floating  atoms  of  inorganic 
matter  in  water.  These  plants  grow  rapidly,  and 
as  rapidly  pass  into  putrescence  ;  and  accord- 
ingly in  tills  case  they  had  disappeared  entirely 
from  the  drains   in   the    course  of  a  fortnight 


468 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


after,  when  I  went  to  witness  the  singular  phe- 
uometion.* 

2023.  No  dunghill,  therefore,  should  be  formed 
above  tile-drains,  for  although  in  this  case  the 
alarming  state  of  the  drains  was  but  of  short 
duration,  more  permanent  injury  may  be  expe- 
rienced by  other  causes.  Any  how  it  is  safer  to 
avoid  such  inconveniences,  both  by  placing  the 
dungliiiis  beyond  the  reach  of  drains,  and  also  by 
making  the  sites  of  dunghills  impervious  to 
liquids.  A  side-ridge  of  a  field  is  the  safest 
I)lace,  and,  when  the  dung  is  put  into  a  pit,  it  is 
quite  out  of  the  way  of  doing  harm. 

2024.  The  dung  from  a  cow-byre  placed  in  a 
covered  pit,  direct  from  the  byre,  will,  I  have 
no  doubt,  remain  a  long  time,  after  the  arrival  of 
warm  temperature,  unsusceptible  of  fermentation; 
and  it  is  most  probably  from  this  property  that 
it  has  received  the  character  of  being  a  cold 
manure  ;  whereas  horse-dung  easily  ferments, 
and  goes  rapidly  through  all  the  stages  of  fer- 
mentation to  that  of  the  destructive,  which  is 
technically  called  fre-fanphiij,  and  on  this 
account  it  has  received  the  character  of  being  a 
hot  manure.  Both  mixed  together  form  a  valu- 
able manure,  especially  when  the  cow-dung  bears 
tlie  largest  proportion. 

2025.  The  hot  nature  of  horse-dung,  and  its 
rapidity  of  fermentation,  are  supposed  partly  to 
arise  from  its  containing  more  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter than  cow-dung;  but,  according  to  the  analyses 
afforded  by  Boussingault,  it  would  seem,  at  first 
sight  at  least,  that  such  an  opinion  is  not  well- 
founded.     The  analyses  are  : — 


Fresh  dung. 

Cow.  Horse. 

Water,       .    90  GO        7.5-31 

Nitrogen,  .       0-J2  O'M 

Salinematter,   M3  402 


Df}'  dung. 
Cow.        Ilurse. 


2-3 
12-0 


lb-3 


"  From  these  analyses,"  remarks  Professor  John- 
ston, "  it  appears  that,  though  recent  cow-dung 
contains  more  water  than  horse-dung,  yet  the 
dry  matter  of  the  former  is  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  that  of  the  latter.  Were  this  generally 
the  case,  it  ought,  one  would  suppose,  after 
becoming  a  little  drier,  to  ferment,  or  be  as  warm 
as  horse-dung.  However  tlii.s  may  be,  the  two 
circumstances — that  the  nitrogen  of  the  food  is 
discharged  chiefly  in  the  urine,  and  that  the  cow 
voids  a  much  larger  quantity  of  urine  than  the 
horse — incline  me  to  believe  that  cow-dung  must 
generally  contain  less  nitrogen  than  that  of  the 
horse,  and  that  this  is  really  the  cause  of  its 
greater  coldness.  The  correctness  of  this  opinion 
can  only  be  tested  by  a  series  of  careful  analy- 
ses. At  the  same  time  it  is  proper  to  add,  that 
the  peculiar  state  of  combination  in  which  the 
nitrogen  exists  in  two  bodies,  supposing  the  pro- 
portion in  both  to  be  the  same,  may  modify  very 
much  the  rapidity  of  the  decomposition  they 
respectively  undergo  in  the  same  circumstances." 


2026  "  Though  fermenting  with  such  apparent 
slowness,  fresh  cow-dung  undergoes  in  forty  days 
a  loss  of  one-fifth  of  its  solid  matter,  ((iazzcri.) 
Though  this  result  was  observed  in  Italy,  yet 
there  is  sufficient  loss  in  our  climate  alt^o  to  make 
it  worth  the  while  of  an  ecoiioniicai  farmer  to 
get  his  cow-dung  early  in  heaps,  and  to  shelter 
it  as  much  as  possible  from  the  sun  and  air." 

2027.  "  Even  when  fed  on  the  same  food,  the 
dung  of  the  horse  should  be  richer  than  that  of 
the  cow,  because  of  the  large  quantity  of  urine 
the  latter  animal  is  in  the  habit  of  voiding.  In 
the  short  period  of  twenty-four  hours,  horse-dung 
heats,  and  begins  to  suffer  by  fermentation.  If 
left  in  a  heap  for  two  or  three  weeks,  scarcely 
seven-tenths  of  its  original  weight  will  remain. 
Hence  the  propriety  of  early  removing  it  from 
the  stable,  and  of  mixing  it  as  soon  as  possible 
with  some  other  material  by  which  the  volatile 
substances  given  ott"  (much  ammonia)  may  be 
absorbed  and  arrested."  Here  is  a  strong  motive 
for  cleaning  out  the  work-horse  stable  every  day, 
and  of  spreading  the  litter  from  it  over  the  face 
of  the  cattle-Court,  so  as  it  may  be  intimately 
nii.xed  with  their  litter  and  dung,  and  also  of 
tramping  a  dunghill  firmly  (2005.) 

2028.  "  Pigs'  dung  is  still  colder  and  less  fer- 
mentable than  that  of  the  cow.  ...  A 
specimen  examined  by  Boussingault  was  found 
to  contain  per  cent. 

Recent.        Dry. 

Water,        .         .    81 -00 

Nitrogen,  .  .  01J3  337 
being  richer  in  nitrogen  even  than  horse-dung." 
My  experience  determines  pigs'  dung  to  be  hot, 
and  excellent ;  and  this  was  also  the  opinion  of 
the  ancients,  as  the  Quintilli  remarked,  that 
"  the  dung  of  hogs  being  of  superior  goodness,  is 
improper  for  corn-fields,  on  account  of  its  abun- 
dant heat,  for  it  instantly  burns  corn  grouuds."f 

2029.  "  Sheep's  dung  is  a  rich  dry  manure, 
which  ferments  more  readily  than  that  of  the 
cow,  but  less  so  than  that  of  the  horse.  Bous- 
singault found  a  specimen  to  consist  of — 

Recent.         Pry. 
^\'ater,         .  ()3'0  —     por  cent. 

Nitroten,     ,  Ml  1-99 

The  food  of  the  sheep  is  more  finely  masticated 
than  that  of  the  cow,  and  its  dung  contains  a 
little  less  water,  and  is  richer  in  nitrogen;  hence, 
probably,  its  more  rapid  fermentation. "+ 

2030.  An  ingenious  suggestion  has  been  made 
by  Mr  Kirk,  l*reston  Mains,  East  Lothian,  to 
check  (he  ajiri'iiil  of  the  seeih  of  veedtt  amoih)st 
vutnure.  His  suggestion  is  founded  on  the  gene- 
ral law  of  the  growth  of  plants,  that  certain 
classes  of  soils  produce  certain  classes  of  plants. 
This  law  I  have  endeavoured  to  illustrate  very 
fully  from  (382  to  435.)  The  suggestion  is,  to 
put  the  manure  of  the  straw  obtanied  from  one 
kind    of  soil   on  to   another.     Thus,  the  straw 


•  Tramactions  of  the  Hiqhland  and  Atjrlcultural  Societt/  for  July  1848,  p. 

+  Owen's  Geoponika,  vol.  i.  p   68. 

t  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Aijricultiiral  Cheimstry,  2d  ed.  p.  821-2. 


r8-9. 


FORMING  DUNGHILLS  IN  WLNTER. 


469 


obtained  from  clay  soil,  that  is  wheat  land,  when 
made  into  manure,  should  be  applied  to  light  soil 
— that  is,  turnip  soil ;  and  as,  according  to  this 
law,  natural  plants,  called  by  farmers  weeds, 
which  thrive  upon  the  clay  soil,  would  not  thrive 
upon  the  light,  it  appears  to  be  within  the  power 
of  the  farmer  to  prevent,  or  at  least  to  check,  the 
propagation  of  weeds  by  seed.  Putting  this 
suggestion  into  practice  would  be  attended  with 
some  difficulty  ;  for  although  Mr  Kirk  seems  to 
think  it  is  easy  "  to  make  all  the  straw  grown  on 
one  kind  of  soil  into  manure  by  itself,"  and  which, 
he  conceives,  "  might  be  accomplished  with  very 
little  additional  trouble  to  the  farmer,  where 
several  hammels  are  employed  in  the  feeding  of 
cattle,"*  yet  in  large  courts  it  would  be  almost 
impracticable  to  prevent  the  mixture  of  straw  of 
a  stack  from  clay  laud  with  that  from  light  land  ; 
and  it  would  be  as  difficult  to  devise  a  plan  by 
which  the  straw  off  clay  land  should  be  used  in 
the  small  courts  of  the  hammels,  while  that  from 
a  light  soil  was  in  use  for  litter  in  the  large 
courts.  Besides  all  this,  the  best  fodder  being 
obtained  from  light  land,  the  cattle,  while  using 
it,  could  not  be  littered  with  straw  from  clay 
land,  without  running  the  risk  of  destroying  the 
object  in  view.  The  suggestion,  however,  being 
founded  on  correct  theory,  might  be  subjected 
to  experiment,  which  alone  can  devise  a  plan  for 
carrying  it  out  into  practice.  But  would  it  not  be 
better  to  have  the  land  so  clean,  as  that  no  seeds 
of  weeds  shall  be  carried  from  it  with  the  straw 
of  the  crops  ? 

2031.  Mr  John  Hannam,  in  his  interesting  little 
memoir  on  the  economy  of  waste  manures, 
says —  "  Should  the  farmer  be  compelled  to  form 
a  manure-heap  in  the  field,  I  would  advise  him  by 
no  means  to  carry  it  to  the  field  fresh,  and  to 
let  it  decompose  there,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
before  he  uses  it;"  implying  that,  whenever  dung- 
litter  is  carried  to  the  field,  it  must  necessarily 
decompose  there.  This  is  by  no  means  a  neces- 
sary consequence,  as  it  is  nearly  impossible  for 
fresh  dung-litter  to  ferment  anywhere  in  win- 
ter, when  tramped  hard  with  carts  and  horses. 
Were  it  shaken  up  loose  and  moistened,  in  order 
to  encourage  fermentation  with  the  first  increase 
of  atmospheric  temperature,  a  slight  decomposi- 
tion might  soon  be  induced,  which  would  after- 
wards become  active ;  but  such  a  result  would  not 
occur  if  the  dung  were  compressed  into  a  firm 
state  by  adequate  means. 

2032.  He  further  advises,  "before  he  takes  it 
from  the  couch,  he  should  have  it  nearly  as 
rotten  as  he  wishes  it  to  be.  He  should  wet  it 
well  with  the  drainings,  and,  when  he  carries  it 
to  the  field,  cover  it  up  with  road  scrapings, 
earth,  &c.  At  the  bottom  of  the  heap,  too,  there 
should  be  a  good  bed  of  earthy  matter  laid.  In 
this  way  the  manure  will  come  out  for  use  almost 
as  fresh  as  when  put  in,  the  atmosphere  having 
had  no  access,  and  the  earth  at  the  bottom  and 
on  the  top  absorbing  the  liquid  and  gaseous 
matters  that  would  otherwise  have  escaped." 
Without  dwelling  upon  the  inconsistency  involved 

*   Quarterly  Journal  of  Agr 
f  Hannam  On  the  Economy 


in  the  instruction,  that  "  before  he  takes  it  from 
the  conch,  he  should  have  it  nearly  as  rotten  as 
he  wishes  it  to  be,"  with  the  assertion  that 
"  when  he  carries  it  to  the  field,  covers  it  up  with 
road-scrapings,  earth,  &c.,  the  manure  will  come 
out  for  use  almost  as  fresh  as  when  put  in,  the 
atmosphere  having  had  no  access,  &c.,"  only  con- 
ceive the  labour  implied  in  all  this  treatment  of 
the  manure,  and  consider  how  the  horses  and  men 
are  to  accomplish  it  in  the  course  of  a  season. 
There  is  first  the  taking  the  dung  from  the  courts, 
the  byres,  and  the  hammels,  to  the  shed  at  the 
liquid-manure  tank,  there  to  be  well  watered 
with  the  drainings,  and  fermented  so  as  to  be  as 
rotten  as  is  desirable  ;  then  the  carting  to  the 
field  in  which  it  is  to  be  used,  and  there  made 
into  a  heap,  not  upon  the  ground  as  it  is,  but 
upon  a  previously  constructed  "  good  bed  of 
earthy  matter,"  which  of  course  must  have  been 
brought  into  the  field ;  for  if  made  of  its  own  soil, 
no  advantage  would  accrue  to  the  field  ;  and 
lastly,  the  dung  has  to  be  laid  on  the  field.  On 
the  supposition  that  all  the  dung  of  a  farm  is  to 
be  treated  in  this  manner  before  it  is  considered 
ready  for  use,  the  extent  of  shed-room  at  the 
liquid-manure  tank  must  be  very  great,  and  the 
supply  of  liquid  manure  to  "  well  water"  such  a 
mass  of  dung  very  large;  but  when  the  men  and 
horses  are  to  find  time  to  cart  out  thrice  all  the 
dung  thus  treated  before  it  is  laid  upon  the  land, 
is  more  than  1  can  conjecture. 

2033.  Mr  Hannam  thus  expresses  his  strictures 
on  the  treatment  the  farm-yard  manure  usually 
receives  from  the  hands  of  farmers: — "  Again,  is 
it  an  uncommon  case  for  us  to  see  hundreds  of 
tons  of  rich  farm  manure,  and  vegetable  matter, 
undergoing  rapid  decomposition  in  the  fields, 
and  so  exposed  to  the  alternations  of  weather — 
to  the  storms  of  winter,  and  the  sun  and  showers 
of  spring — that  the  principal  portion  of  the  liquid 
and  gaseous  fertilisers  it  contains  must  '  run  or 
fly  away'  before  the  manure  is  used  ?"  Surely 
this  is  the  language  of  exaggeration,  for  no 
"  rapid  decomposition"  can  take  place  in  dung 
among  "  the  storms  of  winter ;"  and  as  few  "gaseous 
fertilisers"  can  "fly  away"  in  "  the  sun  and  showers 
of  spring,"  the  heat  of  early  summer  being  re- 
quired to  produce  either  result  in  a  mass  consti- 
tuted as  farm-yard  manure  generally  is;  and  as 
to  "  the  principal  portion  of  the  liquid"  "  run- 
ning away"  "  in  the  fields,"  the  earth  that  re- 
ceives it  will  surely  derive  as  much  benefit  from 
it,.as  the  "  bed  of  earthy  matter"  below  the  heap, 
and  the  "road-scrapings"  above  it,  both  recom- 
mended to  be  formed  to  receive  this  very  liquid. 

2034.  Strictures  apply  with  more  truth,  and 
will  come  more  forcibly  home,  and  likely  be 
more  attended  to,  when  thus  expressed, — "  How 
seldom  are  the  stores  of  vegetable,  animal,  and 
other  matters  useful  to  vegetation,  which  observa- 
tion may  discover  and  industry  collect  on  many 
farms,  made  use  of."  f 

2035.  It  is  easy  to  refer  to  the  practice  of 
other  countries,  and  exhibit  it  as  a  pattern  to  our 

■[culture,  vol.  viii.  p.  485. 

of  Waste  2Ianures,  p.  59-62. 


470 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


farmers;  but  before  the  advice  will  be  taken,  or 
the  admonition  listened  to,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  him  who  admoui:^hes  to  show  that  dissimilar 
motives  induce  the  adoption  of  the  same  practice 
in  different  countries,— a  proposition  wliich  will 
be  found  difficult  to  solve  ;  and  yet  the  proposal 
to  adopt  certain  foreign  practices  in  our  country 
would  be  as  difficult  to  practise  if  proposed  in 
plain  terms  ;  for  the  motive  of  the  Fleming,  the 
German,  and  the  Swiss  farmer,  in  applying  liquid 
manure  to  their  crops  in  summer,  is  to  counteract 
the  injurious  effects  of  the  ordinary  heat  and 
drought  which  are  experienced  by  them  in  that 
season;  and,  in  order  to  possess  liquid  manure  for 
that  purpose,  all  the  live-stock  in  Germany  and 
Flanders,  and  part  of  those  in  Switzerland,  are 
kept  constantly  in  the  house;  and  further,  to  pro- 
vide abundance  of  food  for  the  stock,  when  so 
confined,  much  industry  is  exerted  to  raise  forage 
in  those  countries  in  summer.  The  same  summer 
heat  and  drought  stint  the  growth  of  the  straw 
of  their  cereal  crops. 

2036.  Now,  no  such  motive  exists  in  this 
country,  and  therefore  it  is,  and  for  no  other 
reason — for  depend  upon  it,  where  an  intelligent 
people  perceive  an  advantage,  they  will,  ere 
long,  use  the  means  of  obtaining  it — the  Conti- 
nental practice  does  not  prevail  here.  In  ordi- 
nary years,  we  do  not  need  to  counteract  the 
baleful  effects  of  drought  in  summer,  that  season 
being  no  more  than  hot  enough,  and  therefore 
our  green  crops,  and  the  straw  of  our  cereal  ones, 
grow  luxuriantly;  and  as  the  same  cause  encou- 
rages the  growtli  of  perennial  grasses,  our  cattle, 
instead  of  being  confined  in  the  house  all  summer, 
are  put  out  to  pasture  on  them,  very  much  to  the 
saving  of  labour;  and  this  difference  in  the  cli- 
mates is  sufficient  to  explain  our  apparent  want 
of  indnstry,  when  compared  with  the  constant 
toil  imposed  by  their  climate  upon  the  agricul- 
tural population  of  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Swit- 
zerland, who  are  observed  by  travellers  working 
in  the  fields  from  early  dawn  to  sunset;  and  whose 
patient  industry,  thus  displayed,  is  very  naturally 
the  theme  of  much  of  the  laudation  which  has 
been  bestowed  upon  them  by  observers,  who  look 
no  farther  than  on  the  surface  of  things. 


ON  THE  FOUMIXG  OF  COMPOSTS  IN 
WINTER. 

2037.  Although  winter  is  not  the  season 
to  expect  a  qawt-k  fennentatioii  to  arise 
among  the  materials  composing  a  compost 
(liingliili,  or  vi'uhlen,  as  it  is  technically 
termed  in  Scotland — being  the  correspond- 
ing phrase  to  the  English  mixen — it  is  a 
favourable  time  for  collecting  those  mate- 
rials together  in  convenient  places,  and 
mixing  them  in  their  proper  relative  pro- 
portions. 


may  be  collected  at  the  very  commence- 
ment of  winter — such  as  the  tjuicken  or 
couch  grass  collected  in  the  fiehls,  while 
prej)aring  them  for  the  green  crops  of 
hist  year ;  the  dried  potato  haulms  col- 
lected on  raising  the  potato  ;  thescouriugs 
of  ditches,  and  the  weeds  de.-^troycd  during 
summer ;  the  dried  leaves  that  may  have 
fallen  in  the  en<l  of  autumn  ;  any  moss 
or  turf  that  maybe  available  on  the  farm; 
and  any  vegetable  matter  whatsoever. 


Fig.  193. 


2039.  Immediately  after  a  rainy  day, 
when  the  land  is  in  such  a  stat«  of  wet- 
ness as  to  prevent  work 
being  done  upon  it,  and 
the  horses  have  nothing 
particular  to  do,  two  or 
three  of  the  men  should 
each  take  a  laiid  hoe  or 
h(irlc\  such  as  fig.  103,  and 
rake  the  loose  straws  and 
liquid  mud  on  all  the  roads 
around  the  steading  to  the 
lowest  side  of  the  n  lads,  and 
as  much  as  possible  out  of 
the  way  of  carts  and  ])eopl6 
passing  along;  while  the 
rest  should  take  graips  and 
shovels,  and  form  the 
raked  matter  into  heaps, 
to  be  led  away,  when  it 
will  bear  lifting,  to  the 
compost-heaji.  The  best 
state  for  the  roads  near 
the  steading  in  winter,  is 
to  have  a  hard  and  smooth 
surface,  and  this  they  will 
Lave,  with  an  inclination 
that  causes  the  water  to 
run  easily  into  a  ditch  hard 
by.  A  scra])ing  now  and 
then  with  the  mud  hoe 
will  make  such  a  road  dry 
and  comfortable,  even  in 


THE  MUD  HOB  OR 

HAKi.K.         waiter. 


2040.  Where  there  isplenty  of  straw,  as 
on  clay  farms,  some  farmers  put  it  upon 
the  roads  around  the  steading,  to  tramj)le 
it  down  and  wet  it  with  rain,  and  then  lead 
it  to  the  dunghill  in  the  field.  The  object 
aimed  at  of  wetting  the  straw  is  attained, 
but  such  a  littering  makes  the  roads  very 
damp  and  plashy. 

2038.  There  are  many  materials  which         2041.    The  carriage  of  inouhl,  as  the 


FORMING  COMPOSTS  IN  WINTER. 


471 


principal  ingredient  of  a  compost,  is  labo- 
rious work.  With  such,  a  compost  is  best 
made  on  the  spot  where  the  soil  is  found  ; 
but  when  the  foundation  of  a  new  building 
or  wall  affords  mould  which  must  be  re- 
moved at  any  rate,  it  should  be  used  in 
compost,  and  will  repay  the  trouble  of  re- 
moval. Other  materials  than  mould  may, 
and  indeed  must,  be  carried,  to  form  bases 
when  composts  are  formed  ;  such  as  saw- 
dust, spent  tanners'  bark,  rape-cake,  and 
refuse  of  manufactures  of  sundry  kinds. 
Lime  must  also  be  brought  to  mix  with 
some  of  them,  and  without  it  few  composts 
will  be  made  useful.  The  refuse  produc- 
tions of  the  farm  must  also  be  carried  to 
the  same  convenient  places. 

2042.  On  laying  down  the  haulms  of 
potatoes  or  twitch  for  compost,  it  is  usual 
to  throw  down  the  loads  in  the  corner  of 
the  field  or  elsewhere,  without  the  least 
regard  to  order ;  and  the  excuse  is,  that 
when  the  potato  crop  is  taking  up,  every 
liand  is  too  busily  employed  to  attend  to 
such  unimportant  things.  The  potato  crop 
and  the  weeds  ought  to  be  gathered  in  a 
proper  manner;  but  that  is  no  reason  why 
the  refuse  created  by  them  should  be  mis- 
managed, and  cause  future  labour  and 
expense.  Instead  of  throwing  down  the 
potato  stems  and  twitch  any  how,  a  field- 
labourer  should  be  stationed  at  the  com- 
post-stance, wherever  it  is,  and  tlirow  them 
with  a  graip  into  a  heap  of  regular  form, 
when  the  materials  will  not  only  occupy 
the  least  space  of  ground,  but  be  in  the 
best  state  to  receive  any  additions  of  liquid 
or  solid  matter,  and  then  the  most  perish- 
able portions  of  the  materials  might  be 
covered  with  the  more  durable,  and  placed 
in  the  best  state  to  preserve  their  proper- 
ties. The  neglect  I  complain  of — of  appa- 
rently unimportant  materials — arises  from 
this  cause.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  in 
farmers  and  stewards,  when  conducting 
any  labour  in  the  fields,  to  do  what  they 
consider  the  least  important  part  of  the 
work  in  haste, — unthinkingly  forgetting 
that  correction  of  hasty  work  often  creates 
more  trouble  than  the  portion  of  the  work 
for  which  it  was  neglected  is  probably 
worth.  Many  instances  might  be  given  of 
tvjo -hati  did  7vork  occ-ds'ioned  by  such  haste. 
For  example,  were  a  field-worker  or  two 
placed  where  the  haulms  of  the  potatoes 
are  carried  to  form  a  future  compost-heap, 


they  would  form  the  heap  according  to 
instructions  previously  received,  as  the 
cart-loads  are  laid  down  ;  and  as  soon  aa 
the  carriage  of  the  refuse  was  finished,  so 
would  also  be  the  formation  of  the  nucleus 
of  the  future  compost-heap.  But  when  the 
haulms  are  laid  down  at  random  by  plough- 
men anxious  to  get  quit  of  their  loads, 
considerably  more  labour  will  be  required 
to  make  them  into  the  same  form  of  heap, 
and  the  work  in  the  end  will  not  be  so 
well  done.  Thus,  one  woman  with  a  light 
graip  will  form  a  heap  of  as  much  loose 
material  laid  before  her  in  a  small  quantity 
at  one  time,  as  3  or  4  women  could  do  the 
same  work,  with  the  same  quantity  of 
matter  scattered  confusedly  about.  The 
additional  trouble  and  expense  in  putting 
together  materials  thrown  down  and 
scattered,  is  no  saving  in  the  end. 

2043.  The  subject  of  composts,  when  fol- 
lowed out  in  all  its  bearings,  is  an  exten- 
sive one, — for  there  is  not  a  single  article 
of  refuse  on  a  farm  but  what  may  form  an 
ingredient  of  a  compost,  and  be  converted 
into  a  manure  fit  for  one  or  more  of  the 
cultivated  crops.  At  the  same  time,  great 
labour  attends  the  formation  of  composts 
of  every  kind,  as  the  materials  cannot  be 
collected  together  without  horse-labour  ; 
and  in  summer  the  labours  of  the  field  are 
most  important,  when  those  materials  are 
most  abundant ;  and  to  employ  then  the 
time  required  to  collect  them,  would  be  to 
sacrifice  part  of  the  time  that  should  be 
occupied  in  indispensable  field-labour.  The 
most  economical  mode  of  forming  com- 
posts is  to  collect  the  materials  at  times 
when  leisure  occurs,  and  put  them  together 
in  compost-heaps,  as  they  are  brought  in 
quantities  to  the  compost-stance.  This 
advice  will  not  suit  the  temper  of  those 
who,  wishing  to  obtain  their  object  at 
once,  would  make  the  forming  of  com- 
posts a  principal  business;  but  every  piece 
of  work  should  liave  its  legitimate  period 
for  its  execution.  I  speak  in  this  matter 
from  experience,  and,  having  been  im- 
pressed with  the  utility  of  composts,  and 
possessing  abundance  of  materials  at  my 
command  for  making  what  I  conceived 
should  be  good  manure,  I  persuaded  myself 
that  composts  might  be  made  to  any  extent 
on  a  farm.  Having  access  to  rough  bog-turf 
and  peat,  dry  leaves,  black  mould,  quicken, 
potato  haulms,  shell  marl,  fine  clay,  and 


473 


PRACTICE— "WINTER. 


lime-sLells,  I  was  favourably  situated  for 
making  composts.  But  little  did  I  antici- 
pate tlie  labour  I  had  undertaken.  Two 
years  conviuced  me  that  it  was  no  child's 
play  to  collect  together  these  materials 
into  one  or  two  places,  and  cart  them  out 
again  to  the  fields  destined  to  receive  them 
in  the  amended  form.  The  labour  is  not  to 
be  overtaken  with  the  ordinary  strength 
of  a  farm,  and,  if  done  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner, must  be  so  with  men  and  horses  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose,  or  it  should  be 
done  when  leisure  warrants  the  undertak- 
ing. I  put  together  the  materials  in  the 
best  niauner  I  could  devise  or  hear  of, 
turned  them  at  proper  times  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  enjoyed  the  satisfaction 
of  possessing  a  large  quantity  of  good  stuff, 
— and  I  invariably  found  that  the  oldest 
made  compost  looked  richest,  most  uniform 
in  its  texture,  and  most  active  in  its  effects, 
and  most  like  old  rotten  muck ;  but,  not- 
withstanding its  favourable  appearance, 
unless  very  large  quantities  were  applied, 
little  benefit  was  derived  from  it — so  that 
even  from  40  to  50  cart-loads  to  the  impe- 
rial acre  did  not  produce  so  good  an  effect 
as  1 2  cart-loads  of  good  muck.  I  managed 
the  manual  part  easily,  as  labourers  under- 
took it  by  piece-work ;  but  the  horse- 
labour  was  overpowering,  for  every  acre 
thus  imposed  a  cartage  of  80  to  100  loads, 
to  manure  iteven  insutKciently.  An  extra 
pair  of  horses  and  a  man  could  not  have 
overtaken  the  additional  labour,  and  to 
incur  such  an  expense  for  the  problemati- 
cal good  to  be  derived  from  composts 
above  guano  or  bone-dust,  which  are  easily 
carried,  is  more  than  the  most  sanguine 
farmer  is  warranted  in  believing. 

2044.  I  may  relate  a  few  of  tiie  com- 
posts I  made  with  those  materials.  The 
first  was  a  compound  of  peat-turf  and  lime- 
shells.  The  turf  was  wheeled  to  the  mar- 
gin of  the  bog  on  hard  land,  and  aUowed 
to  lie  some  weeks,  to  drip  the  water  out 
of  it,  and  to  make  it  lighter  for  cartage. 
The  lime  was  mixed  in  the  proportion  of 
1  cart  of  lime  to  27  of  turf.  After  the 
compound  was  twice  turned,  the  mass  be- 
came a  fine  greasy  pulp,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  weeks  in  spring  and  the  early  ]»art  of 
summer,  so  greasy,  that  no  one  could  walk 
on  it  without  slipping.     It  was  applied  to 


good  turnip  land,  to  raise  turnips,  and  the 
rule  adopted  to  determine  the  quantity 
requisite  for  an  acre  was,  in  the  first  place, 
to  fill  the  drills  with  it,  and  the  quantity 
required  to  do  this  was  from  30  to  40 
double  cart-loads  per  acre.  The  crop  of 
white  turnips  was  only  tolerable,  and  cer- 
tainly not  nearly  equal  to  what  was  raised 
in  the  same  field  with  12  loads  of  farm- 
yard dung,  while  the  field  became  trouble- 
somely  covered  with  the  bog-thistle,  as 
also  the  common  field-thistle,  and  a  few  of 
the  burr-thistle,  the  lime  not  having  been 
in  sufficient  cjuuntity  to  destroy  the  vitality 
of  the  thistle-seed  contained  in  the  turf, 
though  the  degree  of  heat  created  in  the 
mass  to  reduce  it  to  a  pulp  was  consider- 
able. The  proportion  of  the  lime  ought 
to  have  been  about  1  load  to  3  of  turfy 
peat. 

2045.  Another  compost  was  made  of 
peat-turf  and  farm-yard  dung,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  lime,  as  directed  by  the  late 
Lord  Meadowbank  in  his  celebrated  trea- 
tise on  that  subject,  and  which  you  may 
consult.*  The  effect  produced  from  this 
was  better  than  the  former  compost,  but 
still  not  equal  to  the  usual  quantity  of 
dung. 

2046.  A  mixture  of  lime  and  black 
mould,  made  on  head-ridges  upon  which 
too  much  earth  had  accunmlated,  was  ap- 
]»lied  before  the  land  was  drilled  up  and 
dunged  for  turnips,  only  to  thicken  the  soil; 
and  the  labour  was  not  thrown  away. 
The  lime,  however,  ought  to  have  been  in 
the  proportion  of  1  of  lime  to  3  of  mould. 

2047.  I  tried  a  compost  of  rape-cake 
and  mould,  the  broken  cake  being  sprinkled 
on  while  the  earth  was  turning  over,  and  a 
very  brisk  fermentation  was  produced  in 
the  mass.  After  the  heat  had  nearly  sub- 
sided, it  was  ajiplied  for  turnips,  with 
much  success.  Unfortunately,  no  account 
was  taken  of  the  exact  number  of  cart- 
loads per  acre  of  this  or  any  of  the  other 
composts  applied,  such  jiarticulars  being 
then  seldom  noted  by  farmers,  who  chieHy 
supplied  the  quantity  of  manure  by  judg- 
ment. Now,  however,  a  better  system 
])revails,  when  every  particular  application 
is  weighed  or  measured  with  exactness. 


•  Meadowbank's  Directiont  for  preparing  Manure  from  Feat,  p.  19,  3d  edition  in  1842. 


FORMEN^G  COMPOSTS  IN  ^VINTER. 


473 


2048.  Shell-marl  and  bog-turf,  when 
mixed,  produced  no  heat,  and  of  course 
were  not  reduced  into  a  uniform  mass,  for 
without  the  agency  of  heat  it  is  impossible 
to  make  any  compost  homogeneous. 

2049.  Bog-turf  burnt  produced  ashes 
which  varied  much  in  their  specific  graA-i- 
ties;  those  of  white  colour  being  light  and 
ineffective  as  a  manure,  whilst  the  red 
coloured  were  heavy,  earthy  in  appear- 
ance, and  well  suited  to  raise  turnips  ;  but 
I  was  unable  to  distinguish  beforehand 
which  turf  would  yield  the  Avhite  and 
which  the  red  ashes.  The  trouble  attend- 
ing the  casting  of  bog-turf,  wheeling  it  to 
the  side,  exposing  it  to  the  air  to  dry, 
and  afterwards  burning  it  to  ashes,  or 
carting  it  away  for  compost,  was  much 
greater  than  the  quantity  of  ashes  or  the 
quality  of  the  compost  obtained  would 
compensate. 

2050.  Two  years'  labour  with  the  con- 
coction of  these  materials  were  sufficient 
to  give  me  a  distaste  for  the  business,  and 
at  length  I  dropped  it,  and  went  to  the 
neighbouring  towns  to  purchase  street, 
stable,  or  cow-house  manure,  and  bone- 
dust.  These  never  disappointed  me,  and 
the  eating  off  the  turnips,  which  they 
raised  every  year,  with  sheep,  soon  put  the 
soil  into  a  fertile  state. 

2051.  Notwithstanding  this  resolution, 
I  made  a  point  every  year  of  making  up 
a  large  compost-heap  of  the  twitch 
gathered  from  the  fallow  land,  while  it  was 
preparing  for  the  turnips, — of  the  potato 
haulms,  as  they  were  harrowed  together, — 
and  of  the  dried  leaves,  which  would 
otherwise  have  blown  about  the  lawn  and 
shrubberies,  and  of  any  otiier  refuse  that 
could  be  collected  together  on  the  farm. 
These,  with  the  assistance  of  a  little  fresh 
horse-dung,  and  of  such  water  as  theliquid- 
manure  tank,  which  was  situate  in  the 
compost-court,  afforded,  formed  a  compost 
which  assisted  in  extending  the  boundaries 
of  the  turnip  crop  ;  and  if  that  portion  of 
the  crop  was  not  always  tlie  heaviest,  the 
larger  proportion  of  the  turnips  growing 
on  it,  being  eaten  off  by  the  sheep,  enabled 
it  to  produce  its  share  of  the  succeeding 
corn    crop  and  grass,  while  the  soil  was 


deepened  by  the  mould  obtained  from  the 

compost. 

2052.  Animals  that  fall  by  disease, 
when  tiieir  carcasses  are  subdivided,  and 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  earth, 
make  a  compost  far  superior  to  vegetable 
materials,  for  raising  turnips,  especially 
swedes. 

2053.  The  produce  of  privies,  pigeons' 
dung,  the  dung  of  fowls,  form  excellent 
ingredients  for  dissolving  in  the  liquid 
manure  in  the  tank,  and  afterwards  mixing 
with  a  compost- heap. 

2054.  Of  late  years,  sawdust,  long 
considered  a  useless  article  as  a  manure, 
and  which  may  be  obtained  in  quantity 
where  saw-mills  are  at  work,  is  now  made 
useful  on  being  mixed  with  farm-yard 
dung,  ferinented  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  heat,  and  then  subdued  with  water;'"  or 
mixed  with  one-tenth  of  its  proportion  with 
lime  and  road  scrapings,  and  kept  in  com- 
post for  3  years. f  Such  composts  have 
raised  turnips,  as  evidenced  by  the  expe- 
rience of  Mr  William  Sim,  Drunimond, 
Inverness-shire,  and  Mr  If.  H.  Drummond 
of  Blair-Drummond,  Perthshire. 

2055.  Spent  tanner's-bark,  when  laid 
for  a  time  on  the  road  around  the  steading, 
and  trampled  under  foot  and  bruised  by 
cart-wheels,  and  formed  into  a  compost 
with  dung  or  lime,  and  allowed  to  stand 
a  considerable  time,  is  rendered  a  good 
manure  for  turnips.  Sawdust,  tanner's- 
bark,  and  the  refuse  of  the  bark  of  fir- 
trees,  will  not  bear  the  expense  of  a  long 
carriage  ;  but  where  a  sujiply  of  them  is 
at  hand,  their  decomposition,  though  slow, 
is  worth  the  trouble,  because  their  effect  is 
durable. 

2056.  In  the  vicinity  of  villages  where 
fish  are  cured  and  smoked  for  market, 
refuse  of  fish  heads  and  guts  make  an 
excellent  compost  with  earth.  Near  Eye- 
mouth and  Burnmouth,  on  the  Berwick- 
shire coast,  30  barrels  of  fish  refuse,  with 
as  much  earth  from  tlie  head-ridges  as  will 
completely  cover  the  heap,  are  sufficient  for 
an  imperial  acre.  The  barrel  contains 
30  gallons,   and  4  barrels  make  a  cart- 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.  p.  529.    +  Ibid.  vol.  xiii.  p.  274 


474 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


loatl,   and    the    barrel    sells    for    Is.    6d.  matter  in  a  state  of  decay  lias  tlie   pro- 

From   400  to    000    barrels    may   be  ob-  perty  of  absorldiii;  oxvgen  from  all  otiiei 

tainod  for  each    farm    in    the  neigbbour-  matters  with  wliicli  they  come  in  contact, 

hood,  in  the  course  of  the  season.     Since  it  is  probable  that  a  portion  of  the  nitric 

the  opening  of  the  North  British  railway,  acid  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  was  dccoinposed. 

the  curing  of  the  fish  is  given  up,  much  to  A  very  heavy  .shower  of  rain  fell  between 

the  loss  of  the  farmers  in  that  locality;  the  time  of  mixing  the  weeds,  &c.,  and  the 

and  the  fisiiermen  now  send,  by  the  rail-  period    of  removing   them  to  the  fields  ; 

way,  the  fish  in  a  fresh  state  to  the  larger  and  I  never  remembered  such  a  (piantity 

towns  at  a  distance.     Thus,  railways  pro-  of  deep-coloured  fluid  to  exude   from   so 

duce  advantage  to  some,  whilst  they  cause  small  a  mass  of  manure,  evincing  that  a 

loss  to  others.     In  the  northern  counties  of  great  quantity  of  humic    acid    had    been 

Scotland,   fish  refuse  is  obtained  in  large  formed,     which    was    ])rol)ably    combined 

quantities,  during  the  herring  fishing  sea-  with  the  soda  of  the  nitrate  and  ammonia 

son.     On  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  the  pil-  of    the    decomposed    horse-manure,    and, 

chard    fishing   affords  a  large   supply  of  not     improbably,      with      the     ammonia 

refuse  for  composts.  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  nitric 

acid."  * 

2057.  Whale-blubber  mixed  with  earth 

forms  a  good  compost  for  turnips.      This  2060.    The    solid    refuse    of   manufac- 

niost  caustic  sul)stance,  in  a  fresh  state,  tures  may  all  be  made  available  for  couj- 

should  be  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  posts;  such  as  the  soiled  substances  from 

of  earth,  and  the  compost  kept  for  at  least  woollen  waste, — shoddy,  consisting  of  the 

3  years.     I  have  seen  a  blubber  compost,  short  emlsand  refuse  of  wool, — croppings, 

2  years  old,  on  top-dressing  grass,  burn  up  the  ends  of  wcxd  cut  off  the  surface  of  cloth 

every  plant  by  the  roots.  and  merino  fabrics, — sweepings,  the  short 

dust  sej)arated  from  the  wool, — and  singe- 

2058.  I  have  heard  of  a  compost  of  ing-dust,  obtained  on  stuff  goods  being 
whin  and  broom  cuttings  and  earth,  3  loads  })assed  quickly  over  flames  of  gas  ;  as  also 
of  earth  to  1  of  the  cuttings,  mixed  and  flax-waste,  obtained  from  the  manufacture 
watered  for  2  or  3  days,  and  remaining  un-  of  flax,  and  soa[)-boilers'  refuse,  all  which, 
touched  for  8  or  10  more,  when  turned,  when  combined  with  earth,  moistened  with 
and  again  allowed  to  rest  for  other  10  liquids,  and  fermented,  form  active  corn- 
days,  become  a  fit  compost  for  wheat  or  posts  for  green  anil  grain  crops, 
oats.     The  cost  of  making  this  compost 


2061.  Of  the  licjuid  refuse  of  manufac- 
tures— such  astiic  li(piid  soap-waste,  coal- 
tar,  gas- lime,  ammoniacal  liquor,  sugar- 
refiners'  refuse — a  com))ost  might  be  made 


was  estimated  at  2s.  per  cart-load. 

2059.  "  WhiLst  fallowing  a  field,"   ob- 
serves   Mr   llowlandson,   "  overrun    with 

weeds,  twitch,  Sec,  I  had  the  weeds,  after  with  earth,  or  peat,  or  turf,  or  any  sub- 
being  well  harrowed,  carted  to  the  yard,  stance  wiiich  will  absorb  them,  and  may 
and  placed  between  2  layers  of  fresh  horse-  be  applied  to  grass  land  and  growing 
manure.  As  it  was  my  intention  to  apply  crops  as  to])-dressings  with  success,  after 
the  whole  as  manure  to  potatoes,  I  thought  they  have  undergone  active  fermentation. t 
it  would  be  advantageous  to  throw  a  little 
nitrate  of  soda  on  the  weeds,  &c.  This 
was  done,  and  a  strong  fermentation  took 
place;  and  the  whole  of  the  weeds  were 
converted,  in  the  course  of  10  days, 
into  a  rich  black  mass.  All  the  work- 
people attributed  this  to  the  salt- 
petre,, as  they  called  it,  being  used.  I 
am  inclined  to  think  that  the  heat  gene- 


ON  TUE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LIQUID-MANURE 
TANKS,  AND  CARTS. 

2062.  The  site  of  the  liquid  manure 
tank,  in  reference  to  the  steading,  may  be 
seen  at  X:',  Plate  II.  It  is  placed  in  an 
enclosed  piece  of  ground  near  the  stead- 


rated    by    the    horse-manure    caused   the     ing,  and  at  a  lower  level,  in  order  to  have 
weeds    rapidly    to    decompose;    and    as     the  drains  to  it  as  short  as  po.ssible,  that 

Journal  of  Aiirlcnlture,  for  Ortobcr  184.5,  p.  7tt- 
Hauiiain  on  the  Economy  of  Waste  Manures,  p.  78-96. 


LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS. 


475 


so  thick  a  substance  as  liquid  manure 
niigiit  pass  easily  in  them  to  the  tank. 
The  drains  are  seen  to  run  in  straight 
lines  from  the  tank  to  each  suite  of  courts, 
such  as  directly  into  each  of  the  large 
courts  I  and  K,  to  the  courts  of  the  byres 
Q  and  Y,  and  to  the  ends  of  the  hammels 
M  and  N,  along  the  middle  of  which  run 
the  drains  in  connexion  with  those  from 
the  tank.  The  drains  are  built  in  the  form 
given  in  fig.  72,  and  at  the  hollowest  point 
of  each  court,  great  and  small,  is  a  grating, 
like  fig.  71,  placed  over  the  drain  to  re- 
ceive the  drainage  from  the  dung-litter, 
when  an  excess  of  moisture  occurs  beyond 
what  the  straw  can  retain. 

2063.  Tanks  are  not  required  on  every 
kind  of  farm.  On  carse-farms,  where 
much  straw  and  little  green  food  is  used, 
there  can  be  no  liquid  manure ;  and  on 
pastoral-farms,  the  stock  confined  in  win- 
ter in  the  steading  are  too  limited  in 
number  to  afl:ord  much  of  that  material. 
On  dairy-farms,  on  the  other  hand,  where 
many  cows  are  maintained,  and  much 
green  food  consumed  by  them  in  byres, 
tanks  should  be  constructed  for  the  advan- 
tage of  the  grass  land.  The  practice  of 
the  farmers  of  Flanders  might  be  usefully 
followed  on  all  small  dairy-farms,  by  con- 
structing a  small  tank  under  ground  in 
every  byre,  the  contents  of  which  might 
be  enriched  with  rape-cake  and  other  valu- 
able ingredients.  These  enriched  contents, 
employed  as  a  top-dressing  on  pasture  and 
forage  land,  would  increase  their  produce, 
for  the  support  of  the  cows,  very  consi- 
derably. A  tank  to  a  dairy-farm  seems, 
therefore,  indispensable,  and  it  should  be 
of  large  dimensions,  to  meet  any  enlarge- 
ment of  the  dairy.  On  farms  of  mixed  hiis- 
bandrif,  if  the  steading  is  furnished  with 
rain-water  spouts,  and  the  stock  well  sup- 
plied with  litter,  I  do  not  see  that  much 
liquid  manure  can  be  collected.  I  had  a  cir- 
cular tank  of  1 2  feet  in  diameter  and  4  feet 
deep,  connected  with  well-planned  courts 
by  neatly-built  drains  provided  with  good 
gratings,  and  the  courts  were  defended  from 
being  deluged  with  rain  water  by  capacious 
rain-water  spouts,  and  care  taken  that  the 
cattle  were  always  provided  with  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  litter — with  all  which 
accommodations  every  well  constructed 
steading  should  be  supplied.  The  tank  was 
not  filled  in  the  course  of  the  season  al)ove 


three  times— a  quantity  not  worth  while 
providing  a  liquid-manure  cart  to  take  it 
to  the  field;  and  even  this  small  quantity 
was  solely  derivable  from  heavy  rains  and 
melting  snows  for  a  few  days  falling  di- 
rectly into  the  courts,  and  causing  a  surplus 
of  water,  which  was  readily  conveyed  into 
the  tank  by  the  drains.  The  ordinary 
supply  of  the  liquid  manure  was  merely  a 
few  drops  from  the  sole  of  the  drain  into 
which  all  the  other  drains  merged.  The 
sole  of  this  drain  was  only  4  feet  above 
the  bottom  of  the  tank,  and,  except  after 
rain  or  snow,  the  liquid  manure  never 
reached  that  height.  Still,  wherever  cattle 
are  housed  and  fed  in  large  numbers 
on  turnips,  a  tank  should  be  constructed 
with  drains,  to  keep  the  courts  comfort- 
ably dry. 

2064.  There  are  several  circumstan- 
ces to  be  taken  into  consideration,  be- 
fore proceeding  to  construct  a  tank  for 
liquid  manure.  AVhen  a  tank  is  made 
deep,  such  as  a  well,  the  building  of  the 
lower  part  will  require  to  be  particularly 
strong,  to  resist  the  hydrostatic  pressure 
of  the  fluid  within  it,  and,  of  course,  will 
be  so  much  the  more  expensive  in  con- 
struction. A  tank  should  therefore  be 
shallow,  not  deejier  than  four  or  five  feet 
below  the  sole  of  the  draius  which  bring 
the  liquid  manure.  It  is  very  desirable 
to  have  the  tank  covered,  for  the  sake  of 
protection  against  accidents,  and  against 
undue  action  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the 
liquid.  The  most  durable  covering  is  an 
arch;  and,  to  keep  the  cost  of  that  within 
bounds,  the  tank  should  be  narrow,  not 
exceeding  six  feet.  The  desired  capacity 
of  a  tank  will  thus  be  attainable  by  ex- 
tending its  length.  A  tank  should  neither 
let  in  nor  let  out  liquid.  To  prevent  its 
letting  in  water,  a  drain  should  be  formed 
where  there  is  the  least  appearance  of  it  in 
oozings  or  a  spring  :  ai>d  to  prevent  the 
liquid  getting  out,  ajjuddling  of  clay  should 
be  used,  where  the  subsoil  does  not  consist 
of  tenacious  boulder  clay.  The  clay  for 
puddling  should  be  well  pugged,  or  beaten 
into  the  consistency  of  putty. 

206.5.  You  will  find  the  particular  in- 
structions for  the  construction  of  tanks 
belcw,  and  all  I  shall  say  here  is,  that 
a  fall  from  6  inches  to  a  foot  is  required 
along  the  floor,  according  to  its  length  ; 


476 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


and  tliat  a  roomy  nian-liole  slioiilil  be  valuable  benefits  of  iKiiiiil  manure,  he 
made  in  the  arch  of  tlie  roof,  at  each  end  would  not  only  btrongly  recommend  the 
of  the  tank,  and  at  the  deepest  end  a  third     atlojttion  of  the  tank  upon   all  farm.'?,  but 


opening  for  the  pump. 

2066.  The  ])unip  used  in  tanks  is  eene- 
rally  the  common  cast-iron  one  ;  but  1  have 
seen  a  pump  lately,  of  a  construction  well 
adapted  for  the  lifting  of  liquid  manure, 


that  it  should  occupy  a  jiart  in  the  jtlan  of 
every  new  steading.  Were  such  a  system 
generally  adupteil,  much  of  the  expense 
attending  the  collection  of  common  manure 
from  towns  and  villages,  and  of  the  pur- 
chasing the   still   more  expensive  foreign 


which  at  times  contains  so  much  siudiry  and  manufactured  manures,  now  so  largely 
matter,  as  to  clog  the  action  of  the  valve  applied,  might  be  saved.  It  may  also  be 
and  plunger  of  the  common  pump.  The  important  to  add,  that  the  first  year's  col- 
principle  here  employed  is  the  converse  of  lection  of  the  liquid  manure  he  considered 
the  screw-propeller  of  the  steam-boat ;  to  compensate  in  full  for  all  the  expenses 
and  its  construction  is  a  series  of  those  incurred  in  the  construction  of  the  tank."* 
propellers  fixed  at  short    intervals  on   a 

vertical  axis,  placed  in  the  interior  of  an  2070.  Mr  Milburn,  Sowerby,  by  Thirsk, 

upright  pipe.     The  axis  or  spindle  is  put  gives   the  cost  of  constructing  a  liquid- 

into   rather    rapid    revolution,    and    the  manure  tank  l-S^  feet  in  length,  65  feet 

water  rises  without  priming  or  any  other  in  width,  and  6  feet  deep,  inside  measure. 


with  brick  in  length,  and  plastered  with 
lloinan  cement, — a  size  suitable  to  small 
holdings — in  these  terms  : — 

Ft.    in. 

Length  within,        13     6 

Width,  .  6     6 

Depth,  .  6     0=19i  cubic  yards. 

Cutting  over  all,  at  3d  per  yard,    £0     7     9 
Walling,     including     bricks     iu 

length,  and  murtararouud  them, 

at  4s.  per  yard,         .         .  6     8     0 

Plastering  and  cement,  .  0   16     0 

Covering  and  flags,       ,         .  '2   15     0 


£10     6     9t 


precaution.  No  valves  nor  nice  fitting  of 
any  kind  are  required.  This  machine  is  a 
fine  example  of  ingenious,  simple  mechan- 
ism. It  was  invented  by  Mr  M'Dowall, 
engineer,  Johnston,  Ayrshire. 

2067.  To  know  the  size  of  tank  required 
for  any  particular  case,  an  allowance  of 
1000  gallons  for  every  cow  is  a  good  cri- 
terion on  a  dairy-farm,  and  that  number  of 
gallons  occupy  162  cubic  feet.  When 
enlarged  tanks  are  desired,  it  is  better, 
because  cheaper,  to  have  parallel  rows  of 
narrow  tanks  contiguous  to  each  other, 
than  to  extend  the  breadth  or  length,  and  2071.  A  simple  and  convenient  mode 
increase  the  depth  of  the  dimensions  given  of  collecting  the  liquid  manure  of  a  dairy- 
above  (2064.)  In  a  series  of  parallel  farm — of  from  130  to  170  acres,  with  a 
tanks,  the  common  walls  support  the  arches  stock  of  cows  from  14  to  24,  with  young 
on  both  sides.  beasts  and  horses — has  been  j»ractised  by 

Mr  M'Lean,  Braidwood,  and  Mr  Wilson, 

2068.  A  tank  of  72  feet  in  length,  6  Eastfield,botli  nearFenicuik,Mid-Lothian. 
feet  wide  inside,  and  6  feet  deep  below  the  Drains  are  formed  from  the  bvres  and 
soles  of  the  drains,  contains  about  2600  stables  into  one  main  drain,  the  mouth 
cubic  feet,  and,  with  a  pump  and  the  car-  of  which  is  elevated  as  high  above  the 
riage  of  materials,  would  cost  about  £24.  ground  below  it  as  to  admit  a  liquid- 
manure  barrel — a  common  butt,  mounted 

206.9.  Mr  James  Kininnionth,  Inverteil,  on  its  cart — to  stand  under  it,  and  receive 
near  Kirkcaldy,  in  Fifeshire,  from  whom  the  liquid  direct  into  the  bung-hole;  and 
these  particulars  have  been  obtained,  says  as  the  barrel  becomes  full,  it  is  carted 
"  that,  from  his  experience  in  the  construe-  away,  and  its  c<mtents  emptied  on  the 
tion  of  a  good  tank,  he  considers  that  field.  The  barrel  contains  1.50  gallons, 
economy,  if  not  directed  by  judicious  views  and  is  nsuullv  filled  three  times  a-week. 
for  the  attainment  of  efficacy  in  the  object.  When  there  is  an  excess  of  liquid,  in  con- 
will  be  attended  with  loss  and  disappoint-  sequence  of  much  rain,  it  is  allowed  to 
ment ;  and,  from  his  experience  also  of  the  run   into   the  dunghills  below  the  drain, 

♦  Transactions  of  the  Iliijlilatid  and  A-jricuhural  Society  for  March  1846,  p.  292-8. 
t  Prite  Esaaytof  the  Ulyhland  and  AjricuUural  iiucieiy,  vol.  xiv.  p.  280. 


LIQUID-IVIANURE  TANKS. 


477 


aud  after  saturating  them,  it  flows  into 
an  open  shallow  tank,  from  which  it  irri- 
gates at  pleasure  a  drained  moss  laid  down 
to  perpetual  grass. 

2072.    The    cost    of  these   drains    are 
thus  giren  by  Mr  Wilson  : — 
In  uiider-byre,  including  cover  of 

the  main  drain,      .  .  £2     2     6 

In  upper-byre,  .  .  16     0 

Stable  pavement,  grates,  and  cost 

of  putting  them  in,  .  2     0     0 

Drains   from    dwelling-house    and 

scullery,  including  grates,  0  15     0 

Expense  of  cutting  a  road,  to  allow 

the  bung-hole  of  the  barrel  to  be 

placed  under  the  main  drain,        0  10     6 


£6  U     0 


2073.  A  common  butt,  of  the  above 
capacity  of  150  gallons,  sunk  into  the 
ground,  forms  a  good  aud  convenient  tank 
for  the  use  of  a  labourer's  cottage,  and, 
retaining  all  the  liquid  refuse  from  the 
house,  would  afTord  ready  means  of  manur- 
ing a  portion  of  the  garden.* 

2074.  The  ground  along  the  side  of  a 
long  tank  is  the  best  site  for  mixing  up 
composts,  with  the  assistance  of  the  liquid 
manure.  Instead  of  making  theconiposts  in 
the  open  and  level  ground,  I  would  form 
them  under  coA^er  in  a  shed,  built  ])arallel 
with  the  tank,  and  the  floor  of  which  should 
be  as  much  sunk  in  the  ground  as  the 
soles  of  the  liquid-manure  drains,  in  order 
to  allow  a  free  drainage  from  the  shed 
into  the  tank.  The  walls  of  the  shed 
should  be  built  of  stone  and  lime,  as  high 
as  6  feet  above  the  ground,  as  long  as  the 
length  of  the  tank,  and  8  or  y  feet  in 
breadth,  to  make  the  roof  narrow.  The 
floor  should  be  flagged  with  pavement, 
having  an  inclination  towards  the  tank, 
aud  numerous  openings  should  pass  through 
the  bottom  of  the  wall  from  the  lowest 
side  of  the  floor,  and  through  the  wall  of 
the  tank,  to  serve  as  conduits  for  convey- 
ing the  drainage  from  the  compost-heaps, 
when  they  happen  to  be  overcome  with 
an  excess  of  moisture'.  The  roof  should 
be  made  of  durable  materials  ;  the  back 
wall  next  the  tank  should  have  })erfora- 
tions  just  under  the  eave  of  the  roof,  large 
enough  to  allow  the  end  of  the  spout  to 


penetrate  them  which  conveys  the  liquid 
from  the  pump  of  the  tank  to  different 
parts  of  the  compost  under  the  shed ;  and 
when  the  compost  will  take  up  no  more 
liquid,  the  liquid  will  find  its  way  by  the 
small  drains  on  the  floor  into  the  tank. 
The  front  wall  should  have  an  opening  6 
feet  wide  above  the  ground,  through  which 
to  fill  the  shed  with  compost  materials,  and 
afterwards  to  fill  the  carts  with  compost. 
Here  every  sort  of  experiment  may  be  per- 
formed in  the  formation  of  composts  ;  and, 
if  desired,  the  shed  might  be  subdivided 
into  compartments,  to  allow  the  experi- 
ments to  be  conducted  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  in  diflerent  stages  of  fermentation. 
The  ground  plan  of  this  compost-shed  may 
be  seen  at  h',  Plate  II.,  alongside  the 
tank  k'. 

2075.  The  Water- Cart. —The  water- 
cart  has  been  very  long  in  use  for  the  con- 
veyance of  water,  when  the  supply  of  that 
necessary  element  for  houseiiold  use  has 
been  distant  from  the  steading.  It  is 
usually  the  naked  bed-frame  of  a  cart 
mounted  on  wheels,  and  surmounted  with 
a  cask  of  a  capacity  suited  to  the  demands 
of  the  establishment.  The  cask  is  furnished 
with  a  funnel,  inserted  in  or  attached  im- 
mediately over  the  bung-hole ;  and  it  is 
likewise  furnished  with  a  spigot,  or  with  a 
stop-cock,  inserted  into  that  end  of  the 
cask  which  hangs  over  the  back  of  the 
cart.  When  the  water-cart  has  been 
drawn  to  the  fountain  or  the  pond,  from 
which  water  is  to  be  conveyed,  it  is  filled 
either  by  means  of  a  common  pump,  raised 
so  high  as  to  deliver  the  water  which  it 
lifts  into  the  funnel  of  the  cask,  or  the 
water  is  lifted  with  the  hand  by  means  of 
a  scoop.,  having  a  helve  of  sufficient  length 
to  enable  the  workman  to  reach  the  pond 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  funnel  on  the 
other.  The  scoop  best  adapted  to  this 
purjiose  18  a  small  wooden  pitcher,  about 
8  inches  in  depth  and  10  inches  in  dia- 
meter, the  helve  passing  through  its  sides 
in  an  oblique  direction,  and  a  little  above 
its  centre  of  gravity.  Liquid  manure  can 
be  conveyed  into  a  barrel  by  means  of  such 
a  scoop  as  well  as  water. 

2076.  The  Liquid-Manure  Cart. — For 
the  more  ecimomical  distribution   of  this 


*  Transactions  of  tlie  lligliland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  July  1848,  p.  266. 


478 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


valuable  manure,  this  machine  is  now 
takiii;^  its  due  i>l:K-e  amonir.st  tlie  machinery 
of  the  farm.  As  most  commonly  used,  it 
differs  very  little  from  tiie  above,  except 
in  its  being  provided  with  the  distributing 
apparatus  in  place  of  the  sjjigot ;  but  in 
large  establishments  the  cask  is  superseded 
bv  a  covered  rectangular  cistern  or  tank, 
which  takes  the  place  of  a  common  cart- 
body.  The  icaterin[f  of  public  streets 
and  highways  has  induced  the  necessity 
of  the  rectangular  tank  for  the  distribution 
of  water  over  the  surface  of  roads,  be- 
cause of  the  ease  with  which,  by  this 
construction,  a  greater  quantity  of  water 
can  be  put  upon  one  pair  of  wheels.  Here 
the  quantity  of  water  to  a  given  surface 
is  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of  a  liquid 
manure,  and  hence  the  propriety  of  a 
capacious  tank  for  the  distribution  of 
water  on  streets,  while  the  same  prin- 
ciple (economy  in  the  expense)  leads  to 
the  propriety  of  employing  a  smaller  and 
less  expensive  vessel  for  the  distribution 

Fig, 


ofli(juid  manure,  which  will  not  in  general 
be  superabundant.  For  u  I  uj  aid  manure 
cart,  a  cask  of  120  or  14U  gallons  con- 
tents, will  be  found  more  economical  in 
first  cost  than  a  rectangular  tank  ;  and  as 
these  machines  can  be  only  occasionally 
in  ojieration,  they  will,  if  not  very  care- 
fully attended  to,  become  leaky  while 
standing  unoccujjied.  In  this  respect 
the  cask  will  have  a  manifest  advantage 
over  the  tank,  for  the  tightening  of  a 
cask  is  an  operation  the  most  simple,  by 
the  act  of  driving  up  the  hoops ;  while, 
in  the  case  of  the  tank  becoming  leaky, 
no  means  of  that  kind  can  be  resorted 
to,  and  the  alternative  is,  either  soaking 
it  in  water  till  the  wood  has  imbibed  as 
much  of  the  fluid  as  will  expand  its  sub- 
stance and  close  the  leaks,  or  the  vessel 
must  be  tightened  by  some  more  exj)en- 
sive  process.  As  the  more  economical  of 
the  two,  therefore,  in  point  of  expense,  I 
liave  chosen  the  cask-mounted  cart  for 
the  illustration.     Fig.  194  is  a  representa- 

194. 


THE  LIQUID-MANCRK  CART. 


tion  in  perspective  of  this  cart,  of  the 
simplest  and  most  convenient  construction. 
For  the  more  easy  means  of  filling  the 
cask,  it  is  suspended  between  the  shafts  of 
the  cart,  and  this  position  retpiires  the 
bending  of  the  axle  to  nearly  a  semicircle. 
The  cart  is  a  mere  skeleton,  consisting  of 
the  shafts  a  a,  which  for  this  purpose 
may  be  made  of  red  pine,  their  length 
being  about  14  feet.  They  are  connected 
by  a  fore  and  hind  bar,  placed  at  such 
distance  as  will  just  adtnit  the  length  of 
the  cask,  while  the  width  between  the 
shafts  is  suited  to  the  diameter  of  it.    The 


axle,  as  already  noticed,  is  bent  down- 
ward to  nearly  a  semicircle,  to  receive 
the  cask,  and  its  length  will  of  course  be 
greater  than  the  common  cart-axle  ;  even 
the  distance  between  the  caddy-bolts,  iti  a 
straight  line,  will  be  usually  greater,  but 
this  will  depend  on  the  diameter  of  the 
cask.  A  pair  of  connnon  broad  cart-wheels 
b  b  are  fitted  to  the  axle.  The  cask  c  is 
suspended  on  two  straps  of  hoop-iron,  the 
ends  of  which  are  bolted  to  the  shafts,  and 
the  same  bolts  pass  also  through  the  ends 
of  two  lighter  strajis  which  i>ass  over  and 
secure  the  cask  firmly  in   its  place.     The 


LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS. 


479 


funnel  or  hopper  d  is  usually  fixed  upon 
the  top  of  the  cask  over  the  hung-hole,  or 
it  may  be  inserted  therein  by  means  of  an 
attached  pipe.  The  distributor  e  may  be 
made  of  sheet-copper,  of  cast-iron  or 
malleable  iron,  or  even  of  wood;  the  copper 
will  be  found  the  most  durable,  and  it 
should  be  at  least  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
in  thickness.  The  next  best  is  the  patent 
malleable  iron  tube  :  cast-iron,  though 
sometimes  used,  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
neither  is  wood  desirable,  from  its  liability 
to  choke.  The  bore  of  the  distributor 
should  be  not  less  than  2  inches,  nor  is  it 
required  to  exceed  2^  inches,  the  length 
from  7  to  7^  feet,  and  slightly  bent  with 
a  uniform  curvature,  which  last  property 
causes  it  to  coA'er  a  wider  surface  of 
ground  than  it  would  do  if  straight.  But, 
in  giving  the  distributor  its  curvature, 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  increasing 
the  curvature  towards  the  ends,  as  is  some- 
times done,  to  the  proA'ention  of  uniform 
distribution  of  the  manure.  The  ends  of 
the  tube  must  be  closed  with  movable 
covers,  screwed  or  otherwise  fixed,  that 
they  may  be  removed  at  pleasure,  for  the 
purpose  of  sponging  out  the  tube  when  it 
happens  to  get  clogged  up  with  any  solid 
matter.  A  line  of  perforations  is  made 
along  the  hinder  side  of  the  tube  for  the 
discharge  of  the  fluid;  these  should  be  at 
the  distance  of  one  inch  apart,  and  their 
opening  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  dia- 
meter. As  the  area  of  these  discharging  ori- 
fices cannot  be  altered  at  pleasure,  nor  their 
amount  of  discharge  altered  for  any  given 
time,  it  becomes  necessary,  in  distributing 
any  given  quantity  per  acre,  to  regulate 
that  quantity  by  increasing  or  diminish- 
ing the  rate  of  travelling  the  cart  over  the 
gi-ound.  The  distributor  is  attached  to 
the  cask  by  means  of  a  stem/,  of  the  same 
materials  and  bore  as  the  main  tube,  and 
it  enters  the  end  of  the  cask  close  to  the 
lower  chime.  A  stop-cock  is  frequently 
put  upon  the  stem /to  regulate  the  dis- 
charge— and  for  this  purpose  it  is  very 
beneficial,  serving  in  a  great  measure  to 
regulate  the  quantity  per  acre,  but  for  the 
entire  setting  ofl"  or  on  of  the  supply,  the 
stem  /"opens  into  a  small  chamber  inside 
the  cask,  which  chamber  is  closed  by  a 
flap-valve  heavily  loaded.  This  valve, 
when  closed,  stops  the  discharge,  aud, when 
lifted,  the  fluid  has  a  free  passage  to  the 
distributor.     The  opening  of  the  valve  is 


eflfected  by  a  small  chain  attached  to  the 
flap,  rising  to  the  top  of  the  cask  at  y, 
where  it  passes  over  a  small  roller,  and 
onward  to  the  fore  part  of  the  cart  on  the 
nigh  side,  where  it  hangs  at  hand  for  the 
carter  to  set  ofl'  or  on  at  pleasure.  Fig. 
195  is  a  section  of  part  of  the  cask,  and 
showing  the  chamber  and  valve;/ is  again 
the  stem  of  the  distributor,  h  a  stop-cock, 
i  the  chamber,  and  k  the  valve,  which  ia 
the  common  leather  flap  or  clack  valve, 
Fig.  193. 


^^ 


THE  APPARATUS  FOR  REGI'LATING  THE 
DISCHARGE  OF  LIQUID  MANURE. 

well  loaded  w'ith  lead,  c  c  is  part  of  the 
cask,  /  the  chain  attached  to  the  valve, 
and  passing  oA'er  the  roller  m. 

2077-  When  the  liquid-manure  cart  is 
furnished  with  a  tanl\  the  latter  can,  with 
equal  facility,  be  placed  low  for  the  con- 
venience of  filling;  thus  the  axle  may  be 
cranked,  as  in  the  Liverpool  draj'-cart,  the 
tank  resting  on  the  cranked  ]!nrt  of  the 
axle  ;  or  the  axle  may  remain  straight, 
and  the  tank  appended  below  the  axle. 
Such  a  tank  may  be  conveniently  built 
to  contain  a  ton  of  the  liquid,  or  about 
220  gallons ;  and  the  distributing  apparatus 
is  the  same  as  for  the  cask.  The  dis- 
tributor, as  now  made  by  Mr  Crosskill, 
and  which  I  saw  on  a  carl  exhibited  by 
him  at  the  Show  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  in  August  1848, 
swings  upon  a  stud;  and  this  is  a  great 
improvement  on  the  former  construction, 
inasmuch  as  the  distributor  always  remains 
in  a  level  position,  whatever  may  be  the 
inclination  of  the  ground  upon  which  the 
cart    has    to   pa.ss    over,   and,    therefore, 


480 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


always  distributes  the  li<|nid  uniformly  ; 
wliereius,  in  a  lixeil  distriliutor,  the  licjiiid 
is  dischari:ed  with  the  jrreater  force,  and 
of  course  in  greater  quantity,  on  the  lowest 
side,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  uneven 
ground.  The  price  of  these  carts  varies  con- 
siderably, partly  from  construction,  and 
partly  from  locality.  Mr  Crosskill  of 
Beverley  quotes  ^16  as  the  price  of  the 
tank  cart,  and,  with  a  pump  and  flexible 
tube  for  filling  it  any  where,  £5,  8s.  more, 
in  all  £21,  8s.  In  Scothyid,  the  average 
price  may  be  stated  at  £18,  without  a 
pump,  and,  when  mounted  with  a  cask, 
£l'} — these  prices,  of  course,  including 
%vlieels  and  axle. 

2078.  I  saw  a  new  and  rather  curious 
form  of  liquid-manure  cart  exhibited  by 
Mr  Richard  Stratton  of  Bristol,  at  the 
Show  of  the  English  Agricultural  Society 
at  York  in  July  1848.  The  barrel  is  made 
of  boiler-plate,  in  the  form  of  an  octagon, 
and  its  axis  acts  as  the  axle  of  a  skeleton 
cart,  between  tlie  wheels  of  which  the  bar- 
rel, containing  the  liquid  manure,  revolves 
on  its  axis.  All  the  apparatus  of  valves 
and  distributors  are  dispensed  with,  for  the 
liquid  is  simply  distributed  by  means  of  a 
jierforated  plate,  which  can  be  taken  out 
and  replaced  by  another  having  a  different 
size  of  |)erforation.  When  the  barrel  is 
not  distributing  liquid,  the  perforated  plate 
is  ke])t  uppermost,  and  has  only  to  be 
turned  undermost  to  distribute  the  liquid. 
It  is  turned  by  means  of  a  cord  fastened 
around  it.  This  machine  is  named  the 
cylinder  liquid-manure  cart.  When  made 
of  wood,  to  contain  100  gallons,  its  price 
is  £14,  10s.,  and,  when  of  iron,  to  contain 
1.50  gallons,  £17,  lOs.,  with  wrought-iron 
wheels.  This  machine  ajjpeared  to  me  very 
simple,  and  not  liable  to  go  out  of  order. 

2079.  "  The  cUtern  for  collecting  liquid  ma- 
nure in  the  farm-stead,"  observes  Mr  Slight, 
"  thouj^'h  apparently  simple  in  its  construction, 
being  merely  a  covered  pond  or  a  well,  yet  seri- 
ous error.s  are  frequently  committed  in  its 
formation.  The  first  and  most  important  consi- 
deration for  the  formation  of  the  cistern,  is  the 
effect  of  hydrostatic  pressure  ;  inattention  to 
this  has  caused  the  failure  of  many  such  cisterns. 
Tlie  liquid  we  have  here  to  deal  with,  like  all 
other  fluids,  acts  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the 
vessel  or  body  that  contains  it,  with  a  pressure 
directly  in  proportion  to  the  depth  at  which  the 
fluid  stands,  without  reference  to  either  length 
or  breadth  ;  that  is  to  say,  su^ipose  a  cistern, 
whose  bottom  is  12  inches  square,  and  its  depth 


10  feet,  filled  with  water,  every  square  inch  in 
the  bottom  will  snlfer  a  pressure  equal  to  the 
height  of  a  column  of  water  whose  base  is  one 
inch  square  and  1(1  feet,  or  120  inches  in  height. 
The  weight  of  such  a  column  will  be  4;  lbs. 
nearly,  and  this  would  be  exerted  on  every 
square  inch  on  the  bottom,  or  the  whule  pressure 
on  the  bottom  would  be  ()25  lbs.,  the  weight  of 
10  cubic  feet  of  water.  There  is  a  natural  law 
that  governs  the  pressure  of  fluids,  which  shows 
us  that  they  press  equallii  in  nil  directions,  dijv/n- 
ward,  horizontally,  and  even  upwards,  the  last 
arising  from  the  general  statical  law,  that  "  ac- 
tion and  reaction  arc  equal,  and  in  opposite  direc- 
tions." It  follows,  from. these  hydrostatical  laws, 
that  the  lowermost  portion  of  each  side  of  our 
supposed  cistern  will  suffer  a  pressure  from  the 
water  equal  to  that  which  acts  upon  the  bottom — 
hence,  taking  the  lowermost  inch  in  the  height 
of  the  sides  of  this  cistern,  it  will  be  pressed 
with  a  force  of  52j  lbs.  or  thereby,  or  4^  lbs.  on 
the  square  inch,  and  each  of  the  lour  sides  will 
suffer  the  same  pressure.  Suppose,  now,  that 
the  cistern  is  elongated  in  one  direction  to  any 
number  of  feet,  and  again  filled  to  the  depth  of 
10  feet,  the  pressure  on  each  square  foot  of  the 
bottom  remains  the  same  as  before,  and  so  in 
like  manner  does  it  remain  the  same  upon  the 
sides  ;  for  the  pressure  is  not  altered  in  any 
direction,  although  the  proportion  of  the  cistern 
has  been  clianged.  Keei)ing  this  in  view,  it  will 
be  seen  that  length  and  breadth  produce  no 
effect  on  the  pressures  that  a  fluid  exerts  against 
the  vessel  or  body  that  retains  it  ;  and  that,  in 
calculating  the  resistance  to  sustain  such  pres- 
sures, depth  is  the  only  element  recjuiring  to  be 
taken  into  account.  It  is  also  to  be  kept  in  view, 
that  pressure  on  the  bottom  or  sides  is  directly 
as  the  depth  ;  thus,  if  our  supposed  cistern  were 
reduced  to  .5  feet  in  depth,  the  pressure  on  the 
bottom  would  only  be  one-half,  or  2J  lbs.  on 
each  square  inch. 

2080.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these 
remarks  is,  that  a  cistern,  in  the  form  of  a  pit  or 
well,  should  be  always  avoided,  unless  it  can  be 
formed  in  a  natural  bed  of  impervious  clay. 
When  such  a  substratum  can  be  attained,  a  pit 
may  be  adopted,  but  not  otherwise.  If  siich  has 
been  found,  and  the  pit  dug  out,  it  should  be 
lined  with  brick,  or  with  stone  built  in  mortar, 
the  bottom  being  first  lined  with  tiie  same  mate- 
rial. Wiien  the  building  approaches  to  the 
surface,  the  wall  can  be  gradually  reduced  in 
diameter  to  a  small  compass,  leaving  only  an 
opening  of  2  to  .3  feet  square,  which  is  covi-red 
in  at  small  expense  ;  and  the  saving  in  this  last 
item  is  the  only  apparent  advantage  that  seems 
to  attend  the  practice  of  pit  ci>terns.  Deep 
cisterns  are  liable  to  another  inconvenience  —  of 
their  becoming  recipients  of  spring  or  of  drainage 
water;  and  it  is  sonietimes  more  difficult  to  keep 
such  water  out  than  to  keep  the  proper  liquid  in — 
for  if  springs  and  their  origin  lay  at  considerable 
heights,  their  hydrostatic  pressure  may  be  sogreat 
as  to  render  the  prevention  of  access  to  their 
products  a  process  of  great  difficulty. 

20til.  A  (;u'{i"-»of  moderate  depth, not  exceed- 


ON  LIQUID  MANURE. 


481 


ing  4  feet  below  the  out-fall  of  the  drains,  may 
be  constructed  in  any  situation,  whether  in  gravel 
or  in  clay,  and  its  length  can  be  extended  so  as 
to  afford  any  required  capacity ;  the  breadth 
being  restricted  to  that  for  which  materials  for 
covering  it  can  be  most  easily  obtained,  which 
may  be  from  3  to  4  feet,  or,  if  arched,  it  may  be 
6  feet.  Whatever  be  the  stratum  in  which  such 
a  cistern  is  to  be  formed,  (unless  it  be  perfectly 
impervious  clay,)  it  should  be  puddled  to  the 
thickness  of  at  least  1  foot  with  the  best  clay 
that  can  be  procured.  For  this  purpose,  the 
earthy  matters  are  to  be  dug  out  to  a  depth  of 
1^  foot  lower  than  the  intended  sole,  and  to  a 
width  of  4  feet  more  than  that  proposed  for  the 
cistern.  Two  or  three  thin  layers  of  the  pre- 
pared clay  are  then  to  be  compactly  laid  over 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  excavation,  and  beaten 
firmly  together  at  all  points,  making  up  the 
depth  to  )  foot,  and  the  surface  of  it  brought  to 
a  uniform  level.  Upon  this  the  side-walls  are  to 
be  founded,  and  these  may  be  of  brick  9  inches 
in  thickness,  or  of  flat  bedded  rubble  stone  14 
inches.  The  wall  should  be  built  in  successive 
courses  of  about  1  foot  in  height,  the  whole 
being  bedded  in  mortar  ;  and,  as  each  course  is 
completed,  the  puddle  is  to  be  carefully  laid  and 
beaten  in  behind,  in  layers  of  6  inches  ur  thereby, 
the  first  layer  being  properly  incorporated  with 
the  foundation  puddle,  and  each  succeeding  layer 
with  the  one  immediately  preceding  it.  To 
prevent  the  side-walls  from  being  puslied  inward 
by  the  pressure  of  the  puddle  or  of  the  bank, 
tie-walls  of  brick  or  of  stone  should  be  formed 
at  every  5  feet  of  the  length  of  the  cistern.  These 
may  be  9  inches  of  brick,  or  14  inches  of  stone, 
and  they  must  have  conduits  formed  at  the  level 
of  the  sole,  to  allow  the  liquid  to  run  towards 
the  pump.  The  sole  should  be  laid  all  over  with 
brick  set  on  edge,  or  with  strong  pavement 
jointed,  the  whole  having  a  slight  declivity  to- 
wards one  end,  where  a  small  well-hole  of  9 
inches  in  depth  is  to  be  formed  to  receive  the 
bottom  of  the  pump.  The  brick  or  pavement,  as 
the  case  may  be,  is  to  be  bedded  on  tiie  puddle, 
and  grouted  flush  in  the  joints  with  mortar  ;  and 
when  the  walls  and  sole  are  built  up,  they  should 
then  be  pointed  in  every  joint  with  Roman 
cement.  The  covering  may  be  effected  with 
strong  pavement,  of  length  sufficient  to  rest  on 
the  side-walls,  laid  and  jointed  with  mortar  ;  or 
with  rough  found-stones,  where  such  can  be  pro- 
cured ;  and  if  neither  can  conveniently  be  found, 
a  beam  of  sound  Memel  fir  may  be  laid  along 
the  middle  of  the  cistern  resting  on  the  tie-walls, 
and,  with  this  bearer,  stones  of  half  the  length 
will  be  sufficient  to  form  a  cover.  A  thin  layer 
of  clay  may  be  laid  over  the  stone  covers,  and 
upon  that  a  coat  of  gravel.  To  prevent  acci- 
dent, it  is  always  desirable  to  construct  the 
cistern  in  a  situation  where  it  will  be  as  little  as 
possible  exposed  to  the  transit  of  carts  ;  and 
this  may  be  always  obtained  at  a  small  additional 
expense  of  covered  drain  to  convey  the  manure 
from  the  dunghills  to  the  cistern.  Tlie  best  and 
most  secure  plan,  no  doubt,  though  the  most  ex- 
pensive, is  to  cover  the  cistern  with  an  arch  of 
stone  or  brick. 

2082.  The  pump  for  lifting  the   liquid  from 
VOL.  I. 


the  cistern  to  the  cart  may  be  either  of  wood  or 
cast-iron,  but  the  latter  is  preferable.  A  common 
sucking-pump  of  Sj  inches  chamber  is  quite  suffi- 
cient; the  chamber  should  be  bored  out,  and  the 
pump-boxes,  for  durability,  should  be  also  of 
metal,  with  leathern  flap-valves.  The  height  of 
the  pump  should  be  such  as  to  deliver  the  liquid 
freely  into  the  funnel  of  the  barrel  or  tank;  but 
if  this  height  is  found  to  raise  the  pump-lever 
above  the  reach  of  a  man's  hand,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  joint  a  light  connectiug-rod  to  the  lever, 
its  lower  end  being  furnished  with  a  cross  handle, 
and  by  these  means  the  pump-man  will  be  able 
to  work  the  pump  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
lower  end  of  the  common  pit-saw. 

2083.  Forcing  and  lifting  pumps  have  been 
proposed,  and  even  employed,  for  the  purpose  we 
have  here  in  view,  though  with  questionable  pro- 
priety; and  here  it  may  be  proi)er  to  explain, 
that  by  the  term  furce-piimji,  is  to  be  understood 
a  pump  that  raises  water  to  any  height  above  the 
point  where  the  power  is  applied,  by  the  descent 
of  a  solid  piston  acting  in  the  chamber  of  the 
pump,  sending  the  liquid  into  an  ascending  pipe, 
which  springs  from  below  the  piston. 

2084.  The  lifting  pump  differs  from  this  in 
having  a  valved  piston  through  which  the  liquid 
passes,  as  in  the  sucking-pump,  on  the  descent  of 
the  piston;  and,  on  its  ascent,  the  valve  being 
now  closed,  the  liquid  is  lifted  and  forced  into 
the  ascending  pipe,  wliich,  in  this  case,  springs 
from  ahore  the  piston,  the  chamber  being  closed 
at  top  with  a  water-tight  stuffing-box.  From 
this  brief  description,  the  simplicity,  both  in  con- 
struction and  in  management,  of  the  sucking  or 
common  pump,  as  compared  with  the  other  two, 
will  be  obvious,  the  cost  being  also  in  favour  of 
the   first. 


ON  LIQUID  MANURE. 

2085.  Farmers  have  been  subjected  of 
late  years  to  much  ridicule,  and  even 
obloquy,  for  jjerniitting  any  leakage  to 
escape  from  their  dung-heaps.  This  leak- 
age is  represented  to  amount  to  an  enor- 
mous quantity,  and  to  be  of  incalculable 
value.  The  quality,  I  should  suppose, 
would  depend  on  the  quantity  of  rain  that 
may  happen  to  fiill  after  the  dung-heaps 
have  been  formed  in  the  fields,  for  all  the 
leakage  from  a  dunghill  in  a  dry  season 
is  of  very  trifling  amount ;  and  as  to 
its  value — if  we  may  judge  from  the  effect 
it  produces — we  should  say  that  no  crop 
received  from  the  area  of  ground  which 
had  been  occupied  by  a  midden  stance, 
would  aiiiount  to  double  the  value  of  the 
rest  of  the  field.  So  that  the  real  loss 
of  the  leakage  from  a  dunghill  amounts, 
at  most,  to  the  value  of  a  crop  derived  from 
an    area  of  ground    equal    to    what   the 

2  H 


482 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


dunghill  occupied  ;  and  the  loss  does  not 
even  amount  to  ti)i^,  since  the  midden- 
stance  is  not  manured  at  all,  and  the  earth 
is  carefidly  shovelletl  up  from  it  and  car- 
ried away  to  another  part  of  the  field ;  and, 
after  ail,  no  one  cuuhl  point  out  where  the 
duncrliill  had  stood,  after  the  reaping  of 
the  first  crop  of  grain. 

2086.  I  think  that  ninch  more  has  been 
said  on  this  subject  than  it  deserves. 
Doubtless  it  is  wrong  to  j)erniit  any  thing 
to  go  to  waste,  and  especially  so  valuable 
a  material  on  a  farm  an  manure  ;  but  the 
particular  case  of  the  leakage  from  dung- 
hills in  fields  has  been  exaggerated.  Much 
greater  waste  occurs  from  the  leakage 
of  cattle-courts,  and  this  arises  partly  from 
negligence  and  partly  from  necessity.  It 
arises  from  nes,digence  where  the  liquid 
manure  might  be  conveyed  to  a  tank;  but 
where  this  cannot  be  done,  the  waste  is 
submitted  to  from  necessity.  I  have  ob- 
served instances  of  both  cases.  I  have 
seen  a  leakage  from  courts,  arising  not  from 
excess  of  moisture  of  what  the  cattle  had 
eaten  and  drunk, — for  the  litter  would 
have  easily  absorbed  all  that, — but  from  the 
rain  deluging  the  courts  at  times  from  the 
roofs  of  the  surrounding  buililinirs;  and 
this  I  have  witnes?e<l  to  the  degree  of 
being  obliged  to  wade  above  the  shoe-tops 
in  water,  where  there  was  no  run  from  the 
courts — the  courts  being  hollowed  in  the 
middle.  I  have  also  seen  runs  from  courts, 
the  floors  of  which  were  sloped  at  a  high 
gradient.  The  tenants  were  not  to  blame, 
because  their  landlords  had  placed  the 
steadings  upon  inclined  ground,  and  had 
provided  no  rain-water  rones.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  deserved  commiseration,  and 
should  have  had  tanks  built,  and  rones  pro- 
vided for  them.  But  I  have  seen,  in  some 
cases,  steadings  staiidinir  upon  the  inclined 
ground  which  formed  the  face  of  a  rock,  in 
which  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  dig  a 
tank.  The  error  was  in  building  stead- 
ings in  unsuitable  situations,  and  not  in  the 
want  of  tanks. 

2087.  It  may  be  remarked  that  these 
are  exceptional  cases,  but  they  occur  very 
often,  if  the  circumstances  in  every  case 
were  particularly  examined.  I  have  exa- 
mined many  of  them,  and  found  the  leak- 
age to  arise  from  the  unsuitable  situations 
of  the  steadings,  and  the  want  of  rain-water 


rones,  rather  than  from  the  want  of  tanks. 
It  is  true,  tanks  might  be  constructed  to 
counteract  these  evils  ;  and  so  they  are 
by  enterprising  tenants,  who  take  advan- 
tage of  even  accidental  runs  from  steadings, 
and  turn  tliem  to  good  account.  I  have 
seen  the  drainage  of  hammels,  occupied 
by  fattening  cattle,  directed  into  a  small 
])addock  instead  of  a  tank,  and,  by  the 
assistance  of  a  small  stream,  made  to  irri- 
gate the  paddock  at  j)roper  times  in  winter. 
But,  to  terminate  all  disputes  on  this  sub- 
ject, there  should  be  a  tank  constructed  at 
every  steading,  whether  the  convenience 
of  rones  be  adopted  or  not,  or  whether  the 
amount  of  leakage  be  great  or  not.  If  the 
tank  be  found  to  l)e  useless,  no  iiarm  will 
accrue,  and  when  it  does  collect  any  liquid, 
it  may  be  made  useful. 

2088.  If  the  waste  of  liquid  maunre  is 
deserving  of  public  attention,  it  should  be 
directed  to  that  committed  in  every  town 
of  the  kingdom,  and  especially  in  every 
seaport  town.  The  drainage  from  towns 
situate  in  the  interior  of  the  country  niay 
be,  and  is  in  many  cases,  taken  advantage 
of  for  irrigation,  and  for  mauurinir  garden 
groimd.  The  environs  of  Edinburgh 
afford  striking  examples  of  the  beneficial 
change  effected  on  the  soil  by  means  of 
sewerage  water,  inasnmch  as  poor  sandy 
soil,  not  worth  naturally  above  20s.  jier 
acre,  has  been  converted  into  rich  meadows, 
yielding  at  least  i^20  per  acre  of  yearly 
rent.  But  in  the  seaport  towns  no  use  is 
made  of  this  seweraire  water ;  it  is  allowed 
to  flow  into  the  river  or  ocean.  Now, 
when  we  consider  what  escapes  from  every 
human  being  every  year  in  dung  and  urine, 
and  add  to  these  the  washings  of  soap, 
grease,  and  other  materials  incidental  to 
domestic  purposes,  we  may  Imagine  the 
enormous  quantity  of  the  most  valuable 
matter,  as  manure,  which  is  thus  lost  every 
year, — literally  wasted.  Take  one  in- 
stance,— a  striking  one, — that  of  London. 
It  has  been  ascertained  by  Boussingault, 
that  man  in  a  healthy  state  passes  3  lbs.  of 
urine  daily;  and  Liehig  states  that  in  the 
same  state  he  voids  5^  oz.  of  dung.  Tliese 
two  quantities  trive  a  total  annual  quantity 
of  1220  Ihs.  of  liquid  and  solid  manure, 
voided  by  every  jierson  on  the  average. 
Now,  taking  2,000.000  as  the  population 
of  London,  the  quantity  of  those  manures 
voided  by  the  iuhabitants  of  the  metro- 


ON  LIQUID  MANURE. 


polis,  amotints  annually  to  1,089,285  tons. 
Chemistry  has  ascertained  that  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  excrements  of  man 
are  as  valuable  to  vegetation  as  those  of 
guano ;  and  as  the  different  sorts  of  guano 
sell  from  £6  to  iilO  per  ton,  we  are 
warranted  in  estimating  the  value  of  night- 
soil  and  urine  at  £8  per  ton,  which  would 
give  the  entire  value  of  this  manure,  in 
London  alone,  every  year,  at  £8,714,280. 
The  statement  seems  very  like  an  exag- 
geration, but  we  can  arrive  at  no  other 
conclusion  from  the  premises,  which  are 
doubtless  correct.  This  is  not  all  lost 
every  year;  but  when  we  consider  the 
many  ways  in  which  those  materials  are 
wasted  by  the  exercise  of  personal  delicacy 
alone,  we  can  imagine  the  larger  propor- 
tion carried  into  the  Tliames  by  sewerage, 
in  comparison  with  what  is  really  collected. 

2089.  Let  us  now  consider  the  nature 
and  properties  of  liquid  manure.  As  it 
exists  in  the  tanks,  it  consists  mostly  of 
water  derived  from  the  rain  which  had 
fallen  in  the  courts,  mixed  with  a  propor- 
tion of  the  urine  and  dung  derived  from 
the  various  animals  which  frequent  the 
steading.  We  should  therefore  expect  to 
find  it  a  very  complicated  substance,  and 
on  that  account  well  fitted  for  the  use  of 
every  species  of  crop.  I  am  not  aware 
that  this  particular  liquid  has  been  analysed; 
but  M.  Sprengel,  who  has  bestowed  much 
attention  on  all  the  subjects  of  manure,  in 
speaking  of  akl,  or  the  drainings  fronx 
dung  -  heaps,  observes,  "  when  there  is 
much  rain,  and  the  manure-pit  becomes 
flooded  (whichit  never  ought  to  be)  with  the 
rain-water  from  the  adjoining  roofs,  the 
ahl  will  often  scarcely  contain  2  per  cent 
of  manuring  matter,  and  is  then  naturally 
of  but  little  use."  This  is  just  the  opinion 
I  Avould  express,  on  seeing  the  drainings 
from  courts  through  which  rain-water  is 
allowed  to  discharge  itself. 

2090.  "  The  drainage  of  dung-heaps," 
says  Professor  Johnston — "  the  usual  liquid 
manure  of  our  farm-yards  —  differs  in 
composition  according  to  circumstances. 
When  the  urine  of  cattle  is  mixed  with  it 
in  considerable  quantity/,  it  is  found  to 
contain  a  portion  of  the  constituents,  not 
only  of  the  solid  and  liquid  excretions  of 


the  stock,  but  also  of  the  straw  and  other 
vegetable  matter  which  has  fermented 
along  with  it.  It  varies  iu  strength, 
however,  very  much  with  the  quantity  of 
rain  or  other  water  with  which  it  is  mixed, 
or  which  falls  upon  the  dung-heaps  from 
which  it  flows."  The  composition  of  two 
specimens  of  such  liquid  is  as  follows: — 


An  imperial  gallon  contained. 
Ammonia, 
Solid  organic  matter. 
Solid  inorganic  matter  or  ash, 


Inorganic  nmtter  in  a  gallon 

consisted  of: — 
Allialine  salts, 

Vliospliate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
culouredwitli  a  little  phosphate 
of  iron. 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia  and  loss, 
Silica  and  a  little  albumen,    . 


Drainings  of 

Cow  dung 

Farm-yard 

washed  by 

manure  water- 

rain. 

ed  with  cows' 

urine. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

H-UO 

21-30 

2110-80 

77-60 

2tliS-S() 

518-40 

479-20 

617-30 

207-80 


25-10 

44-50 

1^-20 

31-10 

4-30 

3-40 

13-40 

19-00 

2CS-80 


This  is  the  conclusion  Professor  Johnston 
derives  from  these  facts,  "  that  the  liquid 
which  flows  from  a  dung-heap  tcatered 
icith  urine  is  greatly  richer  in  ammonia 
and  iu  saline  matter  than  that  which 
flows  from  the  solid  excrements  newly 
washed  by  the  rain ;  that  the  liquid  iu 
both  cases  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  phosphate  of  lime.  This  does  not 
exist  in  cows'  urine  alone.  In  both  cases 
it  has  been  washed  out  of  the  solid  dung  ; 
and  that  both  contain  also  an  appreciable 
quantity  of  silica  not  existing  in  urine. 
This  is  derived  from  the  straw  of  the  fer- 
meuting  farm-yard  dung,  or  from  the 
grass  which  has  passed  through  the  diges- 
tive organs  of  the  cow ;  that  as  fermenting 
manure  can  yield  in  a  soluble  state  every 
mineral  ingredient  which  a  plant  requires, 
the  liquid  that  runs  from  the  farm-yard 
ought  to  be  no  less  carefully  preserved 
than  the  pure  urine  of  our  cattle."'* 

2091.  In  every  case  of  farming,  but  the 
dairy,  aflording  but  a  very  limited  supply 
of  liquid  manure,  even  of  this  diluted 
kind,  our  attention  is  not  so  excited,  in 
consideration  of  this  ordinary  case,  as  in 
that  of  the  dairy  farm,  where  the  genuine 
urine  of  the  cow  flows  but  little  diluted 
with  extraneous  water,  and  to  which,  of 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  812-13. 


484 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


course,  it  is  requisite  to  afford  a  tank.  It 
is  this  view  of  the  case  which  gives  us  a 
doser  insight  into  Flemish  farming  th:!n 
anv  other  ;  not  that  the  Flemings  pur- 
sue the  dairy  system  of  farming  in  pre- 
ference, generally,  to  any  other,  but  as  it 
is  their  practice  to  confine  their  entire 
number  of  cattle  and  horses  constantly, 
summer  and  winter,  in  the  steading,  the 
providing  of  tanks  is  with  them  a  neces- 
sary arrangement  for  keeping  their  stock 
in  an  ordinary  state  of  cleanliness.  So 
the  construction  of  tanks  is  with  them 
as  much  a  matter  of  necessity,  as  it  is 
with  those  farmers  of  this  country  to  lose 
a  proportion  of  their  manure,  by  wash- 
ings of  rain,  in  steadings  built  upon  in- 
clined faces  of  rock,  aud  unprovided  with 
rain-water  rones.  So  much  is  it  a  matter 
of  business  with  the  Flemish  farmer  to 
collect  the  urine  passed  by  his  stock,  that 
they  have  either  vaulted  cellars  under  the 
byres  and  stables,  or  in  other  convenient 
places  of  the  steading ;  and  they  have, 
besides,  such  vaults  placed  by  the  road- 
side, that  the  excrementary  materials  they 
collect  from  the  towns  and  Tillages  may  be 
emptied  into  them.  And  so  much  do  the 
inhabitants  of  the  towns  in  Belgium  make 
it  a  business  to  collect  the  liquid  and  solid 
manures  of  their  own  houses,  that  it  is  in 
evidence  before  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  that  a  housemaid  may  be 
hired  for  a  year  at  Bru::es  fur  £3  of 
money  wages,  with  the  pririleire  of  dis- 
posing of  the  manure.  The  value  of  the 
manure  derived  from  a  house  is  estimate*! 
at  £1,  17s.  per  load  per  annum.  Dr  Rad- 
clift'  tells  us  that  the  Belgian  load  is  )  .5 
cwt. ;  and  as  each  person  contributes  1220 
lbs.  to  the  manure-heap,  the  value  of  the 
contribution  of  each  j^erson  is  at  most  ^1, 
7s.  a-year. 

2092.  The  tanks  in  Flanders  are  con- 
structed to  any  given  capacity.  They  are 
generally  40  feet  long,  14  wide,  and  7  or 
8  feet  deep  ;  s<jme  so  depres.sed  in  the 
ground,  as  to  allow  the  plough  to  p:iss  over 
them.  They  cost  in  building,  including 
materials,  lOd.  per  every  tonneau  of  38 
gallons  they  contain.  A  .stock  of  8  horses 
and  36  head  of  cattle,  housed  summer  and 
winter,  will  supply  3,000  tonneaux  of 
urine  alone — 114,000  gallons — great  care 


bein^  taken  to  secure  it  from  tlie' admission 
of  rain  or  any  other  water.  This  (juantity, 
along  with  dung  and  other  materials,  is  fit 
to  manure  21  acres  of  land,  at  the  rate  of 
2480  gallons  per  acre. 

20.93.  In  Switzerland,  the  south  of  Ger- 
many, and  in  Holland,  the  urine  is  mixed 
with  the  solid  excrements  and  water, 
which  are  allowed  to  putrefy  before  ap- 
plying the  compound  liquid  to  the  land  ; 
and  to  this  manure  they  give  the  name  of 
ffifl/e.  In  Flanders,  the  dung  of  the  cattle 
and  horses  is  mixed  with  the  urine  in  the 
tank,  together  with  the  night-soil  collected 
from  the  towns  ;  and  from  2000  to  4000 
rape  cakes,  of  2  lbs.  each,  are  dissolved  in 
every  1000  tonneaux,  or  38,000  gallons^ 
of  the  urine.* 

2004.  The  solid  and  fluid  excrements  of 
animals  form  a  verv  complicated  mixture, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  enume- 
ration by  Sj»rengel ;  but  this  renders  them 
the  more  ralual)le  a  manure  for  vegetables. 
They  contain  these  substances  : — 

1.  Vegetable  or  woody  fibre. 

2.  Wax  and  resin. 

3.  Chlurophyle,  or  the  green  substance  of 
leaves,  partly  decomposed. 

4.  Deposited  humus. 

5.  A  fatty  and  oily  substance. 

6.  Mucus. 

7.  A  peculiar  brown  colouring  matter,  in  the 
solid  excrement  of  oxen. 

8.  Vei^etable  albumen,  (hardened.) 

9.  Animal  gelatine. 
iO.  Animal  fibre. 

1 1.  Salivary  matter. 
]'2.   Oziiiazome. 
l.i.  Hippuric  acid. 
14.  Uric  acid. 
1,^.   Lactic  acid. 

1 6.  Benzuic  acid. 

17.  Urea. 

18.  Bilious  matter. 
1J>.  Bilious  resiu. 
2U.  PicroraeL 

21.  Oxides    of    iron 
from  vegetables. 

22.  E:irtlis,  f-ilica,  lime,  alumina,  magnesia. 

23.  Salts,  consisting  of  mineral  acids  and  bases, 
derired  from  plants  and  water. 

24.  Common  salt. 

25.  Carburetted  hydrogen.    \  Products  of  the 
2<».  Phospboretted hydrogen,     fermentationami 

27.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,      putrefaction     of 

28.  Ammonia.  the    food  in    the 
20.  Hydrogen.                        )  bodies  of  animab. 

Numerous  as  these  substances   are,  it  is 


Originating  in  the  uri- 
nary passages. 


aud    manganese,  derired 


Radcliff's  Agriculture  of  Flandert,  p.  60. 


ON  LIQUID  MANURE. 


485 


M.  Sprengel's  opinion  that  many  more 
might  be  discovered  by  carefully  con- 
ducted chemical  analyses. 

2095.  The  value  of  these  animal  excre- 
ments as  manure  depends  very  much  upon 
the  age  of  the  animals,  their  kind,  their 
mode  of  employment,  the  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  food  they  eat,  and  the  nature  of 
the  water  they  drink.  Thus  : — Age  has 
effect  ;  for  the  excrements  of  a  full-grown 
animal  are  much  better  tiian  those  of 
young  animals.  The  state  of  the  animal 
has  an  effect ;  the  manure  from  oxen  being 
much  better  than  that  from  cows,  a  great 
proportion  of  the  substance  of  whose  food 
goes  to  the  production  of  milk  ;  and  in  like 
manner  the  manure  of  the  wether  is  better 
than  that  of  the  ewe.  The  state  of  the 
food  has  an  effect ;  for  sheep  chewing  their 
food  more  minutely  than  cattle,  their  ma- 
nure is  richer  than  that  of  cattle  ;  and  the 
manure  derived  from  cattle  fed  on  the 
food  in  the  natural  state,  is  better  than 
that  derived  from  food  which  has  been 
boiled  or  scalded ;  but  the  manure  from 
scalded  food  is  more  active  than  the  other, 
because  it  is  more  prepared.  The  kind  of 
food  has  an  effect ;  for  poor  and  scanty  food 
cannot  supply  so  rich  manure  as  nourish- 
ing and  abundant  food.  The  way  in  which 


the  animals  are  treated  has  an  effect ;  for 
working  cattle  afford  better  manure  than 
fattening  oxen,  because  the  latter  abstract 
from  the  food,  to  support  their  increasing 
flesh  and  fat,  the  same  materialsasgo  to  pro- 
duce milk  in  cows.  The  water  drunk  has 
au  effect ;  for  an  ox  that  drinks  80  lbs.  of 
water  a-day  will  pass  more  urine  than  a 
cow  which  drinks  the  same  quantity,  be- 
cause a  large  proportion  of  the  water  she 
drinks  goes  to  the  formation  of  milk. 
Boussingault  found  that  a  cow  which  drank 
132  lbs.  of  water  a-day  passed  18  lbs.  of 
urine,  and  gave  19  lbs.  of  milk  ;  an  ox  that 
drank  the  same  quantity  gave  40  lbs. 
of  urine.  A  horse  that  drinks  35  lbs. 
a-day  passes  only  3  lbs.  of. urine — no  more 
than  a  man.  This  latter  fact  seems  re- 
markable ;  but  when  we  consider  the  much 
greater  extent  of  surface  over  the  body  of. 
a  horse  compared  to  that  of  a  man,  the 
insensible  perspiration  of  the  horse  must 
carry  oft'  a  large  proportion  of  the  liquid 
food  ;  whereas  a  man  drinks  daily  only 
one-tenth  more  than  the  urine  he  passes. 

2096.  A  comparison  of  the  composition 
of  cows'  urine  fresh,  and  after  it  has  been 
kept  a  month,  will  show  the  change  that 
takes  place  in  it  by  exposure  to  the  air: — 


Water  in  100,000  parts  by  weight,  . 

Urea,  along  with  some  resinous  colouring  matter, 

Albumen,      ..... 

Mucus,  ..... 

Benzoic  acid  (hippuric  acid,) 

Lactic  acid, 

Carbonic  acid, 

Acetic  acid, 

Ammonia, 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Sulphuric  acid, 

Phosphoric  acid, 

Chlorine, 

Lime,  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Magnesia,      ...... 

Alumina,    -    . 

Oxide  of  iron,  ..... 

Oxide  of  manganese,  .... 

Silica, 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,         .... 

Sediment,  consisting  of  phosphate,  and  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  magnesia,  alumina,  silica,  and  oxide  of  iron,  and 
of  manganese,     .... 


combined  with  potash, 
soda,  and  ammonia, 
forming  salts. 


combined  with  soda,  lime,  and 
magnesia,  forming  salts, 


Cows 

'  urine. 

Fresh. 

A  month  old. 

92,624 

95,442 

4,000 

1,000 

10 

190 

40 

90 

250 

516 

500 

256 

165 
1 

205 

487  ) 

occurring  partly 

664 

664  \ 

in  an  uncom- 

554 

554  ) 

bined  state. 

(    405 

338 

\      70 

26 

(    272 

272 

65 

2 

36 

22 

2 

0 

4 

1 

1 

... 

36 

5 

1 

180 


100,000       100,000 


2097.  In  winter,  urine  scarcely  contains 
half  the  quantity  of  urea  stated  in  the  first 


column,  and  is  then,  of  course,  of  less  value ; 
and,  when  it  has  been  putrefying  for  a 


486 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


niontli,  it  contains  more  than  as  much  again 
of  ammonia  as  urine  in  a  fresh  state.  The 
ammonia  isclerive<l  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  urea,  and  the  other  organic  hodies 
containing  nitrogen.  The  caustic  ammo- 
nia remains  partly  dissolved  in  the  water, 
and  is  the  substance  through  which  urine 
not  properly  putrefied  is  so  apt  to  injure 
plants.  If  exposed  long  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  caustic  ammonia  absorbs  fi'ora 
it  carbonic  acid,  becomes  mild,  and  the 
urine  may  then  be  employed  witliout 
danger  as  a  manure  for  vegetation.  But, 
on  urine  being  thus  exposed  to  the  air,  part 
of  it  escapes  in  the  form  of  gas,  so  that  it 
is  proper  to  add  to  putrefying  urine  some 
acid  principle  to  neutralise  the  ammonia — 
to  Jix  it,  as  it  is  usually  termed  ;  and  this 
is  most  simply  and  perhaps  economically 
done  by  adding  water  to  it,  which,  of  equal 
bulk  to  the  urine,  enables  thediluteil  mass 
to  retain  four  times  as  much  ammonia; 
that  is,  in  every  100,000  lbs.  of  diluted 
urine,  1135  lbs.  more  of  ammonia  is  re- 
tained. Another  shnple  substance  for 
fixing  the  ammonia  is  black  vegetable 
mould,  which  supplies  humic  acid,  and 
every  90  lbs.  of  it  saturates  10  lbs.  of  am- 
monia ;  but  as  the  best  earth  contains  only 
45  per  cent  of  humic  acid,  200  lbs.  of 
earth  will  be  re(piired  to  fix  every  10  lbs. 
of  ammonia.  Chemical  ingredients  may 
be  employed  to  fix  the  aumiouia,  but  they 
are  all  costly. 

2098.  It  is  rather  important  to  trace 
the  change  in  liquid  manure  occasioned  by 
keeping.  Fresh  urine  of  cattle  has  a  yel- 
low colour,  occasioned  by  a  small  quantity 
of  resinous  colouring  matter  ;  but  on  stand- 
ing exposed  to  the  air,  the  yellow  assumes 
a  brown,  and  at  length  a  black  colour,  at- 
tributable to  the  formation  of  humic  acid. 
In  winter,  urine  does  not  possess  a  trace  of 
ammonia,  whereas  it  does  in  summer, 
tliereby  indicating  the  decomposition  of 
urea  by  heat  in  the  body  before  the  emis- 
sion of  the  urine.  The  above  table  shows 
that  exposure  of  urine  for  a  month  to  the 
air  has  the  same  effect  of  decomposing  the 
urea  as  heat  has  in  the  body;  and  four 
weeks  are  not  sufficient  time  to  decompose 
all  the  urea,  as  still  0-GOO  remains.  AVhen 
exposed  for  three  months  and  longer,  urine 
loses  its  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is 
evaporahle  as  well  as  the  crude  ammonia 


itself.  In  short,  a  six  months'  urine  con- 
tains not  a  trace  of  its  original  urea, 
mucus,  ami  albumen,  and  new  acid  com- 
binations take  place,  such  a.s  the  lactate, 
hmnate,  sulphate,  acetate  of  ammonia. 
Urine  is  supposed  to  be  in  a  ripe  state  after 
it  has  putrefied  in  summer  for  five  or  six 
weeks,  and  in  winter  for  eight  or  nine, 
though  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  this  point,  so  nmch  depending  on  the 
evaporation  of  the  air.  The  chemical  rule 
for  kn(jwing  the  ripeness  of  urine  is  when 
it  contains  neither  urea  nor  caustic  ammo- 
nia, and  this  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
chemical  investigation.  After  exposure 
to  the  air  a  year  and  half,  urine  contains 
no  organic  remains,  and  only  salts  and 
mineral  bodies  dissolved  in  water. 

2099.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  urine 
of  the  horse,  according  to  Fourcroy  and 
Vaucjuelin,  varied  from  1"03  to  I'Oo  ; 
according  to  Prout,  r029;  and  to  Bous- 
singault,''l-064.* 

2100.  We  have  seen  how  complicated  a 
substance  the  urine  of  the  cow  is,  and  that 
of  man  we  may  expect,  from  the  variety 
of  his  food,  to  be  even  more  so.  It  is 
thus  composed,  according  to  Berzelius  : — 

Water,           ....  93;J0 

Urt-a,              ....  30-1 

Uric  arid,  .  .  .  .  1-0 
Free  lactic  acid,  lactate  of  ammonia, 

and  animal  matter  not  separable,  17'I 

Mucus  of  the  bladder,           .             .  0-3 

Sulphate  of  potash,                 .              .  ."J-J 

Sulphate  of  soda,      .              .             .  3''2 

Phosphate  of  soda,                 .             .  'i"f> 

Phosphate  of  ammonia,         .            .  1-6 

Common  salt,            .             .             .  4v5 

Sal-ammoniac,  .  .  .  1'5 
Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  -with  a 

trace  of  silica  and  fluoride  of  calcium,  J-1 

lOOO-O 


2101.  That  of  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and 

the  pig,  is  as  follows,  on  an  average  : — 

Horse.  Sheep.  Pig. 

Extractive  m.atter,     )   .^^.._,g  ^.^^  ^.^ 

soluble  in  water,    ) 

Extractive  nutter,     1   .,,.,,8  g-j.-^g  3-93 

soluble  in  alcohol,  ) 

Salts  soluble  in  water,  '2\7Q  ]9-57  8-78 

Saltsinsolubleinwater,  1.0  40  O.VJ  084 

Urea,                  .             10-40  12-62  2-85 

Ilippuric  acid,                  <>-lU  ? 

Mucus,              .              0-0(5  0-25  0-06 

Wal»r,              .          899-37  928-97  982-2? 


100000      990-ii3     100000 


*  Thomson's  Animal  Chemittry,  p.  49.'?. 


ON  LIQUID  MANURE. 


487 


In  the  constituents  which  supply  nitrogen, 
the  urine  of  the  ox  is  as  rich  as  that  of 
the  horse,  and  much  richer  than  that  of 
the  cow,  much  of  the  nitrogen  of  whose 
food  goes  to  form  the  curd  of  the  milk. 

2102.  The  saline  and  mineral  ingre- 
dients of  the  urine  of  the  horse,  ox,  sheep, 
and  pig,  consist  of  the  following  sub- 
stances : — 

Horse.  Ox  Sheep.        Pig. 

Carbonate  ofiime,               21-75        1-07  0-82 

—  magnesia,       ll-2()        693  0-4(j 

—  potash,           33-12  77-28  ...        12-1 

—  soda,                151(5        ...  42-2.5 
Chloride  of  sodium,                6-27        0-30  32  01        53-1 

— •        potassium,            ...           ...         12-00  little. 

Sulpluite  of  soda,  11-03        ...          7-72  7-0 

—         potash,  ...        13-30        2-98 

Phosphate  of  soda,                19-0 

"'"«'     .  \  0-70^ 

—  magnesia,  ...  .. .  /  /       q.q 

Silica,  .  .  0-.52        0.35  1-06  f 

Oxide  of  iron  and  loss,  0-79        0-77  ...  J 

100-00     100-00    100-00      100-0 


The  conclusion  Professor  Johnston  comes 
to,  in  reference  to  the  contents  of  the 
foregoing  table,  is,  that  "•  the  fermenting 
urine  of  our  domesticated  animals  cannot 
afford  phosphoric  acid,  which  must  be 
conveyed  to  the  soil  by  the  solid  excre- 
ments."* 

2103.  If  urine  is  applied  to  grass  land 
or  to  growing  crops,  while  the  urea  is  un- 
decomposed,  or  the  ammonia  is  in  a  caustic 
state,  it  will  destroy  vegetation  ;  but  it 
may  safely  be  applied  to  the  ploughed  soil 
at  any  time,  in  as  far  as  the  soil  is  con- 
cerned, although  it  is  better  received  by 
the  soil  in  some  states  than  in  others. 
Winter  is  considered  the  best  season  for 
applying  the  liquid  manure,  not  only  be- 
cause it  is  then  most  abundant,  but  the 
ground,  being  all  ploughed,  is  then  also  in 
the  best  state  for  imbibing  it :  and  if  ap- 
plied to  the  soil  just  as  it  has  flowed  into 
tlie  tank,  much  trouble  will  afterwards  be 
saved  in  driving  out  the  water,  which 
must  be  put  amongst  it  to  save  the  am- 
monia, and  which,  in  fact,  is  better  saved 
by  the  humus  of  the  soil.  Evaporation, 
too,  in  winter  is  very  limited  ;  and  any 
rain  that  falls  will  only  serve,  by  dilution, 
to  retain  the  ammonia,  should  it  atten)pt 
to  escape.  Frozen  ground  will  not  take 
in  liquid  manure,  though  it  may  be  safely 
emptied  upon  snow.  Very  dry  ground 
■will  not  take  it  in  easily.     If  desired  to 


be  applied  in  the  fresh  state  to  grass  land 
or  growing  crops,  it  should  be  mixed  with 
its  bulk  of  water. 

2104.  It  is  this  circumstance  which 
renders  the  use  of  liquid  manure  so 
troublesome  in  practice.  For  instance,  on 
applying  13^  tons  to  the  acre,  after  the. 
urine  has  putrefied  for  five  or  six  weeks, 
all  the  manure  obtained  from  that  quan- 
tity would  very  little  exceed  10  cwt. 
If  the  due  proportion  of  water  were  added 
to  it,  the  manure  would  not  exceed  16  cwt., 
and  even  when  applied  quite  fresh,  the 
quantity  would  be  under  one  ton. 

2105.  "  Hence,"  as  M.  Sprengel  pro- 
perly concludes  from  such  premises,  "  it 
will  be  obvious  to  everyone  that  the  urine 
tanks  are  no  such  excellent  arrangements 
as  they  are  frequently  represented  to  be ; 
and  that  it  is,  in  many  cases,  more  pro- 
fitable to  pour  the  urine  over  the  dung  in 
the  dung-pit,  or  to  supply  as  much  straw 
that  the  wliole  of  the  urine  may  be  ab- 
sorbed, for  then  the  humic  acid  arising 
from  the  solid  excrements  will  be  com- 
bined with  the  ammonia  formed,  at  the 
same  time,  from  the  urea,  &c.  There  is 
this  additional  advantage,  that  the  urine, 
as  the  most  efficient  portion  of  animal  ex- 
crement, being  mixed  with  the  dung,  may 
be  distributed  more  equally  over  the 
ground,  that  no  manure-barrels,  &c.,  are 
required,  and  that  there  is  no  necessity  to 
bestow  labour  on  the  preparation  of  the 
urine;  for  the  urine,  if  any,  which  is  not 
taken  up  by  the  dung,  may  always  be 
most  profitably  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  compost.  In  some  parts  of  central 
Germany,  they  pour  the  urine,  time  after 
time,  into  conical  heaps  of  common  earth, 
hollowed  to  a  proper  depth  in  the  middle  ; 
and  when  these  have  stood  the  proper 
length  of  time,  and  been  thoroughly 
worked  for  use,  they  are  led  to  the  field. 
This  process  is  very  advantageous  where 
good  mould,  or  eartli  rich  in  humus,  is  not 
to  be  had,  but  must  be  conducted  with  the 
requisite  caution  :  we  must,  for  instance, 
not  pour  into  the  heaps  so  much  urine,  that 
the  liquid  penetrates  through  them  and 
escapes  ;  for,  even  when  perfectly  clear  and 
colourless,  it  always  still  contains  carbon- 
ate  of  ammonia,   and   other  ammoniacal 


Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  2d  edition,  p.  811. 


488 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


salts,  in  solution,  humate  of  ammonia  being  preferable   to   concentrate    its    beneficial 

the  only  one  of  them  which  colours  the  effects  on  a  limited  number  of  acres,  than  to 

urine  brown."  *  attenuate  its  power  over  a  larger  space, 

as  much  per  acre  as  desired  is  put  on 
2106.  Good  as  the  practice  is  of  saturat-  at  once,  and  the  extent  of  ground  manured 
ing  good  mould  Avith  urine,  it  is  not  so  is  measured  by  the  quantity  supjilied  by 
advantageous  as  might  be  supi»osed.  I  the  sea.  The  quantity  thus  supplied  de- 
formed a  cess-pool  which  receive*!  the  pends  entirely  on  the  nature  of  the  season, 
entire  drainage  from  the  house,  including  as  also  on  the  occurrence  of  storms  at 
that  from  the  water-closets  and  scullery,  the  jtarticular  period  when  the  plants  are 
amongst  a  quantity  of  the  richest  mould  I  most  easily  dissevered  from  the  ruck.  It 
could  collect,  and  on  every  year  putting  is  this  uncertainty  of  the  supply  which 
the  compound  or  compost  on  the  soil,  it  throws  a  doubt  on  the  statement  of  Mr 
was  not  to  be  compared  in  its  effects  to  Kerr,  in  his  agricultural  report  of  Berwick- 
those  of  common  farm-yard  dung  or  bone-  shire,  that  the  rents  of  those  farms  in 
dust.      It  is  doubtless  to  the  mixture  of  East  Lothian  which  have  access  to  sea- 


weed, are  enhanced  to  the  extent  of 
25s.  to  30s.  per  acre  ;t  and  whatever  may 
have  been  the  case  in  his  day,  so  great  an 
iniluence  on  the  value  of  land  is  not  pro- 
duced now  by  sea- weed. 

2109.  Sea-weed  is  put  on  in  a  fresh  state 
upon  the  stubbled  land  before  it  is  phmghed, 
in  winter,  in  prepai'atiou  to  manuring  the 
soil  for  the  ensuing  potato  or  turnij)  crop. 
It  is  also  spread  upon  the  lea  ground  in- 
tended to  be  ploughed  for  oats.  The  weed 
does  not  soon  become  desiccated  in  winter; 
and  thouirh  rain  fall,  it  only  dissolves  the 


the  contents  of  privies,  along  with  the 
solution  of  large  quantities  of  rape-cake  in 
the  urine,  that  the  liquid  manure  used  in 
Flanders  owes  so  much  of  its  efficacy. 
The  same  composition  in  this  country 
would  be  by  far  too  costly  an  application, 
though,  of  course,  equally  efficacious.  In 
Flanders  they  call  this  compound  io7i- 
bons,  (sweet-meats,)  to  show  their  high 
estimation  of  it. 

ON  SEA-WEED  AS  MANURE. 

2107.  Winter  is  the  season  which  sup- 
plies the  greatest  quantity  of  sea-weed  for  mucilaginous  and  saline  substauces  easily 
manure.  After  a  severe  storm,  or  even  a  separable  from  it,  and  carries  them  into  the 
heavy  ground- swell  of  the  sea,  large  quan-  soil ;  and  these  two  classes  of  ingredients,  no 
titles  of  this  remarkable  substance  are  cast  doubt,  render  the  weed  so  good  a  top-dress- 
ashore  in  the  bays  and  estuaries  of  the  ing  on  every  state  of  the  soil.  It  is  only 
coast  ;  and  so  desirable  is  it  as  a  ready-  on  land  capable  of  bearing  green  crops 
made  manure  for  the  land,  that  on  those  that  sea-weed  can  with  propriety  be  ap- 
farms  which  border  the  sea-coast  of  our  i)lied  in  winter,  for  heavy  land  would  then 
island,  and  in  localities  accessible  to  the  be  poached  by  the  horses  and  carts  ;  and 
shore,  the  farmer  defers  every  other  work  I  think  it  must  bo  this  circumstance, more 
in  which  he  may  be  engaged,  to  secure  a  than  any  other,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
manure  which  cannot  be  purchased  else-  opinion  that  sea-weed  does  more  good  to 
where.     So  well  aware  is  he  that  the  next  light  than  to  heavy  land. 

rising   tide    may   sweep   away   what    the 

former  one  had  deposited,  that  his  chief  2110,  Sea-weed  is  also  used  in  a  fresh 

aim   at  the  time  is  to  draw  the  weed  be-  state  in  winter  in  trenched  ground.      In 

yond  the  reach  of  the  approaching  waves,  s<»me  ])arts  of  the  cojist  which  is  com{M)sed 

and  then  at  leisure   to   drive   it  upon   the  of  sand,  and  upon  which  sea-weed  is  cast, 

particular  fields  which  are  destined  to  re-  the  inhabitants  use  the  weed  by  placing  it 

ceive  it.                            '  in  the  bottom  of  every  trench  two  I'eet 

deep,    nearly    filling    them    with    it,    and 

2108.  In  East  Lothian,  on  whose  shores  tramping  it  in,  and  then  throwing  the  soil 
large  quantities  of  sea-ware  are  thrown  upon  it,  there  to  remain  until  spring,  when 
every  year,  it  is  put  on  the  land  to  the  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  prepared  for 
amount  of  32  loads  per  acre;  and  it  being  the  sowing  of  carrots. 

*  Journal  of  the  Ai^ricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  i.  455-80. 
+  Kerr's  Atjricultural  Report  of  Bcricickshire,  p.  377. 


SEA- WEED  AS  MANURE. 


469 


2111.  Sea-weed  is  very  succulent, 
feels  slimy,  and,  when  exposed  to  the 
summer  sun,  soon  dries  into  one-third  of 
its  bulk,  and  becomes' hard  and  brittle. 

2112.  It  has  been  recommended  to  dry 
sea-weed,  to  its  being  easily  carried  into 
the  interior  of  the  country  ;  but  this  would 
be  troublesome  in  winter;  and  it  is  unne- 
cessary trouble,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no 
more  sea-weed  cast  ashore  than  what  can 
easily  be  used  upon  the  farms  on  the  coast. 

2113.  Sea-weeds  constitute  a  numerous  family 
of  plants.  Lindley,  in  his  natural  system,  places 
them  in  class  i.,  Thallogens,  alliance  \,AI(]als; 
order  3,  Fucacece,  sub-orders  2  and  3,  Ualyserece, 
Facem.  In  the  Jussien  system,  they  are  placed 
under  class  i.,  Acotyledones,  order  Alijas.  Pro- 
fessor Lindley  observes  of  this  tribe  of  plants, 
"  like  all  this  alliance,  the  sea-wracks  have  no 
particular  geographical  limits,  but  occur  where- 
ever  the  ocean  or  rivers  spread  themselves  over 
the  land.  They  are,  however,  remarkable  for  the 
enormous  space  which  single  species  of  them 
occasionally  occupy  ;  some  of  them  forming  sub- 
aqueous forests  in  the  ocean,  emulating  in  their 
gigantic  dimensions  the  boundless  element  that 
enfolds  them.  Scytosiphon  filvm,  a  species  com- 
mon in  the  North  Sea,  is  frequently  found  of  the 
length  of  30  or  40  feet;  in  Scalpa  Bay,  in  Ork- 
ney, according  to  Dr  Neill,  this  species  forms 
meadows,  through  which  a  pinnace  with  difficulty 
forces  its  way.  Lessonia  fuscusens  is  described 
by  Borry  de  St  Vincent  as  25  or  30  feet  in  length, 
with  a  trunk  often  as  thick  as  a  man's  tlii^h. 
But  all  these,  and  indeed  every  other  vegetable 
production,  is  exceeded  in  size  by  the  prodigious 
fronds  of  Macrocystis  pyrffera.  This  appears  to 
be  the  sea-weed  reported  by  navigators  to  be 
from  500  to  1500  feet  in  length;  the  leaves  are 
long  and  narrow,  and  at  the  base  of  each  is 
placed  a  vescicle  filled  with  air,  without  which 
it  would  be  impossible  for  the  plant  to  support 
its  enormous  length  in  the  water,  the  stem  not 
being  thicker  than  the  finger,  and  the  upper 
branches  as  slender  as  common  pack-thread. 

.  .  .  Some  of  the  species  are  eatable,  owing, 
doubtless,  to  the  large  quantity  of  gelatinous 
matter  that  they  secrete.  The  young  stalks  of 
Laminaria  digitata,  and  saccharina,  are  eaten 
under  the  name  of  '  tangle.'  When  stripped  of 
the  thin  part,  the  beautiful  A/aria  esculenta 
forms  a  part  of  the  simple  fare  of  the  poorer 
classes  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  Iceland,  Denmark, 
and  the  Farce  Islands.  In  some  of  the  Scottish 
islands,  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  feed  chiefly  on 
FucHs  resciculosus  during  the  winter  months;  and 
in  Gothland  it  is  commonly  given  to  pigs.  Fucus 
serratus  also,  and  Scytosiphon  filum  constitute  a 
part  of  the  fodder  upon  which  cattle  are  sup- 
ported in  Norway."* 


2114.  Four  species  are  very  common  on  our 
coast — the  Laminaria  saccharina,  cousi&img  of  a 
single  linear  elliptic  leaf,  without  any  mid-rib  ; 
the  Laminaria  digitata,  or  common  tangle,  a 
cylindrical  stem,  sometimes  as  thick  as  a  walking- 
stick,  and  about  two  feet  long:  the  Fucus  rescicu- 
losus, consisting  of  a  double  stem,  with  the  edges 
of  the  leaf  entire,  and  in  the  disc  of  which,  near 
the  edges,  are  immersed  a  number  of  vescicles  or 
air-bladders — or  crackers,  as  they  are  vulgarly 
called,  because  they  emit  a  loud  report  on  being 
ruptured  by  pressure — about  the  size  of  a  hazel- 
nut, and  the  use  of  which,  no  doubt,  is  to  float  the 
leaves  in  the  water:  and  the  Ilalidrys  siliquaria, 
consisting  of  a  waved  coriaceous  stalk  about  4 
feet  long,  greatly  branched,  dark  olive  when 
fresh,  and  quite  black  when  dry;  and  it  is  also 
furnished  with  air-bladders  or  vescicles. 

2115.  The  constitution  of  these  plants  is  very 
complicated,  afi'ording  no  fewer  than  21  ingredi- 
ents. The  first  species,  Laminaria  saccharina, 
afiorded  the  following  substances  to  the  analysis 
of  Gaultier  de  Claubry  in  1815  : — 

A  saccharine  matter — manna. 

Mucilage,  in  considerable  quantity. 

Ve£;etable  allnimeii. 

Green  colourini;  matter. 

Oxalate  of  potash. 

Malate  of  potash. 

Sulphate  of  potash.  , 

Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Muriate  of  potash. 

Muriate  of  soda. 

Muriate  of  magnesia. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Carbonate  of  putash. 

Carbonate  of  soda. 

Hydriodate  of  potash. 

Silica. 

Subphosphate  of  lime. 

Subphosphate  of  mag^nesia. 

Oxide  of  iron,  probably  united  with  phosphoric 

acid. 
Oxalate  of  lime. 

The  composition  of  the  other  species,  together 
witli  the  Fucus  serratus — which  is  like  the  i^. 
resciculosus,  but  witliout  air-bladders — and  the 
Scytosiphon  fluin,  or  thread  tangle,  is  very  similar 
to  the  one  here  given."]" 

2116.  On  combustion,  in  a  particular  way,  sea- 
weed yields  an  impure  salt  named  kelp.  So  long 
as  it  is  used  in  the  arts,  kelp  is  too  expensive  to 
use  as  a  manure.  It  supplied  at  one  time  the 
soda  used  by  the  bleachers,  but,  at  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  barilla,  its  use  as  such  was  discon- 
tinued, much  to  the  loss  of  many  proprietors  and 
labourers  in  Scotland;  but  the  barilla  itself  has 
been  superseded  since  the  very  low  price  at 
which  soda  ash,  the  dry  'crude  carbonate  from 
the  decomposition  of  sea-salt,  is  now  sold.  Kelp, 
however,  is  now  manufactured  into  iodine.J 

2117.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  sea-weed 


*  Lindley's  Vegetable  Kingdom,  Tp.2\.        +  Thom&on^s  Organic  Chemistry  —  Vegetables,  p.  944-6. 
t  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  for  March  184 7,  p.  629;  and  for  October 
1847,  p.  75. 


490 


PRACTICE— WINTER. 


burned  in  the  open  air,  of  the  mean  of  twelve 
analyses,  is  thus  given  by  Professor  Johnston  : — 


Ash  of  Sea-weed. 

Mean. 

Potash, 

17-5(t 

Soda,      . 

1-2-70 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

l(i-.5b" 

Chloride  of  potassium,  . 

o-.9:j 

Iodide  of  sodium, 

0-.05 

Lime,     . 

7-;w 

Phosphate  of  lime, 

7-24 

Magnesia, 

9-8!) 

Oxide  of  iron,    . 

0-24 

Sulphuric  acid, 

24-7() 

Silica, 

1-84 

100-00 

This  mean  analysis  of  a  number  of  sea-weeds 
agrees  pretty  nearly  with  that  of  kelp.* 

2118.  The  sea- weed  used  in  Scotland  in 
manure  is  never  cut  from  the  rocks, but  is  thrown 
ashore  by  the  sea.  When  used  for  converting 
into  kelp,  it  is  cut  from  the  rocks;  and  the  older 
the  plant  is,  it  is  the  better  for  being  made  into 
kelp,  a-i  also  into  manure,  no  doubt.  But,  in 
other  p:irts  of  the  world,  sea-weed  is  regularly 
cut  from  the  rocks  for  manure  alone,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  description  of  the 
varec  (the  Scottish  wrack)  harvest  in  Jersey. 
"The  vraic  harvest  is  another  peculiarity  of 
Jersey,"  says  Mr  Burn  Murdoch.  "  The  time  of 
the  harvest  is  regulated  by  the  States — that  is, 
they  issue  permission  to  begin  cutting  upon  a 
certain  day,  and  fix  a  time  at  which  it  is  to  cease. 
Friday,  the  1st  March,  was  this  year  (1844)  the 
day  of  its  commencement,  and  early  that  forenoon 
I  repaireii  to  the  point  of  Le  Hocq  to  witness 
the  operation.  The  rocks  at  this  point  extend 
a  very  great  way  from  the  shore  at  low  water, 
and  are  covered  with  the  sea-weed.  Upon  this 
occasion  the  tide  was  very  far  out,  and  little 
appearance  of  bustle  was  observable  from  the 
shore,  the  dark  nature  of  the  rock  preventing  the 
people  from  being  seen  from  such  a  distance.  Of 
course,  they  commence  when  the  tide  is  farthest 
out,  and  retreat  as  it  rises.  I  walked  out  to  the 
furthest  extremity  of  the  dry  portion,  and  there 
the  multitudes  of  men,  women,  and  children,  and 
horses  and  carts,  which  covered  the  rocks,  quite 
astonished  me.  The  weed  is  cut  from  the  rock 
by  short  hooks,  and  laid  in  small  heaps,  and  then 
loaded  upon  the  carts  and  driven  off  till  it  is 
carried  beyond  high-water  mark,  where  it  is 
generally  emptied,  and  left  to  be  carried  inland 
at  leisure.  It  is  a  very  wet  job;  but  still  the 
country-people  like  it — it  brings  them  together; 
and  many  courtships  are  said  to  be  carried  on  at 
vraic  harvest.  They  bake  bread  of  a  particular 
kind  for  the  occasion,  >nd  their  food  is  otherwise 
of  a  more  generous  description  than  what  is  in 
general  use:  it  is,  in  fact,  a  kind  of  gathering  or 
meeting  of  the  whole  people,  and,  as  such,  causes 
a  variety  and  stir  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  the 
Jersey  life.    The  sea-weed  thus  procured  is  of 


great  value   as  manure.     It   is  used  chiefly  for 
grass  and  gardeu  crops."  + 


ON  GArLTING  OR  CLAYING  THE  SOIL. 

2119.  In  a  part  of  the  fen  lands  of  Eng- 
land, it  is  a  cu.stomary  practice  in  winter 
to  cover  the  surface  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  every  farm,  one-eighth  part,  wiih  the 
clay  obtained  from  the  subsoil.  The  fen 
land  rcferreil  to  contains  a  purtinn  of  tlie 
counties  ()f~Hiintinirdon,  Cambridge,  Nor- 
folk, and  Sutfollv,  and  extends  to  sixty 
miles  in  length,  and  thirty  miles  in  breadth. 
It  consists  of  a  flat,  interspersed  with  small 
elevations  and  iiills,  which,  to  distinguish 
frmn  the  flat,  are  called  /lard  lands.  These 
elevations  are  principally  in  permanent 
pasture,  and  form  an  excellent  change  for 
cattle  from  the  fen  land. 

2120.  The  drainage  of  the  fen  is  effocteJ 
by  artificial  rivers  running  to  seaward  from 
the  difterent  districts  into  which  the  fen 
land  is  divided.  The  extent  of  the  districts 
vary  from  200  to  4000  acres  each,  and 
they  are  incloscil  by  dikes  communicating 
Avith  a  main  drain,  which  runs  to  a  wind- 
mill or  steam-engine,  bv  which  the  water 
is  pumped  out  of  it,  and  transferred  into 
tlie  river.  Tiie  entire  country,  with  the 
exception  of  about  GOOO  acres,  is  under  a 
regular  system  of  drainage  and  cultivation. 

2121.  Tlie  soil  of  the  fen  consists  of 
decayed  vegetable  matter  on  a  stratum  of 
moor,  which  again  rests  in  some  places  on  a 
subsoil  of  gravel,  in  others,  and  much  more 
generally,  of  clay.  The  situation  of  the 
clay  varies  in  difl^erent  districts :  in  some 
it  is  ploughed  up  at  the  surface,  in  others 
it  is  not  reacheil  until  digging  for  twenty 
feet  below  the  surface.  The  nearer  the 
clay  is  the  surface,  the  better  is  the  land 
cultivated,  the  clay  being  dug  uj),  and 
the  surface  top-dressed  with  it ;  and  it  is 
this  process  of  top-dressing  which  I  pro- 
pose now  to  describe. 

2122.  The  fen  land  adjoining  the  hard 
lands  jiartaking  of  the  characters  of  both, 
is  called  skirt i/  land,  and  it  pos.sesses,  gene- 
rally, great  fertility.     For  a  similar  extent 


•  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Aqricxdturnl  Cliemistry,  p.  624,  2d  edition. 
+  Buru  Murdoch's  Notes  on  Jersey,  ^c,  p.  44-5. 


CLAYING  THE  SOIL. 


491 


of  country,  few  equal  it  in  productive  vege- 
tation, and  the  greater  part  being  regularly 
kept  in  corn  crops,  it  lias  received  the 
appellation  of  the  "  Granary  of  England." 

2123.  The  fen  of  Lincolnshire,  and  that 
part  of  Cambridgeshire  in  the  Isle  of  Ely 
which  is  near  the  sea,  being  of  a  silty  and 
salt-marsh  character,  requires  and  receives 
different  management. 

2124.  The  process  oi gaulting^  or  clay- 
ing the  soil,  is  conducted  in  this  manner  : 

Fig.  196. 


THE  CLAYING  OF  THE  SOIL. 

— Let  ab cd\)Q  the  four  sides  of  the  field 
to  be  clayed,  and  let  eehQ  the  sites  of  the 
pits  out  of  which  the  clay  is  to  be  taken. 
The  space  between  the  pits  depends  on  the 
depth  the  clay  is  from  the  surface:  if  the 
clay  is  deep,  the  distance  between  the  pits 
is  12  yards,  as  between  g  and  I;  if  other- 
wise, it  is  extended  to  20  yards :  and  vary- 
ing between  these  two  extremes.  When 
the  distance  has  been  determined  on,  it  is 
marked  by  a  plough  making  a  furrow  in 
each  line  of  pits. 

2125.  The  width  of  the  pits  depends 
also  on  the  depth  of  the  clay  ;  if  it  is  2 
feet  deep  to  the  clay,  the  width  is  3  feet  3 
inches,  but  if  6  feet  and  upwards,  the  width 
is  made  4  feet. 

2126.  A  pit  is  dug  in  the  first  line  <?, 
which  should  be  made  near  the  fence  a  b  ; 
and  at  m,  halfway  distant  between  the 
first  line  of  pits  e  and  the  second  line  e,  the 


surface  soil  taken  out  of  the  first  pit  e  is 
laid  down.  The  pits  are  made  9  feet  in 
length.  Should  the  clay  be  far  down,  the 
sides  of  the  pit  e  should  be  supported  by 
planks,  or  frame-work  of  wood,  to  prevent 
the  earth  falling  in,  and  to  protect  the 
lives  of  the  men  working  in  them  ;  for 
many  a  life  has  been  sacrificed  for  the 
want  of  this  precaution.  The  clay  as  it  is 
dug  out  is  taken  up  with  a  fork  or  spade 
by  a  girl  or  boy,  and  thrown  equally  over 
the  space  indicated  between  the  dotted 
line  in  h  and  the  fence  line  a  d,  on  both 
sides  of  the  pit  in  which  the  men  are 
working.  Two  good  spits  of  the  spade 
generally  afford  the  requisite  quantity  of 
clay. 

21 27.'  After  one  pit  has  been  sufficiently 
dug  out,  another  is  formed  along  the  line,  a 
space  of  the  ground  n  being  left  untouched 
between  the  pits,  of  sufficient  strength 
to  support  the  sides  from  cnrving  in.  Tiie 
upper  soil  of  the  second  pit  is  put  into  the 
first  pit,  to  fill  it  up  as  far  as  it  will  go, 
and  the  clay  is  taken  out  of  the  second  pit 
and  spread  upon  the  surface,  exactly  in  the 
same  manner  as  described,  and  so  on,  irom 
pit  to  pit,  until  all  the  pits  in  the  line  are 
dug.  Wlien  the  first  pit  in  the  second  line 
at  I  is  begun,  its  surface  soil  is  wheeled  to 
fill  up  tiie  last  pit  dug  at  ^(7;  and  when 
all  the  pits  have  been  dug  out  in  the  line 
I  e,  the  surface  soil  first  taken  out  and  put 
down  at  m  is  wheeled  to  fill  up  the  last  pit 
dug  in  el.  In  this  manner  with  every 
two  rows  of  pits  is  the  entire  field  spread 
over  with  the  clay. 

2 1 28.  The  pits  are  levelled  up  afterwards 
with  the  adjoining  soil  with  the  plough. 
A  little  frost  does  the  clay  good  by  pul- 
verising it,  and  makes  it  more  ready 
to  mix  with  the  soil ;  but  it  is  better  to 
plough  the  clay  in  soon  than  allow  it  to 
become  too  much  dried  either  by  drought 
or  frost. 

2129.  The  claying  of  land,  if  the  clay 
had  to  be  carted  upon  it,  would  be  attend- 
ed with  great  trouble.  To  cover  an  acre 
of  soil  with  only  one  inch  deep  of  clay 
would  require  180  cubic  yards  of  it. 


492 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


SPRING. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  FIELD  OPERATIONS  AND 
OF  THE  WEATUER  IN  SPRING. 

2130.  As  regards  vegetation,  we  have 
seen  that  winter  is  the  season  of  repose, 
of  passive  existence,  of  dormancy,  though 
not  of  death.  Spring,  on  the  contrary,  is 
the  season  of  returning  life,  of  passing 
into  active  exertion,  of  hope,  and  of  joy — 
of  hope,  as  the  world  of  life  springs  into 
view  immediately  after  the  industrious 
hand  has  scattered  the  seed  upon  the 
ground — and  of  joy,  in  contemplating,  with 
contidence,  the  reproductions  of  the  herds 
and  flocks.  I  am  unequal  to  the  task  of 
de.^cribing  the  emotions  to  which  this 
delightful  season  gives  birth  ;  and  I  would 
rather  that  3'ou  should  go  into  the  country 
and  enjoy  the  pleasure  for  3'ourself ;  for 
'•'  the  chusen  draught,  of  whicli  every 
lover  of  nature  may  drink,  can  be  had,  in 
its  freshness  and  purity,  only  at  the 
living  fountain  of  nature ;  and  if  we  at- 
tempt to  fetch  it  away  in  the  clay  pitchers 
of  liuman  description,  it  loses  all  its 
spirit,  becomes  insipid,  and  acquires  an 
earthy  taste  from  the  clay." 

2131.  To  enjoy  the  beauties  of  spring 
in  perfection,  "  it  is  necessary  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  morning,  when  the  beams 
of  the  newly-risen  sun  are  nearly  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  earth;  and  this  is 
the  time  when  the  morning  birds  are  iu 
their  finest  song,  when  the  earth  and  the 
air  are  in  their  greatest  freshness,  and 
when  all  nature  mingles  in  one  common 
morning  hymn  of  gratitude.  Tliere  is 
somet  hing  peculiarly  arousingand  strength- 
ening, both  to  the  body  and  the  mind,  in 
the  early  time  of  the  morning ;  and  were 
we  always  wise  enough  t<i  avail  ourselves 
of  it,  it  is  almost  incredible  with  what 
ease  and  pleasure  the  labours  of  the  most 
diligent  life  might  be  performed.  When 
we  take  the  day  by  the  beginning,  we  can 
regulate  the  length  of  it  according  to  our 
necessities;    and   whatever   may   be   our 


professional  avocations,  we  have  time  to 
perform  them,  to  cultivate  our  minds,  and 
to  worship  our  Maker,  without  the  one 
duty  interfering  with  the  other. 

2132.  "The  day-spring  of  the  morning 
leads  us,  by  an  easy  and  very  natural  tran- 
sition, to  the  day-spring  of  human  life, 
the  morning  of  our  sojourn  upon  earth ; 
and  the  parallels  between  the  commence- 
ment of  the  life  itself,  and  of  those 
successive  days  by  which  it  is  nunibered, 
is  a  parallel  the  most  striking.  There  is 
a  freshness  in  young  life  which  no  experi- 
ence can  acquire  for  us  at  any  future  time, 
and  there  is  a  newness  in  every  object, 
which  is  not  felt  after  years  have  passed 
over  our  heads.  Our  bodies  are  light, 
flexible,  easily  moved,  and  not  liable  to  be 
injured.  Our  minds,  too,  never  become 
wearied  or  listless ;  and  although  the  oc- 
cupation and  the  thought  are  necessarily 
different  from  those  of  persons  of  mature 
age,  they  ave  far  more  energetic,  and  what 
is  learned  or  done  takes  a  more  perma- 
nent liold  of  the  memory.  There  are 
many  circumstances  which  render  the 
morning  of  life  of  far  more  importance 
than  the  morning  of  an  individual  day. 
It  is  a  morning  to  which  no  to-morrow 
morning  can  follow ;  and,  therefore,  if  it 
is  neglected,  all  is  inevitably  and  utterly 
lost.  We  cannot  exactly  make  up  the 
loss  of  even  one  morning,  though  we  can 
repair  it  a  little  by  our  diligence  in  future 
mornings.  We  must  bear  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  the  means  of  doing  this  is  a 
mercy  to  us,  and  not  a  privilege  that  we 
can  command  as  our  own.  We  never 
'know  what  a  day  may  bring  forth;'  and 
as  there  daily  occur  around  us  instances 
in  which  the  young  and  the  strong  are  at 
once  levelled  to  the  dust,  we  never  can 
be  certain  that  the  demand  shall  not  be 
made  on  ourselves — 'tiiis  night  is  thy 
soul  required  of  thee.'  But  if  it  is  thus 
]>erilous  to  neglect  one  morning  out  of 
many,  how  much  more  perilous  to  neglect 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS. 


493 


the  one  morning  of  a  life — a  life  granted  by 
a  beneficent  God,  in  a  world  full  of  tlie 
wonders  of  bis  power,  capable  of  enjoy- 
ment, and  deny  him  service  while  it  lasts, 
and  in  the  fulness  of  time  entering,  through 
the  atonement  of  the  eternal  Son,  a  life  of 
bliss  which  shall  have  no  end.''  * 

2133.  Spring  is  a  busy  season  on  the 
farm.  The  cattle-man,  besides  continuing 
his  attendance  on  the  fattening  cattle,  has 
now  the  more  delicate  task  of  waiting  on 
the  cows  at  calving,  and  providing  com- 
fortable lairs  for  new-dropped  calves.  The 
dairymaid  commences  her  labours,  not  in 
the  peculiar  avocations  of  the  dairy,  but 
in  rearing  calves — the  support  of  a  future 
herd — which,  for  a  time,  are  indulged  with 
every  drop  of  milk  the  cows  can  yield. 
The  farrows  of  pigs  also  claim  a  share  of 
her  solicitude.  The  shepherd,  too,  has  his 
painful  watchings,  day  and  night,  on  the 
lambing  ewes  ;  and  his  care  of  the  tender 
lambs,  until  they  are  able  to  gambol  upon 
tlie  new  grass,  is  a  task  of  peculiar  inte- 
rest, and  insensibly  leads  to  higher  thoughts 
—  "we  cannot  refrain  from  thinking  of 
the  unspeakable  condescension  and  kind- 
ness of  Him  who  'feeds  his  flock  like  a 
shepherd,  gathers  the  lambs  into  his  arms 
and  carries  them  in  his  bosom,  and  gently 
leads  those  that  are  with  young.' " 

2134.  The  condition  of  the  fields  de- 
mands attention  as  well  as  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  stock.  The  day  noAv  aflbrds 
as  many  hours  for  labour  as  are  usually 
bestowed  at  any  season  in  the  field.  The 
ploughmen,  therefore,  know  no  rest  for  at 
least  twelve  hours  eveiy  day,  from  the 
time  the  harrows  are  yoked  for  the  spring 
wheat  until  the  turnips  are  sown.  The 
turnip  land,  bared  as  the  turnips  are  con- 
sumed by  sheep,  is  now  ridged  up  at  once 
for  spring  wheat,  should  the  weather  be 
mild  and  the  soil  dry  enough,  or  else  cross- 
pUiughed,  and  the  ridging  delayed  until 
the  barley-seed.  The  first  sowing  is  the 
spring  wheat,  then  the  beans,  and  then 
the  oat-seed.  The  fields  containing  the 
fallow  land  now  receive  a  cross-furrow,  in 
the  order  of  the  fallow-crops — the  potatoes 
first,  then  turnips,  and  lastly  the  bare 
fallow.  Grass  seeds  are  now  sown  amongst 
the  young   autumnal    wheat,   as  well  as 


amongst  the  spring  wheat  and  the  barley. 
The  field- workers  devote  their  busy  hours 
to  carrying  seed  to  the  sower,  turning 
dunghills  in  preparation  of  the  manure 
for  the  potato  and  turnip  crops,  continuing 
the  barn-work  to  supply  litter  for  the 
stock  yet  confined  in  the  steading,  and 
to  prepare  the  seed-corn  for  the  fields. 
The  hedger  resumes  his  work  of  water- 
tabling  and  scouring  ditches,  cutting  down 
and  breasting  old  hedges,  and  taking  care 
to  release  the  sprouting  buds  of  the  young 
quicks  from  the  face  of  the  hedge-bank, 
which  he  may  have  planted  at  the  com- 
mencement and  during  fresh  weather  in 
winter.  The  steward  is  now  on  the  alert, 
sees  to  the  promotion  of  every  ojJeraLion, 
and  intru.sts  the  sowing  of  tiie  crops  to 
none  but  himself,  except  a  tried  hand,  such 
as  the  skilful  hedger,  or  to  an  experienced 
ploughman  in  managingan  approved  grain- 
sovving  machine.  Thus  every  class  of 
labourers  have  their  work  appropriated  for 
them  at  this  busy  season  ;  and  as  the  work 
of  every  one  is  iiidividually  defined,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  for  so  great  a  mistake  to 
be  committed  as  that  any  piece  of  work 
should  be  neglected  by  all. 

2135.  The  farmer  himself  now  feels 
that  he  must  be  "up  and  doing;"  his 
mind  becomes  stored  with  plans  for  future 
execution  ;  and  in  order  to  see  them  exe- 
cuted at  tiie  proper  time,  and  in  the  best 
manner,  he  must  now  forego  all  visits,  and 
remain  at  honie  for  the*  season ;  or  at 
most  undertake  an  occasional  and  hasty 
journey  to  the  market-town  to  get  quit  of 
surplus  grain,  when  the  draughts  have  a 
leisure  day  to  deliver  it.  The  business  of 
the  fields  now  requiring  constant  atten- 
dance, his  mind  as  well  as  body  becomes 
fatigued,  and,  on  taking  the  fireside  after 
the  labours  of  the  day  are  over,  seeks  for 
rest  and  relaxation  rather  than  mental 
toil.  He  should  at  this  season  pay  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  state  of  the  wea- 
ther, bv  observing  the  barometric  and 
thermometric  changes,  and  make  it  a  point 
to  observe  every  external  phenomenon  that 
has  a  bearing  upon  the  changes  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  be  guided  accordingly  in 
giving  his  instructions  to  his  people. 

2136.  On  this  account  the  state  of  the 


Mudie's  Spring,  p.  12-15. 


494 


PllACTICE— SPRING. 


weather  requires  constant  attention.  Tlie 
weatlier  in  spring',  in  tlie  zone  we  inhabit, 
is  excee<lingly  variable,  alternating,  at 
short  intervals,  from  frost  to  thaw,  from 
rain  to  snow,  from  sunshine  to  cloud — very 
different  from  the  steady  character  of  the 
arctic  spring,  in  which  the  snow  melts 
without  rain,  and  the  meads  are  covered 
with  vernal  Holers  ere  the  last  traces  of 
winter  have  disappeared.  Possessing  this 
variability  in  itsaimospherical  phcn(,ni(*na, 
spring  presents  few  of  them  having  pecu- 
liarities of  their  own,  unless  we  except  the 
constant  east  wind  which  blows  from 
March  to  !May,  and  the  very  heavy  falls 
of  snow  which  occasionally  occur. 

2137.  Wind. — So  invariahle  is  the  phe- 
nomenon of  the  E.  wind  in  spring,  that 
every  person  who  dwells  on  the  eastcoast  of 
Great  Britain  is  quite  familiar  with  it, 
having  felt  its  keenness  and  known  its  ap- 
titude to  produce  catarrhal  aftections.  An 
explanati(m  of  this  remarkable  phenome- 
non has  been  given  by  Mr  Hamuel  Mar- 
shall. "  In  Sweden  and  Norway,"  he 
observes,  "  the  face  of  the  country  is 
covered  with  snow  to  the  middle  of  May 
or  longer.  This  frozen  covering,  which 
has  been  formed  during  winter,  grows 
gradually  shallower  to  the  l.'ith  or  Kith  of 
May,  or  until  the  sun  has  acquired  1?°  or 
18°  N.  declination  ;  iwhilc,  on  tlie  other 
hand,  the  va^Jeys  '  and  mountains  of 
England  have  ^eived  an  accession  of  24° 
or  2.5°.  On  tms  account,  when  the  tem- 
perature of  Sweden  and  Norway  is  cooled 
down  by  snow  to  32°,  that  of  J3ritain  is 
24°  or  25°  higher  than  that  of  the  preced- 
ing countries.  Because,  while  the  ground 
is  covered  with  snow,  the  rays  of  the  sun 
are  incapable  of  heating  the  air  above  32°, 
the  freezing  point.  For  this  reason  the 
air  of  England  is  24°  or  25°  more  heated 
than  that  of  the  before-mentioned  coun- 
tries. The  air  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
will  then,  of  course,  by  the  law  of  com- 
parative specific  gravity,  displace  that  of 
England,  and,  from  the  relative  situation 
of  those  countries  with  this  country,  will 
produce  a  N.E.  wind.  The  current  is  in 
common  stronger  by  day  than  by  night, 
because  the  variation  of  temperature  is  at 
that  time  the  greatest,  being  frequently 
from  50°  to  60°  about  noon,  and  sinking  to 
32«  in  the  nijrht."  * 


2138.  All  the  seasons  liave  their  pecu- 
liar influence  on  the  winds.  "  In  spring" 
says  Schouw,  "  E.  winds  are  common  ;  at 
certain  places  in  March,  at  others  in  April. 
They  diminish  the  force  of  the  W.  cur- 
rent, which,  in  many  countries,  is  at  that 
time  weaker  than  duritig  the  rest  of  the 
year.  The  relation  of  N.  to  S.  winds  is 
not  constant,  and  varies  according  to  the 
localities.  In  some  the  direction  is  more 
N.,  in  others  more  S.  than  the  mean  di- 
rection of  the  year." 

213.9.  "When  winds  come  from  dis- 
tant countries,  they  possess  a  part  of  the 
proj)erties  by  which  those  countries  are 
characterised,"  is  an  observation  of 
Kaemtz.  "  Thus  the  W.  winds,  that  blow 
from  the  sea,  are  much  more  moist  than 
the  E.,  which  traverse  continents.  The 
latter,  particularly  when  they  are  N.E., 
are  very  cold,  especially  in  spring ;  and 
they  give  rise  to  a  great  number  of  rheu- 
matic affections.  The  very  opposite  sen- 
sations produced  by  violent  S.  or  N.  winds, 
are  much  more  marked  in  countries  whose 
inhabitants  live  in  the  open  air.  I  should 
not  have  noticed  these  differences  had  not 
these  winds  been  characterised  by  particu- 
lar denominations.  In  the  S.  of  Europe 
the  N.  winds  are  celebrated  for  their  vio- 
lence and  for  their  severity.  The  oppo- 
sition between  the  elevated  temperature  of 
the  .Mediterranean  and  the  Alps,  covered 
with  snow,  give  rise  to  aerial  currents  of 
extreme  rapidity.  If  their  effect  is 
added  to  that  of  a  general  N.  wind,  there 
is  produced  a  N.E.  wind,  having  a  vio- 
lence of  which  we  can  form  no  idea.  In 
Istria  and  Dalmatia  this  wind  is  known 
under  the  name  of  bora.,  and  its  force  is 
such  that  it  sometimes  overturns  horses 
and  ploughs.  It  is  the  same  up  the  valley 
of  the  lilione,  where  a  very  cold  S.  wind 
often  prevails,  which  is  nanietl  nualral, 
and  which  is  not  less  formidable  than  the 
N.  wind  known  in  Spain  under  the  name 
of  gallego." 

2140.  M.  Kaemtz  thus  endeavours  to 
explain  the  cause  of  the  very  variable 
nature  of  the  wind  in  our  countries.  After 
having  mentioned  that  the  two  great 
leailing  currents  of  wind  on  the  globe  are 
the  N.E.  and  S.W.,  he  observes,  that "  me- 
teorological registers  present  to  us  the  in- 


*  Brewster's  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  viii.  p.  39. 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIOXS.  495 

dication  of  a  great  number  of  winds  which  diately  after  by  a  drift  from  the  opposite 

blow  from  all  parts  of  the  horizon.  When  direction.     Truly  awful  is  a  storm  of  snow 

we    compare    corresponding    observations  in  spring  amongst  tlie  hills.       Here  is  a 

made  in  many  localities  in  Europe,  we  are  description  of  one,  with  all  its  accomjiany- 

not  slow  in  recognising  that  those  winds  ing  prognostics : — "  One  evening,  after  a 

involve  no  other  causes  than  difl\>rence  of  day  of  unwonted  tranquillity,  dense  clouds 

temperature.     Suppose,  for  instance,  that  appear  like  great  snowy  mountains  in  the 

a  general    S.W.  wind  occupies  the  upper  western    part    of  tlie    horizon,   while    the 

regions,  but  that  the  W.  part  of  Europe  is  few  clouds,  which  lie  in  streaks  across  the 

very  hot,  whilst  the  E.  regions  remain  very  setting  sun,   are  intensely  deep   in    their 

cold,  with  a  clouded  sky,  the  difference  shadows,  and  equally  bright  in  their  lights. 

of  temperature  will  immediately  give  rise  As  the  evening  closes  in,  the  cloudsdis- 

to    an    E.  wind ;    and    when    this   wind  appear,  the  stars  are    unusually  brilliant, 

meets  that  from  the  S.W.  there  will  be  a  and  there  is  not  a  breath   of  air  stirring. 

S.E.  wind,  which  may  be  transformed  into  The  old  ex^ierienced    farmer  goes  out  to 

a  true  S.  wind.     These  difterences  of  tem-  take  his  wonted  nocturnal  survey  of  the 

perature  explain  the  existence  of  almost  heavens,  from  which   long  observation  on 

all  winds.     Now,  suppose  that  a  region  is  the  same  spot  has  enabled   him  to  form  a 

unusually  heated,    and    that  there   is  no  tolerably  correct  judgment  of  what  will  be 

prevailing  wind,  then  the  cold  air  will  flow  the  state  of  the  weather   in  the  morning, 

in  on  all  sides;  and  according  as  the  ob-  Two    or  three  meteors— brilliant,   but  of 

server  is  in  the  N,,  the  E.,  the  S.,  or  the  short  duration — shoot  along  a  quadrant  of 

W.,  he  will  feel  a  different  wind  blowing  the  sky,  as  if  they  were   so  many  bright 

from  the  corresponding  points  of  the  hori-  lights    of  the    firmament,   dropping   from 

zon.      However,  to  put  the  fact  beyond  their  orbits.     He  returns  and   directs  his 

doubt,  we  need  corresponding  observations,  men  to  prepare  for  what  may  happen,  as 

embracing  a  great  number  of  localities."*  there  will  certainly  be  a  cliange  of    the 

weather.      The   air  is   perfectly  tranquil 

2141.  The  character  of  the  winds  in  when  the  family  retire  to  their  early  pil- 
spring  is,  that  they  are  very  sharp,  when  lows,  to  find  that  repose  which  healthful 
coming  from   the  N.  or   N.E.   direction ;  labour  sweetens  and  never  misses, — 

and    they    are    also     frequent,    blowing 

8tron-ly  sometimes  from  the  E.  and  some-  ^V''^'  l^''*''""''  ^^^'^  ^f  .^^  transient  pain, 

..        "'  .-i           .1       ITT-       T       1       <-                1  And  new-born  vii^our  swell  111  every  veui. 
times  from  the  W.     in  the  former  they 

are  piercing,  even  though  not  inclining  to  But  just  at  the  turn  of  the  night,  the  S. 

frost;  in  the  latter  they  are  strong,  bois-  gives    way,    the   N.   triumphs,    and    the 

terous,  squally,  and  rising   at  times  into  whirlwind,  herald  of  victory,  lays  hold  of 

tremendous  hurricanes,  in  which  trees  only  the  four  corners  of  the  house,  and  shakes 

escape  being  uprooted  in  consequence  of  it  with  the   shaking    of    an  earthquake. 

their  leafless  state,  but  by  which  many  a  But  the  house,  like  its  inhabitants,  is  made 

hapless    mariner    is  overtaken   and    con-  for    the    storm,  and   to   stand  secure  and 

signed  to  a  watery  grave,  or  dashed  with-  harmless  ;  while  the  wind  tliutiders  in  the 

out  mercy  on  a  rocky  strand.  fields  around,  every  gust  roaring  louder 

than  another  amongst  the  leafless  branches 

2142.  SnoiO-storms. — Very  frequently  of  the  stately  trees.  In  a  little  its  sound 
snow  covers  the  ground  for  a  time  in  is  muffled,  without  being  lessened,  and  the 
spring.  The  severest  snow-storms  and  snow  is  heard  battering  at  the  windows  for 
falls  have  occurred  in  February.  The  an  entrance — but  battering  in  vain.  Morn- 
memorable  falls  of  the  9th  February  1799,  ing  dawns;  but  every  lea  and  eddy  is 
and  of  the  7th  February  182-3,  are  yet  wreathed  up;  the  snow  still  darkens  the 
fresh  in  the  recollection  of  many  persons  air,  and  reeks  along  the  curling  wreaths 
alive,  when,  for  weeks  together,  the  inter-  as  if  each  were  a  furnace.  For  two  days 
nal  CDunnunications  of  the  country  were  and  two  nights  the  storm  rages  with  un- 
entirely  stopped.  Roads  opened  up  in  one  abated  violence  ;  but  on  the  third  day  the 
direction   were  again   blocked  up  imme-  wind  has  veered  to  the  E.,  blows  rather 

*  Kaemtz's  Complete  Course  of  Meteorology,  p.  50-4. 


48< 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


feebly, and  tliongh  the  snowfalls  as  tliickly, 
it  falls  uniformly  over  tlie  whole  surface. 
This  continues  for  two  or  three  days  more; 
atni  on  the  evening  of  the  last  of  these 
days,  the  sun,  wliich  has  not  been  visible 
for  nearly  a  week,  looks  out  just  before 
settin"-,  as  if  jiroinising  a  morning  visit. 
The  night  remains  clear,  with  keen  frost, 
and  the  wind  steady  at  N.,  and  blowing 
very  gently.  The  sun  rises  bright  in  the 
morning,  the  storm  is  over,  and  the  wea- 
ther remains  unbroken  for  four  or  five 
weeks." 

214-3.  It  is  a  serious  affliction  to  the 
ewes  about  to  lamb,  when  a  spring  storm 
of  snow,  such  as  that  described,  occurs. 
The  .snow  seldom  disappears,  even  in  the 
low  country,  until  April,  when  the  lamb- 
ing season  should  terminate ;  and  it  re- 
mains much  longer  amongst  the  hills, 
where  food  being  comparatively  scanty  at 
any  time  in  winter,  but  especially  in  spring, 
the  lambs  are  brought  forth  when  the  winter 
pn.'vender  is  about  all  consumed,  and  the 
grass  that  should  support  the  mothers  is 
still  buried  under  the  snow.  The  loss 
suHered  by  the  flock  is  then  fearful,  and 
irremediable  for  some  seasons  to  come. 

2144.  Thaw. — "When  the  appointed 
days  of  the  snow-storm  are  numbered, 
a  disturbance  again  takes  place  in  the 
atmo.spliere,  but  it  is  of  a  different  kind 
from  the  former.  There  are  little  sheets 
of  lightning  playing  momentarily  in  the 
lower  atmosphere,  and  the  lustre  of  the 
stars  is  diminislied  ;  but  still  there  is  no 
cloud.  The  wind,  however,  dies  away  to 
a  dead  calm  towards  evening,  and  all  is 
ready  for  the  breaking  storm.  That  opera- 
tion is  the  first  performed  by  the  s))ring, 
and  we  stiall  borrow  the  words  of  the 
British  Naturalist  wherein  to  describe 
it :  — • '  As  the  spring  gets  the  mastery, 
wliich  is  aided  by  the  condensation  which 
takes  place  during  the  night,  it  rises  to  a 
wind,  the  sound  of  which  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. The  rio^idity  of  trees,  window- 
frames,  and  other  wooden  fabrics,  through 
which  it  passes,  is  relaxed  ;  the  withered 
grass  and  reeds,  when  these  are  exposed, 
moisten  ;  and  the  rattling  and  thumping 
are  succeeded  by  murmuring  harmony,  in 
which,  compared  with  the  other,  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  music  ;  and  as  the  morning 
advances  and  the  animals  come  abroad, 


and  man  begins  to  be  active,  the  hard 
metallic  sounds  are  gone,  and  there  is  a 
softness  about  nature.  There  is  always  a 
delightful  transparency  about  the  atmo- 
sphere, because  the  little  sjiicn/ce  of  ice 
are  gone,  and  the  heat  of  the  air  is  too 
much  occupied  in  converting  the  snow 
and  ice  into  water,  for  ciianging  much  of 
that  into  vaj)our.  When  the  ciiange  is 
accompanied  by  rain,  it  is  far  more  j»lea- 
sant  at  the  time,  but  there  is  a  danger, 
almost  a  certain  one,  that  the  spring  will 
be  treacherous ;  and  that,  in  conse<pience 
of  the  great  heat  required  for  melting  the 
snow,  and  the  evaporation  of  the  rain  to- 
gether, frosts  will  return  long  before  the 
process  of  thawing,  so  comparatively  slow, 
is  com])leted.  The  slow  melting  of  snow 
by  rain,  compared  by  that  oi  a  warm  at- 
mosjjhere  which  is  constantly  shifting  by 
the  wind,  can  be  easily  understood,  when 
it  is  remembered  that  the  water  which 
falls,  even  if  it  had  the  temperature  of  the 
greatest  summer-heat,  would  be  cooled 
down  to  the  freezing  point  in  melting  half 
its  weight  in  snow.  But  as  the  tempera- 
ture can  only  be  a  little  above  freezing, 
the  water  will  have  the  temperature  of 
32°  before  it  has  cooleil  perhaps  a  ten;h 
of  its  weight ;  and  as  the  water  is  a  bad 
conductor  of  heat,  and  great  part  of  the 
action  of  the  oblique  rays  of  the  sun  are 
reflected  away  from  its  surface,  a  rainy 
breaking  of  a  storm  is  almost  sure  to  be 
followed  by  frost,  if  it  do  not  happen 
when  thesea.son  is  far  advanced.'  In  such 
a  situation,  and  under  such  circumstances, 
the  storm  not  nnfrequently  pa.^ses  away 
in  what  is  emphatically  termed  a  rjentle 
thaw;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  spring 
comes  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances. The  snow  is  dissolved  by  atmo- 
spheric influence  alone,  without  any  rain 
from  the  clouds ;  although  there  are  gene- 
rally light  clouds  hovering  about,  ready 
to  produce  rain  if  a  returning  frost  should 
render  a  contest  of  the  elements  necessary. 
Besides  its  rare  pleasantness,  the  gentle 
thaw  is  attended  with  several  beneficial 
consequences.  In  the  first  place,  there  ib 
no  flooding  of  the  low  grounds,  and  no 
washing  of  the  soil  from  the  more  elevated 
ones ;  but  the  snow  forms  a  trough  for 
the  di.scharge  of  the  water  into  which  it  is 
melted,  and  thus  the  coldest  of  the  snow- 
water does  not  roach  the  surface  of  the 
land.     In  the  second  place,  the  water  pro- 


APPENDIX    TO    WINTER. 

NOTES     FOR    AMERICAN     FARMERS 
BY    JOHN    P.    NORTON,    M.A, 

PROFESSOR   OF   SCIENTIFIC   AGRICULTURE    IN   YALE   COLLEGE,   NEW   HAVEN. 


In  attempting  even  a  sketch  of  the  present 
condition  of  practical  Agriculture  in  the 
United  States,  serious  difficulties  present 
tliemselves,  which  are  not  encountered  in  the 
study  of  British  Agriculture. 

Perhaps  the  most  formidable  of  these  arises 
from  the  immense  extent  of  our  country, 
combining  as  it  does,  tropical,  temperate,  and 
almost  arctic  climates.  While  in  the  extreme 
North  the  thermometer  not  unfrequently 
sinks  to  between  20  and  30  deg.  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheit,  the  orange  trees  of  the 
South  flourish  and  blossom  through  eveiy 
month  of  the  year.  Such  a  dift'erence  of 
climate  natm-ally  indicates  a  corresponding 
diversity  in  cultivation.  Accordingly,  while 
proceeding  from  North  to  South,  in  each 
state  a  gradual  change  of  practice  is  obseiTed, 
until  at  last  it  becomes  nearly  entire  ;  all  of  the 
principal  crops  being  such  as  could  not  be 
successfully  grown  in  the  North.  So  in 
travellmg  from  East  to  West ;  the  practice 
which  would  be  ad\asable  in  tlie  moister 
climate  of  New  England,  would  be  wholly 
unfitted  to  the  arid  plains  of  California. 

But  besides  the  effects  of  climate,  there  are 
other  causes  which,  in  so  widely  extended  and 
so  thinly  settled  a  country  as  this,  produce 
scarcely  less  marked  variations.  Among 
these  are  distance  from  market,  and  from 
means  of  transportation.  When  the  products 
of  a  farm  must  be  carried  a  thousand  miles 
before  they  can  reach  the  nearest  seaport,  the 
single  question  of  transportation  will  decide 
as  to  the  most  profitable  form  of  produce. 

Those  who  are  located  at  such  a  distance, 
even  upon  the  principal  avenues  of  trade,  as 
the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  or  the  great 
interior  lakes,  sometimes  find  prices  so  low 
as  to  render  the  ordinary  modes  of  cultivation 
almost  profitless.  The  wages  of  labor  are 
high,  and  it  is  only  attainable  with  difficulty. 
Under  these  disadvantages,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  finislied  modes  of  agriculture  practised 
in  older  and  fully  populated  countries,  are 
inadmissible. 

We  may  well  doubt  if  the  culture  of  the 


best  English  or  Scotch  districts,  can  be  in- 
troduced into  any  part  of  tliis  country,  with- 
out very  material  changes.  Our  funns  are  in 
reality  much  smaller  than  theirs,  not  in  nomi- 
nal extent,  but  in  the  actual  amount  that  is 
cultivated  thoroughly.  I  do  not,  of  course,  take 
into  account  the  immense  wheat  fields  and  corn 
fields  of  the  west,  but  speak  here  of  the  older 
states  only,  where  land  has  become  valuable 
and  consequently  more  sub-divided.  We' can- 
not, with  our  prices  for  labor,  afford  to  bestow 
that  minute  perfection  of  finish  exhibited  by  a 
first  class  British  farm.  We  have  not,  on  the 
majority  of  our  farms,  that  division  of  labor 
which  is  without  doubt  most  profitable,  and 
which  is  exemplified  so  fully  in  Mr.  Stephens' 
work.  Each  man  is  ploughman,  teamster, 
mower,  &c.,  &c.,  by  turns,  often  perhaps  all 
in  one  day.  This  system  has  great  defects 
on  the  score  of  economy,  but  contributes 
largely  to  that  feeling  of  independence  and 
self-reliance,  wliicii  so  strongly  characterizes 
the  humblest  individual  in  our  Northern 
States,  where  all  are  taught  to  consider  honest 
labor  honorable.  Accustomed  from  child- 
hood to  turn  their  hands  to  any  pursuit  at  a 
moment's  notice,  and  to  consider  themselves 
equal  to  every  enterprise  in  the  way  of  work, 
our  men  carry  the  same  spirit  into  other 
vocations;  manifesting  a  confidence  in  their 
own  resources  which  never  flags,  and  which 
generally  triumphs  over  all  obstacles. 

Other  points  in  which  our  practices  and 
customs  difl'er,  and  probably  will  continue  to 
differ,  from  those  of  Great  Britain,  will  pre- 
sent themselves  as  we  continue  some  brief 
notices  of  important  departments  ui  the  work 
of  Mr.  Stephens. 

This  work  has  such  a  wide-spread  and 
well  deserved  reputation,  that  I  have  not 
thought  it  necessary  by  way  of  preface  to 
enter  at  length  upon  its  merits. 

The  clear  and  copious  details,  the  fulness 
and  accuracy  of  information,  the  completeness 
of  every  illustration,  have  in  an  agricu'  iral 
work  upon  practice  never  been  equa>'J  d. 
Such  a  work,  although  it  treats  of  j£.  ly 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


things  inripplicable  to  our  agriculture,  con- 
stitutes a  vast  fund  of  useful  knowledge,  from 
which  may  be  drawn  methods  and  examples 
applicable  to  every  climate  and  every  soil. 
It  is  my  intention  to  assist  the  American 
farmer  ia  making  applications  to  his  own 
practice  from  the  book,  to  point  out  dif- 
ferences and  reconcile  some  apparent  incon- 
sistencies in  the  practice  of  the  two  countries. 
To  append  a  full  account  of  American  farm- 
ing, would  add  greatly  to  a  work  already 
bulky :  to  do  this  well  would  require  an 
extensive  book  by  itself,  and  far  more  ex- 
perience than  I  can  pretend  to  possess  as  to 
the  different  sections  of  our  country.  My 
notes  v.'ill  form  a  species  of  running  com- 
mentary upon  Mr.  Stephens'  observations, 
applying  them  to  our  own  improvement 
where  it  seems  practicable.  His  work  is  so 
divided  into  paragraphs,  these  being  number- 
ed, that  the  most  feasible  way  of  reference 
to  anything  concerning  which  I  may  wish  to 
explain,  or  from  wliicli  I  would  dissent,  will 
be  by  simply  gi^■ing  the  number. 

It  is  most  proper  and  convenient  to  com- 
mence, as  does  Mr.  Stephens,  with  winter, 
first  devoting  a  few  paragi-aphs  to  his  intro- 
ductory matter. 

Paragi-aphs  1  to  34.  The  custom  of  send- 
ing young  farmers,  or  young  men  intending 
to  become  farmers,  to  spend  some  time  under 
the  direction  of  skilful  practical  men,  is 
gaining  ground  in  this  country,  and  will 
doubtless  have  an  excellent  efl'ect  in  raising 
the  standard  of  farming.  It  will  be  noticed, 
however,  that  the  young  men  whose  occupa- 
tions are  described  by  Mr.  Stephens,  are  rather 
more  delicately  treated  than  they  would  be 
upon  most 'American  farms.  On  these  they 
would  be  expected  not  to  go  about  and  try  the 
ploughs  alone,  but  after  a  little  practice,  to  do 
a  good  day's  work  \\  ith  one  of  them ;  and  the 
idea  of  keejiing  a  horse  for  their  especial 
accommodation  would  be  considered  as  quite 
ridiculous.  The  .state  of  society  is  in  some 
respects  so  different  in  the  two, countries,  and 
the  estimation  in  wliich  labor  is  held  on  this 
side  of  the  Atlantic  so  much  more  lionorable, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  institute  comparisons  in 
such  matters.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that 
for  us,  at  least,  this  keeping  of  a  young  man 
two  or  three  years  on  a  farm  would  not  be 
tlie  best  course  ;  he  would  in  my  opinion  run 
some  risk  of  becoming  a  mere  drudge,  his 
thinking  faculties  would  not  be  sufficiently 
exercised,  unless  he  happened  to  be  with  a 
farmer  of  more  than  usual  intellectual  acquire- 
ments, who  was  willing  to  devote  a  far  more 
tlian  common  degi'ee  of  attention  to  him. 

An  attendance  of  two  or  three  months  in 
each  year  upon  courses  of  lectures,  relative  to 
scientific  agriculture,  would  expand  and  culti- 
vate tlie  mind,  would  open  new  sources  of  in- 
terest, and  enable  liim  to  reason  upon  the  va^ 


rious  processes  which  he  had  obsened  during 
the  summer.  This  would  not  injure  him  as  a 
practical  man ;  on  the  contrary,  it  would 
tend  directly  to  his  success.  Ijibor  during 
the  usual  season  of  occupation  in  the  open 
air  would  invigorate  the  frame,  as  a  winter's 
study  would  strengtiien  the  mind. 

Farmers  may  write  and  talk  about  the  ele- 
vation of  their  class  for  centuries  to  come,  as 
they  have  done  in  years  that  are  past;  but 
they  may  rely  upon  it,  that  education  is  the 
only  true  road  to  that  which  they  desire.  Un- 
til they  ore  ready  to  provide  the  means  of  re- 
gular instruction  in  the  art  of  agriculture  for 
their  sons,' mental  instruction  as  well  as  phy- 
sical, they  will  always  be  compelled,  as  here- 
tofore, to  submit  to  the  leiid  of  lawyers, 
manufacturers,  literary  men,  and  members  of 
other  professions,  in  which  a  special  educa^ 
tion  is  considered  absolutely  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguished success. 

An  institution  which  should  unite  practical 
Avdth  scientific  teaching,  if  properly  organized, 
would  be  the  best  of  all  preparatory  .schools ; 
for  there  the  union  of  instruction  with  actual 
work  would  be  complete.  Such  establish 
ments  have  hitherto,  for  the  most  part,  been 
mere  manual  labor  schools,  with  only  the 
name  of  science.  We  may  hope  that  a  better 
day  is  coming;  that  we  shall  soon  see  insti- 
tutions capable  of  imparting  every  description 
of  knowledge  that  is  to  be  desired  by  the 
practical  man,  and  in  addition  to  this  so  orga- 
nized, that  by  means  of  extensive  researches, 
conducted  by  men  of  undoubted  ability,  they 
may  at  the  same  time  advance  the  range  of 
our  knowledge,  and  command  the  respect  of 
every  class  in  the  community. 

Mr.  Stephens'  paragraphs,  512  to  542,  enu- 
merate some  of  the  principal  agi-icultural  se- 
minaries and  schools  that  have  been,  or  are 
in  operation,  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  various 
countries  of  Europe.  My  own  inspection  of 
some  of  these  schools,  and  the  accounts  here 
given  of  others,  have  satisfied  me  that  they 
are  not  in  their  organization  what  we.  need ; 
they  are  either  too  scientific,  or  they  are 
wholly  practical.  We  want  a  proper  union  of 
both,  it  may  require  some  years  of  experi- 
ment and  experience  to  arrive  at  the  proper 
medium ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  may 
ultimately  be  attained.  To  an  ii:stitution  of 
such  a  nature,  IMr.  Stephens  would,  undoubt- 
edly, lend  his  full  a{)probation  ;  and  might  pro- 
bal)ly  be  also  led  to  concede  that  it  afforded 
better  advantages,  than  the  house  and  farm  of 
any  merely  practical  man  could  otler. 

The  list  of  sciences  mentioned  from  para- 
giaph  70  to  611.  may  be  somewhat  appalling 
to  the  plain  agriculturist,  who  sits  down  in- 
tending to  work  his  way,  for  a  short  distiince, 
into  this  unknown  land  of  book  farming. 
He  might  well  be  excused  for  wiping  the  per- 
spiration from  liis  brow  at  such  a  prospect. 


A^HERICAN  APPENDIX^W^NTER. 


Let  me,  however,  in  all  due  deference  to 
higher  authorities,  relieve  him  by  stating  that 
there  is  no  absolute  necessity  for  his  becom- 
ing learned  in  all  of  these  sciences,  an  accom- 
plished mathematician,  chemist,  optician,  zoo- 
logist, mechanician,  botanist,  anatomist,  and 
geologist.  The  present  paragraphs  to  which  I 
refer,  compose  an  excellent  comprehensive 
treatise  on  these  and  other  scientific  subjects, 
which  is  just  what  most  tlirmers  need.  It  is 
a  general  knowledge  of  these  sciences  that 
practical  men  require,  such  a  knowledge  as 
may  be  gained  by  reading  popular  works,  and 
understanding  leading  principles.  A  carefnl 
perusal  of  the  matter  under  the  separate 
heads  named  above,  will  comince  the  reader 
that  here,  at  least,  is  nothing  incomprehen- 
.sible :  but  on  the  contrary,  a  great  amount  of 
information  calculated  to  be  directly  practical 
and  useful.  Such  a  compilation  as  we  here 
find  of  general  scientific  results,  and  leading 
principles,  in  all  branches  of  science  applied 
to  agriculture,  is,  alone,  worth  far  more  to  the 
farmer  than  the  whole  cost  of  the  work ;  it 
is  valuable  as  a  study,  first,  and  afterwards  as 
a  reference  from  which  he  may  constantly 
glean  information,  and  derive  valuable  assist- 
ance. It  is  a  great  object  to  have  simple  out- 
lines of  these  sciences,  as  applied  to  agricul- 
ture, collected  and  arranged  in  a  convenient 
form.  The  farmer  has  thus  an  available 
book  always  near  him,  in  place  of  being 
obliged  to  search  through  whole  libraries  for 
what  he  needs.  If  the  hints  and  outlines 
given  here,  interest  the  mind  in  any  particular 
department  of  scientific  inquiry,  and  excite  it 
to  pursue  that  subject  farther,  the  books  re- 
ferred to  as  authorities,  will  furnish  ample 
means  for  so  doing. 

669.  The  recommendations  in  this  and  suc- 
ceeding paragraplis,  as  to  keeping  strict 
accounts  of  the  crops,  the  manures,  and  the 
cultivation,  in  each  particular  field,  are  well 
%vorthy  of  notice.  The  farmer  who  keeps  such 
accounts,  and  registers  them  in  a  proper  book 
during  the  leisure  of  winter,  will  be  able  at  a 
glance  to  know  the  state  of  his  farm  com- 
pared to  what  it  was  ten  or  twenty  vears 
before  ;  he  can  see  what  course  of  cropping, 
what  quantity,  and  what  kind  of  manures  have 
been  mast  beneficial,  or  most  injurious,  and 
can  regulate  his  cultivation  accordingly.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  satisfactorily,  every- 
thing should  be  done  by  weight  and  measure. 
I  have  seen  farm  books  kept  on  such  a  plan, 
and  the  record  they  afforded  was  most  in- 
structive. A  meteorological  register  is  also 
calculated  to  be  of  use,  inasmucii  as  it  fami- 
liarizes the  farmer  with  every  appearance  of 
the  weather,  and  enables  him  to  predict  its 
probable  changes  with  some  certainty. 

The  occupations  of  \\inter,  upon  which  Mr. 
Stephens  commences  at  p.  578,  \\ill  of  course 
only  apply  to  some   of  our  middle   statea, 


there  being  no  out  of  door  field  labor  practica- 
ble in  the  extreme  northern  states,  during 
that  season.  I  shall,  however,  for  the  sake 
of  convenience,  follow  the  order  which  he  has 
adopted,  and  comment  upon  the  labors  of  the 
various  seasons,  without  regarding  their  ap- 
plicability to  any  particular  month  or  time 
here. 

596.  Winter  is  not  alone  the  season  of 
domestic  enjoyment,  or  at  least  it  should  not 
be  devoted  to  that  alone.  It  is  a  period  in 
which  the  inqvxiring  mind,  bj'  reading,  writing, 
and  reflection,  can  lay  up  stores  of  useful 
knowledge,  and  can  form  intelligent  plans  for 
the  coming  seasons.  The  long  winter  eve- 
nings, if  only  one  or  two  hours  of  each  were 
occupied  by  reading,  would  enable  the  farmer 
to  acquaint  himself  with  all  scientific  branches 
of  knowledge  relative  to  his  profession. 
Clubs,  meeting  once  in  a  week  or  fortnight  to 
pass  an  evening  together,  and  to  discuss  sub- 
jects of  mutual  interest,  would  be  very  ad- 
vantageous to  any  neighborhood.  Tlie  pro- 
ceedings might  be  varied  by  one  of  the 
number  reading  extracts  from  some  such 
work  as  the  "  Farmer's  Guide,"'  or  John- 
ston's Lectures,  for  an  hour,  and  then  all 
discussing  the  merits  of  what  they  had 
heard.  Such  meetings  would  encourage 
friendly  feelings  in  each  district,  and  lead  to 
a  strong  spirit  of  improvement, 

626.  The  uses  of  snow  in  protecting  the 
soil  are  well  known  in  this  country,  and  are 
even  more  marked  than  in  England.  When 
the  gi-ound  has  been  well  covered  during  the 
winter  the  spring  is  earlier,  because  the  frost 
has  not  gone  so  deep ;  \\'inter  grain  is  not 
thrown  out  by  alternate  freezing  and  tliawing, 
manure  is  not  exposed  to  atmospheric  action, 
or  to  be  waslied  away  during  every  slight 
thaw.  A  heavy  coating  of  snow  being  so 
porous  and  perfect  a  non-conductor,  has  been 
likened  to  a  tiiick  warm  blanket  thrown 
over  the  soil.  Another  benefit  wliich  results 
from  a  covering  of  snow,  is  caused  by  a  small 
quantity  of  ammonia  wliich  it  seems  invari.n- 
bly  to  contain.  The  flakes  probably  absorb 
it  in  their  passage  through  the  air.  For  this 
reason  it  is  said,  grass  and  grain  always  have 
a  bright  lively  color  when  tliey  have  lain 
under  snow,  having  been  benefited  by  its 
gradual  melting.  Rain  contains  some  ammo- 
nia as  well  as  snow,  but  usually  not  so  much ; 
and  its  influence  does  not  seem  to  be  so 
marked  upon  plants. 

661.  The  iron  plotigh  has  not  yet  found 
much  fiivor  in  this  country,  ^Vhen  these 
plouglis  have  the  length  that  is  now  given  to 
tlie  best  implements,  sucli  as  those  of  Rug- 
glcs,  Noni-se,  &.  ]\Iason,  Prouty  &  Mcars, 
Delano,  and  others,  the  weight  becomes  more 
th,an  our  ploughmen  like  to  manage.  Wood 
is  cheap,  light,  and  sufficiently  strong,  so  that 
I  do  not  see  the  advantage  to  be  derived  at 


.^ilERICAN  .^PEXDIX— ^^TNTER. 


present  from  a  change  in  this  respect  The 
remarkable  dilTert-nce  in  price  between  the 
Scotch  and  American  ploug-ho,  is  worthy  of 
notice.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  best 
American  implements  of  tliis  class,  such  as 
those  named  above,  are  equal  to  any  made, 
and  have  known  cases  where  Scotch  plough- 
men in  this  country  have  after  a  time  laid 
aside  their  own  favorite  ploughs,  and  t^iken 
one  of  these  in  preference ;  they  lay  the 
furrow  well,  pulverize  it  thoroughly,  and 
move  st -adily.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that 
ease  of  draught,  with  depth  and  N\idth  of 
furrow,  is  not  all  that  is  to  be  sought  in  a 
plough.  It  may  slip  through  the  ground 
easily,  but  the  question  then  comes  up,  does 
it  pulverize  the  soil  as  it  goes ;  this  is  a 
point  sometimes  neglected  during  our  trials 
of  ploughs,  the  sole  object  seeming  to  be 
ease  of  draught  As  Mr.  Stephens  says, 
plougliing  is  intended  to  imitate,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  process  of  spading;  the  farther 
then,  that  we  remove  from  a  thorough  and 
complete  crumbling  and  cracking  of  the  soil, 
the  poorer  our  work.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this  object  of.  pulverization  there  must  neces- 
sarily be  a  large  amount  of  friction:  it  therefore 
seems  clear  to  me  that  too  much  attention  may 
be  given  to  this  question  of  lessening  friction, 
that  it  may  be  reduced  so  far  as  to  injure 
the  true  efficiency  of  the  plough.  The  very 
short  ploughs  still  so  common  among  us,  are 
well  fitted  for  use  among  stones  and  stumps, 
where  it  is  necessar}'  to  be  constantly  bobbing 
in  and  out  of  the  ground :  but  they  cannot 
make  handsome  or  perfect  work  in  open, 
smooth  fields.  The  clevis,  figured  in  figs.  3, 
3,  and  4,  is  worthy  of  attention ;  it  is  simple, 
and  yet  admits  of  draught  from  a  great 
number  of  diflFerent  points.  I  do  not  know 
tliat  it  is  any  better  than  the  dial  clevis  of 
Messrs.  Ruggles,  Nourse  &.  Mason.  The 
plough  staff,  or  plough  spade,  fig.  5,  would 
be  a  convenient  addition  to  our  ploughs,  and 
would  save  many  a  stoppage  to  clear  away 
weeds ;  it  might,  by  a  bracket  and  socket,  be 
easily  attached  to  tlie  plough  liandle. 

676.  The  collars  used  in  Scotland  and 
England  for  work  horses,  have  always  seemed 
to  me  unnecessarily  large  and  hea\y,  and  the 
large  capes  which  project  from  them,  adding 
so  materially  to  their  clumsy  appearance,  are 
nearly  useless.  Fig.  12,  is  the  only  form  that 
can  be  of  much  senice.  Such  protections 
are  more  necessarj-  in  the  wet  climate  of 
Scotland,  where  out  of  door  operations  mu>t, 
I  had  almost  said  generally,  be  done  in  the 
rain,  if  done  at  all.  \\  ith  us  they  are 
scarcely  needed,  and  we  certainly  should  not 
inflict  Fig.  13  upon  our  horses,  with  any  idea 
of  its  being  omamentil. 

686.  The  simplicity,  united  with  strength, 
sho%\'n  in  this  harness,  is  remarkable.  We 
too  often  see  horses  ploughing  in  w:igon  har- 


ness :  this  is  not  only  heating  and  distrcHsing 
them,  by  imposing  additional  covering  and 
weight,  but  is  poor  economy,  where  a  so 
much  cheaper  and  more  simple  iiarness  will 
do  the  work  equally  well. 

702  and  *3.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  in 
neither  of  these,  nor  in  any  subsequent  figures, 
are  the  furrows  laid  flat  There  is  no  doubt 
that  when  furrows  are  set  upon  edge,  the  land 
lies  more  mellow  and  loosely,  and  that  the 
beneficial  effects  of  air,  moisture,  frost  decom- 
position, &e..  are  more  readily  attained.  The 
practice  of  turning  the  furrows  flat  seems  to 
be  losing  ground  in  this  countr)-  at  present 
though  there  are  still  mafiy  societies  who 
award  premiums  to  this  kind  of  work  in  prefer- 
ence. In  certain  situations  and  circ-umstmces 
the  flat  furrows  are  preferable.  The  temper- 
ing of  plough  irons,  upon  which  so  much 
stress  is  laid  in  708,  '9,  '10,  and  '11,  is  some- 
thing almost  unknown  in  this  country,  our 
shares  being  seldom  taken  oft"  until  worn 
out.  The  cast  steel  point.s.  with  the  chilling 
of  the  mould  board  and  land  side,  now  ^o 
prevalent  in  our  best  manufactories,  render 
all  the  daily  sharpening  and  setting  her© 
spoken  of,  qtiite  unneces.sar}'.  We  caimot, 
however,  attain  the  perfection  of  work  to  be 
found  in  Great  Britain,  until  we  in  some 
degree  imitate  the  great  care  with  which  they 
attend  to  the  straightness,  the  depth,  and  the 
width  of  their  furrows  ;  in  very  few,  even  of 
our  ploughing  matches,  is  uniformity  in  all 
of  these  respects  sufficiently  insisted  upon. 

720.  The  tacts  given  in  this  and  several 
subsequent  paragraphs,  ought  to  be  made 
known  to  all  American  farmers  who  are 
quietly  going  on  cultivating  their  one,  two, 
and  three  acre  fields,  keeping  up  expensive 
fences  around  them,  losing  tune  in  ploughing 
by  frequent  turns,  losing  ground  near  the 
fences  which  they  cannot  approach,  and  pre- 
sen-ing  this  useless  ground  as  a  nurserv'  for 
weeds.  The  time  annually  lost  in  taking  out 
and  putting  in  bars,  or  in  opening  and  shutting 
gates,  might  also  be  brought  into  the  account. 

729.  It  should,  I  think,  be  also  a  rule  in 
American  ploughing  matches,  that  each  plough- 
man should  lay  oft'  fiis  own  work,  stakes  being 
previously  placed  and  numbered  to  show  its 
boundaries.  This  is  one  of  the  best  tests  of 
skill,  and,  moreover,  one  tlmt  would  prove 
quite  trving  to  many  men  who  could  work 
quhe  passably  with  a  straight  furrow  ready 
made  for  them  to  commence  upon.  The 
bare  knowledge  of  such  a  requirement  would 
improve  most  competitors  wonderfully,  by 
leading  them  to  practise  in  advance. 

733.  It  would  be  higlily  advantageous,  if 
tlie  leading  state  and  other  societies  could, 
after  mature  consultation,  agree  upon  some 
code  of  rules  with  regard  to  depth,  width,  and 
general  character  of  ftirrows  in  different  soils. 
This  would  tend  to  produce  uniformity,  and 


«^4 


AilERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


it  is  to  be  hoped  would  do  away  with  the 
variety  of  regulations,  which  we  now  find 
among  the  societies  of  ditFerent  sections. 

741.  The  feering  poles  mentioned  here, 
would  be  of  much  use  in  insuring  accuracy : 
tliey  are  not  expensive,  and  would  be  much 
more  certain  objects  than  fence  posts  or  trees, 
which  are  the  usual  marks  steered  for.  Half 
an  hour  spent  in  setting  up  such  poles,  at  the 
commencement  of  operations,  would  both 
save  time  subsequently,  and  facihtate  the 
accuracy  of  the  work. 

Tiie  ditFerent  kinds  of  ploughing  noticed 
from  p.  749,  to  p.  793.  and  the  various  figures 
given,  ^\'ill  enable  the  ploughman  who  is 
desirous  of  improving,  to  study  examples 
which  will  scire  as  standards,  by  which  to 
m-easure  Ms  advance  towards  perfection. 
Particular  notice  should  be  taken  of  the  fact 
that  shalloic  ploughing  is  only  considered  ad- 
missible in  certain  rare  cases,  and  is  even  then 
to  give  way  under  a  system  of  gradual 
deepening. 

808.  The  pulling  and  storing  of  root  crops, 
turnips.  b§ets,  carrots,  &c.,  has  not  the  im- 
mense importance  in  this  country  that  it  has 
in  England  and  Scotland.  In  our  northern 
etates,  the  severity  of  the  winters  interposes 
an  obstacle  to  feeding  off  upon  the  land, 
which  is  there  a  leading  feature  in  root  cul- 
ture. Fifteen,  twenty,  and  thirty  acres,  are 
not  an  uncommon  number  to  be  occupied  by 
turnips.  Providing  store  room  for  such  quan- 
tities as  these,  is  clearly  out  of  the  question  ; 
and  if  they  were  placed  in  heajis  out  of  doors, 
the  covering  would  require  to  be  much  more 
thick  and  warm  than  that  which  answers  in  a 
comparatively  mOd  climate.  We  cannot  feed 
off  in  the  field,  neither  can  we  leave  roots  in 
the  ground,  to  be  brought  into  the  cattle  yards 
at  convenient  periods  tlirough  the  winter. 
These  difficulties  do  not  occur  in  the  middle 
states,  and  there  the  cultiu-e  of  roots  may.  as 
forming  improves,  gradually  assume  more 
nearly  the  proportion  to  otlier  crops  which  it 
bears  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  south,  too,  the}' 
may  \vith  ad\antage  be  far  more  extensively 
introduced  tlian  at  present.  When  we  come 
to  speak  of  rotations,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
occasional  introduction  of  such  crops  is  cal- 
culated to  be  of  very  decided  benefit  to  the 
soil,  as  they  require  a  difterent  class  of  inor- 
ganic food  from  the  more  ordinarily  cultivated 
plants.  The  turnip,  beet,  mangold  wurtzel, 
parsnip,  and  carrot,  all  contain  more  water 
than  is  found  in  any  otlier  crop,  it  amounting 
in  most  of  them,  to  about  90  per  cent.  Our 
farmers  will  exclaim  against  such  watery  food, 
but  a  slight  consideration  of  the  subject  will 
cause  them  to  take  a  difterent  view  of  the 
matter.  The  dry  substance  of  turnips,  is 
about  equal  in  nutritive  qualities  to  the  dry 
substance  of  wheat.  Now,  if  we  ti\ke  a 
heaw  crop  of  wheat,  s.ay  45  bushels,  at  60 


lbs.  to  the  bushel,  the  weight  of  grain  per 
acre  would  be  2,700lbs.  Land  that  would 
grow  45  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  ought, 
sec.  845  and  848,  to  produce  at  least  30  tons  of 
turnips.  At  lOlbs.  in  the  hundred,  these 
would  contain  in  each  ton  200lbs.  of  diy  mat- 
ter, and  consequently,  6000lbs.  per  acre,  or 
more  than  twice  as  much  as  was  given  by  45 
bushels  of  wheat.  An  acre  of  good  turnips, 
is  calculated  in  Scotland  to  keep  four  bul- 
locks :  the  wheat  from  an  acre  would  not  do 
this.  Indian  corn  compares  better  with  tur- 
nips :  an  acre  of  land  producing  such  crops 
as  the  above,  ought  to  give  70  bushels  of 
corn,  and  this,  at  60lbs.  to  the  bushel,  would 
give  4,900lbs.  to  the  acre,  of  food  superior 
either  to  turnips  or  wheat  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. If  the  stalks  were  well  cured,  and 
added  to  the  grain,  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  the  nutritive  matter  from  an  acre  of  this 
grain,  would  not  fall  short  of  tliat  from  tur- 
nips. It  would,  however,  still  be  of  advan- 
tage to  cultivate  turnips,  as  a  change  for  the 
soil.  The  other  root  crops  give  nearly  as 
large  a  yield  as  turnips,  and  one  or  two  are, 
from  several  late  analyses,  somewhat  supe- 
rior in  nutritious  qualities.  Th'e  sugar  beet 
is  an  admirable  food  for  milch  cows  in  winter, 
causing  butter  to  retain  its  color  and  flavor  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  Carrots,  pai-snips,  and 
mangold  wurtzel  have,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
same  elTect.  TJie  culture  of  these  crops  has 
not  progressed  so  rapidly  in  this  country  as 
might  have  been  expected,  and  this  for  a 
variety  of  reasons.  Among  these,  one  of  the 
most  prominent,  is  the  high  price  of  labor. 
All  root  crops  require  a  great  amount  of 
manual  labor  to  keep  tliem  clear  from  weeds, 
and  to  thin  them  out  to  proper  distances  in  the 
rows.  In  Great  Britain,  women  and  children 
take  this  work  at  low  wages  ;  by  dint  of  prac- 
tice they  become  very  expert,  and  do  it  with 
a  rapidity  which  is  quite  astonishing  to  those 
who  are  unaccustomed  to  the  business.  Here 
it  must  be  done  by  men,  at  high  wages.  They 
are  clumsy  in  the  performance  of  their  task 
from  want  of  practice,  and  almost  invariably 
dislike  it  more  than  any  work  at  which  they 
mav  be  employed.  The  slowness  with  which 
the  weeding  operation  goes  on,  is  a  serious 
drawback  upon  the  profit  of  this  cidtivation. 
Another  cause  is  to  be  found  in  an  imperfect 
preparation  of  tiie  soil.  For  these  crops,  it 
should  be  mellow  and  deep,  free  from  clods, 
stumps,  stones,  and  all  obstructions  which 
would  impede  the  action  of  a  drilling  machine, 
or  interfere  with  subsequent  hoeing  and  cul- 
tivation. Want  of  attention  to  these  particu- 
lars, and  scanty  supplies  of  manure,  have 
caused  the  failure  of  root  crops  in  a  majority 
of  cases.  These  e\ils  are  in  progress  of  cor- 
rection, and  will,  in  time,  as  suijerior  cultiva- 
tion progresses,  cease  to  operate.  It.  however, 
remains  still  to  be  s!io\™,  whether  oiu:  cli- 


e  AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 

mate  is,  equally  \vith  that  of  Englaml,  adapted  garded  as  a  most  valuabk-  article  of    food 

to   the    production    of   these    crops.       The  lor  siock.     The  following  table  from   Prof, 

drouiflits  of  .suninier  are  a  serious  hindrance  Johnston's  lectures,  shows  tlie  composition  of 

to   the   proper    development   of    the   young  American  linseed  cake : — 

?lants,  and   often   destroy  them   altogether.  Water 10.07 

'he  fly   is  also   very   injurious.     Experience  Albumen  and  Gluten'       i       !      !       !      2226 

alone  can  test  the  question,  whether  tiiese  are         Oii  12  38 

fatal  obstacles  or  not.     Variations  in  the  time  J^''^"*  • I2.ra 

of  sowing  might  be  tried  with  advantage,  in  '^  _! — 

tl;e  iiope  of  avoidh;g  such  difticulties.  lOO. 

824.  The  Scotch  method  of  storing  might  On  comparing  such  an  analysis  as  this  with 

be   found  vej-y  convenient  here,  where  large  those   of  wheat,  Indian   com,  &c.,  we   tind 

quantities  of  roots  are  grown.     It  would  be  that  the  fattening  properties  of  oil-cake  must 

necessary   to    cover   the   heaps   much   more  be  remarkable ;  and  from  the  large  quantities 

thickly  than  is  represented  in  Fig.  37,  in  order  of  albumen,  &c.,  which  it   contains,  that  it 

to  prevent  access  of  frost.     Roots  stored  in  must  also  be  admiiably  adapted  to  the  for- 

fields  are  apt  to  decay,  and  in  cellars  also,  un-  mation  of  muscle.     A  variety  of  food  so  rich 

less  they  are  both  dry  and  cool.  and  nutritious  as  this,  will  not  be  exported 

879-880.  The  modes  of  measuring,orrather  when  our  farmers  are  convinced  of  its  value, 

it  should  be  said  of  rnagnifying  crops,  men-  and  understand  how  to  use  it. 

tioned  here  with  regard  to  turnips,  have  been  956.  The  various  facts  given  under  this 

too  common  in  this  country  as  applied  to  all  and  ensuing  heads,  as  to  the  relative  profits 

crops.     No  just  estimate  as  to  the  quantity  per  of  feeding  under  slielter,  and  in  the  open  air, 

acre, can  be  formed  by  weigliiiig  or  measuring  are  well  worthy  of  attention.     It  is  shown 

the  yield  of  a  few  square  feet :  many  enormous  that  w  itli  less  food,  the  sheltered  gheep  gain 

crops  reported  upon  such  data,  would  dwindle  more.     Fortunately  wood  is  so  cheap  in  this 

wonderfully  when  subjected  to  accurate  w  eigli-  country,  that  no  farmer  is  able  to  keep  a  large 

ino-,  or  measurement,  of  each  load.     Now  that  Hock  of  sheep,  but  can  ati'ord  to  provide  them 

sut'h   associations  as  the   New   York   State  suitable  shelter.      Long  sheds,  open  to  the 

Agricultural  Society,  refuse  to    give  a  pre-  south,  and  having  hay  stored  above,  seem  to 

mmm   unless  the  whole   produce  has   been  be  the  favorite  erections.     A  yard  attached, 

actually  measured  by  a  sw  orn  surveyor,  we  aflbrds  the  sheep  room  for  exercise,  and  the 

may  hope  for  more  accurate  and  really  v;i-  shed  gives  them  protection  in  case  of  storms, 

luable  information  as  to  the  amount  of  crops.  10u9.  In  a  country  so  well  wooded  as  arc 

901.  Feeding  of  sheep  on   turnips.     The  the  Eastern  and  Northern  states,  sheep  can 

observations  here  given  relative  to  the  va-  usually   find    natural    shelter    from    sudden 

rious  forms   of  hurdles,  net  fences,  &c.,  for  storms  late  in  autumn,  or  early  in  .spring,  the 

inclosing   sheep   in   successive    portions    of  only  ones  to   wliich  they  are  exjjosed.     On 

a  field,  will  be  found  valuable  for  all  those  the  prairies  of  the  w  est,  some  of  the  varieties 

sections  of  the  country  where  the  season  will  of   ^tclh,  mentioned   here,  might   be    found 

permit  of  feeding  off  turnips,  &c.,  during  win-  higlily  beneficial.     On  all  bleak  hill  i'arms,  it 

ter  in  the  open  air.  would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  surround  the 

These  cheap  fences   would  also  be  well  barns  and  sheds  w  itii  a  belt  of  plantation,  on 

calculated  for  temporary  inclosurcs,  on  mea-  the  north  and  west ;  this  would  break  the 

dows  in  autumn,  when  it  is  often  desirable  to  Avinds,  and   protect  the  inclosures  from  the 

confine  stock  to  one  particular  portion  of  the  coldest  storms.     In  Great  Britain  wood  is  so 

field.  valuable,  that  these  stells,  after  the  wood  has 

982.  I  think  that  in  our  agricultural  papers  grown,  constitute  an  important  and  lucrative 

there  are  drawings  of  several  forms  of  racks,  property. 

that  are  much  cheaper  and  equally  efficient  1114.  The  liquid  manure  tank  is  as  yet  a 
with  this,  made  from  plain  boards.  rare  appendage  to  American  farm-yards  ;  it 
The  turnip-slicer,  Fig.  47,  is  not  unlike  is,  however,  one  of  such  absolute  necessity, 
some  machines  for  the  same  purpose,  that  are  that  its  general  introduction  will  not  be  de- 
made  in  this  country.  The  simple  lever-slicer,  layed,  when  our  farmers  begin  to  appreciate 
Fig.  48,  is  an  effective  implement,  and  is  quite  the  true  value  of  manure.  As  too  many  of 
equal  to  the  cutting  of  a  moderate  farm,  our  yards  are  now  ni;innged,  a  very  consi- 
Cutting  turnips  or  roots  generally,  is  good  derable  portion  of" the  liquid  manure,  inciud- 
economy,  as  then  the  animal  is  able  to  eat  ing  washings  from  tlie  solid  mutter,  as  w  ell  as 
them  niore  readily  and  more  entirely,  there  the  urine,  is  lost.  When  conducted  imme- 
bcing  no  refuse  shells  and  fragments  left  to  rot.  diately  upon  tlie  land  tiirough  a  small  ditch,  as 
943.  By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  oil-  is  frequently  the  case,  it  does  harm  rather  than 
cake  made  in  tiiis  country,  goes  to  Enroj)e,  good,  by  rendering  the  small  portion  of  land 
chiefly  to  England  and  Scotland,  wliere  it  wiiich  it  reaches  quite  too  ricii. 
brings  a  high  price,  and  is  universally  re-  One  chief  objection  that  I  have  heard  urged 


AJklERICAN  APPENDIX— WLNTER. 


against  these  tanks  is,  that  they  would  be 
liable  to  lill  up  and  overflow,  with  the  large 
quantity  of  water  which  would  be  poured  into 
them  from  the  roofs,  &c.  It  will  be  noticed 
-  that  Mr.  Stephens  only  intends  them  to  re- 
ceive tlie  drainings  of  the  yard,  and  of  the 
manure  itself;  as  he  arranges  to  conduct  away 
all  water  from  the  roof  and  spouts,  by  means 
of  separate  drains.  The  tank  would  thus  be 
able  to  contain  all  that  might  run  m  from  the 
yard  alone.  The  liquid  could  be  pumped  out 
a.'J  described  in  1115,  or  mixed  ^\^tl^  peat, 
ashes,  &-c.,  &.e.,  in  the  tank  itself.  An  excel- 
lent pump  would  be  that  consisting  of  an 
endless  chain,  with  metallic  plates  attached  at 
regular  distances,  revolving  in  a  wooden  tube. 
This  would  draw  well,  and  not  be  easily 
choked.  Urine,  and  liquid  manure  generally, 
soon  begins  to  ferment,  and  then  a  loss  of 
ammonia  ensues.  As  the  retention  of  this  is 
very  importiint,  it  is  best  to  mix  frequently  in 
warm  weather,  a  little  sulphate  of  lune  (gyp- 
sum), or  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid. 
In  both  cases  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  formed, 
a  salt  which  is  not  readily  ^■olatilized  nor  de- 
composed. A  tank  may  be  built  in  a  very 
cheap  way  to  answer  every  necessary  purpose, 
and  will  soon  pay  for  itself  in  the  quality  of 
the  manure  it  will  furnish.  Professor  John- 
ston states,  that  in  Flanders  the  urine  of  a 
single  cow  is  worth  about  $10  a  year  for  ma- 
nure. If  we  take  half  only  of  this  sum,  what 
an  immense  aggregate  value  in  each  year,  is 
for  the  greater  part  entirely  lost. 

The  plan  usually  pursued,  is  to  build  the 
tank  in  some  convenient  situation,  either  in 
one  corner,  or  just  outside  of  the  yard.  The 
ground  in  tiie  yard  is  so  sloped  that  all  of  the 
Uquid  runs  to  a  common  centre,  where  a  drain 
receives  it,  and  carries  it  under  ground  to  the 
tank.  This  may  be  built  of  brick  or  stone 
laid  in  cement  with  a  smooth  floor,  or  for 
temporary  purposes  of  plank,  lined  at  the  back 
with  clay.  A  tank  can  be  made  very  cheaply 
in  tliis  latter  way  from  old  refuse  lumber, 
and  by  tlie  time  that  it  has  worn  out,  the 
farmer  will  be  quite  willing  to  build  a  perma- 
nent one  of  stone  or  brick,  from  experience 
of  its  benefits.  In  some  cases  drains  are  laid 
under  the  stables,  where  large  stocks  are 
kept,  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  the 
ui'ine  to  the  main  drain,  and  finally,  into  the 
tank.  Consideraclo,  quantities  may  be  col- 
lected in  this  way  if  the  floors  are  tight.  A 
few  pailfuls  of  water  occasionally  dashed 
through  these  drains  for  manure,  would  sweep 
away  the  thick  deposit  wliich  might  accumu- 
late and  gradually  threaten  to  choke  them. 
They  should  all  be  defended  at  their  en- 
trances bj'  grating,  so  that  straw,  and  manure 
of  a  solid  kind,  cannot  wash  in.  All  of  tliese 
precautions  may  seem  like  unnecessary  trou- 
ble ;  but  in  reality  there  are  few  things  which 
pay  so  well  and  so  soon,  as  some  extra  labor 
in  collecting  and  preserving  manure  of  every 


description,  whether  liquid  or  solid.  Well 
protected,  and  well  kept  manure,  is  worth  the 
double  of  that  which  has  been  soaked  with 
rain,  and  bleached  by  the  sun,  during  an  en- 
tire season.  In  situations  where  it  is  not  de- 
sirable to  build  a  tank,  it  might  be  found  a 
good  plan  to  pave  a  shallow  excavation  in  the 
centre  of  the  yard,  into  which  the  drainings 
might  flow,  and  be  absorbed  by  long  straw, 
chafl",  &-C.,  thrown  in  for  that  purpose.  In 
this  case  also  the  rain  water  should  be  carried 
away  in  another  direction,  as  otherwise  there 
would  be  a  stagnant  pond  formed.  Such 
holes  ought  to  be  walled  around  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  cattle  from  getting  into 
them. 

I  have  seen  receptacles  of  this  kind  in 
Scotland,  and  found  that  they  seemed  td 
answer  the  intended  purpose  very  well. 

1 1 32.  The  method  of  fastening  cattle  here 
recommended,  is  a  very  excellent  one,  quite 
superior  to  that  iu  vogue  in  many  parts  of 
tliis  country.  Such  a  method  may  possibly 
be  common  in  some  districts  among  us,  bu< 
I  have  seldom  seen  it. 

1165  and  1168.  Attention  is  called  to  these 
implements,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  so 
inferior  in  elegance  of  form,  and  in  lightness, 
to  our  own.  The  reality  of  laese  and  of  the 
British  harul  tools  generally,  that  are  most 
employed  on  the  f;irm,  as  forks,  rakes,  hoes, 
&c.,  is  far  worse  than  the  above  pictures. 
Their  machines  are  so  well  and  so  hand- 
somely made,  that  their  hand  tools  were 
always  a  subject  of  wonder  to  me,  being  both 
heavy  and  clumsy  in  appearance  and  m  practice. 

1171.  The  turnip  slicer,  fig.  86,  is  a  remark- 
ably useful  implement,  not  easily  got  out  of 
order,  and  very  effective.  It  may  be  used  for 
cutting  all  roots  of  large  size ;  and  if  the 
knives  were  set  closer  together,  even  for 
potatoes.  I  have  seen  these  cutters  in  opera- 
tion ;  with  one  person  to  feed  steadily,  and 
another  to  work  tlie  lever,  they  accomplish  a 
large  amount  of  work. 

The  regular  apportionment  of  the  day  here 
given,  is  worthy  of  notice  and  of  attentive 
perusal,  for  although  there  may  be  no  person 
who  would  be  inclined  to  pursue  such  a 
system  in  full,  yet  the  lesson  is  a  good  one, 
as  inculcating  regularity,  order,  and  economy 
of  time.  Every  farmer  has  heard  his  animals 
complam  when  their  food  was  delayed  beyond 
its  accustomed  hour. 

1219.  The  statements  here  made,  relative 
to  the  weight  of  turnips  eaten  by  a  fattening 
ox  during  each  day,  and  during  tlie  whole 
winter,  will  excite  some  astonislunent.  The 
space  necessary  to  store  such  quantities,  and 
the  labor  requisite,  even  in  the  comparatively 
easy  stage  of  feeding  them  to  cattle,  are  so 
gi-eat  as  to  be  a  very  serious  drawback  upon 
their  usefulness.  The  carrying,  cutting,  and 
feeding  of  loOlbs.  of  turnips,  per  day,  to  each 
ox,  is  in  itself  no  slight  amount  of  labor. 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


Turnips  are  not  usnally  given  to  cows  here, 
for  the  reason  that  they  are  said  to  communi- 
cate  a  disagreeable  ilavor  to  the  milk.  No 
trouble  of  tliis  kind  seems  to  be  experienced 
in  England- 

12*J6  and  1228.  The  principle  of  the  straw 
cutter,  fig.  91,  is  largely  employed  among  us, 
but  it  is  usual  to  set  the  cutter  r,  instead  of  at 
right  angles,  so  to  form  obtuse  and  acute 
angles  with  the  cutter  wheels  k.  The 
cutters  then  have  a  dra\\-ing  motion,  wliich 
increases  their  efficiency  verj'  greatl^y.  I 
doubt  if  fig.  92  has  any  right  to  the  title  of 
Canadian  straw-cutter,  supposing  tliat  it  was 
originally  introduced  to  Canada  from  the 
States.  The  disk  straw-cutter  is  also  much 
used  in  tliis  countrj',  and  besides  these  a  very 
great  variety  of  others.  The  liigh  price  of 
these  English  implements  is  curious,  ranging 
from  832  to  §45. 

1246.  1  call  attention  to  tliis  paragraph,  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  how  important  it  is 
to  bring  all  of  our  buildings  into  a  compact 
form.  We  too  often  see  them  scattered 
about  the  premises  in  most  inconvenient 
places.  A  person  when  feeduig  animals,  must 
spend  a  large  part  of  his  time  in  going  from 
one  building  to  another,  and  collecting  the 
things  of  which  he  is  in  need.  The  time  lost 
in  these  unnecessary  journeys,  amounts  to  a 
very  serious  item.  A  little  forethought  and 
contrivance,  while  the  building  is  plamiing, 
will  render  it  easy  to  feed  all  of  the  animals 
quickly,  gi^'ing  comparatively  little  food  at  a 
time,  and  fresh  quantities  at  shorter  inter\als. 
As  to  the  proper  exposure,  I  have  already 
mentioned  its  effects  under  anotiior  head. 
The  large  farm  buildings  that  are  to  be  seen 
in  various  sections,  are  capable  of  uniting 
many  conveniences  imder  the  same  roof,  thus 
making  work  easy  and  simple.  Where  the 
nature  of  the  ground  admits  of  building  upon 
a  side  hQl,  a  degree  of  perfection  in  arrange- 
ment can  be  contrived,  that  is  scarcely  attain- 
able in  any  other  way.  Manure  kept  under 
such  barns  as  these  becomes  occasionally  too 
dry,  so  that  it  does  not  decompose  readily 
when  turned  into  the  soil.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  horse  and  sheep  manure. 
I  have  seen  both  of  these  much  injured  by 
having  been  excluded  from  moisture,  having 
become  quite  dry  and  mouldy.  In  such  situa- 
tions, some  of  the  liquid  manures  or  drainings 
might  often  be  apj)lied  with  much  advantage. 

1256  to  1504.  The  information  here  col- 
lected, regarding  the  different  kinds  of  food, 
both  as  to  their  composition  and  feeding 
properties,  is  both  valuable  and  interesting. 
The  analyses  given  under  1303  and  1304,  are 
not  the  latest,  the  results  recently  obtained 
by  Mr.  Salisbury-,  not  being  known  in  Eng- 
land. Payen  must  have  had  some  inferior 
variety,  or  the  European  corn  is  not  equal  in 
nutritive  properties  to  ours.  I  will  insert 
here  some  of  Mr.  Salisburj-'s  determinations. 


Tliese  were  made  upon  a  large  nnmber  of 
kinds,  and  were  carried  out  not  only  in  the 
grain,  but  the  cob,  the  stalk,  and  tiie  leaves 
from  an  early  period  of  growth  to  entire 
ripeness. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of 
three  analyses. 

No.  1.  Xo.  2  No.  3. 

Starch 5C-10  5308  6152 

Sugar  and  extractive  matter,  99-2  1172  12-13 

Wwxiy  fibre,  ....  C  95  5 10  5  32 
Nitrogenous    substances    like 

gluten 16  54  18-46  inu5 

Oil 5.09  4-96  5(12 

Gum, 5-.35  6C7  5.66 

9995        99-99      lUOOO 

These  are  selections  from  a  large  number, 
and  indicate  a  much  more  nutritious  food 
than  that  mentioned  by  Payen.  The  stalk  of 
this  grain,  according  to  Mr.  Salisbury',  is  also 
quite  ricli  in  substances  containing  nitrogen. 
He  gives  additional  analyses,  wliich  show  that 
the  cob  has  so  much  of  these  bodies  as  to  be 
of  some  value  in  feeding.  The  above  analyses 
may  possibly  be  a  little  high  in  their  per 
centage  of  gluten,  &c.,  as  from  the  nature  of 
these  bodies,  their  proportion  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  an  ultimate  analysis.  Even  if  it 
should  prove  necessary  to  reduce  their  per- 
centage a  little,  this  grain  would  still  be  both 
more  nutritious,  and  more  fattening,  than  any 
of  the  other  cultivated  grams.  The  composi- 
tion of  ash,  given  by  Mr.  Stephens,  does  not 
dill'er  greatly  from  that  of  the  varieties 
examined  by  ^Ir.  Salisbui-)'.  The  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  ash  of  the  grain  amounts  to  about 
half  of  its  weight ;  pot;ish  and  soda  being 
about  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  remainder.  The 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  ash  of  the  cob  is  also 
quite  large,- being  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per 
cent,  with  even  more  potash  and  soda  than  in 
the  grain.  These  substances  in  the  ash,  are 
an  additional  reason  why  the  cob  may  profit- 
ably be  employed  in  feeding.  It  also  sen  es 
the  purpose  of  distending  the  stomach,  thus 
saving  an  equivalent  amount  of  straw  or  ha)\ 

1313.  These  corn  bruising  macliinea  are, 
when  worked  by  hand,  occasionally  efficient 
for  preparing  small  quantities  of  grain  ;  but  for 
work  on  a  large  scale  they  are  worth  little. 
Thev  operate  slowly,  the  one  here  named  only 
bruising  four  bushels  of  oats  per  hour,  and 
moreover  go  so  hard  that  men  dislike  the 
work.  In  any  situation  where  water  or  steam 
mills  are  within  a  reasonable  distance,  it  is 
far  cheaper,  in  my  opinion,  to  get  grinding 
done  there.  If  the  machine  be  contrived  as 
1314,  for  attaching  a  horse  power,  it  may  be 
more  advantageously  used,  although  I  doubt 
if  tliere  would  be  much  economy  in  it  even 
then,  except  possibly  in  remote  settlements. 

1325.  This  and  succeeding  jwragraphs, 
possess  nuK-h  interest  to  the  pmctic-.l  man. 
I  do  not  consider  the  experiments  made  upon 
steamed  food  as  conclusive,  with  regard  to 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


our  practice,  since  they  were  made  almost 
entirely  upon  turnips.  We  want  much,  some 
carefully  conducted  experiments  upon  the 
cooking  of  Indian  meal.  Some  of  the  results 
from  the  use  of  prepared  food,  of  linseed,  of  cut 
straw,  &c.,  are  quite  remarkable ;  the  promi- 
nent place  given  to  linseed  in  all  of  these 
preparations  is  worthy  of  notice,  and  may  lead 
to  its  profitable  employment  in  those  sections 
where  linseed  is  cultivated.  There  seems  no 
reason  why  the  use  of  compounds  should  not 
become  quite  common  in  this  country,  par- 
ticularly where  fuel  is  cheap.  For  hogs  the 
cooking  of  food  is  already  very  extensively 
adapted,  and  it  is  found  that  they  do  remarka^ 
bly  well  on  that  which  has  even  become  sour. 
The  generally  superior  efficacy  of  cooked 
food  is  in  a  great  degree  owing  to  a  change 
which  is  eifected  by  heat,  of  a  portion  of  the 
starch  into  gum  and  sugar;  it  is  thus  more 
easily  digested.  In  souring,  at  least  in  the  first 
stages,  this  process  is  carried  still  farther,  the 
food  thus  becoming  more  and  more  digestible 
until  the  sugar  undergoes  a  second  change, 
and  fermentation  begins,  resulting  in  the 
production  of  alcohol.  The  difficulty  in  prac- 
tice is,  that  no  animal  but  the  hog  will  eat 
food  in  the  sour  state. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  that  experiments  in 
feeding  always  require  to  be  conducted  with 
very  great  caution,  as  they  are  extremely 
liable  to  be  affected  by  causes  of  which  the 
common  observer  can  know  but  little.  Dif- 
ferences in  the  temperature  of  the  stables,  in 
the  ability  of  the  animals  to  stand  cold  or 
heat,  in  their  individual  constitution,  in  the 
quality  or  cleanliness  of  their  food,  might 
each  or  all  influence  most  materially  the 
result  of  an  experiment.  A  great  number  of 
points  require  attention  in  order  to  produce 
results  worthy  of  entu-e  confidence,  and 
many  of  these  are  fittle  likely  to  occur  to 
those  who  have  never  made  such  matters 
their  study.  Hence  we  see  multitudes  of  ap- 
parently discordant  statements,  constantly 
appearing  in  our  publications.  If  the  whole 
truth  in  every  particular  were  known,  it  is 
altogether  probable  that  these  very  experi- 
ments might  coincide  rather  than  disagree. 
The  same  reasoning  applies  to  experiments 
in  all  agricultural  departments.  Those  who 
wish  to  fully  comprehend  some  of  the  dif- 
ficulties that  are  to  be  encountered  in  at- 
tempting to  increase  our  knowledge  on  these 
points,  will  do  well  to  read  a  few  of  the  first 
pages  in  a  new  work  by  Prof  Johnston,  en- 
titled "  Experiments  in  Practical  Agriculture." 

1395.  The  high  racks  are,  I  think,  almost 
universal  in  this  country.  Tlie  mangers  are 
elevated  to  about  a  level  with  the  horse's 
breast,  and  the  rack  is  immediately  above. 
Wlien  the  hay,  as  is  most  common,  is  stored 
above  the  stable,  this  form  of  rack  is  by  fjir 
most  convenient,  as  then  the  hay  can  be 


thrust  into  the  top  of  it  without  any  trouble. 
It  does  not  seem  as  if  this  situation  of  the 
rack  would  cause  any  serious  inconvenience 
to  the  horse,  as  it  takes  but  a  moment  to  pull 
out  each  mouthful,  and  he  can  then  eat  it  in 
his  natural  position  at  leisure.  I  have  never 
seen  stone  mangers  in  this  country :  made  of 
iron  they  would  be  lighter  and  better  than 
stone  in  every  respect. 

1403.  Tlie  method  of  ventilation  here 
described,  by  means  of  small  windows,  is  that 
which  is  most  commonly  employed  in  this 
country ;  small  slits  being  cut  through  the  walls 
close  to  the  animals'  heads.  If  the  building  be 
of  wood,  it  is  common  to  see  a  small  square 
opening  with  a  sliding  door.  Wood  is  the 
usual  flooring  material;  and  so  long  as  it 
remains  cheap,  is  probably,  all  things  con- 
sidered, the  best.  It  is  soft  and  warm  in  com- 
parison with  stone,  and  is  easily  and  cheaply 
renewed.  In  cow,  cattle,  and  sheep  stables, 
plank  will  last  a  long  time,  but  horses  wear 
them  out  more  quickly,  being  more  restless 
and  having  their  feet  shod  with  iron.  Some 
persons  advocate  keeping  stock  on  the 
ground,  but  I  can  see  no  advantage  to  be 
derived  from  such  a  practice,  excepting  cheap- 
ness in  the  first  outlay.  The  disadvantages, 
however,  are  considerable.  If  nnich  straw 
for  litter  were  not  constantly  at  hand,  the 
ground  would  soon  become  poached  and 
muddy ;  this  being  in  fiict  the  condition  of 
most  such  stables  that  I  have  visited.  Even 
if  covered  with  straw  so  as  to  prevent  this,  it 
would  grow  damp  and  unhealthy  by  the 
exhalations  which  would  rise.  A  large 
portion  of  the  liquid  manure  would  necessari- 
ly be  lost  by  soaking  into  the  ground,  and  it 
would  soon  become  exceedingly  difficult  to 
maintain  a  proper  degi'ee  of  cleanliness  and 
freedom  from  hurtful  fumes.  Winter  being 
in  the  Northern  States  a  season  of  such  cold 
as  forbids  all  cultivation  of  the  soil,  many  of 
the  matters  here  treated  of  may  seem  to  be, 
and  actually  are,  for  those  states,  more  appro- 
priate to  other  seasons  of  the  year.  This, 
however,  does  not  hinder  the  applications  of 
the  principles  explained,  when  the  proper  time 
does  come.  Our  winter  feeding  must  always 
be  of  a  different  character  from  that  prac- 
tised in  England ;  animals  can  obtain  little 
or  no  support,  except  from  stores  laid  up  by 
the  farmer,  and  can  nowhere  find  the  shelter 
which  they  need  from  extreme  cold,  except  in 
the  buildings  which  he  has  provided  for  them. 
These  facts  point  out  a  serious  disadvantage 
and  burden,  under  which  the  farmer  in  north- 
ern climates  labors,  in  the  extent  of  buildings 
which  he  has  to  furnish  and  keep  in  repair,  fo'- 
the  accommodation  of  large  stocks  of  animals, 
and  for  the  storage  of  their  food.  This  dis- 
advantage is  one  which  will  increase  as  the 
country  becomes  more  densely  settled,  as 
lumber  and  various  other  building  materials 


10 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


become  augmented  in  price.  WTien  more 
capital  comes  to  be  employed  in  farming,  as 
the  number  of  acres  upou  each  farm  that  are 
(koroughly  cultivated  increases,  so  will  the  crop 
become  more  and  more  bulky,  callmgfor  a  cor- 
responding enlargement  of  store-bou!-es.  Men 
cannot  much  longer,  in  the  older  states,  afl'ord 
to  hold  two  or  three  hundred  acres  of  land 
which  is  only  tilk-d  so  far  as  their  individual 
labor,  with  tbuit  of  one  or  two  assistants,  can 
accompli>h  it.  The  expense  of  farming  so 
much  half  cultivated  land,  and  the  interest 
ou  its  augmenting  value,  will  more  than 
swallow  up  their  profits ;  thus  they  will  be 
compelled  either  to  employ  more  capit;»L  or  to 
subdnide  until  their  land  is  reduced  to  such 
an  extent  as  they  can  manage  properly.  This 
will  not,  however,  remove  the  difficulties 
attending  the  questions  of  storage,  and  room 
for  stock,  as  the  small  farm  well  attended  to 
will,  undoubtedly,  produce  more  than  all  of 
the  large  one  used  to  do,  upon  its  poor, 
neglected  fields.  Climate  we  cannot  hope  to 
alter  by  means  of  chemical  or  scientific  im- 
provements, and  our  attention  must  tlien  be 
turned  to  other  means  of  escaping  from  the 
evil  under  consideration.  One  of  these  will,  I 
tliink,  ultimately  be  found  in  tl.e  sfc'.ck  yard. 
Our  ideas  of  stacks  must  not  be  drawn  from 
the  caricatures  usu;.lly  seen  in  this  country, 
made  of  bog  hay,  of  diy  worthless  com 
stalks,  or  some  other  material  on  which  little 
value  is  pl.-ced ;  but  from  such  descriptions  as 
will  be  given  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
work.  Stacks  put  up  in  the  manner  there 
described,  resist  perfectly  the  damp,  trjing 
climate  of  Great  Britain,  and  would  unques- 
tionably be  found  efficacious  here.  They  are 
made  of  different  sizes  in  different  districts, 
and  I  have  .«een  them  from  such  as  would 
contain  50  bushels  of  grain,  to  such  as  would 
yield  5  and  600  bushels.  In  these  stacks, 
if  well  covered  and  occasionally  inspected  as 
to  the  thatch,  grain  \\i\\  keep  entirely  t-ound 
for  years,  only  subject  to  the  ravages  of  rats 
and  mice,  which  would  be  equally  if  not 
more  destructive  in  a  barn.  The  small 
stacks  of  Scotland,  are  set  upon  posts  so  as 
to  obviate  tliis  difficulty  also.  It  is  surprising 
to  see  how  little  rain  or  moisture,  even  from 
melting  snow,  penetrates  a  well  made  stack. 
The  great  objection  to  their  extensive  use  in 
this  country,  is  the  inexperience  of  our  work- 
men in  building  them.  It  also  requires  more 
time  to  dispose  of  a  load  in  a  stack  than  to 
pitch  it  upon  a  mow  or  throw  it  off  into  a 
bay :  this  is  an  item  of  some  consequence  in 
the  hurry  of  harvest  Where  materials  are 
sufficiently  low,  it  is  probably  the  best  eco- 
nomy at  present  to  run  up  cheap  barracks ; 
but  where  they  are  not  it  would  be  better  for 
the  former  to  study  Mr.  Stephens,  and  learn 
how  to  build  stacks,  ^\^lere  new  cattle  sheds 
are  wanting,  the  additional  height  of  frame 


and  covering  for  the  fides,  ar.d  of  boards 
necessary  for  the  floor  of  a  loft,  bear  in  ordi- 
nar}'  cases  a  small  proportion  totlie  whole  cost. 

Another  means  of  improvement  would  be 
to  feed  more  on  concentrated  forms  of  food, 
as  meal,  oil-cake,  linseed,  or  jrcpared  cake. 
Small  portions  of  these  cause  the  animal  to 
thrive  better,  while  the  quantity  of  bulky 
food  necessarj-  is  greatly  diminished,  and  so 
of  course  the  supply  requisite  to  be  stored 
away  for  winter.  Much  importance  should 
be  attached,  in  this  respect,  to  the  cuttii^g  of 
food,  as  being  higlily  economical,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  more  satisfactory  practice  for  the 
farmer.  Judging  from  the  nmltitude  of  cutting 
machines  now  annually  produced,  the  demand 
for  them  must  be  large,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  may  still  greatly  increase.  The  New 
England  farmer  cannot,  like  the  British, 
convert  his  straw  into  maimre  with  facility, 
by  making  litter  in  his  barn-yard  in  w  inter,  for 
the  whole  soon  becomes  a  mass  of  mingled 
snow  and  ice,  so  that  tlie  straw  often  comes 
out  in  spring,  bright  and  long,  as  if  just 
threshed.  It  is  then  best  for  him  to  make  as 
much  manure  as  possible,  by  h;door  littering, 
and  by  consumption,  as  cut  stuff. 

Although  the  northern  farmer  is  precluded 
from  ploughing  and  sowing  during  the  winter 
months,  and  although  his  time  for  actual  field 
operations  is  thus  materially  shortened,  his 
condition  during  the  cold  season  is  by  no 
means  tedious  or  unpleasiuit.  He  is  able  to 
give  his  undivided  attention  to  the  feeding  and 
well-being  of  his  stock,  and  ought  to  study 
their  nature  thoroughly,  as  well  as  obsenc 
carefully  the  effects  of  various  kinds  or 
preparations  of  food  upon  them.  His  re- 
duced force  may  thresh  out  the  grain  at 
their  leisure ;  all  tools  should  be  put  in 
the  best  possible  order  for  the  coming 
campaign,  also  carts,  wagons,  and  harnesses 
repiiired,  so  that  they  will  not  be  liliely  to 
fail  at  any  critical  jimcture.  It  is  the  time, 
too,  for  making  out  and  balancing  farm 
accounts,  wTiting  up  records  from  notes  of 
past  experiments,  and  devising  new  or 
confirmatory  ones  for  the  coming  season. 
These  are  fit  occupations  for  the  long  even- 
ings. But,  more  than  this,  he  has  abundant 
time  for  study  and  reading.  It  is  a  common 
complaint  among  practical  men,  that  they 
cannot  understand  scientific  books,  or  what 
scientific  men  say.  This  is  c^-rtainly  their 
own  fault,  for  there  are  few  farmers  who 
could  not,  by  a  little  study  and  perseverance, 
get  enough  instruction  to  be  of  very  great 
advantage  to  them  in  these  respects.  It  is  the 
improvement  of  leisure  houre,  by  reading  and 
reflection,  that  produces  the  clear-headed, 
sound-thinkuig  men,  a  few  of  whom  are  to  be 
found  taking  the  lead  in  nearly  all  of  our 
country  villages.  Their  aim,  however,  has 
hitlierto  been  chiefly  to  increase  tlieir  stock  of 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


11 


historical  and  political  knowledge,  or  of 
general  information.  Tlicy  ouglit  now,  in 
addition  to  these,  to  devote  attention  seriously 
to  science  in  connexion  with  agriculture. 
Such  works  as  the  present,  as  those  of  Pro- 
fessor Johnston,  of  Liebig,  of  Boussingault, 
and  others,  are  not  only  instructive,  but  highly 
interesting.  A  far  better  mode  of  obtaining 
this  kind  of  knowledge,  is  to  attend  courses 
of  lectures  referring  to  the  various  subjects 
of  which  the  above  works  treat.  But  this 
cannot  be  done  by  all ;  and  those  who  read 
attentively  will  gather  much  information  from 
the  books  themselves,  although  they  may  not 
be  able  to  understand  everything.  The 
manuficturer,  the  mechanic,  the  engineer, 
who  could  not  tell  why  he  employed  such 
and  such  machinery,  or  invented  certain  new 
arrangements,  or  point  out  with  distinctness 
the  results  to  be  arrived  at  by  certain  combi- 
nations, with  the  reasons  therefor,  would  be 
considered  but  poorly  acquainted  with  his 
business ;  and  yet,  how  many  farmers  are  to 
be  seen  every  day,  who  do  not  even  know 
what  one  of  their  crops  contains,  what  their 
land  is  made  of,  or  what  is  the  necessity  for 
applying  manure,  so  far  as  to  explain  its 
effects.  Let  us  hope  that  this  stiite  of  things 
will  not  long  continue ;  that  farmers  as  a  body 
will  rapidly  improve  under  the  spirit  which 
now  begins  to  prevail  among  them  ;  that  they 
will  soon  understand  their  own  profession, 
both  practically  and  theoretically,  as  do  those 
who  engage  in  other  pursuits.  It  is  true  that 
tlie  farmer  has  a  wider  field  of  knowledge  to 
travel  over  than  have  men  in  most  other 
occupations,  but  then  he  has  more  leisure  than 
they  have  in  which  to  accomplish  his  journey. 

In  the  middle  States,  more  of  the  British 
practice  may  be  introduced,  on  account  of  the 
similarity  of  climate.  In  order  to  the  full 
prosecution  of  the  most  improved  Britisli 
system,  the  introduction  of  sheep  husbandry 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  it  lias  ever  pre- 
vailed, is  a  necessary  change.  When  the 
south  downs,  cheviots,  black-laced,  and  other 
breeds,  famous  for  the  quality  of  their 
mutton,  are  more  generally  known  and  intro- 
duced ;  the  reputation  of  mutton,  now  so  low 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  will  be  in- 
creased, and  the  demand  for  it  as  an  article 
of  consumption  become  greatly  augmented. 
Flocks  will  be  kept  to  supply  the  markets 
with  mutton,  the  wool  being  a  secondary 
consideration,  considerable  in  quantity,  but 
of  medium  quality. 

Turnip  culture,  and  feeding  off,  for  at 
least  a  large  part  of  the  winter,  in  the  open- 
field,  after  the  metliod  described  in  this  part, 
will  be  found  the  most  economical  mode  of 
fattening  for  market.  Pi-obably  no  other 
crop  will  fatten  an  equal  number  of  sheep 
per  acre;  and  if,  according  to  some  of  the 
practices    to    which    attention    was    drawn, 


small  portions  of  linseed  or  oil-cake,  or  in 
this  country,  Indian  meal,  were  given  daily 
with  the  turnips,  their  growth  would  be  rapid. 
The  benefits  of  feeding  sheep  in  this  way 
are  not  confined  to  their  increase  in  weight ; 
the  land  also  hnproves  very  greatly.  Feeding 
off  with  sheep  is  one  of  the  most  effectis'e 
and  speedy  methods  of  bringing  up  a  light 
poor  soil.  It  is  compacted  by  their  treading, 
in  a  manner  more  effectual  than  by  folding 
with  any  otiier  anhnals.  At  the  same  time, 
they  cover  it  with  a  coat  of  manure  that  is 
evenly  distributed,  not  left  in  large  masses 
like  that  of  other  stock,  and  which  is  very 
ready  to  decompose,  wlien  ploughed  under 
the  surface.  As  sheep  fattening  for  market 
are  mostly  well  grown,  their  frames,  being  ot 
full  size,  would  only  require  extra  flesh  and 
fat  laid  upon  them.  The  phosphates,  &c., 
of  tlie  food,  which  would  be  retained  by  the 
young  annual  to  form  part  of  its  increasing 
bones,  are  here  mostly  returned  to  the  soil  in 
the  manure.  Thus,  the  soil  would  not  lose 
much  of  its  organic  matter  in  such  a  case  ;  and 
if  oil-cake,  &c.,  were  given,  as  recommended 
above,  it  would  probably  improve  in  its  inor- 
ganic part,  as  those  varieties  of  food  not  only 
tend  to  lay  on  muscle  and  fat,  but  also  contain 
much  phosphates,  &,c.,  which  would  go  to  the 
soil.  Thus  sheep  husbandry,  as  connected  with 
turnip  culture,  becomes  a  valuable  mode  of 
enriching  the  soil.  Many  light  lands,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  England,  have  been  entirely 
renovated  by  such  treatment,  coming  once  in 
every  rotation.  The  nicety  in  the  cultivation 
of  this  root,  which  will  in  a  subsequent  part 
be  recommended,  cannot  as  yet  be  profitably 
attained  in  this  new  country ;  but  that  good 
crops  of  turnips  can  be  grown  is  beyond  a 
doubt,  and  that  with  reasonable  expense. 
The  only  question,  as  I  have  before  observed, 
is  that  of  adaptedness  of  climate.  This  can 
be  settled  decisively  by  trial  alone,  and  it  is 
probable,  may  be  modified  by  changes  in  the 
time  of  sowing  and  method  of  cultivation,  as 
experience  shall  indicate.  In  tlie  middle 
States  then,  it  is  quite  possible  that  turnips 
may  become  a  leading  crop  ;  in  the  northern, 
for  reasons  already  stated,  I  think  that  they 
must  always  hold  a  secondary  rank  to  less 
bulky  and  more  nutritious  crops.  I  have 
spoken  of  turnips  as  the  type  of  a  class. 
Several  of  the  other  roots  are  more  valuable  as 
food,  weight  for  weight ;  and  it  may  turn  out 
that  some  of  them  are  better  adapted  to  our 
warmer  and  dryer  cfimate.  They  are  all 
more  difficult  of  extraction  from  the  ground 
than  turnips,  growing  less  above  the  surface, 
and  hence,  they  would  have  to  be  pulled  up 
in  some  way  before  sheep  could  get  at  them 
with  much  success. 

It  may  be  thought  that  these  volumes  are 
not  adapted  in  any  way  for  the  use  of  the 
agriculturist  in  the  Southern  states.     Sugar 


12 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


cane,  tobacco,  cotton,  Indian  com,  their  great 
staples,  are  not  treated  of  at  all ;  the  compo- 
sition of  Indian  corn  is  merely  noticed  in  a 
siniWe  paragraph.  This  is  all  true,  and  yet 
the°  conclusion  that  the  work  ^^^ll  be  of  no 
use  in  the  south,  is,  I  think,  quite  incorrect. 

All  that  relates  to  ploughing,  for  instance, 
and  working  the  soil,  is  important.  The  best 
form  for  a  plough-share;  the  best  shape  of 
furrow ;  the  complete  pulverization  of  the 
soil;  the  general  perfection  of  work,  are  as 
necessary  to  the  southern  planter,  as  to  the 
northern  farmer.  He  does  not,  it  is  true,  do 
the  work  with  his  own  hands ;  but  he  can  en- 
courage good  work  among  his  people. 

The  general  character  of  southern  agricul- 
ture, judging  from  the  representations  of 
southern  men,  not  from  personal  experience, 
is  somewhat  rude  and  unfinished.  The  land 
seems  to  be  mostly  under  an  exhausting 
system,  much  being  taken  off,  and  little  re- 
turned. I  know  this  to  be  largely  true  at 
the  north,  and  yet  have  no  doubt  that  we  are 
far  in  advance  of  many  southern  districts.  It 
is  then  desirable  that  a  knowledge  of  better 
systems  should  be  widely  spread ;  that  ex- 
amples of  careful  and  finished  cultivation 
should  be  given ;  so  that  in  any  case,  they  and 
we  may  know  what  our  fiirming  ought  to  be, 
and  may  con.stantly  aim  at  improvement. 

The  southern  planters  are,  many  of  them, 
men  of  large  capital,  emplopng  from  150  to 
300  and  400  slaves,  and  even  upwards.  jMen 
with  such  means,  have  the  ability  to  move 
more  rapidly  in  the  march  of  improvement 
than  the  farmer  at  the  north,  whose  only 
wealth  lies  in  his  land,  and  must  be  extracted 
thence  by  the  energies  of  his  own  arm.  On 
these  large  plantations,  we  ought  to  see  me- 
thodical systems  of  working;  that  perfect 
di\ision  of  labor  which  constitutes  the  advan- 
tage of  large  manufactories  over  small  ones  ; 
that  method  Mr.  Stephens  so  constantly  recom- 
mends, and  so  clearly  illustrates.  This  we 
find  on  large  English  and  Scotch  farms ;  each 
class  of  laborers  has  distinct  employments,  in 
these  they  usually  continue  during  the  whole 
season  or  year,  thereby  acquiring  a  dexterity 
and  readiness,  combined  with  an  excellence  in 
execution,  that  can  only  be  attained  by  con- 
stant practice.  On  northern  farms,  with  few 
laborers,  this,  as  has  been  said,  cannot  be 
done  ;  on  southern,  however,  it  must  be  prac- 
ticable to  a  large  extent,  and  is  doubtless 
understood,  in  a  certain  degree  at  least,  by 
the  best  planters.  Particular  hands  always  at 
the  plough  for  instance,  would  in  time  do 
their  work  in  an  admirable  manner,  if  proper 
implements  were  furnished  them.  Good 
ploughing  cannot  be  done  with  such  ploughs 
as  are,  in  too  many  cases,  sent  south  ;  an  ar- 
ticle distinctly  and  confessedly  inferior  being 
manufactured  expressly  for  that  market. 
Until  the  demand  in  that  region  for  cheap- 


ness of  tools,  without  much  regard  to  quality, 
is  over,  the  work  cannot  be  of  the  best  cha- 
racter. 

In  some  of  the  southern  uplands,  where  In* 
dian  corn  and  rice  are  the  chief  crops,  it  is 
quite  possible  that  most  other  crops  miglit  be 
grown  to  advantage.  It  is  said  that  fine 
woolled  sheep  deteriorate  there  as  to  the  qua- 
lity of  their  fleece  :  but  it  would  be  profitable 
to  produce  good  mutton.  Many  of  these  up- 
lands are  of  a  light  poor  character ;  if  root 
crops  were  grown  on  them,  and  subsequently 
fed  off  in  the  field  by  sheep,  the  consolidation 
of  the  soil,  and  the  coat  of  manure  left  upon 
it,  would  prepare  it  for  a  heavy  green  crop  ; 
this  in  turn,  ploughed  under,  would  enable 
the  soil  to  produce  an  increased  crop  of 
roots.  Continuing  in  such  a  system,  and  aid- 
ing it  by  feeding  the  sheep  A\ith  small  quanti- 
ties of  meal,  &c.,  as  mentioned  above,  such 
land  might  be  increased  in  value  very  rapidly. 

From  all  that  I  can  learn,  the  present  culti- 
vation in  many  of  the  upland  districts,  is  of 
the  most  rude  and  primitive  description, 
scarcely  worthy  the  name  of  farming.  In 
such  regions  a  work  of  this  nature  is  not 
likely  to  be  appreciated ;  but  at  the  same 
time,  they  are  the  very  places  where  its  in- 
struction is  most  needed. 

The  southern  planter  has  not  the  winter 
season  of  comparative  leisure  which  the 
northern  farmer  enjoys ;  his  winter  is  a  time 
of  most  pressing  occupation ;  and  his  season 
of  activity  continues  through  the  whole  year. 
Planting  or  sowing  of  one  crop,  goes  on  si- 
multaneously with  the  harvesting  of  another ; 
and  so  each  season  has  its  full  complement 
of  cares.  But  the  planter  has  an  advantage 
in  one  respect :  his  operations  are  upon  such 
a  large  scale  that  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  plan 
out  and  direct  the  employment  of  his  forces 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  several  fields 
shall  be  cropped.  Such  general  dispositions 
being  made,  all  of  the  details  are  carried  oui 
by  his  steward  or  overseer.  The  eye  of  the 
master  must,  it  is  true,  keep  the  movementj, 
of  the  subordinate  in  check ;  must  hold  him 
diligent  and  faitiiful :  but  after  all,  he  will 
have  abundant  time  for  tiie  improvement  of 
his  mind,  and  the  increase  of  his  knowledge, 
by  studying  works  connected  with  the  scien- 
tific and  practical  advancement  of  agriculture 
in  its  various  departments.  He  lias  tiie  means 
and  the  force  necessary  to  carry  out  what 
seem  to  be  reasonable  chanires  in  practice, 
and  may  by  judicious  efforts  better  his  own 
condition,  while  his  example  will  prove  bene- 
ficial to  all  around  him.  It  seems  then  that, 
in  both  northern  and  southern  fanning,  there 
is  leisure  time  which  may  be  usefully  em- 
ployed in  studies  and  reading  relative  to  im- 
proved agriculture. 

The  commencement  is  all  that  is  required  • 
a  man  accustomed  to  active  life,  often  dreads 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


13 


to  begin  the  reading  of  a  serious,  or  a  long  ar- 
ticle, even  upon  an  interesting  subject.  It  is 
easier,  and  calls  for  less  mental  effort,  to  spend 
his  leisure  hours  in  ^•isiting  and  talking,  or  in 
some  active  out-door  amusement.  When, 
however,  the  book  or  the  study  is  fairly  com- 
menced, and  the  mind  becomes  aroused,  his 
interest  is  in  no  danger  of  iiagging,  and  he  re- 
quires no  more  urging  to  pursue  the  subject. 
I  have  seen  repeated  instances  of  this,  and 
have  noticed  how  close  is  the  connexion  be- 
tween a  course  of  sound  useful  readmg,  and 
a  growing  uiclination  to  cast  aside  old  preju- 
dices, and  to  consider  proposed  improvements 
in  agriculture  as  a  merchant  considers  a  novel 
venture  in  trade  ;  not  with  contempt  because 
it  is  new,  but  with  a  desire  to  investigate,  and 
see  if  there  is  not  sometliing  to  be  gamed  by 
embarking  in  it. 

1434  to  1437.  The  focts  developed  in  these 
paragraphs,  as  to  the  feeding  of  horses  entirely 
upon  cooked  grain,  are  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive. More  experiments  are  required,  before 
we  can  consider  the  question  entirely  settled. 
It  may  well  be  that  for  working  animals, 
cooked  food  of  this  description  is  too  easy 
in  its  digestion,  passing  through  the  body 
before  a  proper  degree  of  nutrition  has  been 
dja\\Ti  from  it.  The  bruisuig  of  tlie  grain 
seems  clearly  an  advantage  ;  and  it  is  obvious, 
from  the  facts  noticed  in  1444  and  succeeding 
paragrapiis,  that  the  oats  and  Indian  corn 
ground  together,  a  mixture  which  lias  been 
gaining  in  favor  here  during  the  last  few 
years,  is  a  most  admirable  food.  I\Iy  own 
impression  is,  that  a  mixture  of  this  kind 
dusted  over  cut-straw  and  hay,  previously  a 
little  wetted  so  as  to  make  the  meal  stick,  is 
the  best  regular  food  that  can  be  given  to 
horses.  This  seems  to  coincide  with  the 
results  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Stephens.  Bean 
meal  is  not  used  in  this  country,  for  the 
reason  that  beans  as  a  field  crop  are  but  little 
known ;  it  is  an  extremely  nutritious  food, 
but  I  think  not  equal  for  our  purposes,  all 
things  considered,  to  Indian  meal. 

1453.  The  method  of  feeding  here  indi- 
cated, I  should  think  well  worthy  of  trial. 
Sheaves  of  oats  cut  in  this  way,  would  not 
only  form  an  excellent  food,  but  would  super- 
sede the  necessity  of  almost  any  other.  The 
expense  of  thresliing  would  be  saved,  the 
straw  all  eaten  in  place  of  hay,  and  accordmg 
to  these  experiments  the  quantity  of  oats  eaten 
was  reduced  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  ani- 
mal was  kept  in  good  workuig  condition.  Such 
a  practice  is  easily  tried  by  all  who  have  a 
cutting  machine,  and  may  be  found  highly 
worthy  of  introduction.  The  oats  being  mixed 
so  thoroughly  with  the  straw  in  the  stomach, 
could  not  pass  through  the  animal  undigested, 
as  a  large  portion  of  them  often  do.  If  the 
crop  were  cut  before  the  straw  was  fully  ripe, 
this  would  be  a  food  of  great  value. 


1456.  The  apparatus  represented  by  tig. 
113,  is  very  perfect  in  its  working,  and  is. 
for  large  tarms,  probably  by  fiir  the  most 
convenient  one  that  is  known.  For  small 
farms  it  would  be  too  expensive  an  in- 
vestment, unless  simplified  and  cheapened. 
It  is  a  great  and  well  founded  complaint 
against  boilers  of  the  common  construction, 
as  fig.  114,  that  the  frequent  emptying  by 
dipping  out  their  contents,  is  both  trouble- 
some and  tedious.  There  is,  besides,  difficulty 
in  cleaning  them  thoroughly  ;  so  that  a  little 
liquid  or  solid  is  often  left  in  the  bottom. 
This  residue  sours,  and  communicates  a  dis- 
agreeable taste  to  the  whole  boiling,  when  the 
kettle  is  next  filled.  The  barrels  in  fig.  113 
can  be  inverted  and  emptied  of  their  contents 
in  a  moment,  and  can  be  washed  with  equal 
focility.  Steamed  food,  if  the  vessels  are  in 
good  order,  is  always  clean  and  sweet. 
Where  many  hogs  are  kept,  such  an  apparatus 
would  be  extremely  valuable,  both  as  a  means 
of  furnishing  them  %\"ith  excellent  food,  and  of 
economy  in  the  labor  of  pi'o paring  it.  The 
pressure  of  steam  need  not  be  large,  and 
consequently,  any  old  second  hand  boiler  of 
small  size,  would  answer  for  such  a  purpose. 
A  safety-valve,  however,  as  Mr.  Stephens 
recommends,  should  always  be  considered 
indispensable. 

1507  and  1508.  Hair,  horn,  and  wool,  are 
among  the  most  valuable  and  powerful  of 
manures.  The  substance  which  is  liere  men- 
tioned, as  resemblmg  gluten,  and  constitutmg 
a  large  portion  of  tlieir  bulk,  'abounds  in 
nitrogen,  and  is  consequently  a  most  efficient 
fertiliser.  Their  ash  is  also  rich  in  phosphates, 
and  other  valuable  constituents.  Wool,  or 
woollen  cloth,  decays  slowly  in  the  soil,  and 
hence  affords  nutritive  matter  to  tlie  crops 
for  a  long  period  of  time.  The  refuse  rags 
and  sweepings  of  woollen  mills,  are  valued 
very  highly  in  England  ;  Johnston  states  that 
a  price  of  $16  to  .^20  per  ton  for  them,  is  the 
usual  rate.  The  best  way  to  apply  horns, 
wliich  have  much  the  same  composition  as 
bones,  is  to  dissolve  them  in  sulplun-ic  acid. 
These  three  kinds  of  valuable  manure  have 
hitherto  been  almost  entirely  neglected  in 
this  country ;  immense  quantities  have  been, 
and  still  are,  entirely  wasted. 

1553.  This  paragraph  indicates  a  very  im- 
portant fact,  and  one  that,  among  others, 
should  lead  the  farmer  to  think  of  the  cultiva- 
tion of  root  crops;  not  alone  as  a  change 
among  other  crops,  but  as  an  excellent  and 
cheap  article  of  food.  If  caiTOts  and  parsnips, 
cut  up  with  hay  and  chaff,  can  be  profitably 
substituted  for  grain  in  feeding  horses,  either 
wholly  or  in  great  part,  a  very  important 
sa\-ing  may  be  effected ;  for  an  acre  of  good 
carrots  or  parsnips  would  maintain  as  many 
horses  as  would  four  or  five  acres  of  oats. 
Horses  are  extremely  fond  of  both  these 


14 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


varieties  of  roofs.  Another  advantage  is, 
that  so  far  as  yet  tried  tiiey  seem  to  bear  our 
cliniatf  quite  as  well,  and  in  many  eases 
mueii  better,  than  turnips;  their  roots  go 
deeper  beneath  tlie  surface  than  those  of 
turnips,  and  eonsequently  obtain  more  mois- 
ture to  withstand  tiie  dry  summers.  This 
form  of  root,  however,  renders  deep  plougliing 
necessary,  as  they  require  a  mellow  and  deep 
soil  in  order  to  attain  their  full  length.  The 
most  recent  analyses  of  carrots  and  parsnips, 
seem  to  show  their  superiority  over  turnips  in 
nutritive  (jualities ;  they  contain  less  water, 
and  the  ,«olid  matter,  besides  being  thus  larger 
in  quantity,  is  somewhat  richer  in  quality. 
The  mangold  wurtzel  would  probably  be 
equally  palatable  to  animals,  and  it  is  said  by 
most  authors  to  surpass  either  of  the  above 
named  roots,  for  feeding.  It  is  hardy,  and 
returns  an  abundant  yield. 

1544  to  1556.  These  paragraphs  form  an 
excellent  and  comprehensive  treatise,  upon  the 
theory  and  practice  involved  in  the  shoeing  of 
horses.  All  who  keep  horses,  or  have  much 
to  do  with  them,  know  how  often  they  are 
lamed,  and  their  efficiency  destroyed,  by  bad 
shoeing  ;  the  hoof  is  pared  too  much,  the  nails 
are  driven  in  the  wrong  place,  or  too  near  tlie 
edge  of  the  hoof,  the  shoe  is  too  tight.  &c., 
&c.,  all  arising  from  a  want  of  skill  and  care 
in  the  person  who  performed  the  openition. 
By  reading  these  paragraphs,  and  studying 
the  cuts,  every  farmer  can  understand  for 
himself  how  the  business  ought  to  be  done ; 
and  can  oversee  it,  or  give  proper  directions 
for  its  performance.  It  will  be  noticed,  that 
the  number  of  nails  recommended  as  amply 
sufficient,  is  much  less  than  what  are  con- 
sidered absolutely  necessary  by  most  of  our 
smiths.  Probably  the  degree  of  care  in  shap- 
ing the  shoe,  and  of  attention  in  fitting  it,  as 
recomnicnded  by  Mr.  Steiihens,  obviates  the 
necessity  for  many  nails. 

1574  to  1577.  The  paragraphs  here  noted, 
show  a  difiercnt  mode  of  keeping  swine,  from 
that  practised  in  our  Eastern  and  Northern 
states.  The  universal  practice  in  these  states, 
is  to  keep  them  in  pens,  even  where  the  stock 
is  Inrge.  There  are  several  good  reasons  for 
this:  one  is  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
having  litters  of  pigs,  and  rearing  them  i>ro- 
perly,  at  any  time  of  the  year.  We  are  not 
confined  to  warm  weather  alone,  as  here  re- 
connnended,  because  the  young  pigs  can 
always  be  made  warm  and  comfortable  in  the 
pens.  When  kept  in  pens,  they  can  also  be 
located  in  a  convenient  position  ;  where  the 
refuse  from  the  house  and  the  dairy,  and  food 
from  the  granary,  can  be  furnished  them  with 
Jeji.st  trouble.  It  is  easy  to  have  a  root  cellar 
and  a  boiler  near  by,  for  their  especial  ac- 
cominod.ation.  If  a  steaming  apparatus  like 
that  in  fig.  113,  be  used,  and  properly  situated, 
a  very  convenient  arrangement  might  be  made. 


1584  and  1585.  The  remarks  in  these  para- 
graphs bearing  upon  the  cooking  of  food,  and 
the  experiments  dct^iiled  in  1591  and  1592, 
come  with  additional  force  after  wliat  has  been 
said  relative  to  steaming  apparatus,  and  other 
arrangements  for  cooking.  The  s(»uri'd  food 
mentioned  in  1586,  has  been  tried  \\it!i  great 
success  by  .some  feeders.  It  is  ]irohaiilc,  tiiat 
the  lactic  acid  found  in  the  first  stages  of 
fermentation,  acts  upon  the  starcii,  and  perhaps 
in  a  degree  upon  tiie  woody  fibre  also  ;  bring- 
ing them  into  a  soluble  state,  forming  sugar 
or  gum,  and  thus  fitting  them  for  more  e.asy 
digestion  and  assimilation  in  the  animal 
economy.  If  the  fermentation  and  souring  be 
allowed  to  go  too  far,  alcohol  is  formed  by 
the  vinous  fermentation ;  the  mass  then  rapid- 
ly proceeds  to  the  acetous  fermentation,  in 
which  vinegar  is  formed ;  by  this  time  its  value 
for  food  is  quite  destroyed. 

1598  to  1643.  The  remarks  and  instruc- 
tions under  this  division,  upon  the  breeding 
and  management  of  fowls,  will  be  found  hoth 
interesting  and  profitable,  to  all  who  t^ike 
pleasure  in  that  branch  of  domestic  pursuits. 
Even  if  fowls  do  no  more  than  pay  for  their 
keeping,  there  is  a  profit  to  the  farmer  in  the 
cheap  luxuries  which  are  always  at  hand,  to 
vary  his  table  during  a  large  part  of  the  year. 
But  it  seems  to  be  agreed  by  all  who  have 
tested  the  matter  thoroughly,  that  the  breed- 
ing of  poultry  for  market,  and  the  selling  of 
eggs,  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  lucrative 
departments  of  the  farm,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  capital  invested. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  on  p.  1615,  that  tliey 
do  not  understand  Indian  corn  in  Scotland,  so 
well  as  our  hens,  ducks.  ])igeons,  &c.,  do  ;  for 
these  fowls  certainly  disregard  in  a  most 
flagrant  manner  the  assertion  there  made, 
that  the  grains  of  Indian  corn  are  too  large  to 
be  swallowed  by  them,  unless  previously 
crushed  or  cracked. 

16(i8.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  that 
a  part  of  the  food  taken  into  the  stomach,  is 
buriu'd,  so  tO  speak,  in  the  lungs,  as  well  as 
in  tiie  capillary  vessels  of  the  extremities  and 
other  parts  of  the  animal.  Thus  there  are 
two  sources  of  h.eat  in  this  consumption  of 
food ;  one  in  the  tissues  or  cells  in  the  ex- 
tremes and  other  parts  of  the  body,  keeping 
up  the  viUil  heat,  and  at  the  same  tiuie  assist- 
ing in  the  necessary  transformation  and  re- 
formation of  the  various  tissues  ;  the  other  in 
the  lungs,  to  maintain  their  warmth.  In  a 
part  of  the  body  so  exposed  to  chills  as  the 
lungs,  owing  to  the  constant  inhalation  of 
cold  air,  the  combustion  requisite  to  maintain 
their  hiirh  and  equable  temperature,  must  be 
powerful  and  steady. 

1674.  To  the  points  specified  as  to  the 
quality  of  food  best  adapted  for  fattening, 
and  as  to  the  advantage  of  rest  and  quiet; 
there    should    be  added  a  third  importaut 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


16 


requisite,  which  is  warmth.  Without  this,  as 
nas  been  explained,  the  animal  consumes  a 
very  large  portion  of  its  food  in  keeping  up 
the  heat  of  its  body.  All  tliat  is  used  in 
this  way,  adds  of  course  nothing  to  its  bulk  ; 
hence  tlae  true  economy  of  furnisliing  proper 
shelter. 

1692.  The  details  given  in  this,  and  suc- 
ceeding paragraphs,  are  full  and  satisfactory 
explanations  as  to  the  construction  of  Scotch 
and  English  threshing  machines.  These  are 
usually  more  substantial  and  expensive  in 
their  structure,  than  tliose  employed  in  this 
country.  In  many  sections,  particularly  of 
the  West,  parties  travel  about  the  country  with 
machines,  and  do  the  threshing  for  the  farmers 
at  so  mucli  per  bushel,  or  by  a  contract  for 
the  entire  job.  These  travelling  machines  are 
usually  worked  by  from  sLx  to  eight  horses. 
The  under-foot  wheels  spoken  of  m  par.  1715, 
are  decidedly  the  favorites  in  this  country; 
such  a  preference  may  perhaps  be  owing  to 
the  prevalence  of  travelling  machines,  the 
under-foot  wheel  being  the  only  convenient 
form  for  them.  In  cases  where  farmers  own 
a  machine,  and  have  it  permanently  placed, 
the  overhead  wheel  is  sometimes  employed. 
Steam  power  may  be  said  to  be  almost 
entirely  unkno\\ni  for  farm  purposes,  in  the 
Northern  states.  Advantage  can,  on  many 
farms,  be  taken  of  water  power,  and  much 
expense  thereby  avoided.  The  directions 
given  in  paragraphs  1721  to  1733,  will  be 
found  of  much  value,  to  all  who  have  an 
opportunity  to  use  water  for  propelling  their 
macliinery.  The  turbine  wheels  lately  intro- 
duced, enable  water  power  to  be  employed 
with  effect,  under  circumstances  of  quantity 
of  flow,  and  height  of  fall,  in  which  a  breast 
or  an  undershot  wheel  would  be  of  little 
ser\ice.  The  American  machines  used  for 
threshing,  seem  to  compare  well  in  efficiency 
with  any  that  are  used  in  Great  Britain.  50  to  60 
bushels  of  wheiit  per  hour,  with  6  to  8  horses, 
is  not  very  uncommon  work.  The  horses 
being  lighter,  are  more  numerous  than  in  the 
British  machines.  All  of  the  best  machines 
both  clean  and  thresh  the  gi-ain. 

Those  made  by  John  A.  Pitts,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  have  a  high  reputation,  and  are  exten- 
sively employed.  In  the  construction  of  our 
beater  or  thresher,  there  is,  I  think,  an  advan- 
tage over  either  the  English  or  Scotch  ma- 
chines. There  are  spikes,  or  beaters,  not  only 
upon  the  drum,  but  upon  tlie  concave  ;  and  so 
arranged  in  an  alternating  manner,  that  they 
produce  a  rubbing  as  well  as  a  beating  motion. 
These  beaters  are  frequently  made  of  round 
iron,  but  the  principle  of  having  them  wedge- 
shaped  seems  to  be  most  approved  at  present. 

1821.  The  machine  here  figured  and  de- 
scribed, is  worthy  of  a  moment's  notice,  as 
being  so  inferior  for  all  practical  purposes,  to 
the  platform  scales,  now  so  universal  in  this 


country;  such  as  those  of  Fairbanks'  and 
others. 

These  are  quite  portable,  far  lighter  and 
sunplcr  than  the  Scotch  machine,  and  will 
weigh  mucli  quicker;  this  for  the  reason  that 
being  upon  the  steelyard  principle,  the  great 
and  unnecessary  labor  of  lifting  a  weight  equal 
to  whatever  is  to  be  weighed  is  avoided. 
The  Fairbanks  platform  scale  is  also  much 
more  compact,  occupying  scarcely  half  the 
room.  The  price  is  not  more  than  half  that 
named  for  the  best  construction  of  the  above 
machines. 

1846.  This,  and  succeeding  paragraphs,  re- 
lative to  the  classification  of  wlieat,  will 
possess  interest  for  those  who  are  curious  in 
varieties  of  that  grain.  It  is  evident,  that 
there  is  a  degree  of  discrimination  exercised 
regarding  the  character  of  different  samples 
of  grain,  and  their  fitness  for  particular  pur- 
poses, that  is  almost  unknown  here.  Our 
bakers  supply  themselves  witli  flour  in  the 
barrel,  ground  perhaps  500  or  600  miles  away, 
and  unless  I  am  misinformed,  consider  them- 
selves able  to  pronounce  upon  its  fitness  for 
bread-making  purposes  with  much  certainty. 
The  distinctions  in  the  varieties  of  wheat  do 
not  by  any  means  receive  so  nnich  attention 
as  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  information  that 
most  farmers  are  able  to  aft'ord  on  such 
points,  is  of  a  very  indefinite  character.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  "t!ie  character  of  our  wheat 
would  be  improved  by  care  as  to  the  selection, 
and  as  to  the  purity  of  seed :  not  only  this, 
but  the  peld  would  in  many  cases  be  in- 
creased, for  it  is  a  well  est^iblished  fact,  that 
of  two  varieties  of  white  wheat,  fur  instance, 
grown  on  the  same  soil,  one  will  outyield 
the  other.  Care  upon  these  points  then,  may 
be  profitably  exercised,  and  the  subject  is  not 
to  be  set  aside  as  only  interesting  to  book 
farmers  and  amateurs. 

1887.  The  process  here  mentioned,  has 
been  recommended  in  this  country,  and  some- 
what extensively  practised.  There  is  no 
question  but  that  good  bread  can  be  made  in 
this  way,  and  -without  the  necessary  loss, 
which  ensues  from  the  destruction  of  a  portion 
of  the  bread  itself,  during  the  ordinary  process 
of  fermentation.  The  experiments  of  Dr. 
Thomson,  par.  1888,  show  a  very  considerable 
gain  by  this  method.  These,  however,  do  not 
settle  the  question,  as  it  may  be  that  the 
mixture  of  these  chemical  materials  causes 
the  bread  to  retain  more  water  than  usual, 
and  in  this  way  increases  its  bulk.  We  need 
some  experiments  on  this  particular  point. 
Bread  one  day  old,  contains,  according  to 
Dumas  and  Johnston,  from  40  to  45  per  cent, 
of  water.  Small  additions  of  certain  chemical 
substances,  are  capable  of  making  the  bread 
retain  several  pounds  more  in  the  hundred,  of 
water. 

1896.  I  shall  show,  in  referring  to  Indian 


16 


AaiERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


corn,  that  this  grain,  although  it  does  not  con- 
tain {rluteii,  contjiins  so  much  of  a  substance 
whicli  is  quite  equal  to  the  gluten  of  wheiit  in 
its  nutritive  qualities,  as  to  render  it  the 
superior  grain  of  the  two. 

1901.  Tlure  should  be  a  distinction  drawn, 
with  regard  to  the  observations  in  this  para- 
graph, reliitive  to  Prof.  Johnston's  analyses. 
I  consider  tlie  principle  mentioned  as  adopt- 
ed by  liebig,  and  other  leading  chemists, 
that  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  substance  in 
any  kind  of  food  determines  its  nutritive 
value,  to  be  in  tlie  main  correct.  We  find  on 
analysing  any  concentrated  food,  a  small 
portion  of  which  \\  ill  sustain  life  for  a  long 
time,  that  it  is  invariably  exeeeduigly  rich  in 
nitrogen  ;  and  thus  prove  incontestably,  that 
this  is  the  most  important  element,  when  we 
are  considering  what  food  is  most  nutritious. 
I  do  not  speii.k  here  of  food  for  fattening 
animals,  that  must  have  an  excess  of  carbon, 
but  simply  of  that  which  is  best  adapted  to 
the  formation  of  solid  muscle. 

In  this  view,  Prof.  Johnston  is  correct  in 
saying,  that  the  wheat  which  contiined  most 
nitrogen  was  most  nutritious.  Whether  the 
bread  was  he:ivy  or  ligiit,  makes  no  difference 
whatever.  The  light  bread  might  be  more 
easily  digested,  it  is  true,  but  that  does  not 
show  that  it  contains  more  nutritive  matter 
than  the  other  ;  rice,  arrow-root,  and  tapioca, 
ai'e  more  easily  digested  than  meat,  but  it 
does  not  thence  follow  that  they  are  more 
nourishing.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  baker, 
or  grain  niercliant,  caTi  tell  from  the  exterior 
appearance  of  wheat,  its  relative  nutritive 
qualities.  He  may  say  with  certainty  which 
will  make  tiie  lig'litest  and  most  palatable 
bread,  but  cannot  know  that  tliis  bread  will 
be  the  most  nutritious. 

We  shall  mention  some  of  the  varieties  of 
wheat  best  known  in  this  country,  when  treat- 
ing more  particularly  of  winter  and  spring 
wheat,  under  their  respective  heads. 

190G.  Barley  is  a  crop  less  cultivated  in 
this  country,  than  any  of  the  other  grains. 
The  State  of  New  York,  according  to  the 
sUitistieal  returns,  grows  more  tlian  all  of  the 
other  states  together.  Its  use  is  chiefly  for 
malting;  and  the  great  falling  off  in  the  con- 
sumption of  beer,  occa.sioned  by  the  tem- 
perance reformation,  has  lessened  the  demand 
for  it. 

As  an  article  of  food  for  man,  barley  is 
almost  unknown ;  indeed  in  many  districts, 
you  may  travel  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and 
never  see  a  single  field  of  it.  Barley  meal, 
however,  does  really  make  an  agreeable  and 
nutritious  food.  The  fact  that  it  cont;uns  less 
gluten  than  wheat,  must  not  be  considered  as 
conclusively  deciding  that  it  is  greatly  inferior 
to  that  grain.  In  place  of  gluten,  it  has 
another  nitrogenous  body,  of  nearly  similar 
composition,  and  quite  equal  in  value.     Thus 


we  see  tliat  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  or 
protein  bodies  in  barley,  given  in  par.  1919. 
conies  fully  up  to  tlie  highest  percentage 
mentioned  under  tlie  head  of  wheat. 

With  regard  to  these  analyses,  it  may  be 
proper  here  to  say  a  few  words  in  explanation. 
The  fanner  should  read  attentively  tlie  various 
analyses,  given  under  these  and  succeeding 
paragraphs ;  for  after  careful  study,  he  will  not 
fail  to  draw  many  valuable  practical  conclu- 
sions from  them.  It  should  be  rememlxTed 
at  the  same  time  that  all  researches  hitherto 
made  into  the  composition  of  plants,  have 
shown  a  difference  in  the  constituent  parts 
of  the  same  plants,  when  grown  hi  different 
situations,  or  fed  with  different  manures. 

We  do  not  as  yet  know  how  far  these 
variations  may  be  carried,  but  the  fact  that 
they  are  considerable,  is  fully  established. 
This  does  not  affect,  however,  the  peneral 
character  of  either  the  organic  or  inorganic 
part;  in  a  grain  (such  as  rice)  abounding  in 
starch,  that  will  always  continue  to  be  the 
predominating  substance,  though  its  e.\acJ 
proportion  does  not  remain  the  same,  by  per 
haps  a  variation  of  several  per  cent.  So  ii 
the  ash  ;  if  the  alkalies  have  been  the  charac 
teristic  ingredient,  as  in  the  potatoe,  they  wil' 
still  predominate  over  everything  else,  though 
often  modified  in  theu-proportioiis;  sometimes 
one  of  them  may  even  entirely  replace  the 
other,  and  still  the  plant  be  healthy. 

I  speak  only  of  perfect  plants  and  seeds,  it 
is  to  be  observed,  for  although  plants  have 
thus  a  certain  power  of  adaptation  to  circum- 
stances, that  power  has  its  limit ;  when  that 
limit  is  passed,  we  either  have  an  imperfect 
stalk  or  seed,  or  an  utter  inability  to  make 
anygrowth  whatever. 

According  to  the  above  remarks,  tht 
analyses  given  here  are  to  be  considered,  not 
as  representing  tiie  exact  composition  of  the 
various  grains  under  all  circum'^tances ;  but 
as  approximations  to  the  general  characteris- 
tics of  each  species.  The  same  thing  is  to  be 
said  relative  to  the  figures  purporting  to  show 
the  amount  taken  from  the  soil  by  any  one 
crop,  as  in  p.  1903.  They  are  probably  cor- 
rect within  a  few  pounds,  and  are  useful  in  a 
high  degree,  although  not  entirely  accurate. 

The  malting  of  barley  is  an  interesting 
process  to  the  farmer,  as  it  illustrates  beauti- 
fully the  general  process  of  germination  in 
seeds,  here  witnessed  on  a  large  scale.  The 
commencement  of  germination,  is  character- 
ized by  the  formation  of  a  peculiar  substance 
called  diastise.  This  has  the  power  of 
changing  the  starch,  and  like  insoluble  sub- 
stances of  the  seed,  into  sug:ir  and  a  species 
of  gum.  These  are  both  soluble,  and  are 
thus  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
nourishment  to  the  young  shoot.  The  gro\\-th 
is  arrested  by  drying  the  bariey,  before  the 
shoot  has  absorbed  a  great  quantity ;  the  grain 


a:\ierican  appendix^wtnter. 


17 


is  then  sweet  to  the  taste,  its  sugar  being 
made  use  of  to  furnish  alcohol  for  the  beer, 
by  its  subsequent  vinous  fermentation. 
"  The  same  varieties  of  barley  seem  to  be 
cultivated  in  this  country  as  in  England,  the 
Chevalier  variety  bemg  considered  one  of  the 
best. 

1925.  Tiie  oats  cultivated  in  the  Northern 
States,  are  not  usually  of  any  very  definite 
variety,  the  majority  ha\ing,  however,  more 
likeness  to  fig.  184,  than  to  fig.  183.  Oats  as 
heavy  as  the  best  Scotch  potatoe  oats,  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  seen  in  this  country ;  the 
average  weight  of  our  crops  being  several 
pounds  less  in  the  bushel,  than  those  grown 
in  Great  Britain.  In  the  number  of  bushels 
we  fully  equal  them,  but  fall  short  in  weight. 
I  am  inclined  to  thuak  that  this  is  an  effect  of 
chmate.  The  springs  and  summers  of  Scot- 
land are  much  longer  than  ours,  but  not  so 
dry  VA\d  warm.  Their  oats  grow  and  ripen 
slowly,  in  a  cool  moist  atmosphere,  while  ours 
grow  and  ripen  very  rapidly  in  a  hot  dry  ah-. 
I  imagine  that  the  first  circumstances  suit 
this  crop  best.  Sucli  a  view  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact,  that  as  we  go  south  the  oats  be- 
come lighter  and  lighter ;  the  inference  being 
that  the  climate  becomes  more  and  more  un- 
favorable to  their  perfect  development. 

Probably  this  inferior  character  of  our  oats 
is  one  reason  why  oatmeal  is  not  more  used 
as  an  article  of  human  food,  in  this  country. 
It  is,  with  the  single  exception  of  Indian  corn, 
more  nourishing  than  any  of  the  grains ;  I 
have  never  seen  a  finer  race  of  men  than  the 
Scotch  ploughmen,  who  live  on  it  entirely. 

The  liking  of  oatmenl  is  an  acquh-ed  taste, 
as  it  is  usually  quite  disagreeable  to  those 
who  have  never  eaten  it.  After  a  short  time 
however,  it  becomes  a  very  favorite  variety  of 
food,  better,  I  think,  as  a  constant  article  of 
diet,  than  any  preparation  of  Indian  meal. 

1940.  Rye  is  an  important  crop  in  this 
country,  more  important  now  than  it  will  be 
when  our  cultivation  is  better.  It  is  a  crop 
that  will  grow  and  produce  a  fair  return,  on 
poor  light  land,  where  the  other  grams  would 
scarcely  succeed  at  all. 

A  favorite  practice  with  too  many  farmers, 
is  to  grow  rye  year  after  year  on  such  land, 
till  they  scarcely  get  more  than  their  seed. 
They  then  desist  for  a  time,  and  let  the  land 
lie  idle  for  some  years,  till  it  has  regained 
strength  to  produce  a  few  more  scanty  crops. 
Thousands  of  acres  are  cultivated,  or  it  should 
rather  be  said  destroyed,  on  this  system. 

As  an  article  of  food,  rye  is  agreeable  and 
nutritious.  In  some  of  its  qualities  its  flour 
more  nearly  resembles  that  of  wheat,  than 
that  of  any  other  grain,  containing  as  it  does 
considerable  quantities  of  gluten. 

1950  and  1958.  Beans  and  Peas,  as  a  field 
crop,  are  almost  unknown  here  ;  but  these 
paragraphs  show  that  they  are  a  remarkably 


valuable  article  of  food.  The  analysis  given 
of  the  bean,  par.  1954,  does  not  do  its  nutritive 
qualities  justice  ;  in  par.  1960.  we  see  that  the 
pea  has  about  26  per  cent,  of  albumen,  legu- 
min,  &c.,  that  is  of  substances  cimtaining 
nitrogen;  the  latest  e.xaminations  indicate 
about  the  same  percentage  in  beans.  Both 
then  are  more  nutritious  than  any  of  the 
other  grains  mentioned. 

Indian  corn  is,  doubtless,  a  much  more 
economical  food  than  either  of  these  in  this 
country;  but  it  may  be  ultimately  found  best 
to  introduce  their  tield  culture  somewhat  ex- 
tensively, as  a  change  to  a  different  class  of 
plants  in  a  rotation  of  crops. 

Mr.  Stephens  has  said  notliing  of  rice 
(oryza  sativa),  a  grain  wliich  is  very  largely 
produced  m  the  southern  parts  of  this  con- 
tinent. 

It  contains  only  one  per  cent,  of  asli,  tlie 
composition  of  which,  accordhig  to  Johnston, 
is  as  follows : 

Potash 18.48 

Soda,            10.67 

Lime 1.27 

Magnesia, 11.69 

Ox.  of  Iron 0.45 

Phosphoric  Acid 53.36 

Chlorine 0.i27 

Silica, 3.35 

99.54 

The  character  of  this  ash  seems  to  be  not 
disshuilar  to  that  from  all  of  the  grains 
previously  named ;  phosphoric  acid  predomi- 
nating over  every  other  ingredient,  the  alkalies 
amounting  to  from  20  to  30  per  cent.,  and  mag- 
nesia being  larger  in  quantity  than  lune.  The 
following  analysis,  by  Payen,  represents  the 
composition  of  the  organic  part  of  this  grain. 

Starch 86.9 

Gluten,  &c 7.5 

Fatly  mutter 0.8 

SugMr  and  Gum, 0.5 

Epidermis 3-4 

Ash, 0.9 

100 

Here  is  a  far  larger  proportion  of  starch,  than 
has  been  instanced  in  any  previous  analyses 
hi  this  class  of  crops.  The  proportion  of 
gluten,  &,c.,  of  fat,  and  of  sugar,  is  most 
materially  diminished.  To  produce  an  equal 
eflect  then,  it  is  necessary  to  eat  a  greatly 
increased  quantity. 

Buckwheat  (Polygonum  Fagopyrum)  has 
also  been  passed  over,  although  it  is  a  pro- 
duct of  much  value  here.  An  analysis  of  its 
ash  by  Biclion,  is  given  by  Prof  Johnston.  It 
will  be  seen  to  have  the  same  characters  as 
the  ash  last  noticed. 


ASH    OF    BUCKWHEAT. 

Potash, .'  H.74 

[«oda,             20.10 

Lime,            6.66 

Magnesia 10-38 

0.\-.  Of  Iron,          1.06 


Jk^ 


18 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTKR. 


Phosphoric  Acid 5007 

Sulphuric  Acid 2.16 

SiUca, O.Cfl 

99.85 

We  have  no  very  good  analysis  of  the 
organic  part ;  the  best  that  is  known  I  take 
from  Johnston. 

Husk 26.9 

Gluten,  tc, 10.7 

Starch 52.3 

i?u<!Hr  and  Gum,                  ....  8.3 

Fatty  matter,                      ....  0.4 

98.6 

This  w^s  made  with  the  husk  remaining  on 
the  grain ;  taking  this  away,  its  composition 
and  nutritive  vahie  would  be  mucli  like  that 
of  rice  flour.  The  gluten,  &c.,  in  the  above, 
is  too  high.  Prof.  Horsford,  of  Harvard 
College,  has  determined  the  nitrogen  of  buck- 
wheat directly,  and  found  it  about  the  same 
as  in  rice. 

Last,  but  most  important  of  all,  Indian  corn, 
or  maize  (Zea  Mays),  requires  a  separate 
notice,  more  full  than  tlie  partial  one  above 
given  ;  as  the  largest  and  most  universally  dif- 
fused crop  on  this  continent.  It  is  cultivated 
from  the  extreuie  Nortliern  point  where  grain 
v,i\[  grow,  to  the  extreme  South,  producing 
everywliere  abundantly,  and  being  a  chief 
rehancc  for  food  to  man  and  beast.  Maize  is 
the  finest  in  appearance  of  all  the  cereal 
grasses ;  it  is  considered  to  have  been  a 
native  of  this  continent,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  in  tlie  South  of  Europe, 
at  about  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury. It  probably  supplies  food  to  a  greater 
number  of  the  human  race  than  any  other 
grain,  with  perhaps  the  single  exception  of  rice. 

In  regard  to  the  exact  composition  of  this 
most  valuable  grain,  we  are  still  in  want  of 
perfectly  precise  and  reli;ible  information,  botli 
as  to  its  organic  and  inorganic  part.  The 
analyses  made  in  Europe  have  been  for  tiie 
most  part  imperfect ;  tliose  tiiat  are  complete 
must,  if  accurate,  iiave  been  made  upon 
samples  greatly  inferior  to  our  best  varieties. 
Some  of  them  make  it  little  more  nutritious 
than  rice,  or  buckwiieat. 

The  most  important  and  extended  re- 
searches that  have  yet  been  made,  are  those 
of  Prof.  Emmons  and  Mr.  Salisbury.  The 
latter,  more  particularly,  has  devoted  himself 
to  this  subject,  and  has  given  us  a  great  mass 
of  results,  from  whicii  may  be  derived  much 
useful  information.  In  regard  to  the  organic 
analyses  to  be  cited,  they  are  all  proximate 
analyses,  in  whicli  tiie  attempt  to  determine 
several  distinct  nitrogenous  constituents,  has 
been  made.  Such  determinations  lose  much 
of  their  value,  when  not  supported  by  ulti- 
mate analyses,  in  which  the  quantity  of  the 
nitrogen  is  determined  directly  and  certainly. 

This  is  no  discredit  to  the  exertions  of  3Ir. 
Salisburj',  who  did  all  tliat  could  be  done  by 


industry,  in  the  time  allotted  to  his  research. 
This  department,  however,  is  yet  to  be 
cleared  up.  There  is  a  nitrogenous  body 
peculiar  to  maize,  which  has  been  called 
gladiadin  or  zein ;  it  is  quite  desirable  that 
the  ex.act  nature  and  composition  of  this, 
should  be  known.  It  is  probably  much  like 
gluten,  casein,  and  other  bodies  of  the  protein 
class. 

From  the  numerous  organic  analyses  given 
by  Mr.  Salisbury  and  Prof  Emmons,  I  have 
selected  seven,  and  from  these  have  deduced 
a  mean,  which  is  here  inserted  as  the  best 
that  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  will 
afford.  I  have  united  all  of  the  distinct 
nitrogenous  .substances  which  they  mention, 
under  one  head.     The  analysis  is  as  follows : 

Starch, 52.3-i 

Sugar  and  est.  matter,       ....  1664 

Gluten,  &.C., 15.70 

Oil 5.31 

Woody  fibre, 10.03 

IOC 

The  proportion  of  real  sugar,  in  the  above 
16.64  per  cent.,  is  probably  quite  small. 
What  the  extractive  matter  really  is,  we  are  not 
informed;  it  may  contain  some  oil,  or  some 
nitrogen.  The  percentage  of  nitrogenous 
substances,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  larger  than 
that  in  any  of  the  other  grains,  and  indicate.s 
truly  the  great  feeding  properties  of  this  grain. 
The  oil  also  is  so  large  in  quantity,  as  to 
exphiin  its  remarkable  superiority  for  the  pur- 
poses of  fattening. 

I  find  in  j\Ir.  Salisburj^'s  paper,  an  analysis 
of  the  sweet  com,  which  is  worthy  of  notice. 
It  is  as  follows : 

Starch, 1C.76 

Sugar  and  ext.  matter,        ....  36.58 

Gluten,  &,c 23.33 

Oil 10.94 

Woody  fibre 14  39 

100 

If  this  analysis  should  be  confirmed  by 
subsequent  ones,  we  have  in  this  sweet  com, 
one  of  the  most  nutritious  kinds  of  food 
known.  The  quantity  of  starch  is  small ;  of 
sugar,  large,  as  might  be  expected :  an(i^)f  sub- 
stances containing  nitrogen  almost  unprece- 
dented. The  proportion  of  oil,  too,  is  quite 
remarkable.  If  this  kind  of  corn  yields  well 
on  a  large  scale,  it  might  be  of  advantage  to 
test  its  value,  as  it  would  be  according  to  the 
abo\T  analyses,  an  unequalled  article  of  food, 
nutritious  and  fattening  in  a  most  eminent 
degi'ce. 

From  the  same  source  as  the  above,  I  have 
selected  a  number  of  inorganic  analyses,  and 
have  again  taken  a  mean;  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  at  least  an  approximation  to  the 
general  composition  of  the  ash.  With  these 
analyses  I  have  also  ventured  to  tiike  some 
liberties,  in  calculating  them  without  an  item 
called  organic  acids.    These  can  have  nothing 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


19 


to  do  with  the  real  ash,  and  I  am  unable  to 
understand  how  they  should  be  present  at  all. 
With  these  organic  acids  left  out,  the  mean 
composition  of  several  samples  of  ash,  is  given 
in  the  following  table  : 

ASH  OF  INDIAN  CORN,  OR  MAIZE. 

Potash J6.P7 

Soda 1:2.63 

Lime 0.26 

Jluguesia, 15.02 

Chliiride  of  Sodium 0.40 

Sulphuric  Acid, 0.31 

"hosphoric  Acid, 52.54 

Silica, 1.97 

100.00 

The  greater  part  of  this  ash,  it  will  be 
noticed,  is  phosphoric  acid,  so  that  it  corres- 
ponds in  this  respect  with  the  ash  of  the 
other  grains.  The  quantities  of  potash,  soda, 
and  magnesia,  also  come  so  near  as  to  increase 
the  lUveness  of  this  ash  to  the  class  tiiat  1 
have  named. 

The  cob  of  Indian  corn  forms  so  large  a 
portion  of  the  ear,  that  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  importance  to  know  what,  if  any,  is  its 
nutritious  value.  Mr.  Salisbury  has  examined 
tlus  part  of  the  plant  also,  and  I  instance 
some  of  his  results,  as  the  only  ones  of  much 
value  that  we  now  possess.  They  stand 
alone;  and  of  course  require  other  results 
both  for  confirmation  and  comparison,  before 
we  can  speak  with  much  confidence  as  to  the 
mean  composition  of  this  part.  In  the  follow- 
ing table  is  given  one  of  his  examinations  of 
the  organic  part. 

Sugar,  &c 2  49 

Woody  fibre,       .        .        .        .        .        .  90.80 

Nitrogenous  substances,    ....  2.19 

Gummy  substance,             ....  4.52 

100.00 

This  analysis  indicates  a  considerable 
amount  of  various  nutritive  substances,  in  this 
portion  of  the  plant,  and  probably  explains  in 
part,  some  of  the  results  which  have  been 
obtained,  by  feeding  it  ground  with  the 
kernels. 

Mr.  Salisbury  has  examined  the  ash  from 
the  cob,  and  has  shown  that  also  to  contain 
valuable  substances  for  feeding,  as  may  be 
seen  by  the  amiexed  analysis. 

Carbonic  Acid VJJ05 

Sulphuric  Acid, 21.42 

Phosphoric  Acid,        .....  14.84 

Silica 12.83 

Lime,           4.19 

Magnesia, 7.32 

Potash, 30.82 

Soda 12.33 

99.10 

This  ash  abounds  in  the  alkalies,  and  in 
phosphoric  acid:  they  together  making  up 
more  than  half  of  its  weight.  All  of  the  other 
substances',  excepting  only  the  silica,  are 
directly  valuable.    This  is  a  composition  of 


ash,  diflering  remarkably  from  that  of  the 
straws  generally,  and  has  beyond  question 
nmch  intiuence  upon  the  value  of  the  cob  as 
food. 

1764,  '66,  Sic.  Here  I  shall  bring  in  the  ash 
from  maize  again,  to  complete  the  notice  of 
this  part  also,  among  the  various  straws  and 
stalks.  In  all,  except  the  bean  and  peas 
stalks,  it  will  be  noticed  that  silica  is  the 
leading  substance.  The  succeeding  analysis 
shows  a  decided  difference,  in  the  compo.si- 
tion  of  the  ash  from  Indian  corn  stalks. 

Potash, 36.82 

Soda, 12.33 

Lime 4.1!> 

Magnesia 7.32 

Phosphoric  Acid, 14.84 

Sulphuric  Acid, 1.42 

Carbonic  Acid, 10.05 

Silica, 12.13 

99.10 

Silica,  in  this  asii,  instead  of  being  more 
than  half,  as  in  wheat  straw  ash,  and  others 
of  the  same  class,  is  but  little  more  than  a 
tenth.  The  alkalies  are  abundant,  so  also  is 
phosphoric  acid.  The  ash  is  in  its  composi- 
tion, between  that  of  the  common  straws,  and 
that  of  peas  and  bean  stalks.  For  fodder  it  is 
worth  far  more  than  any  of  the  other  kinds  ; 
it  is  considered  by  many  good  farmers,  when 
in  its  best  condition,  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
good  hay. 

1999  to  2056.  On  the  forming  of  manure 
lieaps,  and  the  management  of  manures  in 
winter.  These  paragi-aphs  deserve  reading 
with  great  attention,  as  they  contain  much 
information  of  a  valuable  character,  with 
regard  to  the  fermentation  and  preservation 
of  manures.  There  are  comparatively  few 
farmers  in  this  country,  who  are  aware  how 
great  is  the  loss  of  substance,  during  un- 
checked fermentation.  Nitrogen  in  the  form 
of  ammonia,  may  be  detected  passing  off  in 
large  quantities  ;  besides  this,  carbonic  acid, 
and  other  products,  are  continually  liberated. 
The  directions  given  for  the  prevention  of 
such  a  loss,  under  these  various  paragraphs, 
are  so  particular  that  no  fiirmer  need  suffer  it 
any  longer.  It  is  not  necessary  for  him  to 
build  a  shed  in  every  field,  or  over  the  whole 
of  his  yards,  but  he  can  introduce  more  care- 
ful management.  Mr.  Stephens  omits  to 
mention  here,  one  of  the  best  methods  for 
arresting  the  escape  of  ammonia  during  fer- 
mentation; it  is  to  sprinkle  gypsum  occa- 
sionally over  the  surface  of  the  heaps  or 
yards.  The  quantity  used,  need  not  be  more 
than  a  few  handfuls  at  a  time. 

2037  to  3061.  The  subject  of  making  com- 
posts, is  one  which  attracts  a  great  and  in- 
creasing degree  of  attention  among  American 
farmers.  Nearly  all  good  farmers  are  now 
convinced;  that  tliis  is  one  of  the  most  ad- 
vantageous modes  of  applying  manure.  By 
making  a  compost  of  absorbent  materials. 


20 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— WINTER. 


^sca^(•(•ly  niiy  of  tlie  valuable  parts  of  the 
luanure  can  escape.  Large  quantities  of 
refuse  too,  tliat  would  otherwise  dec-ay  very 
slowly,  and  juoduce  little  eflect,  are  decom- 
posed in  composts,  and  thus  brought  into 
forms  valuable  for  assisting  tlie  growth  of 
plants.  All  of  the  materials  mentioned  in 
these  paragraphs,  should  be  carefully  pre- 
sened,  and  even  sought  after.  !!\Iany  of 
them  are  totally  neglected  in  most  districts, 
and  can  he  had  for  the  merest  trille,  in  many 
eases  for  the  mere  expense  of  carting.  The 
lish  refuse,  the  dung  of  pigeons  and  other 
birds,  the  woollen  waste,  and  the  animal  tlesh; 
are  among  the  most  powerful  and  concen- 
trated manures  known.  The  farmer  who 
systematically  collects  every  species  of  refuse, 
and  every  available  vegetable  substiince,  can 
increase  iiis  stock  of  manure  to  u  very  eon- 
sidei-ablc  extent  and  without  material  expense. 
:2062  to  2084.  The  subject  of  liquid  manure 
tanks,  is  also  one  that  is  beginning  to  attract 
much  notice  in  this  country.  Farmers  find 
that  they  cannot  afford  to  let  a  large  part  of 
their  manure  wash  away,  either  into  the  road, 
or  upon  a  small  part  of  some  one  field.  The 
consequence  of  this  is,  tliat  the  construction 
of  tanks  has  been  commenced,  and  has,  I 
believe,  been  attended  with  the  happiest 
results.  Tiie  remarks  in  par.  2063,  show  that 
a  tank  is  not  necessary  for  all  farms  :  but  wher- 
ever it  is  found  that  much  drainage  takes  place 
from  the  yard,  something  of  the  kind  is  neces- 
sary. It  need  not  be  large,  nor  expensive. 
The  only  object  is  to  have  a  tight  recepUicle, 
which  shall  receive  and  retain  the  liquid,  till 
it  can  be  applied  to  some  useful  purpose. 
For  a  temporary  end,  and  to  try  tlie  value  of 
tanks,  one  could  be  made  from  old  boards,  or 
plank,  packed  with  clay  behind,  so  as  to  be 
tight.  By  the  time  that  it  should  fail,  the 
farmer  ^\•ould  probably  be  ready  to  build  a 
stone  or  brick  one.  The  liquid  may  be 
pumped  out,  and  Used  w  ith  a  water  cart  as 
described  in  tig.  194,  or  pmnped  upon  a  com- 
post heap.  Others  prefer  to  throw  ashes, 
])laster,  peat.  &ie..  into  the  tank,  to  soak  up 
the  liquid.  In  this  way  they  obtain  a  strong 
and  excellent  manure.  If  too  much  water 
runs  into  the  tank,  so  as  to  overflow  it,  drains 
must  be  inade  in  such  a  manner  that  all 
water  falling  from  the  eaves  of  the  farm 
buildings,  may  be  conducted  away  in  another 
direction.  A  tank  l-7th  as  lonij  as  that  men- 
tioned in  par.  20G8,  or  10  feet  long,  and  6  feet 
■wide,  would  be  quite  large  enough  for  the 
majority  of  farms  in  the  country.  They 
should  always  be  covered  over,  as  much  less 
is  then  lost  by  evaporation.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent practice  to  add  occasionally,  a  small 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol),  to 
the  liquid  in  the  tank ;  this  prevents  the 
escape  of  ammonia  almost  entirely,  and  forms 


with  it  a  valuable  fertilizing  compound. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  not  an  expensive  article, 
being  from  '2i  to  3  cts.  per  lb.  when  purchased 
by  the  carboy. 

2085.  I  doubt  the  entire  correctness  of  the 
statements  in  this  paragraph,  as  to  tlie  lo.ss  of 
fertilizing  substiuice  by  washing  away  from 
manure  heaps.  If  the  heaps  are  of  good  size, 
and  properly  made,  so  that  niin  water  may 
soak  into  them,  instead  of  immediately  running 
off;  and  if  placed  in  a  proper  situation,  then 
it  is  probably  correct  that  little  is  lo.st  by 
leidiage  ;  but  if  piled  up  in  a  scattered,  heed- 
less manner,  and  located  on  a  slope  near  a 
ditch  or  brook,  the  loss  is  inevitably  quite  large. 
I  have  seen  the  water  of  ditches  colored  nearly 
black,  for  a  distance  of  many  feet,  by  the  oozing 
from  a  manure  heap.  A  very  good  plan  to 
prevent  all  possible  loss,  would  be  to  cut  a 
small  ditch  round  the  lower  sides  of  the  heap, 
conducting  the  drainings  to  the  lowest  pouit, 
and  discharging  them  there  into  a  sunk  barrel, 
from  which  they  could  be  pumped  up,  and 
used  as  might  be  most  advantageous. 

2086.  The  leakage  of  valuable  manure, 
from  imiiroperly  located,  or  badly  constructed 
yards,  is,  in  this  country,  a  most  important 
item  of  loss.  In  many  cases  that  I  have  .seen, 
nearly  everything  soluble  is  washed  away 
into  the  nearest  road  or  stream :  the  manure 
is  left  in  a  bleached  condition,  having  lost  in 
some  instances  at  least  half  of  its  value. 
Some  farmers  attenij)t  to  Siive  these  drainings 
from  their  yards,  by  conducting  them  upon 
their  meadow  land.  The  usual  result  of  this 
is.  that  but  a  small  portion  of  the  grass  is 
reached,  and  that  is  so  much  over  manured, 
that  it  is  a  coarse  and  unpalatable  food.  The 
only  economical  way  to  avoid  this  loss,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  construction  of  tanks,  as 
recommended  in  preceding  paragraphs. 

2107  to  2118.  The  sea  coast  of  this  country 
is  so  extensive,  that  sea  weed  becomes  a 
manure  of  much  inijiortance.  There  are, 
however,  many  long  stretches  of  coast,  where 
very  little,  or  none,  is  cast  up  by  the  sea. 
This  is  because  there  are  in  the  neighborhood 
of  these  beaches,  more  of  the  reefs,  and  rocks, 
upon  which  the  weed  delights  to  grow.  The 
composition  of  ash  from  sea  weed,  as  given  in 
par.  2117.  .shows  that  this  ])art  abounds  iri 
substances  that  are  exceedingly  important  to 
all  of  our  crojis  ;  and  likely  to  be  jiarticularly 
beneficial  to  tho.^e  crops  that  are  rich  in 
alkaline  compounds.  The  proportion  of  this 
ash  in  the  dry  \\  eed,  is  greater  than  in  dry 
straw.  Sea  weinl  decays  very  readily,  from 
the  large  proportion  of  water  which  it  con- 
tains ;  for  this  reason,  and  also  from  the 
soluble  quality  of  its  ash,  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered a  ven,-  lasting  manure.  If  allowed  Uf 
dry  thoroughly,  it  will  remain  unchanged  for 
a  ioiig  time,  even  when  buried  in  the  suiL 


■ML. 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS. 


497 


duced  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  sinks 
gradually  into  the  earth,  and  the  earth 
has  been  opened  to  receive  a  greater  store 
than  if  it  had  been  pelted  by  rain  during 
winter.  This  is  occasioned  by  the  radia- 
tion of  the  heat  from  the  lower  strata  of 
tiie  earth,  which  is  confined  by  the  snow, 
and  turned  back  again  to  act  upon  the 
earth.  In  the  third  place,  this  last  cir- 
cumstance produces  a  beginning  of  the 
spring  under  the  shelter  of  the  snow,  which 
could  not  have  taken  place  with  free 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  The  blade 
of  the  plant  is  protected,  and  the  roots 
have  heat  and  moisture,  and  the  air  is 
excluded  from  them.  They  are  thus 
placed  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances, and  they  are  stimulated  accord- 
ingly. The  difference  in  this  respect  is 
very  considerable;  for  if,  owing  to  the  action 
of  the  wind  during  the  fall,  or  to  any 
other  cause,  one  portion  of  a  field  has 
been  exposed  to  the  air  while  the  frost 
continued,  and  another  covered  by  the 
snow,  it  will  be  found  that  vegetation 
upon  the  part  which  the  snow  covered  will 
be  fresh,  green,  and  vigorous,  long  before 
that  upon  the  exposed  part  shows  any 
decided  signs  of  action.  This,  by  the 
way,  is  the  real  cause  why  spring  is  so 
rapid,  and  meets  with  so  few  reverses, 
where  the  winter  is  firm  and  decided,  but 
of  moderate  length,  than  it  does  when  the 
winter  is  A'ariable.  In  such  a  place  as  we 
are  alluding  to,  the  spring-wind  usually 
freshens  as  the  snow  disappears ;  and  this 
latter  quickens  the  melting  of  the  snow, 
and  dries  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
When  the  clods  begin  to  dry,  the  lark 
soars  aloft  at  the  streak  of  dawn,  calling 
the  i:»loughmen  to  their  labours.  Nor  are 
they  backward  to  obey  ;  for  they  and  their 
teams  have  been  rested  during  the  storm, 
and  then  return  to  their  labour  with  fresh 
vigour."* 

2145.  "In  the  middle  of  the  hill- 
country,  snow  does  not  fall  so  heavily  as 
in  the  low  on  either  side,  the  storm  being 
exhausted  before  reaching  that  distance 
from  the  sea.  In  that  case,  the  stock  of 
sheep  are  not  so  long  deprived  of  grass  as 
might  be  expected."t 


2146.  Clouds. — The  prevailing  clouds 
in  spring  are  the  same  as  in  winter, 
namely  the  cirro-stratus  ;  but  it  more  fre- 
quently gathers  itself  into  the  cumulo- 
stratus,  which  hovers  about  in  the  horizon, 
and  either  subsides  entirely  below  it  on 
the  approach  of  the  frost  at  night,  or  veils 
the  zenith  in  the  day-time,  in  the  form  of 
the  cirro-stratus  ;  but  the  cmnulo-stratus 
of  spring  presents  a  very  different  aspect 
to  what  it  does  in  summer,  having  gene- 
rally a  well  defined  though  ragged  margin, 
and  a  peculiar  look  of  transparency  or 
clearness,  which  is  preserved  even  when 
the  clouds  become  purple  or  nearly  black. 
"  With  such  skies,"  observes  Mr  Forster, 
"  I  have  known  cold  S.  winds ;  and  on  other 
occa-sions,  with  different  kinds  of  clouds, 
hot  N.  winds  in  spring.  The  peculiar 
appearances  which  attend  these  exceptions 
to  the  usual  coincidence  of  phenomena, 
ought  to  be  particularly  attended  to." 

2147.  Cirri  are  not  unfrequent  in 
spring,  and  assume  most  remarkable  re- 
lations with  the  lower  classes  of  clouds. 
"  I  have  seen  the  cirrus,"  says  Mr  Forster, 
"  in  tufts,  moving  along  rapidly  in  the 
wind  below  cirro  -  cumulus,  and  over 
cumulus  in  a  higher  region.  There  were, 
however,  other  cirri  more  elevated  in  the 
sky  at  the  same  time." 

2148.  Cirro-cumnli  often  assume 
amusing  and  sportive  features  in  spring; 
sometimes  like  long  tapering  columns, 
horizontal  or  inclined,  and  sometimes  like 
freckles.  "  Mostly  these  little  bunches  of 
cloud  are  in  a  plane  ;  but  I  have  thought,'' 
observes  Mr  Forster,  "  though  it  might  be 
an  optical  deception,  that  they  have  been 
sometimes  in  a  roundish  column,  giving  a 
faint  resemblance  to  the  tail  of  an  armadillo. 
The  cloud  which  gives  what  is  called  the 
mackerel-back  sky,  is  composed  of  the 
long  waving  cirro-strative  nubeculjE,  but 
these  sometimes  acquire  the  apparent  sub- 
stance and  solid  look  of  cirro-cumulus."  ^ 

2149.  Bain. — The  character  of  the 
rain  in  spring  is  sudden,  violent,  and  cold, 
not  unfrcquently  attended  with  hail.  The 
proportional  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in 


*  Mudie's  Spring,  p.  266-71. 

+  Neio  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland — Peeblesshire — Tweedsmuir,  vol.  iii.  p.  56. 

*  Forster's  Researches  about  Atmospherical  Phenomena,  p.  75. 


VOL.  I. 


2i 


498 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


spring,  takinc:  the  annual  mean  as  1,  is, 
according  to  M.  Flaugergues,  in — 

February,     .  .  .         00541 

March,  .  .  .         0-0557 

April,  .  .  .         00802 

Mean  of  spring,     .     0-1900 


It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  figures 
indicate  the  exact  quantity  of  rain  which 
falls  in  the  three  months  of  spring,  as  we 
have  divided  the  seasons.  The  mean- 
ing of  those  fiLniros  is  not  to  represent 
the  actual  amount  of  rain  that  falls  in 
spring;  but,  taking  whatever  the  amount 
of  fall  may  be  in  the  year  as  1,  the  pro- 
portional amount  of  rain  in  the  spring 
months  mentioned,  is  represented  by  the 
figures  given  above.  If,  for  example, 
we  take  26  inches  as  the  amount  of  rain 
which  actually  falls  on  the  east  coast  of 
Britain,  the  quantity  that  falls  in  these 
spring  months  amounts  to  .19  of  26  inches, 
or  4'94  inches. 

2150.  The  number  of  rainy  days  in  the 
same  months  is  as  follows  : — 


February, 
March,  . 
April, 


15-8  days. 
12-7     ~ 
14-0     „ 

42-5 


2151.  Evaporation  is  quick  in  spring, 
especially  with  an  E.  wind,  the  surface  of 
the  ground  being  as  easily  dried  as  wetted. 
Hence  two  or  three  days  of  drought  will 
raise  the  dust  in  March. 

2152.  Sly. — The  sky  is  very  clear  in 
spring  when  the  air  is  free  of  clouds,  and 
of  course  the  blue  colour  is  very  inteuse. 
It  was  a  remark  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
that  the  sky  is  of  the  most  intense  blue 
colour,  just  at  the  change  from  di'ought 
to  deposition. 

2153.  Prognostics. — The  weather  in 
spring  may  be  regarded  as  the  key-stone 
to  that  of  the  ensuing  seasons ;  its  indi- 
cations are  analogous  to  those  of  cirri, 
which  make  the  first  movement  in  the 
upper  regions  of  the  sky,  when  a  change 
is  about  to  take  place  in  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  prognostics  of  spring 
are  therefore  worthy  of  attention,  and  the 
enumeration  of  a  few  of  thera  may  point 
to  that  class  of  phenomena  which  deserves 


the  greatest  attention  at  this  season.  Dr 
Dalton  says,  that  the  barometer  is  at  the 
lowest  of  all  during  a  thaw  following  a 
long  frost,  and  is  often  brought  down  by 
a  S.  W.  wind.  When  the  barometer  ia 
near  the  high  extreme  for  the  season  of 
the  year,  there  is  very  little  probability  of 
immediate  rain.  When  the  barometer  is 
low  for  the  season,  there  is  seldom  a  great 
weight  of  rain,  though  a  fair  day  in  such 
a  case  is  rare :  the  general  tenor  of  the 
weather  at  such  times  is  short,  heavy,  and 
sudden  showers,  with  squalls  of  wind  from 
the  S.W.,  W.  or  N.W.  When  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sky  is  very  promising  for  fair 
weather,  and  the  barometer  at  the  same 
time  low,  it  may  be  depended  upun  that 
the  appearances  wnll  not  so  long  continue. 
The  face  of  the  sky  changes  very  suddenly 
on  such  occasions.  Very  dark  and  dense 
clouds  pass  over  without  rain  -ndien  the 
barometer  is  high ;  whereas,  when  the 
barometer  is  low,  it  sometimes  rains  al- 
most without  any  appearance  of  clouds. 

2154.  A  sudden  and  extreme  change  of 
temperature,  either  from  heat  to  cold,  or 
from  cold  to  heat,  is  generally  followed  by- 
rain  within  24  hours. 

2155.  According  to  the  observations  of 
Dr  Kirwan,  in  the  course  of  41  years 
there  were  6  wet  springs,  22  dry,  and  13 
variable.  He  considered  a  season  wet 
when  it  continued  to  rain  for  two  months  ; 
and  a  season  dri/.,  when  the  quantity  of 
rain  fell  short  of  5  inches.  On  these  data, 
he  said  that  a  dry  spring  was  followed  by 
a  dry  summer  11  times,  a  wet  S  times, 
and  a  variable  3  times  :  a  wet  spring  was 
followed  by  a  dry  summer  0  times,  a  wet 
5  times,  and  a  variable,  once :  a  variable 
spring  was  followed  by  a  dry  summer  5 
times,  a  wet  7  times,  and  a  variable,  once. 

21 56.  During  the  forty-one  years'  obser- 
vations, Dr  Kirwan  farther  concluded 
that,  in  the  beginning  of  any  year,  the 
probability  of  a  dri/  spring  is  as  22  to  41  ; 
of  a?rt'f,  as  6  to  41 ;  of  a  variable  as  13 
to  41. 

2157.  After  a  dri/  spring,  the  proba- 
bility of  a  dry  summer  is  as  11  to  22;  of 
a  wet  as  8  to  22 ;  and  of  a  variable  as  3 
to  22.  After  a  icct  spring,  the  probability 
of  a  dry  summer  is  as  0  to  6 ;  of  a  wet  as 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS. 


499 


5  to  B  ;  aiid  of  a  variable  as  1  to  6.  After 
a  variable  spring,  the  probability  of  a  dry 
summer  is  as  5  to  13  ;  of  a  wet  as  7  to  13 ; 
ftnd  of  a  variable  as  1  to  13. 

2158.  After  a  dr?/  spring  atul  a  dry 
vSummer,  the  probability  of  a  dry  autumn 
is  as  3  to  1  ]  ;  of  a  wet  as  4  to  11;  and 
of  a  variable  as  4  to  11.  After  a  dri/ 
spring  and  tcet  summer,  the  probability  of 
a  dry  autumn  is  as  2  to  8  ;  of  a  wet,  as  0 
to  11;  and  of  a  variable  as  6  to  8.  After 
a  dry  spring  and  variable  summer,  the 
probability  of  a  dry  autumn  is  as  0  to  0  ; 
of  a  wet  as  2  to  3 ;  and  of  a  variable  as 

1  to  2.  After  a  icet  spring  and  dry  sum- 
mer, the  probability  of  a  dry  autumn  is 
as  0  to  41  ;  of  a  wet  as  0  to  41 ;  and  of  a 
variable  as  0  to  41.  After  a  wet  spring 
and  a  icet  summer,  the  probability  of  a 
dry  autumn  is  as  2  to  5 ;  of  a  wet  as  1 
to  5 ;  and  of  a  variable  as  2  to  5.  After 
a  tcet  spring  and  variable  summer,  the 
probability  of  a  dry  autumn  is  as  1  to  41  ; 
of  a  wet  as  0  to  41  ;  and  of  a  variable   as 

2  to  4.  After  a  variable  spring  and  dry 
summer,  the  probability  of  a  dry  autumn 
is  as  1  to  7  ;  of  a  wet  as  1  to  7 ;  and  of  a 
variable  as  5  to  7.  After  a  variable 
spring  and  variable  summer,  the  proba- 
bility of  a  dry  autumn  is  as  0  to  41 ;  of  a 
%vet  as  0  to  41;  and  of  a  variable  as  0  to  41. 

2159.  It  is  believed  by  many  meteo- 
rologists, that  when  the  bodies  constitut- 
ing our' solar  system  are  placed  in  parti- 
cular ]X)sitions  or  angles  to  one  another, 
or  afcct  one  another,  certain  effects  are 
produced  in  our  atmosphere,  which  are 
indicated  by  consequent  atmospherical 
phenomena.  That  increased  and  dimi- 
nished atti'action  exist  between  the  mem- 
bers of  our  solar  system,  as  they  may 
relatively  be  placed  to  one  another,  at  any 
particular  time,  admits  of  easy  belief,  in  a 
system  so  firmly  balanced  as  the  solar 
system  must  be ;  but  what  the  amount  of 
the  mutual  eflects  upon  one  another,  at 
any  time,  must  be,  is  a  result  which  long, 
laborious,  and  continued  observation  alone 
can  inform  us.  It  is  quite  reasonable  to 
suppose,  however,  that  the  sun,  being  so 
very  much  larger  a  body  than  any  other 
in  the  system,  must  produce  effects  much 
greater  than  any  of  the  planets  ;  and  his 
aspects  must  be  far  more  important,  both 
in  power  and  duration,  than  the  others. 


The  others  are  supposed  rarely  to  act 
beyond  three  days  before  and  after  their 
peculiar  aspects. 

2160.  As  regards  the  general  character 
of  the  moon's  aspects  with  the  sun,  it  has 
been  observed  that  the  full  moon  and  the 
quarters  are  less  powerful  to  cause  changes 
tlian  the  new  moon  and  the  semi-squares 
and  sesque-squares.  Changes  sometimes 
take  place  at  the  trines,  or  distance  of  120 
degrees  ;  and  this  aspect  seems  to  act  more 
powerfully  to  produce  wind,  (if  there  be 
any  influences  in  operation  at  the  time  to 
cause  wind,)  than  any  other.  Thus,  if 
there  be  a  high  wind,  and  the  moon  be 
coming  to  the  trine  of  the  sun,  the  gale  will 
be  very  furious  about  the  time  of  the  as- 
pect :  also,  the  full  moon  appears  to  be 
m  ore  frequently  attended  by  wi  ndy  weather 
than  any  other,  though  the  trine  exceeds  it 
in  the  force  of  the  wind.  By  what  has 
been  advanced,  it  will  appear  that  the 
moon  does  not  act,  like  the  planets,  by 
her  own  original  power,  but  that,  when  she 
forms  aspects  with  the  sun  and  planets 
simultaneously,  she  appears  to  play  the 
part  of  an  electric  conductor,  and  fires  the 
train  already  laid,  and  ready  to  explode. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  electrical 
changes  in  the  air  occur  when  the  moon 
aspects  the  sun,  or  passes  the  equator  or 
tropics. 

21  Gl.  Many  prognostics  of  the  weather 
have  been  receiveil  as  proverbs  by  the 
country  people ;  and  as  these  have  only 
become  current  after  mature  experience, 
we  may  rely  on  their  accuracy.  The  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  relating  to  the  months 
of  spring  in  tlje  order  we  have  always 
placed  them. 

FEBRUARY. 

February  fill  dyke,  be  it  black  or  be  it  white ; 
But  if  it  be  white,  it's  the  better  to  like. 
The  hind  has  as  leif  see  his  wife  on  the  bier, 
As  that  Candlemas  day  should  be  pleasant  and 
clear. 

MARCH, 

March  hack  ham,  comes  in  like  a  lion,  goes  out 

like  a  lamb. 
A  bushel  of  Match  dust  is  worth  a  king's  ransom. 
March  grass  never  did  good. 
A  windy  March,  and  a  showery  April,  make  a 

beautiful  May. 
March  wind  and  May  sun 
Make  clothes  white  and  maids  dun. 


500 


TRACTICE— SPRING. 


So  many  frosts  in  March,  so  many  in  May. 
March  many  weathers. 
March  birds  are  best. 

APRIL. 
April  showers  bring  forth  May  flowers. 
Cliaucer  writes  in  his  Canterbury  tales: — 

When  that  Aprilis  with  her  showery  soote 

The  droughte  of  March  had  pierced  to  the  roote. 

When  April  blows  his  horn, 

It's  good  both  for  hay  and  com. 

A  cold  April  the  bam  will  filL 

2162.  The  equinoctial  flowers  may  be 
said  to  commence  with  the  first  break- 
ing of  the  frost  before  February.  These 
comprehend  the  snow -drop,  the  crocus,  the 
colt's- foot, all  the  tribe  of  daffodils,  narcissi, 
jonquils,  hyacinths,  primrose,  cyclamen, 
beart's-ease,  violet,  cowslips,  crown  impe- 
rial, and  many  others ;  and  every  prog- 
nostic connected  with  these  plants  is  of 
course  indicative  of  the  season  of  spring. 

2163.  Rain  may  be  expected  when  the 
swallow  flies  low,  and  skims  backward 
and  forward  over  the  surface  of  the  earth 
and  waters,  frequently  dipping  the 
tips  of  its  wings  into  the  latter,  because 
the  insects  have  descended  from  the  air 
to  avoid  the  approaching  rain.  A  super- 
stitious respect  is  paid  to  the  swallow  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  even  at  the 
present  day.  Their  nests  are  protected,  and 
it  is  considered  unlucky  to  molest  them 
even  by  accident.  This  is  a  very  old  opin- 
ion, mentioned  by  many  writers ;  and  the 
circumstance  of  their  building  so  close  to 
the  habitation  of  man,  indicates  that  they 
have  long  enjoyed  freedom  from  molesta- 
tion. This  resj)ect  may  have  originated 
inthebirdbeing  the  harbinger  of  spring,  and 
from  its  inhabiting  churches,  temples,  and 
other  sacred  places,  and  perhaps,  in  some 
measure,  from  its  utility  in  clearing  the 
air  of  insects.  Swallows  at  one  time,  among 
the  Greeks,  appear  to  have  been  regarded 
as  an  evil  omen,  when  a  flock  of  them 
settled  on  a  tent  or  ship — their  low  flight 
indicating  rain,  and  their  settling  on  build- 
ings is  an  autumnal  custom,  previous  to 
their  departure,  and  to  the  commencement 
of  wintry  weather:  hence  it  is,  perhaps, 
they  have  been  considered  as  portending 
evil. 


2164.  The  modem  husbandman  smiles 
at  the  precisi<m  observed  by  the  ancients 
in  sowing,  planting,  reaping,  and  otlier 
rustic  operations  on  particular  days.  This 
practice,  however,  till  within  a  very  late 
period,  was  common  in  Europe,  and  even 
to  this  day  is  observed  in  many  parts  of 
Britain.  Kay,  in  his  Proverbs,  observes — 
"  Sow  or  set  beans  in  Candlemas  waddle," 
that  is,  in  the  wane  of  the  moon,  which 
is  nearest  to  the  festival  of  the  Purifica- 
tion. These  old  rustic  rules  correspond 
to  the  numerous  observations  in  the 
Opera  ct  Dies  of  Hesiod  and  other  ancient 
writers.* 

2165.  The  only  observation  applicable 
to  spring  that  I  can  find  of  the  Shepherd 
of  Banbury  is,  that,  "  if  the  last  eighteen 
days  of  February  and  ten  days  of  March 
be  for  the  most  part  rainy,  then  the  spring 
and  summer  quarters  are  like  to  be  so  too  ; 
and  I  never  knew  a  great  drought  but  it 
entered  in  that  season."  t 

2166.  It  is  in  spring  that  certain  kinds 
of  cutaneous  eruptions  usually  appear;  and, 
to  prevent  sucli  maladies,  it  used  to  be  the 
practice,  if  not  so  yet,  to  administer  pur- 
gative medicine  to  young  people  every 
spring. 

2167.  A  phenomenon  sometimes  occurs 
in  spring,  which,  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances, injures  plants  irremediably  for  the 
season,  and  even  kills  them.  When 
hoar-frost  occurs  copiously  in  a  calm  clear 
evening,  and  should  the  clearness  of  the 
air  continue  until  the  sun  rises  cloudless 
in  the  east,  the  sudden  melting  of  the 
hoar-frost  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  has  the 
efl'ect  of  scorching,  as  if  by  fire,  upon  the 
tender  twigs  of  plants  ;  and  should  the  sap, 
moreover,  be  in  a  state  of  activity,  and  the 
young  leaves  budding  forth,  the  leaves  will 
not  only  be  scorched,  but  all  the  branches 
bearing  them  will  die  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days.  This  effect  may  be  seen  along  the 
east  side  of  a  thorn  hedge,  after  the  leaves 
have  been  partially  developed ;  and  such 
was  the  general  effect  of  this  scorching, 
in  the  spring  of  1837,  that  every  beech, 
plane,  or  oak,  that  was  coming  into  leaf 


were  destroyed;  and  even  many  evergreens, 
that  had  withstood   forty  winters,  which 

Forster'a  lU»earchts  about  Atmofpherkal  Pheuomina,  p.  284. 
t  The  Shepherd  of  Banbury's  Rules,  p.  44. 


SUMMARY  OF  FIELD  OPERATIONS. 


501 


happened  to  be  exposed  to  its  influence, 
were  also  rendered  lifeless  masses.  Such 
■was  the  intensity  of  cold  produced  by  the 
sudden  evaporation  of  the  hoar-frost  by 
the  sun's  heat,  that  the  sap  was  frozen, 
and  the  sap  vessels  ruptured,  inconsequence 
of  the  expansion  of  the  ice. 

2168.  During  a  snow-storm  in  spring, 
wild  birds,  becoming  almost  famished,  re- 
sort to  the  haunts  of  man.  The  robin  is  a 
constant  A^isitor,  and  helps  himself  with 
confidence  to  the  crumbs  placed  for  his 
use.  The  male  partridge  calls  in  the  even- 
ing within  sight  of  the  house,  in  hopes  of 
obtaining  some  support  before  collecting 
his  covey  together  for  the  night  to  rest 
upon  the  snow.  In  the  severe  snow-storm 
of  1823,  several  coveys  used  to  approach 
my  own  door  at  sunset,  and  oftentimes,  ere 
putting  down  the  sheaf  of  barley  for  their 
nightly  meal,  at  the  root  of  an  old  beech- 
tree,  the  old  cocks  announced  their  arrival 
by  the  loud  chirrup-like  call.  I  believethat, 
had  it  not  been  for  this  timely  supply  of 
food,  many  coveys  of  partridges  would  have 
perished  in  the  severity  and  length  of  that 
memorable  storm.  Hares  came  to  the  very 
door  in  the  evening,  and  through  the  night 
in  the  moonlight,  to  receive  the  food  set 
down  for  them ;  and  so  powerful  a  tamer 
is  hunger  of  the  most  timorous  creatures, 
that  even  the  wood-pigeons,  in  large  flocks, 
used  daily  to  frequent  an  orchard  imme- 
diately behind  tlie  house,  to  pick  the  tall 
curly  greens  which  overtopped  the  snow, 
■ — their  favourite  food,  the  Swedish  turnip, 
being  then  buried  in  the  fields  beneath 
the  snow.  The  rooks  now  make  desperate 
attacks  upon  the  stacks,  and,  if  allowed, 
will  soon  make  their  way  through  the 
thatch.  Making  their  attacks  upon  the 
top,  they  seem  to  be  aware  of  the  exact 
place  where  the  corn  can  be  most  easily 
reached.  The  sparrows  burrow  in  the 
thatch  ;  and  even  the  lively  tom-tit,  with  a 
strength  and  perseverance,  one  should 
suppose,  beyond  its  ability,  pulls  out 
whole  straws  from  the  sides  of  the  stacks, 
to  procure  the  grain  in  the  ear. 

2169.  Further  on  in  the  season,  the  in- 
sect world  come  into  active  life  in  myriads, 
to  serve  as  food  for  the  feathered  tribes. 
Rooks,  with  sturdy  walk  and  independent 
gait,  diligently  search  the  ground  for  them, 
in  the  wake  of  the  plough,  and  feed  their 


young  therewith.  Tom-tits  clamber  round 
every  branch  of  the  trees  which  indicate 
an  opening  of  their  floret  buds.  The 
swallow^s  at  length  appear,  giving  anima- 
tion to  tiie  air,  and  the  stream  of  migra- 
tion to  the  N.  betokens  the  approach  of 
genial  weather. 

2170.  "  By  the  time  the  season  is  fairly 
confirmed,  the  leisure-hours  of  the  cot- 
tagers," and  of  the  ploughmen,  who  are 
cottagers  of  the  best  kind,  are  spent,  in  the 
evening,  "  in  the  pleasing  labour,  not  un- 
accompanied with  amusement,  of  trimming 
their  little  gardens,  and  getting  in  their 
early  crops.  There  is  no  sort  of  village 
occupation  which  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren set  about  with  greater  glee  and  ani- 
mation than  this  ;  for,  independently  of 
the  hope  of  the  produce,  there  is  a  pleasure 
to  the  simple  and  unsophisticated  heart  in 
'  seeing  things  grow,'  which,  perhaps,  they 
who  feel  the  most  are  least  able  to  explain. 
Certain  it  is,  however,  that  it  would  be 
highly  desirable,  that  not  only  every  coun- 
try labourer,  but  every  artisan  in  towns, 
where  these  are  not  so  large  as  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  it,  should  have  a  little  bit 
of  garden,  and  should  fulfil  the  duty  Avhich 
devolved  on  man  in  a  state  of  innocence, 
'  to  keep  it  and  to  dress  it.'  It  is  impos- 
sible for  any  one  who  has  not  carefully 
attended  to  the  subject,  to  be  at  all  aware 
how  strong  the  tie  is  which  binds  man  even 
to  a  little  spot  of  his  native  earth,  if  so  be 
that  he  can  consider  it  as  his  own,  and  that 
he  himself,  and  those  on  whom  he  loves  to 
bestow  it,  are  to  enjoy  the  fruit.  This  is 
the  very  strongest  natural  hold  which  binds 
a  poor  man  to  his  country,  and  to  all  those 
institutions  established  for  the  wellbeing 
of  society.  Show  rac  the  cottage,  the 
roses  and  the  honeysuckles  on  which  are 
neatly  trimmed  and  trained,  and  the  gar- 
den behind  is  well  stocked  with  culinary 
herbs  and  a  few  choice  flowers,  and  I  will 
speedily  find  you  a  cottager  who  never 
wastes  his  time  or  money,  or  debases  his 
mind,  and  learns  '  the  broad  road  which 
leadeth  to  destruction,'  in  the  contamina- 
tion of  an  alehouse.  If  the  garden  is 
neat,  one  may  rest  assured  that  the 
cottage,  however  humble  it  is,  is  the  abode 
of  contentment  and  happiness;  and  that, 
however  simple  the  fare  may  be,  it  is 
wealth  and  luxury  in  full  store  to  the  in- 
mates, because  they  are  satisfied  Avith  it, 


502 


PRACTICE-SPRING. 


and  grateful  for  the  possession  of  it."  *  I 
bcJieve  that  the  contentment  of  the  lot  of 
the  Scottish  married  ploughmen,  and  of 
the  attachment  to  tiie  farm  upon  which 
they  serve,  may  be  traced  to  the  principles 
evolved  in  these  remarks.  No  doubt, 
n)uch  yet  remains  to  be  done  to  inculcate 
on  them  and  their  families  the  advantages 
of  j)ractising  habits  of  ])ors()nal  and  domes- 
tic cleanliness.  Hinds'  houses,  in  this  re- 
spect, might  be  much  improved ;  and  if 
tliej  were,  an  air  of  tidiness  and  comfort 
would  attend  their  dwellings,  which  at 
present  is  too  generally  awanting.  A  great 
ileal  depends  on  the  example  of  the  farmer 
himself;  for  while  he  keeps  hisgarden  and 
shrubbery  and  little  avenue  in  a  slovenly 
manner,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  in  servants 
to  evince  a  desire  to  excel  their  master. 

2171.  A  farmer's  garden  gets  a  trim- 
ming twice  or  thrice  a-year,  and  in  the 
mean  season  weeds  riot  on  without  mo- 
lestation, and  its  produce  is  plucked  as  best 
8uits  tlie  convenience  or  caprice  of  the 
kitchen-maid.  Doubtless,  considerable 
croj)s  of  vegetables  are  raised  in  these 
gardens  ;  more  by  strength  of  manure  than 
skill  of  culture.  It  is,  1  am  aware,  incon- 
veuientto  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  pro- 
fessional gardener  in  the  country  when  his 
services  may  be  most  wanted;  but  when  a 
hedger  is  employed  on  a  farm,  he  should 
leani  as  much  of  the  art  of  gardening  as 
to  be  able  to  keep  the  farmer's  garden  in 
decent  order  in  the  absence  of  the  gardener, 
v,'liose  principal  duty  should  be  to  crop  the 
ground  in  the  respective  seasons.  A  field- 
worker  now  and  then  could  keep  the  weeds 
in  subjection,  and  allow  both  the  sun  and 
air  free  access  to  the  growing  plants. 

2172.  Towards  the  end  of  spring,  the 
farmer  thinks  of  disposing  of  his  fat  cattle  ; 
but,  should  he  not  be  offered  the  price  he 
considers  them  worth,  he  keeps  them  on, 
and  even  determines  to  put  them  to  grass. 
The  dealer  and  butcher  affect  shyness  in 
I»urchasing  at  this  season,  knowing  the 
abundance  of  fat  stock  in  the  country ;  but 
are,  nevertheless,  unwilling  to  allow  a 
prime  lot  slii>  through  their  hands,  and, 
therefore,  keep  a  sharp  look-out  on  all  the 
best  stock  for  disposal.  The  ready  means 
of  steam    conveyance  to    London  i'or  fat 


stock  and  dead  meat,  gives  the  farmer  a 
great  advantage  over  the  butcher,  which 
the  latter  now  avails  himself  of  by  closing 
a  ready  bargain  on  the  best  conditions  he 
can  make. 

2 1 73.  Spring  is  the  season  for  the  letting 
of  grass  parks.  These  usually  belong  to 
landed  j)roprietors,  and  form  a  portion  of 
their  park  or  lawn.  The  ready  demand 
for  such  grass  parks  induces  the  retention 
of  jdeasure-grounds  in  permanent  pasture, 
while  it  removes  every  temj>tation  in  their 
owners  to  speculate  in  the  purchasing  and 
grazing  of  cattle.  It  is  not  customary  for 
farmers  to  let  their  grass-parks,  except  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns,  where 
cowfeeders  and  butchers  tempt  them  with 
high  prices.  Pasture  grass  is  so  conveni- 
ent for  the  stock  of  those  classes  of  people, 
that  they  will  give  any  price  for  it  rather 
than  want  it.  In  regard  to  the  effect 
which  letting  of  grass-parks  by  tenant« 
has  on  the  rights  of  the  landlord,  I  may 
mention  that  his  "hypothec  extends  ove:f 
the  crops  and  live-stock  of  the  tenant,  in- 
cluding horses,  cows,  sheep,  cattle,  and 
every  tlescription  of  stock  raised  on   the 

farm,  but  it  does  not  extend  to  the  cattle 
of  others  taken  in  to  graze.  On  this 
ground  it  has  been  held  an  irritancy  of  the 
lease,  should  the  tenant,  instead  of  stock- 
ing the  farm,  take  in  cattle  to  graze,  and 
thereby  give  the  landlord  no  security  for 
his  rent. — (MacKye,  December  4,  1780, 
M.  6214.)"  t  Facility  of  obtaining  grass- 
parks  in  the  country  is  at  tinies  useful  to 
the  farmer  who  raises  grazing  stock,  by 
putting  it  in  his  power  to  give  them,  per- 
haps, a  better  bite  or  warmer  shelter  than 
he  can  offer  them  himself,  on  the  division 
of  the  farm  which  happens  to  be  in  grass. 

2174.  The  landed  proprietor  has  also  to 
seek  a  market  in  sjtring  for  his  timber, 
which  he  annually  fells  in  thinning  his 
])lantations.  Such  sales  afford  convenient 
supplies  to  farmers  in  want  of  paliuir  for 
fencing  new  hedges,  wood  for  sheep-Hakes 
or  stobs,  or  timber  for  the  erection  of 
shedding  for  animals,  or  for  implements. 
They  are  also  serviceable  to  country  join- 
ers and  implement-makers,  in  affording 
them  necessary  materials  nigh  at  hand. 
The  tindjer  is  felled  by  the  owner,  and 


"  Mudie's  Spring,  p.  274-5. 


+  The  Farmer's  Laayer,  p.  46. 


FIELD  WORK  SHOULD  BE  IN  ADVANCE. 


503 


assorted  into  the  sizes  and  kinds  of  lots 
■which  he  knows  will  best  suit  the  local 
demand.  Prunings  and  small  thinnings 
ai"e  sold  as  firewood,  and  purchased 
by  cottagers  who  cannot  afford  to  buy 
coal,  and  by  farmers  who  have  to  supply 
fufel  to  the  farm  servants  that  occupy 
bothies. 

2175.  Mean  of  the  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena occurring  in  spring  is  as  follows : — 

Mean  of  the  barometer  in  England  in 


February, 

March, 

April, 


29-81  inches. 
29-83      ^ 
29-86      ^ 


Mean  of  spring,        29-83 

Mean  of  the  thermometer  in  England  in 
February,  .         .         36°-9  Fahr. 

March,       .         .         .         40°-8     ^ 
April,        .        .        .        45°-8    ^ 

Mean  of  spring,        40°-9 

Tension  of  vapour  for  40°-9=8-36. 

Mean  fall  of  rain  in  England  in 

February,  .         .         1-64  inch. 

March,      .         .         .         1'75     ~. 
April,         .         .         .         1-59     -. 

Mean  of  spring,        1'66 

Prevailing   winds   in   England   in   February, 
March,  and  April,  N.E.  and  S.W. 

Number  of  storms  in  the  west  of  Europe  in 
spring  is  17'7  in  100. 

Number  of  hail-storms  in  England  in  spring  is 
29-5  in  100 

Number  of  aurora  borealis  in 

February,  .         .         307  times. 

March,        .         .         .         440      _ 
April  .         .         .         312      ^ 

Number  of  fire-balls  seen  in 

February,  ....  50 

March, 50 

April, 45 


ON  THK  ADVANTAGES  OF  HAVING  FIELD 
WORK  ALWAYS  IN  A  STATE  OF  FOR- 
WARDNESS. 

2176.  The  season — early  spring — hav- 
ing arrived,  when  the  labouring  and  sowing 
of  the  land  for  the  various  crops  cultivated 


on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry  are  about 
to  occupy  all  hands  for  several  months  to 
come,  the  injunction  of  old  Tusser,  to 
undertake  them  in  time,  so  that  each  may 
be  finislied  in  its  proper  season,  should  be 
regarded  as  sound  advice ;  for  whenever 
field  labour  is  advanced  ever  so  little  at 
every  opportunity  of  weather  and  leisure, 
no  premature  approach  of  the  ensuing  sea- 
son can  come  unawares ;  and  no  delay 
beyond  its  usual  period  will  find  you  un- 
prepared to  })roceed  with  the  work.  When 
work  proceeds  by  degrees,  there  is  time  to 
do  it  effectually;  and  if  it  is  not  so  done, 
you  have  yourself  to  blame  for  not  looking 
after  it.  When  work  is  advancing  by 
degrees,  it  should  not  be  done  in  a  careless 
manner,  to  impress  the  work-people  with 
the  non-importance  of  what  they  are 
doing.  The  advantage  of  doing  even  a 
little  effectually  is  not  to  have  it  to  do 
over  again  afterwards;  and  a  small  piece 
of  work  may  be  done  as  tcell^  and  in  as 
short  a  time,  in  proportion,  as  a  greater 
operation.  Even  if  only  one  man  is  kept 
constantly  at  the  plough,  he  would  turn 
over,  in  the  course  of  a  time  considered 
short  when  looked  back  upon,  an  extent 
of  ground  almost  incredible.  He  will 
turn  over  an  imperial  acre  a  day — that  is, 
6  acres  a  week,  24  acres  in  a  month,  and 
72  acres  in  the  course  of  the  dark  and 
short  days  of  the  winter  quarter.  All  this 
he  will  accomplish  on  the  supposition  that 
he  has  been  enabled  to  go  at  the  plough 
every  working  day;  but  as  that  cannot 
probably  happen  in  the  winter  quarter, 
suppose  he  turns  over  50  acres  in  that 
time,  these  will  still  comprehend  the  whole 
extent  of  ground  allotted  to  be  worked  by 
every  pair  of  horses  in  the  year.  Thus  is 
a  large  proportion  of  a  whole  year's  work 
done  in  a  single,  and  in  the  shortest, 
quarter  of  the  year. 

2177.  Now,  a  week  or  two  may  quickly 
pass  in  winter,  in  doing  things  which,  in 
fact,  amount  to  time  being  thrown  away — 
such  as  sending  away  all  the  teams  to  a 
stock  corn-market,  on  a  day  when  there  is 
little  prospect  of  disposing  of  the  grain, 
and  when  of  course  they  would  have  been 
better  employed  at  home  at  the  plough ; 
or  driving  some  material  on  the  farm, 
which  would  have  been  easier  done  when 
the  ploughs  were  laid  idle  at  any  rate  by 
frost ;  or  setting  men  to  thrash  or  winnow 


504 


PRACTICE— SPPwING. 


corn,  and  allowing  the  horses  to  be  idle  for 
the  time;  or  contriving  some  unimportant 
work  to  fill  up  the  time  for  half  a  day. 
Such  instances  of  raisdirected  labour  are 
only  reirarded  as  trifles  in  icinter  ;  but 
they  occujn'  as  much  tini4;  as  more  impor- 
tant wurk — and  in  a  season,  too,  when 
every  operation  of  the  field  is  preparatory 
to  others  to  be  executed  in  a  more  busy 
season.  The  state  of  the  work  should  be  a 
topic  for  the  farmer's  frequent  c<jnsidera- 
tion,  whether  or  not  it  is  as  far  advanced 
as  it  should  be  ;  but  rather  than  accuse 
himself  of  neglect,  should  the  work  be 
backward,  he  consoles  his  unsatisfied  mind 
that  when  the  season  for  active  work 
really  arrives,  the  people  will  be  able  to 
make  up  for  the  lost  time.  Mere  delusion ; 
for  if  work  can  be  made  up,  so  can  time, 
the  two  being  inseparable ;  and  yet,  how 
can  lost  time  be  made  up,  when  every 
moment  of  the  year  has  its  work,  and 
when  that  period,  long  as  it  seems,  is 
usually  fjund  too  short  in  which  to  do 
everything  as  it  ou^ht  to  be  done.  The 
result  is,  that  the  neglected  work  must  be 
done  in  an  imprecedentedly  short  time,  and 
consequently  in  an  inefficient  manner. 

2178.  Convinced  that_/fcW-labour should 
be  p^rseveringly  advanced  in  winter,  when- 
ever practicable,  I  am  of  opinion  that  plan 
is  good  which  app<^)rtions  ploughmen  to  dif- 
ferent departments  of  labour  —  some  to 
work  constantly  on  the  farm,  others 
occasionally  to  go  from  home — some  as 
constantly  as  possible  at  the  plough, 
others  fre«|uently  at  the  cart.  Thus  the 
benefits  of  the  subdivision  of  labour  are  ex- 
tended to  farm  oi>eralions.  When  a  certain 
prop<^rtion  of  the  draughts  are  appointed 
especially  to  plough,  that  most  important 
of  all  o]>erations  will  not  only  be  well,  but 
perseveringly  executed.  This  proportion 
of  the  ploughmen  will  only  be  legitimately 
employed  at  any  other  work  when  there 
is  no  ploughing  to  be  executed.  Ploughing 
being  a  steady  occupation,  not  subject  to 
irregular  action  like  the  cart,  may  be  per- 
formed by  the  older  men  and  horses. 

2179.  It  may  be  proper  to  give  a  fami- 
liar example  of  what  I  mean  by  havinir 

^W-labour  advanced  at  every  opportunity. 
The  work  in  spring  is  to  sow  the  ensuing 
crrips;  it  should  therefore  be  the  study  of 
the  farmer  in  winter  to  advance  the  spring 


sowing.  When  the  weather  is  tempting 
to  sow  spring-wheat,  then  let  a  portion  of 
the  land,  cleared  of  turnips  by  the  sheep, 
be  ploughed  to  answer  wheat  instead  of 
barley.  If  beans  are  desiderated,  then  let 
the  particular  ploughing  suited  to  their 
growth  be  executed  ;  and  in  whatever 
mode  the  beans  are  to  be  cultivated,  care 
should  be  taken  in  winter  to  have  the  land 
appointed  fur  them  particularly  dry,  by 
letting  off  the  surface-water  in  winter  by 
a  few  additional  gaw-cuts  where  necessary, 
or  by  deepening  those  already  existing. 
Where  common  oats  are  to  be  sown,  they 
being  sown  earlier  than  the  other  sorts, 
the  lea  intended  for  them  should  be  plough- 
ed first,  and  the  land  kept  dry  in  winter; 
so  that  the  most  unpropitious  weather  iu 
spring  may  not  find  the  land  in  an  un- 
prepared state.  The  land  intended  for 
potatoes,  for  lumips,  or  tares,  or  bare  fal- 
low, should  be  prepared  in  their  respective 
order  ;  and  when  every  one  of  all  these 
objects  have  been  promoted,  and  there  is 
little  or  nothing  to  do  till  the  burst  of 
spring-work  arrives,  horses  and  men  may 
l>jth  enjoy  a  day's  rest  now  and  then, 
without  incurring  the  risk  of  throwing  the 
work  back  ;  but  before  any  recreation  be 
indulged  in,  it  should  l»e  ascertained  that 
all  the  implements  required  for  the  spring- 
work,  great  and  small,  have  been  repaired 
for  work — the  plough-irons  ne.v  laid — the 
harrow-lines  new  laid,  shar{>ened,  and 
firmly  fastened  —  the  hames-  tight  and 
strong — the  sacks  patched  and  darned,  that 
no  seed-c<>rii  be  spilt  upon  the  road — the 
seed-corn  thrashed,  measured  up^  and 
sacked,  and  what  may  be  last  wanted  put 
into  the  granary — the  horses  new  shod, 
that  no  casting  or  breaking  of  a  single 
shoe  may  throw  a  pair  of  hordes  out  of 
work  for  even  one  single  hour — in  short, 
to  have  everything  ready  to  start  for  the 
work  whenever  the  first  notice  of  spring 
shall  be  heralded  in  the  sky. 

2180.  But  suppose  the  contrary  of  all 
this  to  h.ippen — that  the  plough-irons  and 
harrow-tines  have  to  be  laid  aud  sharjien- 
ed,  when  perhaps  to-morrow  they  may  be 
wanted  in  the  field — a  stack  to  be  thrashed 
for  seed-corn  or  for  horse's-com  when  the 
sowing  of  a  field  should  be  proceeding  ; 
suppose  that  only  a  week's  work  has  b^n 
lost,  in  winter,  of  a  sin  trie  pair  of  horses, 
the  consequence  will  be  in  spring  that  6 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


505 


acres  of  land  have  to  be  ploughed  when 
they  should  have  been  sown  :  all  which  in- 
conveniences happen  in  the  busy  season,  by 
trifling  offputs  in  winter.  Compare  the 
value  of  those  trifles  with  the  risk  of  finding 
the  land  unprepared  for  sowing  beans  or 
spring-wheat.  Again,  instead  of  having 
turnips  in  store  for  the  cattle,  when  the  oat- 
seed  is  begun,  you  are  obliged  to  send  away 
apart  of  the  draughts  to  fetch  turnips — the 
consequence  will  be,  that  turnips  cannot  be 
stored,  and  the  cattle  will  have  to  be  sup- 
plied with  them  from  the  field  during  all 
that  busy  season.  In  short,  sup2)ose  that 
the  season  of  incessant  labour  arrives  and 
finds  you  unprepared  to  go  along  with  it, — 
and  what  must  be  the  consequences  ? 
Every  creature  about  you,  man,  woman, 
and  beast,  will  then  be  toiled  beyond  en- 
durance every  day,  not  to  keep  up  work, 
which  is  a  lightsome  task,  but  to  make  up 
work,  which  is  a  toilsome  burden.  Time 
was  lost  when  you  were  idling  it  in  a 
season  you  consider  of  little  value ;  and, 
after  all,  the  toil  will  be  bestowed  in  vain, 
as  it  will  be  impossible  for  you  to  sow  your 
crop  in  due  season.  Those  experienced 
in  procrastination  may  fancy  this  to  be  a 
highly  coloured  picture ;  but  it  is  drawn 
from  the  life.  I  have  observed  every  inci- 
dent I  have  mentioned,  not,  it  is  true, 
in  any  one  year,  but  some  in  one,  and 
some  in  other  years ;  and  what  may  occur 
in  difierent  years  may  all  occur  in  one. 


ON  THE  CALVING  OF  COWS. 

2181.  The  first  great  event  in  spring,  on 
a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry,  is  the  calving 
of  the  cows  ;  not  that  this  event  should 
not  occur  until  spring — for  most  breeders 
of  farm-stock  are  anxious  to  have  calves 
early,  particularly  bull-calves,  and  for 
tbat  purpose  calves  are  born  as  early  as 
December  and  January — but  by  far  the 
largest  proportion  of  cows  are  not  desired 
to  calve  until  February,  and  the  season  of 
calving  continues  in  good  time  till  the 
middle  of  April ;  after  which,  in  May,  the 
calves  are  accounted  late,  and  then  seldom 
retained  as  part  of  the  hreed'mg-^iof^^ 
namely,  that  specially  set  aside  to  propa- 
gate its  kind.  Reluctance  to  late  calves 
arises  from  no  objection  to  their  purity  of 
breeding — for  earliuess  or  lateness  of  birth 
can  have  no  eflect  in  that  respect;  but 


chiefly  because  an  early  calf  possesses  the 
advantage  of  having  passed  through  its 
period  of  milking  in  time  to  be  supported 
on  grass,  as  soon  as  that  affords  a  sufticiency 
of  food.  From  8  to  10  weeks  at  this 
season  is  a  period  of  great  anxiety  for  the 
state  of  the  cows;  and,  indeed,  till  her 
calving  is  safely  over,  the  life  of  every 
cow  is  in  jeopardy.  Every  care,  there- 
fore, that  can  conduce  to  her  passing  in 
safety  over  this  critical  period,  ought  to 
be  cheerfully  bestowed. 

2182.  The  treatment  of  cows  in  winter, 
in  respect  to  food  and  exercise,  will  be 
found  in  (1164,  1183,  1191,  1192,1198.) 
When  the  cow  first  shows  heavy  in  calf, 
which  is  usually  after  the  6th  month,  the 
litter  in  the  court  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  too  deep,  as  over-exertion  in  walk- 
ing over  rather  soft  loose  litter  and  dung, 
may  cause  such  an  excited  action  of  the 
animal's  system,  and  most  probably  of  the 
womb,  as  to  make  her  slip  calf.  The 
litter  in  a  court  constantly  trampled  by 
cattle  at  freedom,  becomes  firm,  and  aftbrds 
a  good  footing  ;  but  the  case  is  difierent  in 
a  cows'-court,  which  is  usually  filled  with 
loose  litter  wheeled  from  the  byre;  and 
as  this  is  walked  upon  only  for  a  short 
time  every  day,  and  cows  in  calf  are  not 
disposed  to  roam  much  about,  it  never 
becomes  firm.  To  render  the  litter  as 
firm  as  can  be  under  the  circumstances, 
the  cattle-man  should  spread  every  barrow- 
ful  as  he  wheels  it  out,  taking  care  to  mix 
the  straw  with  the  dung  in  due  proportions. 

2183.  Cows,  as  they  calve,  and  after  it 
is  considered  safe  for  them  to  go  out  in 
the  air  again,  should  not  be  allowed  to  go 
into  the  court  at  the  same  time  with  those 
yet  to  calve ;  as  calved  cows  soon  come  into 
season,  that  is,  become  desirous  of  the 
bull ;  and  when  in  this  state  a  desire  pre- 
vails on  the  part  of  the  other  cows  to  ride 
upon  them,  and,  what  is  remarkable,  it  is 
strongest  in  those  cows  yet  uncalved.  As 
may  be  supposed,  such  violent  exertion, 
made  on  soft  litter,  is  likely  to  prove 
injurious  to  uncalved  cows,  by  causing 
inversion  of  the  calf  in  the  womb,  febrile 
action,  or  slipping  of  the  calf.  The  time 
of  the  day  at  which  cows  in  these  difterent 
states  may  go  out,  should  be  left  to  the 
discretiun  of  the  cattle-man,  who  should 
consider  that  as  cows,  after  having  calved, 


506 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


become  more  tender  in  their  habit  than 
before,  they  should  enjoy  tlie  best  part  of 
the  day  ;  that  is,  from  12  to  2  o'clock, 

2184.  Cows  may  he  ascertained  to  he  in 
calf  between  the  5th  and  Gth  months  of 
their  gestation.  The  calf  quickens  at  be- 
tween 4  and  5  months.  The  calf  may  be 
felt  by  thrusting  the  points  of  the  lingers 
against  the  right  flank  of  the  cow,  when  a 
hard  lump  will  bound  against  the  ab- 
domen, and  be  communicated  to  the  fingers. 
Or  when  a  j)ailful  of  cold  water  is  drunk 
by  the  cow,  the  calf  kicks,  when  ;i  con- 
vulsive sort  of  motion  may  be  observed  in 
the  tlauk,  by  looking  at  it  from  behind, 
and,  if  the  open  hand  is  then  laid  upon  the 
space  between  the  flank  and  udder,  this 
motion  may  be  most  distinctly  felt.  It  is 
not  in  every  case  that  the  calf  can  be  felt 
at  so  early  a  period  of  its  existence ;  for 
lying  then  in  its  natural  position  in  the 
interior  of  the  womb,  it  cannot  be  felt 
at  all  ;  and  when  it  lies  near  the  left  side 
of  the  cow,  it  is  not  so  easily  felt  as  on  the 
opposite  one.  So  that,  although  the  calf 
cannot  ha  felt  at  that  early  stage,  it  is  no 
proof  that  the  cow  is  not  in  calf.  Some 
cow-dealers  show  great  acuteness  in  ascer- 
taining whether  a  cow  is  in  calf.  One 
whom  I  knew,  that  was  bred  a  tailor,  told 
me  that  when  a  resinous-looking  substance 
can  be  drawn  from  the  teats  by  stripping 
them  firmly,  the  cow  is  sure  to  be  preg- 
nant. After  5  or  6  months,  the  flank  in 
the  right  side  fills  up,  and  the  general 
enlargement  of  the  under  part  of  the  ab- 
domen aflbrds  an  unequivocal  symptom  of 
pregnancy.  But  there  is  no  necessity  of 
thus  trying  whether  a  cow  is  in  calf,  for 
if  she  has  not  sought  the  bull  for  some 
months,  you  may  generally  rely  on  her 
being  pregnant. 

2185.  These  are  the  vulgar  modes  of 
ascertaining  the  pregnant  state  of  the  cow  ; 
but  the  late  Mr  Youatt  has  aflbrded  us 
more  scientific  means  of  ascertaining  the 
fact.  He  says  he  would  not  give,  nor  suHer 
any  one  else  to  give,  those  terrible  punches 
on  the  right  flank,  which  he  had  no  doubt 
were  the  cause  of  much  unsuspected  injur}', 
and  occasionally,  at  least,  were  connected 
with,  or  were  the  origin  of,  difficult  or 
fatal  parturition.  At  a  very  early  stage  of 
the  gestation,  he  says,  by  introducing  the 
hand  geutly  and  cautiously  into  the  vagina, 


the  state  of  the  womb  may  be  ascertained. 
If  it  is  in  its  natural  state,  the  mouth  of 
the  womb  at  the  os  uteri  will  be  clo.sed, 
though  not  tightly  so;  but  if  it  is  impreg- 
nated, the  entrance  of  the  uterus  will  be 
more  firmly  closed,  and  the  protrusion  will 
be  toward  the  vagina.  He  adds  a  cau- 
tion, however,  in  using  this  mode  of  ex- 
ploration— '•  When  half,  or  more  than  half, 
of  the  period  of  pregnancy  is  passed,  it  is 
not  at  all  unlikely  that  so  much  irritation 
of  the  parts  will  ensue  as  to  cause  the 
expulsion  of  the  foetus."  He  would  rather 
introduce  his  hand  into  the  rectum,  and  as 
the  foetus  of  two  montiis  is  still  in  the 
l)elvic-cavity,  he  would  feel  the  little  sub- 
stance under  his  hand.  ^  I  am  certain 
that  I  am  pressing  upon  the  uterus  and  its 
contents.  I  cannot,  perhaps,  detect  the 
pulsation  of  the  embryo:  but  if  I  had  de- 
layed my  examination  until  the  fa^tus  was 
three  months  old,  I  should  have  assurance 
that  it  was  there  by  its  now  increased 
bulk,  while  the  pulsation  of  its  heart  would 
tell  me  that  it  was  living."  When  still 
older,  the  pulsation  of  the  heart  may  be 
distinctly  heard  on  applying  tiie  ear  closely 
to  the  flank,  here  and  there,  and  upwards 
and  downwards,  while  the  cow  was  held 
quietly  and  steadily. 

2186.  The  icomh  of  the  cow  is  a  bag  of 
irregular  form,  having  a  chamber  or  divi- 
sion attached  to  each  side,  called  the  horns 
of  the  womb;  and  so  called,  perhaps,  be- 
cause of  the  form  they  j)resent,  in  an  unim- 
pregnated  state,  of  the  large  curved  horns 
of  a  Black-faced  tup.  The  womb  consists 
almost  entirely  of  muscular  fibres,  with  a 
large  proportion  of  blood-ves.'-els,  and  of 
vascular  matter,  which  admits  of  con- 
traction and  extension.  Its  ordinary 
size  in  a  large  cow  is  about  2:V  feet  in 
length,  but,  Mhen  containing  a  full-grown 
foetus,  is  7  feet  in  length.  This  is  an 
extraordinary  adaptation  to  circumstances 
which  the  womb  ])ossesses,  to  bear  an 
expansion  of  7  feet,  from  about  a  third 
of  that  length,  and  yet  be  capable  of 
performing  all  its  functions.  The  use  of 
the  horns  seems  to  be  to  form  a  lair  for  the 
calf,  and  each  is  occupied  by  the  calf 
according  to  its  sex.  The  quey-calf  occu- 
pies the  near,  and  the  bull-calf  the  ofi'-side 
horn, — so  that  a  bull-calf  is  more  easily 
felt  in  the  womb  than  a  quey-calf;  and 
indeed  the  latter  is  frequently  not  felt  at 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


507 


all  until  the  7tb.montli,  when  other  symp- 
toms afford  proofs  of  pregnancy.  "•  The 
foetus  of  the  cow  is  huddled  up  in  the 
right  side  of  the  belly,"  says  Mr  Youatt. 
"  There  its  motions  are  best  seen,  and  the 
beatings  of  its  heart  best  heard.  Tlie 
enormous  paunch  lying  principally  in  the 
left  side,  presses  every  other  viscus,  and 
the  uterus  among  the  rest,  into  the  right 
flank.  This  also  explains  a  circumstance 
familiar  to  every  breeder.  If  the  cow 
should  happen  to  carry  twins,  they  are 
crowded  together  in  the  right  flank,  and 
one  seems  absolutely  to  lie  upon  the  other. 
Whenever  the  farmer  notices  the  kicking 
of  the  foetus  high  up  in  the  flank,  he  at 
once  calculates  on  twins."* 

2 187.  The  exact  time  of  a  cow's  calving 
should  be  known  by  the  cattle-man  as  well 
as  by  the  farmer  himself,  for  the  time 
when  she  was  served  by  the  bull  should 
have  been  marked  down.  Although  this 
last  circumstance  is  not  a  certain  proof 
that  the  cow  is  in  calf,  yet  if  she  has 
passed  the  period  when  she  should  have 
taken  the  bull  again,  without  showing 
symptoms  of  season,  it  may  safely  be  in- 
ferred that  she  became  in  calf  at  the  last 
serving,  from  which  date  should  be  cal- 
culated the  period  of  gestation,  or  of 
reclioning^  as  it  is  called.  A  cow  is  gener- 
ally said  to  go  9  mouths,  or  273  days,  with 
calf,  although  the  calving  is  not  certain  to 
a  day.  The  experiments  of  the  late  Earl 
Spencer  settle  this  point  most  satisfac- 
torily. After  keeping  the  record  of  the 
cah'ing  of  764  cows,  he  came  to  this  con- 
clusion : — "  It  will  be  seen  that  the  short- 
est period  of  gestation,  when  a  live  calf 
was  produced,  was  220  days,  and  the 
longest  313  days;  but  I  have  not  been 
able  to  rear  any  calf  at  an  earlier  period 
than  242  days.  Any  calf  produced  at  an 
earlier  period  than  260  days  must  be  con- 
sidered decidedly  premature ;  and  any 
period  of  gestation  exceeding  300  days, 
must  also  be  considered  irregular ;  but  in 
this  latter  case  the  health  of  the  produce  is 
not  affected.  It  will  also  be  seen  that 
314  cows  calved  before  the  284th  day, 
and  310  calved  after  the  285th;  so  that 
the  probable  period  of  gestation  ought  to 
be  considered  284  or  285  days,  and  not 
270,  as  generally  believed." 


2188.  It  is  also  a  popular  belief  that 
when  a  cow  exceeds  the  calculated  period 
of  gestation,  she  will  give  birth  to  a  bull- 
calf,  and  the  belief  accords  with  fact ;  as 
Lord  Spencer  observes,  "  In  order  fairly 
to  try  this,  the  cows  who  calved  before  the 
260th  day,  and  those  who  calved  after  the 
300th,  ought  to  be  omitted  as  being  ano- 
malous cases,  as  well  as  the  cases  in 
which  twins  are  produced;  and  it  will 
then  appear  that  from  the  cows  whose 
period  of  gestation  did  not  exceed  286 
days,  the  number  of  cow-calves  produced 
was  233,  and  the  number  of  bull-calves 
234 ;  while  those  whose  period  exceeded 
286  days,  the  number  of  cow-calves  was 
only  90,  while  the  number  of  bull-calves 
w^as  152."  t 

2189.  Cows  are  most  liable  to  the  com- 
])laint  of  the  coming  down  of  the  calf-bed, 
when  near  the  period  of  calving,  between 
the  8th  and  9th  months,  and,  from  what- 
ever cause  it  may  originate,  the  position  of 
the  cow,  as  she  lies  in  her  stall,  should  be 
amended  by  raising  her  hind  quarters  as 
high  as  the  fore,  by  means  of  the  litter.  The 
immediate  cause  of  the  protrusion  of  a 
part  of  the  womb  is  the  pressure  of  the 
calf's  fore  feet  and  head  against  that  part 
of  it  which  is  opposite  to  the  vaginal  pas- 
sage, and  the  jn-otrusion  mostly  occurs 
when  the  calf  is  in  its  natural  position  ;  so 
that,  although  no  great  danger  need  be  ap- 
prehended from  the  {)rotrusion,  it  is  better 
to  use  means  to  prevent  its  recurrence  than 
be  indifferent  to  bad  consequences  by  over 
confidence. 

2190.  Much  more  care  should  be  be- 
stowed in  administering  food  to  cows  near 
the  time  of  their  reckoning  than  is  gener- 
ally done ;  and  the  care  should  be  pro- 
j)ortioned  to  the  state  of  the  animal's 
condition.  When  in  high  condition,  there 
is  great  risk  of  inflammatory  action  at  the 
time  of  parturition.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
farmer's  interest  to  check  every  tendency 
to  obesity  in  time.  This  may  partly  be 
effected  by  giving  fewer  turnips  and  more 
fodder  than  the  usual  quantity;  but  some 
cows  when  in  calf,  and  have  been  long  dry, 
will  fatten  on  a  very  small  quantity  of  tur- 
nips ;  and  there  is  a  tendency  in  dry  fdod 
to  aggravate  inflammatory  action.     Other 


*  Journal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  i.  p.  172. 


+  Ibid.  p.  167-8. 


608 


PRACTICE— SPRIN  G. 


means  should  therefore  be  used,  alongst 
with  a  limited  allowance  of  food;  and,  in 
as  far  as  medical  treatment  can  be  applied 
to  the  case,  there  is  perhaps  nothin<^  so 
safe  as  bleeding  and  laxatives.  "  Every 
domestic  animal  like  the  cow,"  observes  a 
very  sensible  writer  on  this  subject,  "is 
to  be  considered  as  by  no  means  living  in 
a  state  of  nature.  Like  man  himself,  she 
partakes  of  civilised  life,  and  of  course  is 
subjected  to  similar  infirmities  with  the 
human  race.  Tiie  time  of  gestation  is 
with  her  a  state  of  indisposition,  and  every 
manager  of  cattle  should  be  aware  of  this, 
and  treat  her  with  every  attention  and 
care  during  this  time.  The  actual  diseases 
of  gestation  are  not  indeed  numerous,  but 
they  are  frequently  very  severe,  and  they 
occasion  always  a  tendency  to  slinking,  or 
the  cow  slipping  her  calf.  As  the  weight 
of  the  calf  begins  to  increase,  it  will  then 
be  necessary  to  take  some  precautions, 
—  and  these  precautions  will  consist 
in  an  attention  to  her  diet,  air,  and 
exercise."  * 

2191.  It  is  the  8th  and  9th  months  that 
constitute  the  critical  period  of  a  cow  in 
calf.  The  bulk  and  weight  of  the  foitus 
cause  disagreeable  sensations  in  the  cow, 
and  frequently  produce  feverish  symptoms, 
the  consequence  of  which  is  costiveness. 
The  treatment  for  this  is  bleeding  once  or 
twice,  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and 
condition  of  the  cow,  and  the  administer- 
ing of  laxative  medicine  and  emollient 
drinks,  such  as  a  dose  of  1  lb.  of  Epsom 
salts  with  some  cordial  admixture  of  gin- 
ger and  carraway  seed  and  treacle,  in  a 
quart  each  of  warm  gruel  and  sound  ale. 
Turnips  may  be  given,  and  they  have  a 
laxative  tendency,  especially  the  white 
varieties.  Potatoes,  too,  are  recommended  ; 
but  I  entirely  object  to  giving  potatoes  to 
cows  at  any  time,  because  of  their  great 
tendency  to  produce  hoven  ;  and  if  hovcn 
were  to  overtake  a  cow  far  advanced  in 
pregnancy,  the  calf  would  either  be  killed 
in  the  womb,  or  it  would  cause  the  cow 
to  slip  it. 

2192.  Having  suffered  the  loss  of  two 
or  three  cows  by  costiveness,  immediately 
after  calving — the  Swedish  turnip  in  the 
maniplies  being  squeezed  flat  like  the 
skins  of  apples  from  a  cider  press — I  was 


induced  to  try  oil-cnkc  as  a  laxative  along 
with  the  Swedish  turnip.  The  cake  was 
given  to  the  cows  for  2  months,  one  before 
and  one  after  calving,  and  its  valuable 
property  of  keeping  them  in  a  line  laxa- 
tive state,  and  at  the  same  time  in  good 
health,  was  highly  satisfactory;  and  on 
continuing  the  practice  every  year  after- 
wards, no  similar  mishap  ever  overtook 
ray  cows.  The  quantity  given  to  each 
cow  daily  was  4  lbs.,  at  an  intermediate 
time  between  the  feeds  of  turnips.  The 
time  of  giving  it  was  as  regularly  adhered 
to  as  that  of  the  turnips ;  and  when  the 
hour  arrived  for  its  distribution,  10  o'clock 
forenoon,  every  cow  expressed  the  greatest 
anxiety  for  the  treat.  It  was  broken  to 
them  in  small  pieces  with  the  oil-cake 
breaker,  fig.  53. 

2193.  But  the  state  of  over-leanness  is 
also  to  be  avoided  in  cows  in  calf.  Instead 
of  being  bled,  the  cow  should  rather  have 
nourishing  food,  such  as  mashes  of  boiled 
barley,  turnips,  and  oil-cake,  not  given  in 
large  quantities  at  a  time,  but  frequently, 
with  a  view  to  laying  on  flesh  in  a  gradual 
manner,  and  at  the  same  time  of  avoiding 
the  fatal  tendency  to  plethora.  I  believe 
when  oil-cake  is  given  to  cows  before  and 
after  their  calving,  as  I  have  recommended, 
no  apprehension  need  be  entertained  of 
their  safety  as  far  as  regards  their  calving, 
in  whatever  condition  they  may  happen 
to  be,  as  it  proves  a  laxative  to  the  fat, 
and  nourishing  food  to  the  lean  cow. 

2194.  Slinkhig^  or  slipping  of  the  calf, 
is  a  vexatious  occurrence,  and  a  great  loss 
to  the  breeder  of  stock.  It  is  not  only  a 
loss  of  perhaps  a  very  valuable  calf,  but 
its  want  makes  a  blank  in  the  number  of 
the  lot  to  be  brought  u])  in  the  season,  and 
which  can  only  be  made  up  by  j)urchase. 
And  the  vexation  is,  that  the  cow  can  never 
again  be  depende<l  upon  to  bear  a  living 
calf,  the  probability  being  that  she  will 
slip  it  every  season  tiiereafter.  Why  this 
residt  should  ensue  has  never  been  satis- 
factorily explained.  The  only  remedy  for 
the  farmer  is  to  take  the  milk  from  tlio  cow 
as  long  as  she  gives  it,  and  tiien  fatten  her 
for  the  butcher.  I  had  a  very  fine  short- 
horn cow,  bred  by  myself,  that  slipped  her 
second  calf;  and  not  being  disposed  to 
trust  her  again,  fed  her  oil',  when  she  be- 


*  Skellett  On  ihr  Parturition  of  the  Cow,  p.  41. 


CALVmG  OF  COWS. 


509 


came  extraordinarily  fat,  and  yielded  very 
superior  meat ;  and  I  was  so  far  fortunate 
that  this  was  the  only  cow  I  ever  Lad 
which  became  a  victim  to  the  complaint 
we  are  speaking  of. 

219.5.  The  causes  of  this  troublesome 
complaint  are  various,  arising  chiefly, 
however,  from  violent  exercise,  the  eflfect 
of  frights,  bruises,  and  knocks ;  "  but," 
says  Skellett,  "a  more  common  cause  of 
slinking  than  any  of  them,  and  which  is 
peculiar  in  its  influence  on  this  animal,  is 
a  disagreeable  nauseous  smell.  The  cow  is 
remarked  to  possess  a  very  nice  and 
delicate  sense  of  smelling,  to  that  degree, 
that  the  slinking  of  one  cow  is  apt,  from 
this  circumstance,  to  be  communicated  to 
a  great  number  of  the  same  herd;  it  has 
been  often  known  to  spread  like  an  infec- 
tious disease,  and  great  losses  have  been 
sufi"ered  by  the  coAvfeeders  from  the  same."* 
As  there  is  much  truth  in  these  remarks, 
you  will  see  the  necessity  of  keeping  every 
thing  in  a  byre  occupied  hy  breeding  cotes 
in  a  clean  and  wholesome  state ;  to  have 
every  particle  of  filth  removed  daily  from 
the  feeding  troughs  in  front,  and  the  urine- 
gutters  behind  them ;  and  to  have  the 
byre  thoroughly  ventilated  when  the  cows 
go  out  to  the  court.  The  same  circumstance 
■will  show  you  the  propriety  of  prevent- 
ing pigs  being  slaughtered  in  the  court  in 
which  cows  walk,  and  any  animal  being 
bled  near  the  byre  ;  so  much  so,  that  when 
any  of  the  cows  recpiire  bleeding,  the  ope- 
ration should  be  performed  in  another 
apartment  than  the  hyvQ. 

2  J  96.  Whenever  a  cow  shows  symptoms 
of  slinking,  which  may  be  observed  in  the 
byre,  but  not  easily  in  the  grass-field,  she 
should  be  immediately  removed  from  her 
companions.  The  Jirst  symptoms  are  a 
sudden  filling  of  the  udder  before  the  time 
of  reckoning  would  warrant,  a  looseness, 
flabbiness,  and  redness  of,  and  a  yellow 
glairy  discharge  from,  the  vagina,  and  a 
giving  way  of  the  ligaments  on  both  sides 
of  the  rump.  When  these  symptoms  are 
observed,  the  cow  should  be  narrowly 
watched,  aud  means  of  preventing  slinking 
instantly  adopted,  one  of  the  chief  of  which 
is  bloodletting.  This  should  be  followed 
by  a  laxative  dose.  But  these  means  will 
prove  ineffectual,  if  the  symptoms  make 


their  appearance  suddenly,  and  go  through 
their  course  rapidlv,  and  the  calf  will  be 
slipped  after  all. 

2197.  The  risk  which  the  cow  runs, 
after  slinking,  is  in  not  getting  quit  of  the 
cleaning^  or  afterbirth^  or  placenta^  as  it 
is  not  in  a  prepared  state  to  separate  from 
the  womb.  Should  it  be  retained,  corrup- 
tion will  soon  take  place  in  it,  and  produce 
a  very  nauseous  smell,  which  will  remain 
as  long  as  the  cleaning  will  be  in  passing 
away  by  degrees  in  putridity.  When 
the  cleaning  does  not  come  away  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours,  or  at  most  a  day, 
the  assistance  of  the  veterinary  surgeon 
should  be  obtained.  The  following  cordial 
drink  will  promote  the  cleansing — juniper 
berries  3  oz.,  bay  berries  2  oz.,  nitre  1  oz., 
anise  seed  1  oz.,  gentian  \  oz.,  gum  myrrh 
5  oz.,  assafoetida  \  oz.,  well  pounded  to- 
gether, for  one  dose,  and  given  in  1  quart  ol 
mild  ale  made  warm  in  1  quart  of  penny- 
royal tea.  This  drink  should  be  given 
fasting,  and  repeated  every  day  till  the 
cleansing  be  evacuated.  The  cow  should 
have  plenty  of  warm  drinks,  such  as  warm 
water,  thin  gruel,  and  mashes  made  of  malt, 
with  bran,  so  as  to  keep  the  body  gently 
open — and  this  should  be  attended  to  at  all 
times.  Should  the  regimen  not  be  sufS- 
cient  to  keep  the  body  open,  and  feverish 
symptoms  appear,  recourse  nmst  be  had  to 
stronger  remedies,  such  as  Epsom  salts  1 
lb.,  nitre  2  oz.,  anise  seed  in  powder  1  oz., 
cumin  seed  in  powder  1  oz.,  ginger  \  oz., 
mixed  together  for  one  dose,  which  is  to 
be  given  in  2  quarts  of  water  gruel  with 
\  lb.  of  treacle.  The  dose  may  be  re- 
peated, if  the  first  dose  has  not  had  the 
desired  effect,  in  10  or  12  hours. 

2198.  As  to  the  pretention  of  the  re- 
currence of  this  vexatious  complaint, 
though,  I  believe,  the  best  thing  for  the 
farmer  is  not  to  attempt  any,  but  milk  and 
fatten  the  cow,  yet  a  natural  desire  is  felt 
to  retain  a  valuable  and  favourite  cow,  so 
that  means  may  be  used  to  enable  her 
again  to  bear  a  living  calf.  Skellett  men- 
tions as  preventive  measures,  that  "  when 
a  cow  has  slipped  her  calf,  in  the  next 
gestation  she  should  be  early  bled,  her 
body  should  be  kept  open  by  cooling  physic; 
she  should  not  be  forced  to  take  any  more 
exercise  than  what  is  absolutely  necessary 


Skellett  On  the  Partxtrition  of  the  Cote,  p.  62. 


610 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


for  her  health,  and  her  interfering  with 
other  cattle  guanleil  against  by  keeping 
her  verv  luucli  by  herself.  At  the  same 
time,"  he  adds,  "•  it  must  be  observed,  that 
though  it  is  necessary  to  preserve  a  free 
state  of  tlie  bowels,  a  laxity  of  them  will 
often  produce  this  accident;  covi-a/ed  very 
much  upon  potatoes,  and  such  other  watery 
food,  an'  tcry  apt  to  slinky  from  their  laxa- 
tive eftects.  In  the  food  of  the  cow,  at 
this  time,  a  proper  medium  should  be  ob- 
served, and  it  should  consist  of  a  due  pro- 
portion of  other  vegetable  matter  mixed 
with  the  fodder,  so  a-s  the  bowels  may  be 
kept  regularly  open,  and  no  more."  Our 
author,  however,  does  not  see  how  these 
remedial  measures  can  be  effectual.  If  the 
cow  is  in  high  condition  indeed,  she  should 
be  reduced  in  condition ;  if  in  very 
low,  she  ought  to  get  nourishing  food  and 
strengthening  medicines ;  and  if  she  is  much 
annoyed  by  nauseous  smells,  these  should 
either  be  counteracted,  or  the  cow  with- 
drawn from  them.  To  counteract  bad 
smells,  Skellett  recommends  the  following 
mixture  to  be  formed,  and  rubbed  a  little 
every  day  on  the  parts  the  cows  commonly 
smell  each  other  : — Barbadoes  tar  3  oz., 
balsam  of  sulphur  3  oz.,  rectified  oil  of 
amber  1  oz.,  fine  oil  of  thyme  1  oz.,  and 
animal  oil  1  oz.  "  Of  what  nature  that 
odour  is,"  continues  Skellett,  "which  gives 
offence,  we  cannot  altogether  be  certain ; 
but  the  author  has  remarked  that  its  effects 
occur  at  one  season  more  than  at  another, 
and  particularly  when  the  weather  has 
been  wet,  and  the  cows  have  long  been 
kept  at  grass.  From  this  fact,"  he  con- 
cludes, "  it  would  appear  that  the  smell  is 
of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  connected  with 
their  feeding  at  that  time."*  It  is  under- 
stood that  cows  which  are  fed  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  and  in  Woods,  and  that  live  on 
coarse  rank  pasture  in  autumn,  are  most 
lialile  to  this  complaint.  In  Switzerlan<l, 
the  com2)laint  increases  after  the  cows  are 
put  on  rank  pastures  in  autumn. 

2199.  Although  slinking  is  spoken  of 
as  an  infectious  complaint,  it  has  no  pro- 
perty in  common  with  any  contagious 
disease ;  and  sympathetic  influence  being 
a  main  cause  of  it,  the  result  is  as  fatal  as 
if  direct  contagion  had  occasioned  it. 

2174.  About  Ji  fortnight  before  the  time 


of  reckoning,  symptoms  of  cahing  indi' 
cdfe  themscltig  in  the  cow.  The  loose 
skinny  space  between  the  vagina  and  udder 
becomes  florid  ;  the  vagina  becomes  loose 
and  flabby ;  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen 
rather  ci>ntract^  ;  the  udder  becomes  larger, 
harder,  more  florid,  hotter  to  the  feel,  and 
more  tender-looking ;  the  milk-veins  along 
the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  become 
larger,  and  the  coupling  on  each  side  of 
the  rump-bones  looser ;  and  when  the 
couplings  feel  as  if  a  separation  had  taken 
place  of  the  parts  there,  the  cow  should  be 
watched  day  and  night,  for  at  any  hour 
afterwards  the  pains  of  calving  may  come 
upon  her.  From  this  period,  the  animal 
becomes  easily  excited,  and,  on  that  ac- 
count, should  not  be  allowed  to  go  out,  or 
be  disturbed  in  the  byre.  In  some  cases, 
these  entire  premonitory  symptoms  suc- 
ceed each  other  rapidly,  in  others  they 
follow  slowly ;  and  the  latter  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  heifers  in  first  calf. 

2200.  These  symptoms  are  called 
springing  in  England,  and  the  heifers 
which  exhibit  them  are  named  springers. 

2201.  In  different  parts  of  the  country, 
different  practices  exist  in  regard  to  at- 
tending on  cows  at  calving.  In  the 
southern  counties  of  Scotland,  the  .shep- 
herd conceives  it  to  be  his  duty  to  attend 
on  the  occasion,  assisted  by  the  cattle-man, 
and  other  men  if  required.  In  the  northern 
counties,  on  the  contrary,  the  calving  is 
left  to  women  to  manage.  I  tliink  this 
diflV'rencc  in  practice  must  have  arisen 
from  the  degree  of  assistance  re(juired  at 
the  operation.  In  the  southern  counties, 
the  large  and  valuable  breed  of  cows  al- 
most always  require  assistance  in  partu- 
rition, the  neglect  of  which  might  cause 
the  cow  to  sink  from  exhaustion,  and  the 
calf  be  strangled  or  drowned  at  its  birth. 
Powerful  assistance  is  sometimes  required, 
and  can  only  be  afforded  by  men,  the 
strength  of  women  being  unequal  to  the 
task.  Indeed,  I  have  witnessed  the  as- 
sistance of  eight  men,  given  one  way  and 
another,  in  the  extraction  of  a  calf  coming 
in  the  natural  position.  The  calf  was  the 
first  of  twins,  very  large,  and  this  was  the 
first  labour  of  the  heifer.  I  shall  never 
forget  the  distressing  cries  of  the  poor 
creature  when  racked  with  pain,  nor  the 


*  Skellett  Oh,  the  ParturU'wn  of  the  Cov,  p.  67-74. 


CAL\TNG  OF  COWS. 


511 


patience  and  sympathy  evinced  by  all  the 
men  who  were  summoned  to  assist.-  It 
was  an  interesting  case,  conducted  by  an 
experienced  shepherd,  and  lasted  alto- 
gether about  five  hours.  The  cow  and 
calves  wei'e  much  exhausted;  but  all  were 
well  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  In 
the  northern  counties,  cows  are  not  only 
smaller,  but  the  calves  are  small  in  pro- 
portion, so  that  most  cows  calve  without 
assistance ;  and,  therefore,  women  may 
manage  the  calving,  and  the  cow  and  calf 
without  difficulty.  Of  the  two  modes  of 
conducting  this  delicate  and  oft-times  te- 
dious operation,  I  should  say  that  it  falls 
most  legitimately  under  the  guidance  of 
the  shepherd,  who  seems  to  be  the  natural 
guardian  of  all  the  young  stock  bi'ought 
forth  on  a  farm ;  and  where  there  is  no 
shepherd,  the  cattle-man  should  take  the 
charge,  the  farmer  himself,  in  all  cases, 
giving  his  sanction  to  the  means  about  to 
be  employerl — it  being  but  fair  that  he  him- 
self should  bear  the  heaviest  part  of  the  re- 
sponsibility connected  with  this  dangerous 
process. 

2202.  A  few  preparatory  requisites 
should  be  at  hand  when  a  cow  is  about  to 
calve.  Two  or  three  rein-ropes  are  useful, 
when  Jlat  soft  ropes  are  not  provided  on 
purpose,  to  tie  to  the  calf.  A  mat  or 
sheeting,  to  receive  the  calf  upon  in  drop- 
ping from  the  cow,  should  siie  be  inclined 
to  stand  on  her  feet  when  she  calves.  The 
cattle-man  should  have  the  calf's  crib  in 
E,  Plate  II.,  well  littered.  The  shepherd 
should  pare  the  nails  of  his  hands  close,  in 
case  he  should  have  occasion  to  introduce 
his  arras  into  the  cow  to  adjust  the  calf; 
and  he  should  have  goose-fat  or  hog's  lard 
with  which  to  smear  his  hands  and  arms. 
Goose-fat  makes  the  skin  smoothest  and 
best  withstands  drying  (1633.)  It  may 
be  necessary  to  have  a  few  sacks  of  straw 
to  put  under  the  cow  to  elevate  her  hind 
quarters,  and  even  to  have  block  and  tackle 
to  hoist  her  up  by  the  hind  legs,  in  order 
to  adjust  the  calf  in  the  womb.  These  last 
articles  should  be  ready  at  hand  if  wanted. 
Some  straw  should  be  spread  on  the  floor 
of  the  byre,  to  place  the  new-dropped  calf 
upon. 

2203.  All  being  prepared,  and  the  byre- 


door  closed  for  quietness,  the  cow  should 
be  attended  every  moment.  The  proxi- 
mate symptoms  of  calving  are  thus  exactly 
described  by  Skellett,  as  tliey  occur  in  an 
ordinary  case.  "  When  the  operation  of 
calving  actually  begins,"  he  says,  "  then 
signs  of  uneasiness  and  pain  appear :  a 
little  elevation  of  tlie  tail  is  the  first  mark; 
the  animal  shifts  about  from  place  to  place, 
frequently  getting  up  and  lying  down,  not 
knowing  what  to  do  with  herself.  She 
continues  some  time  in  this  state,  till  the 
natural  throes  or  pains  come  on ;  and  as 
these  succeed  each  other  in  regular  pro- 
gress, tlie  neck  of  the  womb,  or  os  icteri, 
gives  way  to  the  action  of  its  bottom  and 
of  its  other  parts.  By  this  action,  the  con- 
tents of  the  wouib  are  pushed  forward  at 
every  throe  ;  the  water-bladder  begins  to 
show  itself  beyond  the  shape,  and  to  ex- 
tend itself  till  it  becomes  the  size  of  a  large 
bladder,  containing  several  gallons  :  it  then 
bursts,  and  its  contents  are  discharged, 
consisting  of  the  liquor  amni,  in  which, 
during  gestation,  the  calf  floats,  and  which 
now  serves  to  lubricate  the  parts,  and 
render  the  passage  of  the  calf  easier.  After 
the  discharge  of  the  water,  the  body  of  the 
womb  contracts  rapidly  upon  the  calf;  in 
a  few  succeeding  throes  or  pains,  the  head 
and  feet  of  it,  the  presenting  parts,  are 
protruded  externally  beyond  the  shape. 
The  body  next  descends ;  and  in  a  few 
pains  the  delivery  of  the  calf  is  complete."* 
The  easy  calving  now  described  is  usually 
over  in  2  hours,  though  sometimes  it  is 
protracted  to  5  or  6,  and  even  to  12  hours, 
particularly  when  the  water-bladder  has 
broken  before  being  protruded  beyond  the 
shape. 

2204.  But  although  the  calf  may  pre- 
sent itself  in  this  natural  position,  with 
both  its  fore-feet  projecting,  its  chin  lying 
on  both  the  fore-legs,  and  tlie  point  of  the 
tongue  appearing  out  of  the  side  of  the 
mouth,  it  may  not  be  calved  without  as- 
sistance. To  render  this,  the  feet  of  the 
calf  being  too  slij^pery  to  be  held  firmly  by 
the  bare  hands,  a  rein-rope,  with  a  fold- 
ing loop  at  the  double,  is  placed  above 
each  fetlock  joint,  and  the  double  rope 
from  each  leg  is  held  by  the  assistants. 
A  pull  of  the  ropes  should  only  be  given 
at  each  time  the  cow  strains  to  get  quit  of 


*  Skellett  On  the  Parturition  of  the  Coic,  p.  105. 


515 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  calf ;  and  it  should  be  a  steady  and  firm 
pull,  in  a  direction  rather  downwards  from 
the  back  of  the  cow,  and  sufiiciently  strong 
to  retain  whatever  advance  the  calf  may 
have  made  ;  the  assistance  lent  being 
given  rather  to  ease  the  cow  in  her  exer- 
tions in  the  throes,  than  to  extract  the  calf 
from  her  by  force.  Mean  time  the  shep- 
herd endeavours  to  relax  the  skin  of  the 
sbajic  around  the  calf's  head,  by  manipu- 
lation, as  well  as  by  anointing  with  goose- 
fat,  his  object  being  to  pass  the  skin  over 
the  crown  of  the  calfs  head,  and  when  this 
has  been  accomplished,  the  whole  body  may 
be  gently  drawn  out.  In  obstinate  cases 
of  this  simple  kind,  a  looped  rope  passed 
across  the  mouth  and  round  the  under  jaw 
of  thecalf,aud  pulledsteadily,will  facilitate 
the  passage  of  the  head  ;  but  this  expedient 
should  not  be  resorted  to  until  it  is  found 
that  the  shepherd  cannot  effect  it,  with  his 
hands,  as  the  strain  upon  the  cord  is  apt 
to  injure  the  tender  mouth  of  the  calf. 

220.'5.  On  the  extrusion  of  the  calf,  it 
should  be  laid  on  its  side  upon  the  clean 
straw  in  the  floor,  and  the  first  symptom  it 
exhibits  of  life  is  a  few  gasps  which  set 
the  lungs  in  play,  and  then  it  opens  its  eyes, 
shakes  its  head,  and  sniflfs  with  its  nose. 
The  breathing  is  assisted  if  the  viscid  fluid 
is  removed  by  the  hand  from  the  mouth 
and  nostrils ;  and  the  thin  membrane  which 
envelops  the  body  in  the  womb  should 
now  be  removed,  much  torn  as  it  has  been 
in  the  process  of  parturition.  The  calf  is 
then  carried  by  two  men,  suspended  by  the 
legs,  with  the  back  downwards,  and  the 
bead  held  up  between  the  fore-legs,  to  its 
comfortably  littered  crib,  where  we  shall 
leave  it  for  the  present  to  attend  still  far- 
ther to  its  mother. 

2206.  The  presentation  is  sometimes 
made  with  the  hind-feet  foremost.  At 
first  the  hind-feet  are  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  fore,  but  if  a  hind 
presentation  is  made  in  the  natural  posi- 
tion of  the  body,  with  the  back  uppermost, 
the  hind-feet  will  be  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion, with  the  soles  uppermost.  There  is 
no  dilficulty  in  a  hind  presentation,  only 
the  tail  should  be  placed  in  its  natural 
position,  and  not  folded  up,  before  the  legs 
are  pulled  out.  The  first  obstructing 
point  in  this  presentation  is  the  rump,  and 
then  the  thickest  part  of  the  shoulder.   On 


drav.ing  out  the  head,  wliich  comes  last, 
it  should  be  i)ulled  away  fjuickly,  in  case 
the  calf  should  give  a  gasp  for  air  at  the 
moment  of  leaving  the  cow,  when  it  would 
inhale  water  instead  of  air,  and  run  the 
risk  of  drowning.  The  mouth  and  nose 
should  be  wiped  immediately  on  the  calf 
being  laid  down  upon  the  straw  on  the 
floor. 

2207.  Some  women  have  a  custom  of 
rubbing  the  skin  of  the  new-dropped  calf 
with  a  wisp  of  straw;  but  such  a  dressing 
should  not  be  allowed,  as  it  serves  only  to 
agglutinate  the  hair.  If  left  to  itself,  the 
ru|uor  evaporates  in  a  short  time  and  leaves 
the  hair  dry;  but  while  the  evaporation 
is  proceeding,  the  calf  trembles,  no  doubt 
from  feeling  cold  ;  and  on  this  account,  its 
first  litter  should  be  soft,  clean,  and  suffi- 
cient to  bury  its  body  out  of  sight.  The 
trembling  is  considered  a  happy  symptom 
of  the  strength  of  the  calf. 

2208.  All  as  yet  has  been  easily  ma- 
naged, aiul  so  will  be  as  long  as  the  cow 
lies  still  in  her  stall,  with  plenty  of  straw 
around  and  behind  her  hind-quarter;  but 
some  cows  are  of  so  restless  a  disposition 
that  whenever  the  pains  of  labour  seize 
tbem,  they  start  to  their  feet,  and  will 
only  lie  down  again  when  the  pain  ceases. 
Such  cows  are  troublesome  to  deal  with, 
and  it  is  scarcely  possible,  by  reason  oiF 
those  fre(|uent  risings  up  and  lyings  down, 
to  ascertain  the  true  position  of  the  calf, 
especially  when  it  is  not  presented  in  a 
natural  j)osition.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  ne- 
cossar}'  to  extract  the  calf  energetically, 
and  remove  the  uneasiness  of  the  cow 
quickly  ;  for  until  she  gets  quit  of  the  calf, 
she  will  not  settle  in  one  position  or  an- 
other. When  the  calf  is  so  near  the  exter- 
nal air  as  to  enable  the  operator  Xo  get  the 
ropes  round  its  legs,  whether  fore  or  hind, 
they  should  be  fastened  on  immediately 
after  the  discharge  of  the  water,  and, 
on  gently  pulling  them,  her  attention  will 
be  occupied,  and  she  will  strain  with  great 
vigour,  the  standing  position  giving  her 
additional  power,  so  that  the  extraction 
of  the  calf,  in  such  cases,  is  generally  the 
most  expeditious.  As  the  calf  will  have 
to  fall  a  considerable  height  to  the  ground, 
the  mat  or  sheet  should  be  held  by  two 
men,  so  as  to  receive  the  body  of  the  calf 
ujKtn  it.    I  had  a  short-horn  cow  that  was 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


very  troublesome  at  calving,  always  stand- 
ing to  calve,  but  whenever  the  process 
was  actually  begun,  she  strained  with  so 
mucli  earuestness  as  to  get  quit  of  the  calf 
in  a  few  minutes.  Upon  one  occasion, 
after  the  water  had  been  discharged,  while 
the  shepherd  was  preparing  the  ropes  to 
fasten  round  the  legs  of  the  calf,  she  gave 
so  powerful  a  strain  as  to  project  the  calf 
bodily  from  her,  when  it  fell  with  violence 
upon  the  floor,  but  luckily  ujion  the  very 
straw  that  had  been  laid  down  to  receive 
it.  This  instance  shows  that  active  means 
should  be  used  after  the  symptoms  of 
actual  calving  have  begun  ;  and,  if  such 
means  are  neglected,  the  calf  may  be  found 
killed  or  injured  for  life. 

2209.  Some  calves,  though  extracted 
with  apparent  ease,  appear  as  if  dead 
when  laid  upon  the  straw.  In  such  a 
case,  beside  removing  the  viscid  fluid 
from  the  mouth  and  nose,  the  hand  should 
be  placed  against  the  side  of  the  breast, 
to  ascertain  if  the  heart  beats ;  and,  if  it 
does,  all  that  is  wanted  is  to  inflate  the 
lungs.  To  do  this,  the  mouth  should  be 
opened,  and  still  no  breathing  felt,  some 
one  should  blow  steadily  into  the  open 
mouth,  a  device  I  have  seen  answer  the 
purpose ;  and  also  a  hearty  slap  of  the  open 
iiand  upon  the  buttock  of  the  calf,  will 
cause  it  to  start,  as  it  were,  into  being. 
Perhaps  the  bellows  might  be  usefully 
employed  in  inflating  the  lungs.  Shoimi 
no  beating  of  the  heart  be  felt,  and  yet 
consciousness  of  life  seems  to  exist,  the  calf 
should  be  carried  without  delay  to  its  crib, 
and  covered  up  with  the  litter,  leaving 
the  mouth  free  to  breathe,  and  it  may  sur- 
vive ;  but  even  after  a  few  gasps,  it  may 
die.  Most  probably  the  cause  of  death 
arose  from  injury  received  in  calving, 
such  as  too  long  detention  in  the  vaginal 
passage,  or  a  severe  squeeze  in  the  mouth 
of  the  womb,  or  by  the  rashness  of  the  ope- 
rator. 

2210.  The  body  of  the  calf  when  thus 
lost  should  be  skinned  while  warm,  cut  in 
pieces,  and  buried  in  a  compost  for  manure, 
and  the  skin  either  sold  or  made  into 
weclits  for  the  corn  barn. 

2211.  The  difficult  cases  of  presenta- 
tion which  usually  occur  are  with  one  foot 
and  the  head,  and  the  other  foot  drawn 

TOL.  I. 


back,  either  with  the  leg  folded  back 
altogether,  or  the  knee  doubled  and  pro- 
jecting forward.  In  all  these  states 
the  missing  leg  should  be  brought  for- 
ward. To  efi'ect  this,  it  is  necessary 
to  jjat  round  the  presented  foot  a  cord 
to  retain  it  within  the  power  of  the  ope- 
rator, and  the  head  is  then  pushed 
back  into  the  womb  to  make  room  to  get 
at  the  missing  foot,  to  search  for  which  the 
greased  arm  of  the  operator  should  be  in- 
troduced, and  the  foot  gently  brought 
beside  the  other.  The  rope  which  was 
attached  to  the  first  foot  now  serves  to 
pull  the  entire  body  into  the  passage,  when 
the  throes  may  again  be  exjjected  to  be 
renewed.  A  calf  may  be  extracted  with 
one  leg  folded  entirely  back  alongside  the 
body,  and  on  feeling  this  to  be  really  the 
case,  it  is  perhaps  better  to  extract  the 
calf  at  once,  than  to  delay  the  parturition 
in  the  attempt  to  bring  forward  the  leg. 
The  presentation  may  be  of  the  head  alone 
without  the  feet,  which  may  be  knuckled 
forward  at  the  knees,  or  folded  back 
along  both  sides.  In  the  knuckled  case 
both  legs  should  be  brought  forward  by 
first  pushing  the  head  back,  but,  in  case  of 
losing  hold  of  the  calf  altogether,  a  loop 
should  be  put  in  the  calf's  mouth.  In  the 
folded  case,  one  leg  at  least,  and  both  if 
possible,  should  be  brought  forward.  A 
worse  case  than  either  is,  when  one  or 
both  legs  are  presented  and  the  head  folded 
back  upon  the  side.  In  this  case  the  calf 
will  most  likely  be  dead.  The  legs  should 
be  pushed  back,  retaining  hold  of  them  by 
ropes,  and  the  head  brought  forward,  with 
both  the  legs  if  possible.  It  may  be  be- 
yond the  strength  of  the  operator  to  bring 
"forward  the  head ;  when  he  should  put  a 
loop  into  the  calf's  mouth,  and  his  assis- 
tants will  pull  forward  the  head  by  it. 
Still  worse  cases  may  occur,  such  as  a  pre- 
sentation of  the  shoulder,  with  the  head 
lying  into  the  side;  a  presentation  of  the 
buttock,  with  both  the  hind  legs  stretched 
inwards;  or  the  calf  may  be  on  its  back, 
with  all  the  worst  presentaticms  now  enu- 
merated. In  whichever  of  these  positions 
the  calf  may  present  itself,  no  extraction 
can  safely  take  place  until  the  head,  and 
one  of  the  legs  at  least,  are  secured,  and 
the  other  folded  entirely  back,  or  both  the 
hind  legs,  with  the  back  turned  upper- 
most are  presented.  In  no  case  should  a 
fore  or  hind   leg  be  so  neglected  as  not 

2  K 


514 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


only  to  obstruct  the  body  on  passing  the 
mouth  of  the  womb,  but  to  tear  the  womb. 
The  tiffst  practice,  therefore,  is,  to  secure 
both  legs  as  well  as  the  head.  This  may 
cause  the  operator  considerable  trouble, 
out  by  retaininff  hold  of  what  parts  he 
can  with  the  cords,  and  dexterously 
candling  the  part  amissing,  so  as  t<>  bring 
it  forward  to  the  passage,  whilst  the  assis- 
tants pull  as  he  desires,  his  object  will  in 
most  cases  be  attained ;  but  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  none  of  these  objects 
■will  be  attained  but  when  seconded  by  the 
throes  of  the  cow  herself.  If  this  circum- 
stance is  not  attended  to  and  watched  for 
by  the  operator,  the  muscular  grasp  of  the 
■womb  will  render  his  arm  powerless. 

2212.  Another  circumstance  should  be 
considered  by  the  operator,  that  when  the 
hind-quarters  of  the  cow  have  an  inclina- 
tion down  wards*,  she  has  the  power  to  strain 
the  stronger,  and  of  course  to  counteract 
his  efforts  the  more  easily.  What  he 
should  therefore  do,  is,  to  raise  the  hind- 
quarters of  the  cow  with  bundles  of  straw 
bigher  than  the  fore-quarters,  until  he  has 
got  the  calf  in  the  position  he  desires,  and 
then,  on  letting  the  cow  down  aeain,  and 
watching  her  strainings,  assist  her  at  those 
times  and  only  at  those,  and  the  extrac- 
tion may  be  accomplished  in  a  reasonable 
time. 

2213.  As  to  the  block  and  tackle,  they 
ekould  never  be  resorted  to  but  to  save 
the  "life  of  the  cow;  and  as  they  will  be 
resorted  to  only  to  turn  the  calf  in  the 
womb,  there  is  far  more  danger  of  injur- 
ing the  WDrab  than  the  value  of  the  calf  is 
worth  ;  «t»li,  if  the  life  of  the  cow  may  be 
saved  while  the  calf  is  turned,  this  should, 
of  course,  be  attempted  in  the  best  manner 
under  tbe  circumstances.  But  much 
rather  destroy  the  calf  by  cutting  it  away 
in  pieces  than  lose  the  cow. 

2214.  When  tbe  head  only  of  the  calf  is 
presented,  and  cannot  be  protruded  through 
the  vagina,  by  rea.son  of  the  unfavourable 
and  obstructive  position  of  the  fore  legs,  an 
inepection  should  immediately  be  made  of 
tbe  position  of  the  calf,  by  first  thrusting 
the  head  back  with  a  loop  in  the  mouth, 
and  bringing  the  legs  forward.  Wlieu  this 
inspection  has  been  too  long  <lelaved,  and 
tbe  bead  kept  confined  in  the  passage,  the 


violent  throes  of  the  cow  will  certainly 
strangle  the  calf,  and  the  head  will  swell 
to  an  inordinate  degree.  In  such  a  case, 
as  the  swelling  will  prevent  the  calf's 
head  being  pushed  back  to  get  at  the  legs, 
it  must  be  taken  off,  the  legs  brought  for- 
ward, and  the  body  then  extracted.  One 
of  the  mott  difficult  cases  is.  when  the  fore 
feet  are  presented  naturally,  and  the  head 
ie  thrust  down  upon  the  brisket  between 
the  legs.  The  feet  must  first  be  pushed 
back,  and  the  head  brought  up  and  for- 
ward, when  the  extraction  will  become 
natural. 

2215.  A  skilful  shepherd  may  be  able 
to  manage  all  these  difficult  cases  within 
a  reasonable  time;  but  unless  he  is  par- 
ticularly dexterous  at  cases  of  parturi- 
tion, it  is  much  safer  to  obtain  the  advice 
of  a  veterinary  surgeon,  even  although  he 
should  not  be  required  to  put  a  hand  to 
the  operation  himself.  In  the  case  of 
extracting  monstrosities,  bis  assistance  is 
indispensable. 

2216.  As  regards  the  extraction  of  twin 
calves,  before  rendering  the  cow  any  as- 
si.-^tance,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  that 
the  calves  liave  made  a  proper  presenta- 
tion ;  that  they  are  free  of  each  other ; 
that  one  member  of  the  one  is  not  inter- 
laced, or  presented  at  the  same  time,  with 
that  of  the  other.  When  they  are  quite 
s^^rated,  then  each  calf  may  be  treated 
according  to  it^'S  own  case. 

2217.  Calviug  in  a  byre  does  not  seem 
to  produce  any  disagreeable  sensations  in 
the  other  cows,  as  they  express  no  surprise 
or  uneasiness  in  regard  to  what  is  going 
on  beside  them.  When  the  cow  gives  vent 
to  painful  cries,  which  is  rarely,  the  others 
no  doubt  express  a  svmpathy  ;  and  when 
the  calf  is  carried  away,  they  may  exhi- 
bit some  restlessness  ;  but  any  commotion 
arising  from  the.>e  circumstances  soon  sub- 
sides. But  if  a  <lifficult  labour  is  appre- 
hended, it  is  better  for  the  cows,  and  also 
for  the  cow  herself,  that  she  be  delivered 
in  another  apartment,  well  littered,  where 
the  operator  and  his  assistants  can  have 
freedom  around  her. 

2218.  A  notion  exists  in  some  parts  of 
England,  that  a  cow,  when  seized  with 
the  pains  of  labour,  should  be  made  to 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


515 


aiove  alx)Ut,  and  not  allowed  to  lie  still, 
although  inclined  to  be  quiet.  "  This  pro- 
ceeds from  an  erroneous  idea,"  Skellet  well 
remarks,  "  tliat  she  will  calve  much  easier, 
nnd  with  less  danger;  but  so  far  from  this 
')eing  the  case,  the  author  has  known  a 
great  many  instances  where  the  driving 
has  proved  the  death  of  the  animal  by 
overheating  her,  and  thus  producing  in- 
flammation, and  all  its  bad  consequences. 
Every  rational  man  will  agree  in  opinion 
with  the  author,  that  the  above  practice 
is  both  cruel  and  inconsistent  in  the  ex- 
treme ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  what  he 
has  noticed,  that  the  animal  herself,  as 
5oon  as  the  pains  of  calving  come  on,  im- 
mediately leaves  the  rest  of  the  herd,  and 
retires  to  some  corner  of  the  field,  or  un- 
der a  hedge,  in  order  to  prevent  the  other 
cows,  or  anything  else,  coming  near,  that 
may  disturb  her  in  bringing  forward  her 
young."*  In  short,  too  much  gentleness 
cannot  be  shown  to  cows  when  calving, 
and  thev  cannot  be  too  strictly  guarded 
against  ■e\'ery  species  of  disturbance.  The 
shepherd  will  not  allow  even  his  dog  to 
onter  the  byre  when  calving  is  going 
on. 

221.9.  The  afterhirth,  or  placenta,  does 
not  come  away  with  the  calf,  a  portion  of 
it  being  suspended  from  the  cow.  It  is 
l^ot  quit  of  by  the  cow  by  straining,  and, 
when  the  parturition  has  been  natural  and 
<iasy,  it  seldom  remains  with  her  longer 
than  from  1  to  7  hours.  In  bad  c^ses  of 
Jabour  it  may  remain  longer,  and  may  only 
come  away  in  pieces ;  but  when  it  remains 
too  long  and  is  sound,  its  separation  will 
be  assisted  by  attaching  a  small  weight  to 
it,  say  of  2  lb.,  which,  with  its  continued 
force,  and  occasional  straining  of  the 
cow,  will  cause  it  to  drop. 

2220.  The  usual  custom  is  to  throw  the 
afterbirth  upon  the  dung-hill,  or  to  cover 
it  up  with  the  litter;  but  it  should  not  be 
allowed  to  lie  so  accessible  to  ever}'^  dog 
and  pig  that  may  choose  to  dig  it  up : 
nay,  pigs  have  been  known  almost  to 
choke  themselves  with  it.  Let  the  sub- 
stance be  buried  in  a  compost  heap,  and  if 
there  be  none  such,  iu  the  earth. 

2221.  The    umbilical   cord    or    navel 


string  of  the  calf  breaks  in  the  act  of  par- 
turition. 

2222>  Should  the  cow  seem  exhausted  in 
a  protracted  case  of  calving,  she  may 
be  supported  with  a  warm  drink  of  gruel, 
containing  a  bottle  of  sound  ale;  and 
should  she  be  too  sick  to  drink  it  herself, 
it  should  be  given  her  with  the  drinking- 
horn.  After  the  byre  has  been  cleansed  of 
the  impurities  of  calving,  and  fresh  litter 
strewed,  the  cow,  naturally  feeling  a  strong 
thirst  upon  her  from  the  exertion,  should 
receive  a  warm  drink.  I  don't  know  a 
better  on«  than  warm  water,  with  a  few 
handfuls  of  oatmeal  stirred  in  it,  and 
seasoned  with  a  handful  of  salt,  and  this 
she  will  drink  up  greedily ;  but  a  pailful 
is  enough  at  a  time,  and  it  may  be  renewed 
in  a  short  time  after,  should  she  express  a 
desire  for  it.  This  drink  should  be  given 
her  for  two  or  three  days  after  calving,  in 
lieu  of  cold  water,  and  mashes  of  boiled 
barley  and  gruel  in  lieu  of  cold  turnips; 
but  the  oil-cake  should  never  be  forgotten, 
as  it  acts  at  tiiis  critical  period  as  an 
excellent  alterative  and  febrifuge. 

2223.  A  very  common  practice  in  this 
country,  is  to  give  the  cow  barley  in  the 
sheaf  to  eat,  and  even  raw  barley,  when 
there  is  no  barley  in  the  straw,  and 
sometimes  a  iew  sheaves  are  kept  for 
the  purpose ;  and  barley-chaff  is  given 
where  people  grudge  to  part  witli  good 
barley  in  this  way.  Though  common,  the 
practice  is  objectionable,  for  nothing  causes 
indigestion  so  readily  as  raw  barley  or 
barley-chaff  at  the  time  of  calving,  when 
the  tone  of  the  stomach  is  impaired  by 
excitement  or  fever.  Boiled  barley,  or  any 
mucilaginous  drink,  is  quite  safe.  No- 
thing should  be  given  at  this  time  of  an 
astringent  nature,  but  rather  having  a 
laxative  quality. 

2224.  It  is  desirable  to  milk  the  new- 
calved  cow  as  soon  as  convenient  for  her, 
as  the  withdrawal  of  milk  affords  relief. 
It  frequently  happens  that  an  uneasiness  is 
felt  in  the  udder  before  calving;  and  should 
it  increase  while  the  symptoms  of  calving 
are  yt-t  delayed,  the  cow  will  experience 
niuch  inconvenience,  especially  if  the  flush 
of  milk  has  come  suddenly.    The   cause 


•  Skellett  On  the  Parturition  o/tJu:  Ccir,  p.  113. 


<S16 


PRACTICE-  SPRING. 


of  uneasiness  is  unequal  lianlness  of  the 
udder,  accompanied  with  heat,  floridness, 
and  tenderness.  Fomentation  with  warm 
•water  twice  or  thrice  a-day,  continued 
for  half  an  hour  at  a  time,  followed  by 
ijentle  rubbing  with  a  soft  hand,  and 
anointing  with  goose-fat,  will  tend  to  allay 
irritation.  In  the  case  of  heifers  with  the 
first  calf,  the  uneasiness  is  sometimes  so 
great  during  the  protracted  symptoms  of 
calving,  as  to  warrant  the  withdrawal  of 
milk  before  calving.  Should  the  above 
remedial  measure  fail  to  give  relief,  the 
great  heat  may  cause  direct  inflammation, 
and  consequent  suppuration  in  the  udder. 
To  avert  such  an  issue,  the  uneasiness 
should  be  attended  to  the  flrst  moment  it 
is  observed,  as  neglect  may  allow  the 
complaint  to  proceed  so  far  as  to  injure 
the  structure  of  the  whole  udder. 

222.5.  In  ordinary  cases  of  calving, 
little  ajiprehension  need  be  felt  for  the 
safety  of  the  cow ;  but  she  must  be  care- 
fully attended  to  for  at  least  a  fortnight 
after  calving.  No  cold  drinks,  no  cold 
turnips,  should  be  given  her;  and  no 
cold  draughts  of  air  be  allowed  to  blow 
upon  her.  These  things  may  check  per- 
spiration and  cause  the  milk  or  puerperal 
fever.  The  hind-quarters,  raised  up  by 
litter  for  a  few  days,  will  recover  the 
tone  of  the  relaxed  parts. 

2226.  But  in  cases  of  severe  and  pro- 
tractetl  labour  the  cow  may  be  overtaken 
by  several  casualties,  such  as  flooding  or 
loss  of  blood,  which  is  caused  by  the  vessels 
of  the  womb  being  prevented  from  collaps- 
ing as  they  should  do  ;  hut  it  is  not  often 
a  fatal  com])laint,  and  may  be  removed  by 
the  application  of  a  lotion,  consisting  of 
one  gallon  of  spring  water,  mixed  in  a 
quart  of  strong  vinegar,  in  which  cloths 
should  be  dijiped  and  ajiplied  frequently  to 
the  loins,  rump,  and  shape.  A  drink  of 
two  quarts  of  cold  water  and  a  pint  of 
.lie  will  much  relieve  her,  and  assist  the 
eSbrts  of  nature. 

2227.  The  womb  becomes  inverted  after 
the  cleansing  happens  to  remain  too  long 
after  delivery,  in  consequence  of  long  and 
severe  pressing  or  straining  of  the  cow. 
The  womb  must  be  made  perfectly  clean 
witii  soap  and  warm  water,  and  replaced 
with  care,  taking  hold  of  it  only  by  the 


u])pcr  side.  The  hind-qiiarter  of  the  cow 
should  be  well  elevated  with  straw,  and  a 
saline  dose  of  laxative  medicine  adminis- 
tered, with  some  opium,  to  alia}'  pain  and 
prevent  straining. 

2228.  After  severe  calving,  cold,  and 
draughts  of  cold  air,  may  cause  inflam- 
mation in  the  womb  ;  large  drinks  of  cold 
water  v.ill  produce  the  same  eff'ect,  as  well 
as  the  irritation  arising  from  retention  of 
the  cleansing.  A  purge  is  the  safest 
remedy,  consisting  of  1  lb  of  Epsom  salts, 
2  oz.  nitre.  ^  oz.  of  camphor,  and  1  oz. 
each  of  coriander  and  cumin  seeds,  mixed 
in  a  powder,  and  given  in  2  quarts  of 
gruel  and  half  a  pound  of  treacle. 

2229.  But  in  all  cases  of  severe  calving, 
the  veteriiiary  surgeon  should  witness  the 
process,  and  afterwards  administer  the 
jjroper  medicines  and  prescribe  the  proper 
treatment  and  regimen. 

2230.  A  cow  will  desire  the  bull  in  4  or 
5  weeks  after  calving.  The  symptoms  of 
a  cow  being  in  season  are  thus  well  de- 
scribed by  Skellett.  '•  She  will  suddenly 
abate  of  her  milk,  and  be  very  restless; 
when  in  the  field  with  other  cows,  she  will 
be  frequently  riding  on  them,  and  if  in 
the  cow-house,  she  will  be  constantly 
shifting  alK)iit  the  stall ;  her  tail  will  be  in 
constant  niotion  ;  slie  will  be  frequently 
dunging,  staling,  and  blaring  ;  will  lose  her 
appetite  ;  her  external  parts  will  appear 
red  and  inflamed,  and  a  transparent  liquor 
will  be  discharged  from  the  vagina.  In 
old  cows  these  symptoms  are  known  to 
continue  4  or  5  d.iys,  but  in  general  not 
more  than  24  hours,  and  at  other  times 
not  more  than  5  or  6  hours.  Therefore, 
if  a  cow  is  intended  for  procreation,  the 
earliest  opportunity  should  be  taken  to 
let  her  have  the  bull ;  for  if  it  be  neglecte<i 
then,  it  will  often  be  2  or  3  weeks  before 
the  above  symptoms  will  return.  These 
instructions,"  adds  Skellett,  "  are  necessary 
to  be  given  only  to  the  proprietor  of  a 
small  number  of  cows,  where  a  bull  is  not 
always  kept  with  them.  .  .  .  If  a  cow, 
after  calviufr,  shows  symptoms  of  season 
sooner  than  4  or  5  weeks,  which  is  sf)me- 
times  the  case,  she  should  not  he  permitted 
to  hare  the  lull  sootier  than  4  or  5  tceeks 
from  that  period — for  the  womb  before  that 
time  is,  in  general,  in  so  relaxed  a  state, 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


517 


as  not  to  be  capable  of  retaining  tlie  seed, 
consequently  she  seldom  proves  with  calf, 
if  she  is  suffered  to  take  him  sooner."* 
This  last  remark  I  consider  of  great  value, 
for  I  am  persuaded  tliat  most  cases  of  cows 
not  holding  in  calf  the  first  serving  after 
calving,  arises  from  the  want  of  considera- 
tion on  the  part  of  breeders,  whether 
the  cow  is  in  that  recovered  state  from 
the  effects  of  calving,  as  to  afford  a  reason- 
able hope  that  she  will  conceive  ;  and  this 
is  a  point  more  to  be  considered  than  the 
mere  lapse  of  time  after  calving  ;  for  a 
cow,  after  a  severe  labour,  may  be  in  a 
much  worse  state  for  conception,  even  at 
double  that  length  of  time,  than  another 
which  has  calved  with  ease,  though  the 
former  may  have  come  as  regularly  into 
season  as  the  latter.  The  state  of  the  body, 
therefore,  as  well  as  the  length  of  time, 
should  both  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
determining  whether  or  not  the  cow  should 
receive  the  bull. 

2231.  There  are  still  other  considera- 
tions connected  with  the  serving  of  cows 
which  deserve  your  attention.  The  usual 
practice,  in  places  where  there  is  no  bull, 
13  to  take  the  cow  to  the  bull  at  a  con- 
venient time  for  the  cattle-man  to  go  with 
her;  and,  should  she  have  passed  the 
bloom  of  the  season  befn-e  her  arrival  at 
the  bull,  the  issue  will  of  course  be 
doubtful.  The  cow  may  have  travelled 
a  long  distance  and  become  weary,  and 
yet  no  rest  is  allowed  her,  and  she  must 
undergo  the  still  farther  fatigue  of  being 
served.  Some  jieople  cannot  be  satisfied 
with  the  service  which  their  cows  receive, 
until  both  cow  and  bull  are  wearied  out. 
Others  will  force  either  the  cow  or  bull, 
or  both,  to  go  together  against  their  in- 
clination, she  being  held  by  the  nose, 
and  he  goaded  on  with  threats  and  thumps. 
In  all  such  cases  the  chances  are  much 
against  conception.  Tliere  is,  to  be  sure, 
the  inconvenience  of  not  having  the  bull 
on  the  spot,  but,  when  he  is  reached, 
he  may  have  been  worn  out  for  the  day 
by  previous  service.  No  inconvenience 
is  experienced  when  there  is  a  bull  at 
home ;  but  even  then,  when  the  cow  has 
to  be  taken  to  him  out  of  the  byre,  a 
discretion  is  requisite  of  the  proper  time 
she  should    be  taken    out;   and  this  can 


only  be  known  by  studying  the  idiosyn- 
cracy  of  each  cow. 

2232.  It  appears  to  me  as  essential  to 
keep  a  record  of  the  characteristics  of 
each  cow,  in  regard  to  her  state  of  season, 
as  of  her  reckoning  to  calve;  and  the  con- 
viction is  strengthened  by  the  great  dif- 
ferences, in  this  respect,  evinced  by  difle- 
rent  cows  under  the  same  treatment.  For 
example,  one  arrives  soon  at  mature  season 
after  the  symptoms  are  exhibited  :  a 
second  requires  a  few  hours  to  arrive  at 
the  same  point,  and  the  season  continues 
for  some  time  longer  in  a  languid  state:  a 
third  runs  through  the  course  of  season  in 
a  few  hours ;  while  a  fourth  is  only  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  bull  at  the  last  period 
of  her  season  :  a  fifth  may  exhibit  great 
fire  in  her  desire,  which  induces  her  keeper 
to  have  her  served  at  once,  when  too  soon; 
whilst  a  sixth  shows  comparative  indiffer- 
ence, and,  in  waiting  for  an  exhibition  of 
increased  desire,  the  season  is  allowed  to 
pass  away ;  and  in  such  a  case,  some  cattle- 
men, conscious  of  neglect,  and  afraid  of 
detection,  will  persist  in  the  bull  serving 
her,  though  she  may  be  very  much  disin- 
clined for  the  embrace,  and  does  every- 
thing in  her  power  to  avoid  it. 

2233.  There  is  no  way  so  natural  for  a 
bull  to  serve  a  cow,  as  when  both  are  in 
the  field  together,  and  understand  one 
another.  The  most  proper  time  is  chosen 
by  both,  and  failure  of  conception  then 
rarely  happens.  Eut  it  is  possible  that  the 
bull  cannot  serve  the  cow  in  the  field,  by 
disparity  of  height,  or  by  corporeal  confor- 
mation, when  the  cow  will  require  to  be 
taken  to  a  part  of  the  ground  which  will 
favour  his  purpose.  Two  or  three  thorough 
skips  are  quite  sufficient  for  securing 
concejition. 

2234.  The  cow  should  be  kept  quiet  in 
the  byre  after  being  served  until  the  desire 
leave  her,  and  she  should  get  no  food  or 
water  for  some  hours  after,  as  any  encou- 
ragement of  discharges  from  the  body,  by 
food  and  drink,  is  inimical  to  the  reten- 
tion of  the  semen. 

2235.  "  When  nature  is  satisfied,"  says 
Mr  Skellett,  "  or  the  symptoms  of  season 


*  Skellett  On  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow,  p.  11-13. 


518 


PRACTICE— SPRIXG. 


disappear  in  the  animal,  conception  lias 
taken  place.  Tlie  neck  of  the  womb  be- 
comes then  completely  clothed  by  a  gluti- 
nous subijtance  which  nature  has  provided 
for  that  purpose,  being  perfectly  transpa- 
rent, and  witli  difficulty  separated  from 
the  parts.  This  matter  is  f(jr  the  purpose 
of  excluding  all  external  air  from  the 
mouth  of  the  womb  during  gestation, 
which,  if  admitted  to  tiie  foetus,  would 
corrupt  the  membranes  and  tiie  pellucid 
liquor  in  which  tiie  foetus  floats,  and  would 
umhaibtctliy  cause  the  cow  to  slink.  This 
glutinous  substance  also  prevents  the  lips 
of  the  mouth  of  the  wumb  from  growing 
together ;  and  when  the  cow  comes  into 
season  it  becomes  fluid, — the  act  of  copu- 
lation serving  to  lubricate  the  parts,  and 
prevent  inflammation."* 

2236.  The  heifers  that  are  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  cow-stock  should  be  taken 
from  the  hammels  X,  Plate  II,  in  which 
they  have  been  confined  all  winter,  into 
the  byre,  at  once  into  the  stalls  they  are 
to  occupy,  about  three  weeks  or  a  fort- 
night before  their  reckoning.  If  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  be  tied  by  the  neck 
when  calves,  they  will  not  feel  much  re- 
luctance in  going  into  a  stall ;  but  if  not, 
they  will  require  some  coaxing  to  do  it. 
When  taking  them  to  the  byre  at  first,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a  fright  re- 
ceived at  this  juncture  may  not  be  for- 
gotten by  them  for  a  long  time  to  come. 
To  avoid  every  chance  of  that,  let  them 
go  in  quietly  of  their  own  accord  ;  let 
them  snuft"  and  look  at  every  thing  they 
wish  ;  and  having  plenty  of  assistants  to 
prevent  their  breaking  away,  let  the  cattle- 
man, with  the  shepherd,  allow  them  to 
move  step  by  step,  until  they  arrive  at 
the  stall.  Here  may  be  some  difficulty — 
some  favourite  food  should  have  been 
put  in  the  manger  to  entice  them  to  go 
up.  Another  difficulty  will  be  putting 
the  seal,  fig.  76,  round  the  neck.  It  should 
be  hung,  when  not  in  use,  uptm  a  nail  in  the 
stake,  from  which  it  should  be  quietly 
taken  down,  without  clanking  the  chain  ; 
and,  while  the  heifer  is  eating,  let  the 
cattle-man  slip  one  hand  below  the  neck 
with  the  chain,  while  the  other  is  passed 
over  it,  to  bring  the  loose  end  of  the 
seal   round  the  neck,    and   hook    it    into 


whatever  link  he  first  finds.  Tlie  moment 
the  heifer  feels  she  is  bound,  she  will 
hang  back,  or  attempt  to  turn  round  in 
the  stall  to  get  away,  which  she  should 
be  prevented  doing  by  gentle  means  ;  and 
after  remaining  in  that  state  for  some 
time,  and  feeling  herself  well  used  and 
kindly  s])oken  to,  she  will  yield;  but  al- 
though she  may  api>ear  to  submit  for  the 
time,  she  must  not  be  left  alone  for  some 
time — till  the  assurance  she  will  not  at- 
tempt to  turn  in  the  stall  is  received.  No 
dogs  should  be  allowed  to  be  present  on 
such  occasions.  I  have  detailed  thus  mi- 
nutely the  first  treatment  of  heifers  in  a 
byie,  that  you  may  avoid  au  accident  that 
happened  to  a  fine  short-horn  heifer  of  my 
own,  which,  on  being  rather  rudely  pre- 
vented runningaway,bybeingvery  quickly 
turned  on  a  causeway,  was  lamed  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  upon  which  grew  a  large 
callous  lump,  which  ever  after  remained 
unsubdued. 

2237.  The  following  table,  containing  th« 
dates  at  which  cows  should  calve  from  those  at 
which  they  were  bulled,  is  founded  upon  the  data 
afforded  by  Lord  Spencer,  namely,  285  days  as 
the  average  period  of  gestation.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  fill  up  the  table  with  marking  down  every 
day  of  the  year,  as  in  the  short  period  betweea 
each  fortnight  you  can  easily  calculate  the  par- 
ticular reckoning  of  each  cow  : — 

A  RECKONING  TABLE  KOU  THE  CALVING  OF  COWS. 


When  Uulled. 

When  wiU 
C»l»e. 

When  BuUed. 

When  WiU 
CalTc. 

Jan.       1. 

Oct.    la 

July 

16. 

April 

27. 

—        15. 

—       27. 



30. 

— 

11. 

—        29. 

—       10. 

Aug. 

IX 

May 

25w 

Feb.     12. 

Nov.    2i. 

27. 

— 

8. 

—       26. 

—        8. 

Sept. 

10. 

June 

22. 

1     Marcli  12. 

Dec.     22. 

— 

24. 

— 

«. 

i      —       26. 

—         5. 

Oct. 

8. 

July 

20. 

April     9. 

Jan.     \y. 

.  — 

22. 

— 

X 

1      -       23. 

—         2. 

Nov. 

5. 

Au?. 

17. 

1     3Iay       7. 

Feb.     16. 

— 

19. 

— 

31. 

1      -       21. 

—         2. 

Dec. 

3. 

Sept. 

14. 

1     June      4. 

—       16. 

— 

17. 

28. 

]      —       18. 

Mar.  h :«). 



31. 

OcU 

12. 

•■     July       2. 

April    13. 

2238.  A  few  years  since,  Mr  A.  Burnett  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  constructed  a  table,  which 
lie  denominated  The  Farmer's  Cycle,  intended  to 
indicate  at  a  glance  the  e.'cact  day  of  reckoning 
when  every  kind  of  animal  should  bring  furlh  its 
young,  from  the  day  in  which  it  was  serred  by 
the  male.  Mr  Burnett  confined  his  table  to  cal- 
culating the  tijne  of  cows,  ewes,  and  sows  ;  but  it 
might  as  easily  be  extended  to  that  of  mares,  and 
even  to  that  of  the  hatching  of.all  kinds  of  poultry. 
The  table  consists  of  a  zodiac  circle,  divided  into 
as  many  larire  division?  as  there  are  mouths  in 


*  Skellett  On  the  Parturitioti  of  ike  Cov,  p.  17. 


CALVING  OF  COWS. 


519 


the  year,  which  are  so  named,  and  these  again 
into  as  many  days  as  are  in  every  month,  Feb- 
ruary having  the  ordinary  number  of  28,  one 
more  being  added  by  the  mind  in  leap  years. 
Within  this  circle,  which  may  be  projected  upon 
a  stout  piece  of  card  or  wood,  is  another  circle, 
which  is  made  to  revolve  upon  their  common 
centre.  Upon  the  movable  circle  is  drawn  a 
radius  with  a  pointer  at  its  extremity,  and  there 
is  marked  along  it  the  words  "  when  served  "  or 
"  set."  On  bringing  the  pointer  to  the  day  in 
which  any  female  of  the  stock  was  served  by  the 
male,  other  radii  set  their  pointers  at  the  day 
when  the  female  should  bring  forth  its  young,  be 
it  a  cow,  a  mare,  a  ewe,  or  a  sow  ;  allowing  the 
proper  period  of  gestation  to  every  kind  of  ani- 
mal. The  cow  is  allowed  285  days,  the  mare 
334,  the  ewe  152,  the  sow  112  ;  and  on  setting 
their  eggs,  the  goose  is  allowed  30,  the  turkey  30, 
and  the  hen  21  days.  Such  a  table  would  be 
highly  useful  in  the  possession  of  every  shepherd, 
cattle-man,  and  dairy-maid. 

2239.  The  usual  mode  of  determining  whether 
a  cow  is  in  calf  is  deceptive.  She  may  not  have 
held  when  bulled  ;  she  may  have  taken  the  bull 
again  in  a  few  days,  and  she  may  not  show  evident 
symptoms  of  calving  until  only  a  few  days  before 
she  actually  calves.  The  application  of  the  ear 
to  the  flank  of  the  cow  is  a  simpler  and  more 
certain  mode  of  ascertaining  the  point  :  and  the 
curious  and  valuable  discoveries  brought  to  light 
by  the  stethescope,  renders  that  mode  truly  philo- 
sophical. The  existence  of  pregnancy  may  be 
detected  by  it  at  as  early  a  stage  as  six  or  eight 
weeks,  by  which  time  the  beating  of  ihe  heart  of 
the  calf  may  be  distinctly  heard,  and  its  singular 
double  beating  cannot  be  mistaken. 

2240.  Milk  or  Puerperal  Fever. — "  Although 
parturition  is  a  natural  process,"  as  is  well  ob- 
served'by  Mr  Youatt,  "it  is  accompanied  by  a 
great  deal  of  febrile  excitement.  The  sudden 
transferring  of  powerful  and  accumulated  action 
from  one  organ  to  another — from  the  womb  to 
the  udder — must  cause  a  great  deal  of  constitu- 
tional disturbance,  as  well  as  liability  to  local 
inflammation."*  One  consequence  of  this  con- 
stitutional disturbance  of  the  system  is  milk-feeer. 
"  The  cause  of  this  disease,"  says  Skellett,  "  is 
whatever  obstructs  perspiration,  and  iiccuniulates 
the  blood  internally  ;  hence  it  may  be  produced 
by  the  application  of  cold  air,  by  lying  on  the 
cold  ground,  or  by  giving  cold  water  after  calving; 
and  these  causes  will  naturally  produce  this 
effect  from  the  open  state  of  the  pores  at  this 
time,  and  from  the  external  parts  being  so  wide 
and  relaxed  after  the  operation.  Cows  in  high 
condition  are  more  subject  than  others  to  this 
complaint,  and  especially  if  they  have  been  kept 
up  for  some  weeks  before  calving. "-t*  The  com- 
plaint may  seize  the  cow  only  a  few  hours  after 
calving,  or  it  may  be  days.  Its  first  attack  is 
probably  not  observed  by  those  who  have  the 
charge  of  the  cows,  or  even  by  the  farmer  him- 
self, who  is  rather  chary  in  looking  after  the  con- 
dition of  cows,  in  case  he  should  offend  his  female 


friends,  to  whose  special  care  that  portion  of  his 
stock  is  consigned.  The  symptoms  are  first 
known  by  the  cow  shifting  about  in  the  stall,  or 
from  place  to  place  if  loose,  lifting  one  leg  and 
then  another,  being  easily  startled,  and  looking 
wildly  about  her  as  if  she  had  lost  her  calf,  and 
blaring  for  it.  Then  the  flanks  begin  to  heave, 
the  mouth  to  open  and  issue  clear  water,  she 
staggers  in  her  walk,  and  at  length  loses  the  nse 
of  her  limbs,  lies  down  and  places  her  head  upon 
her  side.  The  body  then  swells,  the  extremities 
feel  cold  and  clammy.  Shivering  and  cold  sweats 
follow,  the  pulse  becomes  irregular,  and  death 
ensues.  The  promptest  remedy  to  be  used,  after 
the  first  symptom  has  been  observed,  is  to  bleed 
to  the  extent  of  3  or  4  quarts  ;  and  the  next  is 
to  open  the  bowels,  which  will  be  found  to  have 
a  tendency  to  constipation.  From  1  lb.  to  Ij  lb. 
of  Epsom  salts,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
cow,  with  a  little  ginger  and  carraway,  should  be 
given  as  a  purge  ;  and  if  the  dose  does  not  operate 
in  due  time,  {  lb.  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given 
every  6  hours  until  the  bowels  are  opened. 
This  result  will  be  much  expedited  by  a  glyster 
of  warm  thin  gruel  and  soap  or  oil.  After  the 
opening  medicine  has  operated,  a  cordial  drink 
will  be  necessary ,  by  which  time  the  cow  may 
show  symptoms  of  recovery  by  expressing  an 
inclination  to  eat,  in  which  she  should  be  gra- 
tified, but  with  precaution. 

2241.  I  may  here  mention  an  unaccountable 
fatality  which  overtook  a  short-horn  cow  of 
mine,  in  Forfarshire,  immediately  after  calving. 
She  was  an  extra(ndinary  milker,  giving  not  less 
than  30  quarts  a-day  in  summer  on  grass  ;  but 
what  was  more  extraordinary,  for  two  calvings 
the  milk  never  dried  up,  but  continued  to  flow  to 
the  very  day  of  calving,  and  after  that  event 
returned  in  increased  quantity.  In  the  third 
year  she  went  naturally  dry  for  about  one 
month  prior  to  the  day  of  reckoning  ;  every  pre- 
caution, however,  was  taken  that  the  milk  should 
dry  up  without  giving  her  any  uneasiness.  She 
calved  in  high  health,  the  milk  returned  as  usual 
in  a  great  flush  after  calving,  but  it  was  impos- 
sible to  draw  it  from  the  udder ;  not  a  teat 
would  pa>.s  milk,  all  the  four  be'unj  entirely  corded. 
Quills  were  first  introduced  into  the  teats  ;  and 
then  lubes  of  larger  size  were  pushed  up  into  the 
body  of  the  udder.  A  little  milk  ran  out  of 
only  one  of  them — hope  revived  ;  but  it  soon 
stopped  running,  and  all  the  art  that  could  be 
devised  by  a  skilful  shepherd  proved  unavailing 
to  draw  milk  from  the  udder  ;  rubbing  and 
softening  the  udder  with  goose-fat,  making  it 
warmer  with  warm  water — all  to  no  purpose. 
To  render  the  case  more  distressing,  there 
was  not  a  veterinary  surgeon  in  the  district. 
At  length  the  udder  inflamed,  mortified,  and 
the  cow  died  in  the  most  excruciating  agony  on 
the  third  day,  from  being  in  the  highest  state 
of  health,  though  not  in  high  condition,  as  her 
milking  propensity  usually  kept  her  lean.  '  No 
loss  of  the  kind  ever  affected  my  mind  so  much 
■ — that  nothing  could  be  done  to  relieve  the  dis- 
tress of  an  animal  which  could  not  help  itself. 


Youatt  On  Cattle,  p.  546. 


t  Skellett  On  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow,  p.  195. 


520 


RACTICE— SPRING. 


I  was  told  afterwards  by  a  sheplierd,  to  whom  I 
related  tJie  casi<,  that  I  should  have  cut  off  nil 
the  teats,  and  although  the  horrid  oj)eratinn 
would,  of  course,  have  destroyed  Iht  for  a  luilk 
cow,  the  miglit  have  beeu  saved  for  leeding.  lie 
had  never  seen  a  cow  so  operated  ou  ;  but  it 
suggested  itself  to  him  in  consequeuce  of  having 
been  obliged  at  times  to  cut  off  the  teats  of 
ewes  to  save  their  lives.  The  suggestion  1  think 
is  good.  The  cow  was  bred  by  Mr  Gurrie,  when 
at  Brandon  in  Northumberland. 

2242.  Bed-water.— The  ninth  day  after  a  cow 
has  calved,  an  uterine  discharge  sliould  take 
place  and  continue  for  a  day  or  two,  after  which 
the  cow  will  exhibit  all  the  symptoms  of  good 
health.  I  have  observed  that  when  this  discharge 
does  not  take  place,  the  cow  will  soon  after 
show  symptoms  of  red-water.  She  will  evacuate 
urine  with  difficulty,  which  will  come  away  in 
small  streams,  and  be  highly  tinged  with  blood, 
and  at  length  appear  like  dark  grounds  of  coffee. 
"  The  nature  ami  cause  of  the  disease  are  here 
evident  enough,"  as  Mr  Youatt  well  observes. 
"  During  the  period  of  pregnancy  there  had  been 
considerable  determination  of  blood  to  the  womb. 
A  degree  of  .susceptibility,  a  tendency  to  inflam- 
matory action  had  been  set  up,  and  this  had  been 
increased  as  the  period  of  parturition  approached, 
and  was  aggravated  by  the  state  and  general 
fulness  of  blood  to  which  she  had  incautiously 
been  raised.  The  neighbouring  organs  neces- 
sarily participated  in  tliis,  and  the  kidneys,  to 
which  so  much  blood  is  sent  for  the  proper  dis- 
charge of  their  function,  either  quickly  shared  in 
the  inflammation  of  the  womb,  or  first  took  an 
inflammation,  and  suffered  most  by  means  of  it."* 
The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  recommended  in 
using  purgative  medicine  after  calving  ;  but  as 
purging  never  fails  to  lessen  the  quantity  of  milk 
given  by  the  cow  for  some  time  after,  a  better 
plan  is  to  give  such  food  as  will  also  operate  as 
a  laxative,  for  some  time  before  as  well  as  after 
calving— and  the  substance  which  possesses  these 
properties  is  oil-cake.  1  have  proved  this  from 
experience.  I  lost  two  cows  in  Forfarshire  by 
red-water,  one  a  short-horn  and  the  other  an 
Angu.s,  and  one  of  the  hinds  lost  one  also  ;  all  in 
different  but  successive  years,  liy  examination 
of  the  .*tomach  and  bowels  after  death,  1  became 
aatibCed  that  the  determination  of  the  blood  to 
the  womb,  during  pregnancy,  had  caused  a  ten- 
dency to  inflammation  in  the  bowels  and  stomach, 
and  that  indigestion  and  constipation  were  the 
consequences,  and  these  were  aggravated  by  the 
state  of  tlie  food,  which  consisted  entirely,  of 
Swedish  turnips,  and  which,  at  that  seasonj  in 
April,  were  fibrous,  dry,  and  sweet.  The  remedy 
was  obvious— give  a  laxative  diet  ;  and  as  that 
cannot  readily  he  effected  by  turnips,  particularly 
in  cows  which  do  not  receive  as  many  as  they 
can  eat,  nor  by  raw  potatoes,  which  incur  the 
risk  of  hoven,  the  only  alternative  was  oil-cake  ; 
and,  fortunately,  from  the  period  I  employed  it 
medicinally,  for  a  month  before  and  one  after 


calving,  to  the  extent  only  of  4  Ibs.a-day  to  each 

cow,  the  complaint  never  recurred. 

2243.  I  never  saw  the  disease  in  Herwickshire  ; 
and  the  opinion  in  Forfarshire,  where  the  disease 
is  prevalent,  that  it  arises  from  cowa  eating 
some  noxious  plant,  and  is  called  the  muirill, 
cannot  be  well  founded — as  cows  living  on  the 
tame  kiiidsof  sovii  grasses  have  been  differeittly 
affected  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Be- 
sides, a  two  years'  pasture  has  not  time  to  become 
stocked  with  natural  plants,  whether  noxious  or 
innoxious  ;  nor  could  the  noxious  effects  of  even 
natural  pasture  plants  be  felt  in  spring,  after 
cattle  had  lived  upon  turnips  for  a  number  of 
months  ;  nor  can  simple  laxatives,  for  a  few  iifija 
in  spring,  counteract  the  effects  of  plants  grazed 
on  for  half  a  year  in  the  previous  summer.  In- 
digestion and  constipation,  at  the  time  of  calv- 
ing, must  therefore  arise  from  some  other  cause 
than  the  consumption  of  plants  in  summer.  One 
cause  may  be  sought  in  the  prevailing  practice  ia 
Forfarshire,  of  keeping  cows  constantly  in  the 
byre  during  the  winter  half-year.  Remove  the 
tendency  to  constipation  by  a  gentle  laxative, 
and  allow  the  cows  air  and  exercise  in  winter 
in  a  court,  and  tlie  complaint  will  never  more  be 
heard  of  after  calving.  Whatever  may  be  the 
cause  of  the  disease  in  summer,  when  it  is  said  to 
be  most  prevalent  in  dry  weather,  where  cows  have 
liberty  to  roam  over  marshes,  muirs,  or  woods, 
and  eat  what  plants  hunger  may  impel  them,  it  is 
clear  that  the  disease  in  spring  cannot  arise 
from  the  same  cause.t 

2244.  Tail-ill  or  Tail-slip. — A  very  prevalent 
notion  exists  in  Scotland  amongst  cattie-men, 
that  when  the  tail  of  an  ox  or  of  a  cow  feels 
soft  and  supple  immediately  above  the  tuft  of 
hair,  there  is  disease  in  it  ;  and  it  is  called  the 
tail-ill,  or  tail-slip.  The  almost  invariable 
remedy  is  to  make  a  large  incision  with  tire  knife 
along  the  under  side  of  the  soft  part,  stuff  the 
wound  full  of  salt  and  butter,  and  sometimes  tar, 
and  roll  it  up  with  a  bandage  for  a  few  days, 
and  when  the  application  is  removed,  the  animal 
is  declared  quite  recovered.  Now.  tliis  notion 
is  an  absurdity.  There  is  no  such  disease  as 
imputed  ;  and  as  the  poor  animal  subjected  to 
its  cure  is  thus  tormented,  the  sooner  the  absurd 
notion  is  exposed  the  better.  The  notion  will 
not  soon  be  abandoned  by  the  cattle-men  ;  but 
the  farmer  ought  to  forbid  the  performance  of 
such  an  operation  on  any  of  his  cattle  without 
his  special  permission,  and  the  ab.-urd  practice 
will  fall  into  desuetude.  "  The  disease,  in  ordi- 
nary cases,"  as  Professor  Dick  describes  it,  "  is 
said  to  Consist  in  a  softening  of  the  bones  about 
the  extremity  of  the  tail  CmoUities  osfitun  )  ;  and 
is  to  be  distinguished  by  the  point  of  the  tail 
being  easily  doubled  back  upon  itself,  and  hav- 
ing, at  this  doubling,  a  soft  and  rather  crepitat- 
ing kind  of  feel.  But  let  us  inquire,"  as  the 
Professor  very  properly  suggests,  "  what  is  the 
healthii  state  of  this   organ,  and  what  is  its  use. 


*  Yonatt  On  Cattle,  p.  504. 

t  See  P}-ize  Kfsayt  of  the  Jlighland  and  yi^jricultural  Sor.ieti/,  vol.  ix.  p.  8-34,  for  a  number  of 
essaysouthissubject,  all  of  which,  it  will  be  observed,  uncouditionallv  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  dis- 
ease to  cattle  eating  some  noxious  plants. 


MILKING  OF  COWS. 


521 


before  we  proceed  to  pronounce  upon  this  sup- 
posed disease.  Almost  all  the  lower  animals 
are  fnrnisjied  with  this  organ  ;  in  some  adding 
much  to  their  grace  and  symmetry,  and  in  all 
being  an  organ  of  greater  or  less  utility."  Now, 
the  natural  structure  of  the  tail  is  this  :  "  The 
tail  of  the  ox  is  lengthened  out  to  the  extent  of 
3  feet,  and  is  formed  like  a  common  whip.  To- 
wards the  extremity,  the  bones  terminate  gra- 
dually, becoming  insensibly  smaller  as  they 
approach  the  termination.  At  this  part  is  found 
a  soft  space,  which  is  said  to  be  the  seat  of  this 
disease,  the  tail-slip.  Beyond  this,  again,  a  firm, 
swelling,  cartilaginous  portion  is  found,  covered 
with  hair,  to  brush  off  the  flies  within  its  reach. 
Now,  why  have  we  the  long  column  of  bones,  the 
termination  with  a  soft  space  of  a  few  inches, 
and  this  thickened  hard  cartilaginous  part  at  the 
very  extremity,  and  that  extremity  covered  with 
hair  l  Why,  but  with  a  view  to  form  a  whip  to 
drive  ofif,  with  the  greatest  possible  effect,  the 
insects  which  wound  and  do  torment  the  animal. 
Here,  the  column  of  bones  forms  the  elastic 
shaft  or  handle  of  the  whip  ;  the  soft  part,  the 
connexion  between  the  handle  and  thong,  the 
couple  ;  while  the  thickened  extremity  may  be 
easily  recognised  to  represent  the  thong,  and  the 
hair  to  form  the  lash  or  point.  They  have  thus 
a  whip  to  drive  and  a  brush  to  wipe  off  their 
foes  as  they  make  their  attack."  The  tail  being 
thus  shown  to  be  admirably  suited  for  its  pur- 
pose, it  could  not  be  so  well  suited  for  it  if  it 
wanted  that  soft  part  which  is  said  to  be  in  a 
state  of  disease.  On  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn 
from  this  statement  of  facts,  the  Professor  anti- 
cipates it  thus — "  But  it  will  perhaps  be  asked, 
after  what  I  have  stated  of  the  facts  previously 
ascertained,  do  I  deny  the  existence  of  the  tail- 
slip  ?  I  answer,  Yes.  But  if  I  am  again  asked. 
Is  the  tail  not  lia'Ae  to  disease  ?  I  answer,  it  is  ; 
but  these  diseases,  or  rather  injuries,  are  only 
those  common  to  other  parts.  The  softness  at 
the  extremity  is  no  disease  ;  it  is  the  natural 
structure,  intended  to  allow  a  free  and  extensive 
motion  ;  and  although,  in  some  cases,  mortifica- 
tion may  have  attacked  the  extremity  of  the  tail, 
ought  we  not  to  ascribe  this  to  some  common 
cause — soine  external  injury  ?  or  might  it  not, 
perhaps,  have  become  frost- bit  by  exposure  to 
cold  ?"  *  A  real  disease  of  the  tail,  whatever  it 
is,  is,  at  all  events,  not  the  tail-ill. 


ON  THE  MILKING  OF  COAVS. 

2245.  The  structure  of  a  cow's  udder 
is  remarkable.  It  consists  of  4  glands, 
disconnected  with  each  other,  but  all  con- 
tained within  one  bag  or  cellular  mem- 
brace  ;  and  the  glands  are  uniform  in 
structure.  Each  gland  consists  of  3  ])arts, 
the  glandular  or  secreting,  the  tubular 
or  conducting,  and  the  teat  or  receptacle 
or  receiving  part.     The  glandular  forms 


by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  udder. 
It  appears  to  the  naked  eye  composed  of 
a  mass  of  yellowish  grains,  but  under  the 
microscope  these  arc  found  to  consist  en- 
tirely of  minute  blood-vessels  forming  a 
compact  plexus,  which  secrete  the  milk 
from  the  blood. 

2246.  The  udder  should  be  capacious, 
though  not  too  large,  for  the  size  of  the 
cow.  It  should  be  nearly  spherical  iu 
form,  though  rather  fuller  in  front,  and 
dependant  behind.  The  skin  should  be 
thin,  loose,  and  free  from  lumps,  filled  up 
in  the  fore-part  of  the  udder,  but  hanging 
in  folds  in  the  hind  part.  Each  quarter 
should  contain  about  equal  quantities  of 
milk,  though  I  have  always  believed  that 
the  hind  ones  yield  the  most. 

2247.  The  teats  should  be  at  equal  dis- 
tances every  way,  not  too  long  or  too 
short,  but  of  moderate  size,  and  of  equal 
thickness  from  the  udder  to  the  point, 
which  should  be  smaller.  They  should 
not  be  too  large  at  the  udder,  to  permit  the 
milk  to  flow  down  too  freely  from  the  bag 
and  lodge  in  them ;  nor  too  small  at  that 
place,  to  allow  the  coagulation  of  the  milk 
to  cord  iip  or  fill  the  orifice ;  nor  too 
broad  at  the  point,  to  have  the  orifice  as 
large  as  that  the  cow  cannot  retain  her 
milk  after  the  bag  becomes  full  and  heavy. 
They  should  be  smooth,  and  feel  like 
velvet,  firm  and  soft  to  handle,  not  hard 
and  leathery.  They  should  yield  the 
milk  freely,  and  not  require  to  be  forcibly 
pulled. 

2248.  AYhen  the  milk  is  first  to  be  taken 
from  the  cow  after  calving,  the  points  of 
the  teats  will  be  found  plugged  up  with  a 
resinous  substance,  which,  in  some  instan- 
ces, requires  some  force  to  be  exerted  on 
them  before  it  will  yield.  The  milk  that 
is  obtained  for  the  first  four  days  has  a 
thick  consistence,  and  is  of  a  yellow  colour, 
and  has  obtained  the  name  of  beistyn  in 
Scotland.  It  possesses  the  coagulable 
})roperties  of  the  white  of  an  e^g^  and 
will  boil  into  a  thick  substance  called 
beistyii  cheese;  but  it  is  never  used  for 
such  a  purpose,  and  is  given  to  the  calf, 
because  the  country  people  have  a  notion 
that  it  is  not  wholesome  to  use  the  beistyus. 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  310-13. 


MS 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2249.  "  Tims,  then,"  says  a  writer,  "  we 
perceive  that  the  milk  is  abstracted  from 
the  blood  ill  the  glandular  part  of  the 
udder;  the  tubes  receive  and  deposit  it 
in  the  reservoir  or  receptacle ;  and  the 
sphincter  at  the  end  of  the  teat  retains  it 
there  till  it  is  wanted  for  use.*'  This  is 
not  (piite  correct,  for  the  teat  does  not 
terminate  in  a  sphincter — the  milk  being 
upheld  in  the  teat  simply  by  a  valvular 
structure,  like  as  the  blood  is  supported  in 
the  veins.  A  sphincter  acts  by  the 
power  of  four  muscles,  which  contract  or 
expand  at  will  across  a  common  orifice. 
"  But  we  must  not  be  understood  to  mean, 
that  all  the  milk  drawn  from  the  udder  at 
one  milking,  or  meal,  as  it  is  termed,  is 
contained  in  the  receptacle.  The  milk,  as 
it  is  secreted,  is  conveyed  to  the  recepta- 
cle, and  when  this  is  full,  the  larger  tubes 
begin  to  be  filled,  and  next  the  smaller 
ones,  until  the  whole  become  gorged. 
Wiien  this  takes  ])lace,  the  secretion  of 
the  milk  ceases,  and  absorption  of  the 
thinner  or  more  watery  part  commences. 
Now,  as  this  absorption  takes  place  more 
readily  in  the  smaller  or  more  distant 
tubes,  we  invariably  find  that  the  milk 
trom  these,  which  comes  the  last  into  the 
receptacle,  is  much  thicker  and  richer  than 
than  what  was  first  drawn  off.  This  milk 
has  been  significantly  styled  afterings ; 
and  should  this  gorged  state  of  the  tubes 
be  permitted  to  continue  beyond  a  certain 
time,  serious  mrschief  will  sometimes  oc- 
cur: the  milk  becomes  too  thick  to  flow 
throngli  the  tubes,  and  soon  produces,  first 
irritation,  then  inflammation,  and  lastly 
suj)puration,  and  the  function  of  the  gland 
is  materially  impaired  or  altogether  de- 
stroyed. Hence  the  great  importance  of 
emptying  these  smaller  tubes  regularly 
and'thoroughly,  not  merely  to  prevent 
the  occurrence  of  disease,  but  actually  to 
increase  the  cpiantityof  milk;  for  so  long 
as  the  smaller  tubes  are  kept  free,  milk  is 
constantly  forming;  but  whenever,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  they  become 
gorged,  the  secretion  of  milk  ceases  until 
they  are  emptied.  The  cow  herself  has  no 
I)ower  over  the  sphincter  (?)at  the  end  of 
the  teat,  so  as  to  open  it  and  relieve  the 
overcharged  udder  ;  neither  has  she  any 
power  of  retaining  the  milk  collected  in 
the  reservoirs  wlien  the  spasm  of  the 
sphincter  is  overcome."  * 


2250.  You  thus  see  the  necessity  of 
drawing  away  the  hist  drop  of  milk  at 
every  milking,  and  the  greater  milker  the 
cow  is,  this  is  the  more  necessary.  You 
also  see  the  improjiriety  of  hefting  or 
holding  the  milk  in  cows  until  the  udder 
is  distended  much  beyond  its  ordinary 
size,  for  the  sake  of  showing  its  utmost 
capacity  for  holding  milk,  a  device  which 
all  cow-dealers,  and  indeed  every  one  who 
has  a  cow  for  sale  in  a  market,  scrupu- 
lously adopts.  It  is  remarkable  that  so 
hackneyed  a  practice  should  deceive  any 
one  into  its  being  a  measure  of  the  mint- 
ing power  of  the  cow — for  every  farmer  is 
surely  aware,  or  ought  to  be,  that  the  per- 
son who  jjurchases  a  hefted  cow,  on  account 
of  the  magnitude  of  its  udder  as  exhibited 
in  the  market,  gains  nothing  by  the  de- 
vice ;  for,  after  the  cow  comes  into  his 
possession,  she  will  not  be  hefted,  and,  of 
course,  not  show  the  greatest  magnitude  of 
udder,  and  cannot  yield  the  advantage  for 
which  she  was  bought  erroneously  in  pre- 
ference to  others  with  udders  in  a  more 
natural  state.  If,  then,  purchasers  derive 
no  benefit  from  hefting,  because  they  do 
not  allow  it  after  the  cow  becomes  their 
own,  why  do  they  encourage  so  cruel  and 
injurious  a  practice  in  dealers?  Is  it  not 
better  to  select  cows  by  the  udder  iu  the 
state  in  which  it  will  be  iu  their  own  pos- 
session ?  Were  purchasers  to  set  their  face 
against  the  barbarous  practice,  by  insisting 
on  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  the  cow,  for 
the  injury  done  her  by  the  hefting,  the 
dealers  would  soon  be  obliged  to  relin- 
quish it. 

2251.  There  is  also  another  fallacy  in 
regard  to  the  milking  properties  of  a  cow, 
which  should  be  e.\]»osed — I  mean  the 
notion  of  a  large  milk-vein  below  the 
belly  indicating  the  milking  powers  of  the 
cow.  The  vein,  commonly  called  the  milk- 
vein,  is  the  sub-cutaneous  vein,  and  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  udder;  it  belongs 
to  the  rcsjjiratory  system,  and  is  the  means 
of  keeping  uj»  an  equilibrium  in  the  blood 
between  the  fore  and  hind  (puirfcrs.  This 
vein  certainly  indicates  a  strongly  deve- 
loped vascular  system,  which  is  favourable 
to  secretion  generally,  and  no  doubt  is 
so  to  that  of  the  milk  among  the  rest. 

2252.  The  vessel  used  for  receiving  the 


Blurtou's  Practical  Essay  on  Milking,  p.  6.7. 


MILKING  OF  COWS. 


523 


milk  from  the  cow  is  simple,  and  is 
shown  in  fig.  197,  which  represents  one 
of  the  most  convenient  form,  and  the  size 


Fig.  J  97. 


THE  MILK  PAIL. 


may  be  made  to 
suit  the  dairy- 
maid's taste.  It 
is  made  of  thin 
oak  staves  bound 
together  with 
three  thin  iron 
hoops,  which 
should  always  be 
keptbright.  Pit- 
chers of  tin  are 
mostly  used  to 
milk  in  in  the 
dairies  of  towns. 
In  Holland  the 
milking  pails  are 
made  of  brass, 
and  of  course  must  be  kept  quite  bright, 
otherwise  they  would  injure  the  milk.  The 
Dutch  dairy-maids  have  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  in  keeping  these  vessels  in  proper 
order.  A  pail,  as  fig.  1 97,  is  of  a  conveni- 
ent size  when  9  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
bottom,  ]  1  inches  at  the  top,  and  ]  0  inches 
deep,  with  a  handle  5  inches  high,  and  hav- 
ing a  capacious  enough  mouth  to  receive  the 
milk  as  it  descends,  and  of  a  sufficient 
height  to  rest  on  the  edge  of  its  bottom 
when  held  firmly  between  the  knees  of  the 
dairy-maid,  as  she  sits  upon  the  three- 
legged  stool.  Of  course  the  pail  should 
not  be  milked  full,  and  should  be  large 
enough  to  contain  all  the  milk  that  a  cow 
will  give  at  a  milking,  as  it  is  undesirable 
to  disturb  the  cow  by  rising  from  her  be- 
fore the  milking  is  finished,  or  exchanging 
one  pail  for  another. 

2253.  The  byre-stool  is  seen  in  fig.  108, 
made  of  ash,  to  stand  9  inches  in  height, 
or  any  other  height  to  suit  the  convenience 
Fig.  198. 


THE  MILKING  STOOL. 


of  the  dairy-maid,  with  the  top  9  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  legs  a  little  spread  out 
below  to  give  the  stool  stability.  Bonie 
milkers  do  not  care  to  have  the  assistance 
of  a  stool,  and  prefer  sitting  on  their 
haunches;  but  a  stool  keeps  the  body  so 
steady  and  secure,  that  the  arms  have 
greater  freedom  of  action,  and  are  more 
readv  to  prevent  accidents  to  the  milk  in 
case  of  any  commotion  with  the  cow. 

2254.  The  cow  being  a  sensitive  and 
capricious  creature,  is  so  easily  offended, 
that,  if  the  dairy  maid  rise  from  her 
before  the  milk  is  all  withdrawn,  the 
chances  are  she  will  not  again  stand  quietly 
at  that  milking;  or  if  the  vessel  used  in 
milking  is  taken  away  before  the  milking 
is  finished,  and  another  substituted  in  its 
place,  the  probability  is  that  she  will  hold 
back  her  milk — that  is,  not  allow  it  to  flow. 
This  is  a  curious  property  which  cowa 
possess,  and  how  it  is  effected  has,  I  be- 
lieve, never  been  ascertained;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  of  the  fact  occurring  when  a 
cow  becomes  irritated,  or  frightened  by 
any  cause.  Of  course,  all  cows  are  not 
aflfected  to  the  same  degree ;  but,  as  a 
proof  of  their  extreme  sensitiveness  in  this 
respect,  very  few  can  be  milked  so  freely 
by  a  stranger  the  first  time  as  by  one  to 
whom  they  have  been  accustomed. 

2255.  There  is  one  side  of  a  cow  which 
is  usually  called  the  mUk'ing  side — that  is, 
the  left  side — because,  somehow,  custom 
has  established  the  practice  of  milking  her 
from  that  side.  It  may  have  been  adopted 
for  two  reasons :  one,  because  we  are  ac- 
customed to  approach  all  the  larger  domes- 
ticated animals  by  what  we  call  the  near 
side — that  is,  the  animal's  left  side — as 
being  the  most  convenient  one  for-our- 
selves ;  and  the  other  reason  may  have 
been,  that,  as  most  people  are  right-handed, 
and  the  common  use  of  the  right  hand  has 
made  it  the  stronger,  it  is  most  conveni- 
ently employed  in  milking  the  hinder 
teats  of  the  cow,  which  are  often  most 
difficult  to  reach,  because  of  the  position 
of  the  hind  legs,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  udder.  The  near  side 
is  most  commonly  used  in  Scotland,  but 
in  many  parts  of  England  the  other  side 
is  preferred.  Whichever  side  is  selected, 
that  should  always  be  used,  as  cows  are 
very  sensitive  of  changes. 


624 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2256.  It  is  a  rare  eight  to  see  a  cow 
milked  in  Scotland  by  any  other  person 
than  a  woman,  thongh  men  are  very  com- 
monly enijiloyed  in  P^ngland.  For  my 
part,  I  never  see  a  man  milking  a  c<Nv 
without  being  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  he  is  engaged  in  an  office  which  does 
^lot  befit  him  ;  and  this  sense  seems  to  be 
expressed  in  the  terms  usually  applied  to 
the  persons  connected  with  cows — a  dairy- 
maid  implying  one  who  milks  cows,  as  well 
as  performs  the  other  functions  of  the  dairy, 
— a  dairy-»»«n,  one  who  owns  a  dairy. 

2257.  Milking  is  performed  in  two 
ways,  stripping  and  nievling.  Stripping 
consists  of  seizing  the  teat  firmly  near  the 
root  between  the  face  of  the  thumb  and  the 
side  of  the  fore-finger,  the  length  of  the 
teat  lying  along  the  other  fingers,  and  by 
pressing  the  finger  and  thumb  while  pas-s- 
ing them  down  the  entire  length  of  the 
teat,  and  causing  the  milk  to  fiow  out  of 
its  point  in  a  forcible  stream.  The  action 
is  renewed  by  again  quickly  elevating  the 
hand  to  the  root  of  the  teat.  Both  hands 
are  employed  at  the  ojjeration,  each  having 
hold  of  a  different  teat,  and  are  moved 
alternately.  The  two  nearest  teats,  the 
fore  and  hind,  are  first  milked,  and  then 
the  two  farthest. 

22.'58.  Nievling  is  done  by  grasping 
the  teat  with  the  whole  hand,  or  Jist^ 
making  the  sides  of  the  fore-finger  and 
thumb  press  upon  the  teat  more  strongly 
than  the  other  fingers,  when  the  milk  Hows 
by  the  pressure.  Both  hands  are  employ- 
ed, and  are  made  to  press  alternately,  but 
so  quickly  in  succession,  that  the  alternate 
streams  of  milk  sound  on  the  oar  like  one 
forcibly-continued  stream  ;  und  although 
stripping  also  causes  a  continued  fiow,  the 
nievling,  not  requiring  the  hands  to  change 
their  position,  as  stripping  does,  draws 
away  the  larger  quantity  of  niilk  in  the 
same  time.  Stripjjing  is  thus  performed 
by  j)ressing  and  passing  certain  fingers 
along  the  teat ;  nievling  by  the  doubled 
Jist,  pressing  the  teat  steadily  at  one  place. 

2259.  Of  the  two  modes,  I  prefer  the 
nieding,  because  it  aj)f)ears  to  me  to  be 
the  more  natural  one  of  imitating  the  suck- 
ing of  a  calf.  When  a  calf  takes  a  teat 
into  its  mouth,  it  seizes  it  with  the  tongue 
and  palate,  causing  them  tt)  play  upon  the 


teat  by  alternate  pressures  or  pulsations, 
while  retaining  it  in  the  same  position. 
This  is  what  nievling  does  ;  but  stripping 
is  not  like  this  at  all, — it  is  rather  like  the 
action  which  a  thief  would  make  when 
stealing  milk  from  the  cow.  It  is  said 
that  stripping  is  good  for  agitating  the 
udder,  and  agitation  is  conducive  to  the 
withdrawal  of  a  large  quantity  of  milk; 
but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  dairy- 
maid agitating  the  udder  as  much  as  she 
pleases,  while  holding  the  teats  in  nievling — 
indeed,  a  more  constant  agitation  could  be 
kept  up  in  that  way,  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  arms,  than  by  stripping,  and  is  more 
like  the  poking  of  the  udder  with  the 
nose  when  the  calf  sucks.  Stripping,  by 
using  a  constrained  pressure  upon  two  sides 
of  the  teat,  is  much  more  ajtt  to  press  it 
unequally  than  grasping  the  whole  (eat 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  while  the  fric- 
tion occasioned  by  passing  the  finger  and 
thumb  firmly  over  the  skin  of  the  teat,  is 
more  likely  to  excite  heat  and  irritation 
in  it  than  a  mere  grasji  of  the  hand.  To 
show  that  this  friction  causes  an  unpleasant 
feeling  even  to  the  dairy-n)aitl,  she  is 
obliged  to  lubricate  the  teat  frequently 
with  milk,  and  to  wet  it  at  first  with 
water;  whereas  nievling  requires  no  such 
expedients.  And  as  a  further  jtroof  that 
strij)ping  is  a  mode  of  milking  which  may 
give  pain  to  the  cow,  it  cannot  be  em- 
ployed when  the  teats  are  chapped,  or 
when  these  and  the  udder  are  aft'ected 
with  the  cow-pox,  with  so  much  ease  to 
the  cow  as  nievling.  This  difierence  I 
saw  strikingly  exemplified  one  summer, 
when  all  my  cows  were  afll'ected  with  the 
cow-pox,  and  when  the  assistant,  who 
could  only  milk  by  stripping,  was  obliged 
to  relinquish  her  duty  till  the  cows  were  so 
far  recovered  as  to  be  again  able  to  endure 
her  mode  of  milking. 

2260.  Milking  should  be  done/<T«/,  to  draw 
away  the  milk  as  quickly  as  jiossible;  and 
it  should  be  continued  as  long  as  there  is 
a  drop  of  milk  to  bring  away.  This  is  an 
issue  which  the  daii»y-maid  cannot  too 
})artic'ularl3''  attend  to  herself,  and  see  it 
attended  to  by  her  assistants.  Old  milk 
left  in  the  receptacle  of  the  teat  soon 
changes  into  a  curdy  state;  and  the  caseous 
matter,  not  being  at  once  broken  and  re- 
moved by  the  next  milking,  is  apt  to  irri- 
tate the  liniuir  membrane  of  the  teat  durinsr 


MILKING  OF  COWS. 


525 


the  operation,  especially  when  the  teat  ia 
forcibly  rubbed  down  between  the  linger 
and  thumb  in  stripping.  The  consequence 
of"  this  irritation  being  repeated  is  the 
thickening  in  a  part  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane, which  at  length  becomes  so  harden- 
ed as  to  constitute  a  stricture  which  at 
length  closes  up  the  orifice  of  the  teat. 
The  stricture  may  easily  be  felt  from  the 
outside  of  the  teat,  and  the  teat  is  then 
said  to  be  corded.  After  this  the  teat  be- 
comes deaf.,  aud  no  more  milk  can  after- 
wards be  drawn  from  the  quarter  of  the 
udder  with  which  the  corded  teat  com- 
municates. 

2261.  Cows  are  easily  rendered  trouble- 
some on  being  milked  ;  and  the  kicks  aud 
knocks   which  they    usually   receive   for 
their   restlessness  only  render    them    the 
more  fretful.     If  they  cannot  be  overcome 
by  kindness,  thumps  will  never  make  them 
better.     But  the  fact  is,  restless  habits  were 
engendered  in  them  by  the  treatment  they 
received  when  first  taken  into  the  byre, 
when,  most  probably,  they  were  dragooned 
into  submission.     Udders   aud   teats   are 
very  tender    immediately   after    calving, 
and  especially  after  the  first  calving  ;  and 
when  unfeeling  horny  hands  tug  the  teats 
in  stripping.,  as  if  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  operation  for  years,  no  won- 
der that  the  young  and  inexperienced  cow 
should  wince  under  fhe  infliction,  and  at- 
tempt   to    get  quit  of  her  tormentor  by 
kicking.     Can  the  creature  be  otherwise 
than  uneasy  ?  and  how  can  she  escape  the 
pain  but  by  striking  out  her  heels  ?     The 
hobbles  are  then  jilaced  on  the  hind  fet- 
Jocks,  to  keep  the  heels  down.     The  tail 
is  then  employed  by  her  as  an  instrument 
of  annoyance,  and  it  then  is  held  by  some 
one  while  the  milking  is  going  on ;  or  it 
is  tied  to  the  creature's  leg  by  the  hair  of 
the  tuft.     Add  to  these  the  many  threats 
and  scolds  uttered  by  the  dairy-maid,  and 
you  will  have  a  faint  idea  of  how  a  young 
heifer  is  broke  into  milking.     Some  cows, 
no  doubt,  are  very  unaccommodating  and 
provoking;  but,  nevertheless,  nothing  but 
a   gentle  course  of  conduct  towards  them 
will  ever  render  them  less  .so.     Some  cows 
are    only  troublesome  to  milk  for  a  few 
times  after  calving,  and  become  soon  quiet; 
others  kick  pertinaciously  at  the  first  milk- 
ing.    In  this  last  case,  the  surest  plan,  in- 
stead of  hobbling,  which  only  irritates,  is 


for  the  dairy-maid,  while  standing  on  her 
feet,  to  place  her  head  against  the  flank 
of  the  cow,  stretch  her  hands  forward,  and 
get  a  hold  of  the  teats  tlie  best  way  she 
can,  and  let  the  milk  fall  to  the  ground ; 
and  while  in  this  position,  it  is  out  of.  the 
power  of  the  cow  to  hurt  her.  Such 
ebullitions  of  feeling,  at  the  first  milking 
after  calving,  arise  either  from  feeling  pain 
in  a  tender  state  of  the  teat — most  probably 
from  inflammation  in  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  receptacle ;  or  simply  from  titilla- 
tion  of  the  skin  of  the  udder  and  teat, 
which  become  the  more  sensitive  as  the 
heat  wears  off;  or  the  udder,  being  still 
hard,  gives  pain  when  first  touched — and 
should  the  udder  be  difficult  to  soften,  the 
advice  of  Mr  Youatt  may  be  tried,  by  al- 
lowing the  calf  to  suck  at  least  three  times 
a-day  until  the  udder  becomes  soft.  This 
will  doubtless  cure  the  udder,  but  it  will 
cause  another  species  of  restlessness  in 
the  cow  when  the  calf  is  taken  entirely 
from  her.  Still,  rather  let  the  dairy-maid 
sufter  this  inconvenience  than  the  udder 
of  the  cow  be  injured.  Be  the  cause  of 
irritation  what  it  may,  one  thing  is  certain, 
that  gentle  discipline  will  overcome  the 
most  turbulent  temper  in  a  cow. 

2262.  The  milking  of  cows  afl^ords  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  pleasure  to  the  milker. 
Some  yield  their  milk  with  a  copious  flow, 
withthegentlest  handlingthatcanbegiven ; 
others  require  great  exertion  to  draw  the 
milk  from  them  in  streams  no  larger  than 
threads.  The  udder  of  the  former  will 
have  a  soft  skin,  and  the  teats  will  be 
short;  that  of  the  latter  a  thick  skin,  and 
the  teats  long  and  tough.  The  former  feels 
like  velvet,  the  latter  not  pleasanter  than 
tanned  leather. 

2263.  A  few  years  ago,  a  plan  of  drawing  milk 
from  the  cow  was  recommended  by  Mr  Blurton, 
Field  Hall,  Staffordsliire.  by  introducing  tubes 
into  two  teats,  and  milking  the  other  teats  at  the 
same  time.  He  was  once  of  opinion  that  a  tube 
ill  each  teat  woukl  draw  away  all  the  available 
milk  at  the  time  from  the  udder  ;  but,  finding  his 
mistake  in  this,  he  has  adopted  the  following 
method  of  milking.  I  may  mention  that  he 
names  his  tubes  siphons,  but  they  have  not  the 
form,  and  therefore  cannot  have  the  property,  of 
the  siphon,  which  first  elevates  the  fluid  in  a 
vessel  to  draw  it  over  its  rim,  whereas  his  tubes 
just  allow  the  milk  to  run  out  of  the  bottom  of 
the  udder  through  the  open  teat.  His  improved 
plan  of  milking  is  this  : — "  The  milker  sits  dowa 
as  in  the  common  method,  fixing  the  siphon  can 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


(pail)  firmly  between  his  knees :  he  then  takes 
hold  of  the  near-hand  teat  with  a  slight  pressure 
of  hi3  ri^ilit  hand,  and  with  his  left  introduces 
the  tiiiall  tube  of  the  siphon  an  inch  or  more  into 
the  teat,  putting  the  thumb  on  the  large  tube,  to 
prevent  the  milk  from  running  out  till  completely 
introduced — and  so  on  with  the  near  fore  teat, 
reserving  the  two  farthest  teats  to  be  milked  by 
hand.  By  this  method  I  find  that  I  can  milk 
three  teats  with  my  right  hand,  assisted  by  the 
siphons,  in  the  time  I  can  milk  one  with  my  left, 
and  this  with  ease  and  comfort  to  myself.  I 
must  here  also  observe,  that  tlie  action  of  milk- 
ing one  or  tw')  teats  by  hand,  is  quite  sufficient 
to  induce  the  cow  to  give  her  milk  down  freely 
from  those  milked  by  the  siphons  ;  as  I  have  be- 
fore observed,  the  cow  does  not  possess  the  power 
of  retaining  her  milk  in  any  one  quarter  of  the  ud- 
der, while  it  flows  freely  from  the  others." 

2264.  These  tabes,  containing  a  small  and 
larger  end, beyond  which  they  cannot  pass  into 
the  teat,  may  be  made  of  ivory,  bone,  or  metal. 
They  should  be  thrown  into  the  pail  and  milked 
on  before  being  used,  and  when  taken  out  of  the 
teat,  let  fall  into  the  can.  On  being  used,  they 
should  be  dipped  in  boiling  water  and  blown 
through.  Tliey  do  not  seem  to  possess  any  ad- 
Tautage  over  the  hand  ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
hand  must  be  employed  to  complete  what  they 
cannot  accomplish,  and  must  be  in  use  when 
they  are  employed. 

2265.  Mr  Blurton  very  properly  advocates 
clean  milking,  and  describes  a  very  good  plan  by 
wliich  will  be  drawn  away  all  the  milk  from  an 
udder  much  better  than  by  any  tube.  "  In 
aftering,"  lie  says,  "  I  have  adopted  the  plan 
of  using  the  left  hand  to  press  dovn  the  thick 
milk  into  the  receptacle  and  teat,  at  the  same 
time  mUkinii  with  the  riijht  hand;  then,  in  a 
similar  manner,  discharging  the  wliole  from  tlie 
remaining  quarters  of  the  udder."  He  adds 
what  is  very  true,  that  "  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  this  nfithod  is  distressing  to  the  animal  ;  on 
the  contrary,  her  quietness  during  the  process  is 
a  satisfactory  indication  that  it  occasions  no  pain, 
but  rather  an  agreeable  sensation."  • 

2266.  I  have  said  that  the  udder,  in  some  cases 
of  heifers,  becomes  uneasy  even  before  calving, 
(2224,)  and  they  are  very  subject  to  inflamma- 
tion soon  after  calving.  "  The  new  or  increased 
function  which  is  now  set  up,"  says  Mr  Youatt, 
"  and  the  sudden  distention  of  the  bag  with  milk, 
produce  tenderness  and  irritability  of  the  udder, 
and  particularly  of  the  teats.  This  in  some 
cases  shows  itself  in  the  form  of  excoriations  or 
sores,  or  .small  cracks  or  chaps  on  the  teats  ;  and 
very  troublesome  they  are.  The  discharge,  like- 
wise, from  these  cracks  mingles  with  the  milk. 
The  cow  suffers  much  pain  in  the  act  of  milking, 
and  is  often  unmanageable.  Many  a  cow  has 
been  ruined,  both  as  a  quiet  and  a  plentiful 
milker,  by  baUmanagcmeut  when  her  teats  have 

been  sure She  will  also  form  a  habit 

of  retaining  her  milk,  and  which  very  speedily 


and  very  materially  reduces  its  qnantitj.  The 
teats  should  be  fomented  with  warm  water  in 
order  to  clean  them,  and  get  rid  of  a  portion  of 
the  hardened  scabbiness  about  them,  the  con- 
tinuance of  which  is  the  greatest  pain  in  the  act 
of  milking  ;  and,  after  the  milking,  the  teats 
should  be  dressed  with  the  following  ointment  : 
Take  1  oz.  of  yellow  wax,  and  3  oz.  of  lard,  and 
melt  them  together,  and  when  they  begin  to  get 
cool,  rub  well  in  J  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  one 
drachm  of  alum  finely  powdered."  t 

2267.  Cows  difier  very  much  in  the  time  thej 
continue  to  give  milk,  some  not  continuing  to 
yield  it  more  than  9  months,  whilst  others  aflbrd 
it  for  years.  The  usual  time  for  cows  that  bear 
calves  to  give  milk  is  10  months.  The  cow  that 
died  in  consequence  of  the  corded  teats, mentioned 
above  (2136,)  gave  milk  for  3  year>,  and  bore  a 
calf  every  year.  A  cow  of  mine  that  slipped  her 
calf,  and  was  not  again  served  by  the  bull,  gave 
milk  for  19  months  ;  but  many  remarkable  in- 
stances of  cows  giving  milk  for  a  long  time  are 
on  record.  "  The  immense  length  of  time  for 
which  some  cows  will  continue  to  give  milk,"  says 
a  veterinary  writer,  "if  favourably  treated,  is  trulj 
astonishing;  so  much  so  as  to  appear  absolutely 
incredible.  My  own  observation  on  this  subject 
extends  to  four  most  remarkable  cases  :  1.  A 
cow  purchased  by  Mr  Ball,  who  resided  near 
Hampslead,  that  continued  to  give  milk  for  7 
years,  subsequently  to  having  her  first  and  only 
calf.  2.  A  Inrtre  dun  Suffolk  cow,  shown  to  me  ■ 
as  a  curiosity  by  a  Yorkshire  fanner.  This  ani- 
mal, when  1  saw  her,  had  been  giving  milk  for  the 
preceding  5  years,  during  which  period  she  had 
not  any  calf.  The  five  years'  milking  was  the 
result  of  her  second  calving.  During  that  period 
attempts  had  been  made  to  breed  from  her,  but 
inefiectually.  3.  A  small  aged  cow,  belonging  to 
a,  fermier  near  Parts,  that  gave  milk  for  3  years 
subsequent  to  her  last  calf.  4.  A  cow  in  the 
possession  of  Mr  Nichols,  postmaster.  Lower 
Merrion  Street,  Dublin.  This  animal  was  in  Mr 
Nichols'  possession  4  years,  during  the  entire  of 
which  time  she  continued  to  give  an  uninterrupted 
supply  of  milk,  which  did  not  diminish  in  quan- 
tity more  than  3  pints  per  diem,  and  that  only  in 

the  winter  moiitlis He  disposed  of 

her  for  butchers'  meat,  she  being  in  excellent 
condition.  The  morning  of  the  day  on  which  she 
was  killed,  she  gave  her  usual  quantity  of  milk." 

2268.  The  same  writer  enters  fully  into  a  sub- 
ject with  which  I  was  not  previously  acquainted — 
namely,  the  possibility  of  securing  permanency  of 
milk  in  the  cow.  This  is  efiected,  it  seems,  by 
simply  spaying  the  cow  at  a  proper  time  after 
calving.  The  operation  consists  in  cutting  into 
the  flank  of  the  cow,  and  in  destroying  the  ova- 
ries of  the  womb  by  the  introduction  of  the  hand. 
The  cow  must  have  acquired  her  full  stature,  so 
that  it  may  be  performed  at  any  age  after  4 
years.  She  should  be  at  the  flush  of  her  milk,  as 
tlie  future  quantity  yielded  depends  on  that  which 
is  afforded  by  her  at  the  time  of  the  operation. 
The  operation  may  be  performed  in  ten  days 


Blurton,  Practical  Etsay  on  Milking,  p.  10-12. 


t  Youatt  On  Cattlf,  p.  552. 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


527 


after  calving,  but  the  most  proper  time  appears 
to  be  3  or  4  weeks  after.  Tiie  cow  should  be 
in  high  health,  otherwise  the  operation  may  kill 
her  or  dry  up  the  milk.  The  only  preparation 
required  for  safety  in  the  operation  is,  that  the  cow 
should  fast  12  or  14  hours,  and  the  milk  taken 
away  immediately  before  the  operation.  The 
wound  heals  in  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks.  For 
two  or  three  days  after  the  operation  the  milk  may 
diminish  in  quantity;  but  it  regains  its  measure  in 
about  a  week,  and  continues  at  that  mark  for  the 
remainder  of  the  animal's  life,  or  as  long  as  the 
age  of  the  animal  permits  the  secretion  of  the 
fluid  ;  unless,  from  some  accidental  circumstance 
— such  as  the  attack  of  a  severe  disease — it  is 
stopped ;  but,  even  then,  the  animal  may  be  easily 
fattened. 

2269.  The  advantages  of  spaying  milk  cows 
are  thus  summed  up: — "  1.  Rendering  permanent 
the  secretion  of  milk,  and  having  a  much  greater 
quantity  within  the  given  time  of  every  year. 
2.  The  quality  of  the  milk  being  improved.  3. 
The  uncertainty  of,  and  the  dangers  incidental 
to  breeding,  being  to  a  great  extent  avoided. 
4.  The  increased  disposition  to  fatten,  even  when 
giving  milk,  or  when,  from  excess  of  age,  or  from 
accidental  circumstances,  the  secretion  of  milk  is 
checked  ;  also,  the  very  short  time  required  for 
the  attainment  of  marketable  condition.  5.  The 
meat  of  spayed  cattle  being  of  a  quality  superior 
to  that  of  ordinary  cattle."  *  With  these  advan- 
tages, of  course,  breeders  of  stock  can  have  no- 
thing to  do;  but,  since  the  operation  is  said  to  be 
quite  safe  in  its  results,  it  may  be  presented  to 
the  notice  of  cowfeeders  in  town. 


ON  THE  REARING  OF  CALVES. 

2270.  We  left  the  new- dropped  calf 
comfortably  housed  in  its  crib  amongst 
plenty  of  clean  straw,  until  we  should 
have  time  to  attend  to  it.  Let  us  no\7 
consider  how  it  should  be  reared  until  it 
shall  go  to  grass  to  provide  for  itself. 

2271.  For  convenience,  the  calves'  house 
should  be  placed  immediately  adjoining 
the  cow-byre.  This  apartment  is  seen  at 
R,  Plate  II.,  fitted  up  with  cribs.  It  is  3.5 
feet  in  length,  and  18  feet  in  width,  and 
the  roof  ascends  to  the  slates.  Calves  are 
either  suckled  by  their  mothers,  or  brought 
up  on  milk  by  the  hand.  When  they  are 
suckled,  if  the  byre  be  roomy  enough — 
that  is,  18  feet  in  width — stalls  are  erected 
for  them  against  the  wall  behind  the  cows, 
in  which  they  are  usually  tied  up  immedi- 
ately behind  their  mothers ;  or,  what  is  a 
less  restrictive  plan,  put  in  numbers  to- 


gether in  large  loose  boxes  at  the  ends  of 
the  byre,  and  let  loose  from  both  places  at 
stated  times  to  be  suckled.  When  brought 
up  by  the  hand,  they  are  put  into  a  separate 
apartment  from  their  mothers,  and  each 
confined  in  a  crib,  where  the  milk  is  given 
them.  The  superiority  of  separate  calves 
to  having  a  number  together  is,  that  it 
prevents  them  sucking  one  another,  after 
having  had  their  allowance  of  milk,  by 
the  ears,  teats,  scrotum,  or  navel,  by  which 
malpractice  certain  diseases  may  be  engen- 
dered. 

2272.  The  crib  is  large  enough  for  one 
calf  at  4  feet  square  and  4  feet  in  height, 
sparred  with  slips  of  tile-lath,  and  having 
a  small  wooden  wicket  to  aff"ord  access  to 
the  calf.  The  floor  of  the  cribs  may  be  of 
earth,  but  the  passage  between  them  should 
beflagged,orof  asphalt.  Abundance  of  light 
should  be  admitted,  either  by  windows  in 
the  walls,  or  sky-lights  in  the  roof;  and 
fresh  air  is  essential  to  the  health  of  calves, 
the  supply  of  which  would  be  best  secured 
by  a  ventilator  in  the  roof,  such  as  fig. 
81.  A  door  should  communicate  with  the 
cow-house,  Jiud  another,  having  upper  and 
lower  divisions,  into  a  court  furnished  with 
a  shed,  as  k  Plate  II.,  which  the  calves 
may  occupy  until  turned  out  to  pasture. 
The  crib  should  be  fitted  up  with  a  man- 
ger to  contain  cut  turnips  or  carrots,  and 
a  high  rack  for  hay,  the  top  of  which 
should  be  as  much  elevated  above  the 
litter  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
the  calf  getting  its  feet  over  it.  The 
general  fault  in  the  construction  of  calves' 
houses  is  the  want  of  both  light  and  air, 
light  being  cheerful  to  animals  in  confine- 
ment, and  air  essential  to  the  good  health 
of  all  young  animals.  When  desired,  both 
may  be  excluded.  The  walls  of  the  calves' 
house  should  be  plastered,  to  be  neat  and 
clean.  Some  people  are  of  oj^inion  that 
the  calves'  house  should  not  only  have  no 
door  of  communication  with  the  cow-house, 
but  should  be  placed  at  a  distance  from  it, 
that  the  cows  may  be  beyond  the  reach  of 
hearing  the  calves.  Such  an  objection 
could  only  have  originated  from  an  im- 
perfect acquaintance  with  the  character 
of  these  animals.  A  cow  that  is  pre- 
vented smelling  and  suckling  her  calf, 
does  not  know  its  voice,  and  will  express 


*  Ferguson  On  Distempers  amovg  Cattle,  p.  29-3G. 


528 


PRACTICE-SPRING. 


no  uneasiness  about  it  a  few  minutes  after 
tliey  are  .separateil,  and  after  the  first  ])or- 
tioii  of  milk  has  been  draw  u  from  ber  by 
tbe  hand. 

227G.  The  front  and  door  of  a  calf's 
critf  is  represented  by  fig.  199,  in  which  a 
is  the  wicket  door  which  gives  access  to 


A  calf"s-crib  door. 

it,  b  b  are  the  hinges,  and  c  is  a  thumb- 
catch  to  keep  it  shut.  This  sort  of  hinge 
is  very  simple  and  economical.  It  consists 
of  those  rails  of  the  wicket  intended  for  the 
hiniies,  being  elongated  towards  i,  where 
thev  are  rounded  off;  and  their  lower  face  is 
shaped  into  a  round  pin,  which  fills  and 
rotates  in  a  round  hole  made  in  a  billet  of 
wood,  seen  at  the  lower  hinge  at  ^,  securely 
screwed  to  the  U])right  door-post  of  the 
crib.  Another  billet  d  is  screwed  ininie- 
diately  above  the  lower  rail,  /^  to  prevent 
the  door  being  thrown  off  the  hinges  by 
any  accident.  Cross-tailed  inm  hinges,  of 
the  lightness  suited  to  such  doors,  would 
soon  break,  by  rusting  in  the  dampness 
usually  occasioned  by  the  breath  of  a  num- 
ber of  calves  confined  within  the  same 
apartment. 

2274.  A  court  should  be  attached  to  the 
calves'  house.  It  is  30  feet  in  length  by 
25  feet  in  width,  and  there  should  be 
erected  in  it,  for  shelter  to  the  calves  in 
cold  weather,  or  at  night  before  they  are 
turned  out  to  pasture,  or  for  the  night  for 
a  few  weeks  before  they  are  jmt  into  the 
larger  court  when  at  pasture,  a  shed  k\ 
Plate  11.,  30  feet  in  length  by  1  2  feet  in 
width,  fitted  up  with  mangers  for  turni])s, 
and  racks  for  hay.  A  trough  of  water  ic 
is  also  requisite  in  this  court,  as  well  as  a 
gateway  for  carts,  by  which  the  dung  may 


be  removed,  and  a  liquid-manure  grating, 
J-,  to  keep  the  court  dry. 

2275.  The  state  of  the  navL-l-string  is 
the  first  thing  that  should  be  examined  in 
a  new-dropped  calf,  that  no  blood  be 
dropping  from  it,  and  that  it  is  not  in  too 
raw  a  state.  Inattention  to  this  particular 
may  overlook  the  cause  of  the  niavel-ill, 
the  treatment  of  which  is  given  below  ; 
and,  insignificant  as  this  complaint  is 
usually  regarded,  it  carries  off  more  calves 
than  most  breeders  are  aware  of. 

227G.  The  first  food  which  the  calf 
receives  consists  of  the  beistyn.  Being  of 
the  consistence  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  it 
seems  an  appropriate  food  for  the  young 
calf.  On  giving  it  its  first  feed  by  the 
hand,  in  a  crib,  it  may  have  risen  to  its 
feet,  or  been  content  to  lie  still.  In  which- 
ever position  it  is  found,  let  it  remain  so, 
and  let  the  dairymaid  take  a  little  beistyn 
in  a  small  dish — a  handy  formed  like  a 
miniature  milk-pail,  fig.  107,  and  of  simi- 
lar materials,  is  a  convenient  one — and  let 
her  put  her  left  arm  round  the  neck  of  the 
calf,  and  sn])port  its  lower  jaw  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  keeping  its  mouth  a 
little  elevated,  and  open,  by  introducing 
the  thumb  (.f  the  same  hand  into  the  side 
of  its  mouth.  Then  let  her  fill  the  hollow 
of  her  right  hand  with  beistyn,  and  pour 
it  into  the  calfs  mouth,  introducing  a 
finger  or  two  with  it  for  the  calf  to  suck, 
when  it  will  swallow  the  liquid.  Let  it  get, 
in  handful  after  handful,  as  much  as  it  ia 
inclined  to  take.  When  it  refuses  to  take 
more,  its  mouth  should  be  cleaned  of  the 
beistyn  that  may  have  run  over.  Some- 
times, when  a  calf  lying  is  begun  to  be 
fed,  it  attempts  to  get  upon  its  feet,  and, 
if  able,  let  it  do  so,  and  rather  assist  than 
prevent  it.  Some  people  are  afraid  to 
give  a  calf  as  much  beistyn  at  first  as  it 
can  take,  because  it  is  said  to  ])roduce  the 
navel-ill.  This  is  nonsense:  let  it  take  as 
much  as  it  pleases  ;  and  as  to  the  navel-ill, 
it  proceeds  from  neglect  of  the  {)roper 
inspection  after  the  calf  is  born.  I  have 
thus  minutely  described  the  simi)Ie  process 
of  first  feeding  a  new-dropped  calf  by  hand, 
because  verv  absurd  motles  are  adojtted  of 
doing  this.  Nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  i>lunge  the  calf's  head  into  a  large 
rpiantity  of  beistyn,  and  because  the  liquid 
bubbles  around  its  mouth  with  the  breath 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


529 


from  the  nose,  and  it  will  not  drink,  its 
head  is  the  more  forcibly  thrust  and  kept 
down  into  the  tub.  How  can  it  drink 
with  its  nose  immersed  amongst  the  fluid? 
and  why  should  a  calf  be  expecteil  at  first 
to  drink  iclth  its  head  down,  when  its 
natural  instinct  would  lead  it  to  suck  with 
its  head  up  ?  It  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  feeding  calves  by  the  hand  is 
an  unnatural  process ;  nevertheless,  it  is 
a  convenient,  practicable,  and  easy  one, 
provided  it  be  conducted  in  a  proper  man- 
ner. The  young  calf  must  be  taught  to 
drink,  and  a  good  mode  of  teaching  it  is 
as  I  have  described  above.  In  this  way 
it  is  fed  as  often  as  the  cow  is  milked, 
which  is  at  first  three  times  a-day  at  least. 
After  the  first  two  or  three  days,  however, 
another  plan  should  be  adopted,  for  it 
should  not  be  accustomed  to  suck  the 
fingers,  as  it  will  not  drink  without  their 
assistance.  The  succeeding  plan  is  to  put 
a  finger  or  two  of  the  right  hand  into  its 
mouth,  and  holding  the  small  pail  of  milk 
with  the  left  under  its  head,  bring  the  head 
gradually  down  into  the  pail,  where  the 
fingers  induce  it  to  take  a  few  gluts  of  the 
milk;  and  while  it  is  doing  this,  the 
fingers  should  be  gently  withdrawn,  while 
the  head  should  be  held  down  in  its  posi- 
tion with  the  hand,  taking  care  not  to  dip 
the  nostrils  into  the  milk.  In  a  few  days 
more  the  fingers  will  not  be  required,  and 
in  a  few  more  still  the  calf  will  drink  of 
its  own  accord. 

2277.  For  the  first  month  the  calf  should 
have  as  much  sweet  milk  warm  from  the 
cow  as  it  can  drink.  It  will  be  able  to 
drink  nearly  3  quarts  at  each  meal — that  is, 
in  three  meals  a-day,  in  the  morning,  noon, 
and  evening,  it  will  drink  8  quarts.  After 
the  first  month,  to  the  end  of  the  third,  it 
gets  its  quantity  of  milk  at  only  2  meals, 
morning  and  evening.  It  is  supported  3 
months  in  all  on  milk,  during  which  time 
it  should  have  as  much  sweet  milk  as  it 
can  drink.  Such  feeding  may  be  con- 
sidered expensive,  and  doubtless  it  is, 
but  a  good  calf  cannot  be  well  brought  up 
in  any  other  way,  for  no  substitute  will 
answer  the  purpose  of  new  milk.  Some 
people  grudge  giving  sweet-milk  to  calves 
after  a  few  days,  and  take  the  cream  off 
it,  and  give  the  skimmed  milk.  This  is 
considered  thrifty  management ;  but  al- 
though it  may  insure  immediate  gain  in 

VOL.  I. 


the  cream,  it  insures  ultimate  loss  in  the 
calf.  It  is  impossible  to  derive  a  double 
advantage  from  a  given  quantity  of  sweet- 
milk.  If  butter  is  preferred  to  calves  or 
good  beasts  at  an  after  period,  the  imme- 
diate wish  is  attained,  and  the  farmer  has 
had  his  preference;  but  he  ought  to  know 
that  he  cannot  have  butter  and  good  beasts 
frotu  the  same  identical  milk.  Others, 
seemingly  more  generous,  give  half-sweet 
and  half-skimmed  milk  to  the  calves ; 
whilst  some  provide  a  substitute  for  the 
milk,  by  making  gelatine  of  boiled  linseed 
or  sago,  and  give  no  milk  at  all.  When 
milk  is  really  scarce,  expedients  are  per- 
missible ;  but  when  plentiful,  and  used 
merely  in  the  farm-house,  or  sold,  the 
recourse  to  expedients  is  a  practical  avowal 
that  the  farmer  does  not  wish  to  bring  up 
his  stock  as  he  might. 

2278.  The  jelly  from  linseed,  or  lythax^ 
as  it  is  called,  is  easily  made  by  boiling 
good  linseed  in  water,  and  while  it  is  in  a 
hot  state  to  pour  it  into  a  vessel  to  cool, 
where  it  becomes  a  firm  jelly,  a  proportion 
of  which  is  taken  every  meal,  and  bruised 
down  in  a  tubfiil  of  warm  milk,  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  calves.  They  are  very 
fond  of  it,  and  in  the  third  month  of  the 
calf's  age,  when  it  can  drink  a  large  quan- 
tity of  liquid  at  a  time,  and  during  a  day, 
it  is  excellent  food  for  them. 

2279.  Sago  may  be  prepared  in  the  same 
way ;  but  without  milk  it  is  a  very  impro- 
per food  for  calves,  as  it  contains  no  ingre- 
dients to  afford  the  substance  of  moscle 
or  bone  to  the  young  animal. 

2280.  But  a  better  substance  for  calves 
than  either,  in  my  opinion,  is  pea  meal. 
It  should  not  be  boiled,  but  made  into 
hrose,  by  pouring  hot  water  upon  it,  and 
stirring  the  mixture  till  it  \sjine.  It  be- 
comes gelatinous  on  cooling ;  and  when 
cold,  a  portion  of  it  is  put  into  as  much 
new  warm  milk,  and  mixed  so  intimately 
with  the  hand,  as  not  a  lump  of  the  meal 
shall  be  felt  in  the  mixture,  which  should 
be  of  a  consistence  which  a  calf  can  easily 
drink. 

2281.  When  the  calves  suck  their  mo- 
thers, and  are  in  large  cribs  at  conve- 
nient parts  of  the  cow's  byre,  in  a  loose 
state,  they  are  let  out  of  the  cribs  to  the 

21. 


m 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


cows,  as  the  hours  arrive  for  feeding  them, 
each  going  directly  to  the  cow  which 
suckles  it. 

2282.  When  they  are  tied  by  the  neck 
in  stalls,  erected  for  the  purpose  against 
the  wall  of  the  byre,  immediately  behind 
the  cows,  they  are  loosened  from  their 
bindings,  and  pass  across  the  byre  to  the 
cows. 

2283.  Generally,  in  both  cases,  one  cow 
suckles  two  calves ;  and  a  cow  that  has 
calved  early  may  suckle  two  sets,  or  four 
calves,  or  at  least  three,  in  the  season. 

2284.  As  regards  the  merit  of  these 
plans,  I  must  say  that  I  am  averse  to 
tying  calves  by  the  neck.  It  cramps  their 
motions,  and  deprives  them  of  that  freedom 
of  action  which  is  so  conducive  to  health 
and  growth.  By  preventing  motion,  they 
■will  no  doubt  sooner  acquire  condition ; 
but  for  stock  calves,  this  is  of  less  impor- 
tance than  strength  acquired  by  moderate 
exercise  within  a  limited  space,  such  as  iu 
a  crib.  As  to  having  a  number  of  calves 
within  the  same  crib,  though  they  certainly 
have  liberty  to  move,  they  have  also  liberty 
to  suck  one  another.  The  ears,  navel, 
scrotum,  and  teats,  suffer  by  this  tlirty 
habit ;  and  there  is  no  preventing  it  after 
it  lias  been  acquired,  as  long  as  two  calves 
remain  together.  Upon  the  whole,  T  prefer 
the  separate  crib  to  each  calf,  so  formed  of 
spars  as  to  allow  every  calf  to  see  its 
neighbours,  and  they  are  tlien  as  much  in 
company  as  to  remove  the  idea  of  loneli- 
ness. The  separation,  at  all  events,  pre- 
vents the  abominable  habit  of  sucking 
being  acquired;  and  such  cribs  areas  use- 
ful Avhen  the  calves  are  suckled  by  the 
cows  as  when  brought  up  by  hand. 

2285.  In  regard  to  bringing  up  calves 
by  suckling,  there  is  no  question  it  is  the 
best  way,  provided  the  calf  has  free  access  to 
the  cow  which  is  supporting  it;  but  I  am 
doubtful  of  the  superiority  of  suckling  over 
feeding  by  hand,  when  the  calf  is  only 
allowed  to  go  to  the  cow  at  stated  times.  It 
saves  the  trouble  of  milking  the  cows  and 
giving  the  milk  to  the  calves ;  but  a  saving 
of  trouble  is  of  no  importance  compared  to 
rearing  young  stock  well.  An  objection 
to  suckling  exists,  when  one  cow  brings  up 
two  calves  at  a  time,  that  the  quantity  of 


milk  received  by  each  calf  is  unknown,  and 
the  fastest  sucker  will  have  the  larger  share. 
True,  they  are  both  brought  up ;  but  are  they 
brought  up  as  well  as  when  the  quantity  of 
milk  consumed  by  them  is  known  to  be 
sufficient  for  their  support  ?  The  milk 
becomes  scarcer,  too,  aa  the  calves  get 
older,  instead  of  becoming  more  plentiful. 
The  objection  to  partial  suckling  ii^,  that  a 
cow  suckling  a  calf  does  not  allow  milking 
afterwards  with  the  hand  in  a  kindly  man- 
ner, as  every  cow  prefers  being  sucked  to 
beingmilkedbythe  hand.  Unless, therefore, 
cows  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  suck- 
ling entirely,  they  become  troublesome  to 
milk  with  the  hand  after  the  calves  are 
weaned. 

2286.  At  a  month  old,  the  male  calves 
that  are  not  intended  to  be  kept  for  bulls 
are  castrated.  Though  the  operation  is 
simple  and  safe,  it  should  not  be  performed 
at  a  time  when  any  inflammation  atlects 
the  navel-string,  or  symptoms  of  costive- 
ness  or  dysentery  are  present.  Supposing 
the  calf  to  be  in  good  health,  the  castration 
is  performed  in  this  manner.  An  assistant 
places  the  calf  upon  its  rump  on  the  litter, 
and,  sitting  down  himself,  takes  it  betn  eeo 
his  outstretched  limbs  on  the  ground,  with 
its  back  at  the  shoulder  against  his  breast. 
Then  seizing  a  hind  hock  of  the  calf  iu 
each  hand,  he  draws  up  a  hind  leg  to  each 
side  of  its  body,  and  holds  both  in  that 
position  as  firmly  as  he  can.  The  opera- 
tor causes  the  testicles  keep  the  scrotum 
smooth  and  full  with  his  left  hand,  and  cuts 
with  a  sharp  knife  through  all  the  integu- 
ments till  tlietestical  is  laid  bare,. which  he 
seizes  with  the  right  hand,  and  pulls  out  aa 
much  of  the  spermatic  cord  as  he  can,  and 
divides  it  with  the  knife.  The  same 
operation  he  performs  on  the  other  testicle, 
and  the  entire  castration  is  acconijili.-lied 
iu  a  minute  or  two.  The  calf  is  laid  down 
on  the  litter,  and  he  will  feel  stiff  in  the 
hind  quarters  for  a  few  days,  and  the  scro- 
tum may  even  swell.  Siiould  the  swelling 
become  serious,  fomentations  of  warm 
water  should  be  frequently  .ipplied  ;  and 
should  suppuration  ensue,  the  incisions  iu 
the  scrotum  should  be  o])ened  out  to  give 
the  matter  vent;  but  the  probability  is,  that 
the  cuts  will  heal  by  the  first  intenti'm,  and 
give  no  further  uneasiness  to  the  calf  than 
a  stiffness  iu  the  hind  quarters  for  a  few 
days. 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


531 


2287.  The  practice  some  time  ago  was 
to  spay  the  heifer  calves — that  is,  to  make 
an  opening  in  the  flank,  through  which 
the  ovaries  of  the  womb  were  extracted, 
in  order  to  extinguish  all  desire  for  the 
hull ;  but  the  operation  is  falling  into 
desuetude,  most  probably  from  the  circum- 
stance of  every  breed  of  cattle  being  now 
so  much  improved,  that  the  heifers  are 
generally  considered  fit  for  breeding,  and 
are  therefore  kept  open,  as  the  phrase  is, 
and  disposed  of  at  a  better  price  than  when 
fattened  for  the  butcher. 

2288.  When  the  air  becomes  mild  as 
the  season  advances,  and  as  the  older  calves 
attain  the  age  of  two  months,  they  should 
be  put  into  the  court  k,  Plate  II.  during 
the  day ;  and,  after  some  days'  endurance 
to  the  air,  should  be  sheltered  under  the 
shed  at  night,  instead  of  being  again  put 
into  the  cribs.  Sweet  hay  should  be  of- 
fered them  in  the  racks ;  as  well  as  a  few 
slices  of  Swedish  turnips  in  the  mangers 
in  the  shed.  The  change  of  food  may 
cause  costiveness  in  some  calves,  and  loose- 
ness in  others  ;  but  no  harm  will  arise  from 
either,  if  remedial  measures  are  employed 
in  time.  Large  lumps  of  chalk  to  lick  at 
will  be  serviceable  in  looseness.  Should 
the  weather  prove  wet,  snowy,  stormy,  or 
cold,  they  should  be  brought  back  to  their 
cribs  till  the  storm  pass  away. 

2289.  At  3  or  4  months  old,  according 
to  the  supply  of  milk  and  the  ready  state 
of  the  grass  to  receive  them,  the  calves 
should  be  weanedm  the  order  of  seniority, 
due  regard  being  had  to  their  individual 
strength.  If  a  calf  has  been  always  strong 
and  healthy,  it  may  be  the  sooner  weaned 
from  milk  when  the  grass  is  in  a  state  to 
support  it ;  but  should  it  have  ailed,  or  be 
naturally  puny,  it  should  still  have  good 
sweet  milk  as  the  best  means  to  recruit  its 
debility.  When  determined  on  weaning, 
calves  should  not  be  deprived  of  milk  all  at 
once ;  the  quantity  should  be  lessened  daily, 
and  given  at  longer  intervals,  so  that  it 
may  be  withdrawn  insensibly.  Calves,  on 
being  stinted  of  milk  preparatory  to  wean- 
ing, are  supplied  with  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  other  food  than  milk,  and  it  is  given 
so  as  to  entice  them  to  take  it.  Fresh 
bundles  of  the  most  clovery  portions  of 
the  hay,  turnips  fresh  sliced,  fresh  carrots, 
pure  water  at  will,  a  little  pounded  oil- 


cake, presented  in  turns  when  they  used 
to  get  their  milk,  will  be  eaten  for  tlie  sake 
of  novelty  ;  but  if  these,  or  any  of  them, 
are  given  anyhow  to  save  trouble,  and 
are  left  to  be  picked  up  in  a  court,  or 
bare  lea,  the  calves  cannot  but  sutler  from 
hunger,  nor  is  it  surprising  they  shouW 
make  their  hunger  be  loudly  known.  Tims 
treated,  they  will  inevitably  fall  off  in 
condition ;  and  if  they  do  this  at  the  cri- 
tical period  of  weaning,  the  greater  part 
of  the  ensuing  summer  will  elapse  ere  they 
regain  the  condition,  strength,  and  sleek- 
ness of  coat,  they  had  when  on  the  milk. 
A  small  sheltered  paddock,  in  good  heart, 
near  the  steading,  is  an  excellent  place  for 
weaning  calves,  before  turning  them  out 
to  a  pasture  field ;  but  unless  it  afford  a 
full  bite  of  grass,  to  support  them  as  the 
milk  is  taken  from  them,  they  will  bo  ;;s 
much  injured  in  it  as  in  a  poor  grass 
field. 

2290.  When  i?«/^  calves  are  brought  up, 
they  should  be  early  calved,  and  receive 
as  much  new  milk  as  they  can  drink,  and 
should  not  be  weaned  till  the  grass  is  fully 
ready  to  support  them.  The  object  of  tliis 
high  keeping  is  not  to  fatten  them,  though 
it  may  do  that  too,  but  to  give  strength  to 
their  bones,  and  vigour  to  their  cunstltu- 
tion,  these  being  much  enhanced  by  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  food  at  the  earliest 
period  of  existence.  The  impulse  thus 
given  in  calfhood,  is  evinced  by  bulls  in 
the  vigour  of  succeeding  life,  and  it  is  sure 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  long  andjiseful 
service.  Even  with  ordinary  calves,  if 
they  are  pushed  forward  in  the  first  month 
of  their  existence,  the  probability  is  they 
will  evade  every  disease  incident  to  that 
age. 

2291.  I  should  mention  that,  when  they 
receive  milk  in  the  court,  some  will  be  apt 
to  plague  those  which  are  getting  theirs, 
by  poking  their  heads  into  the  same  pail, 
b}''  boxing,  or  by  sucking  the  ears,  &c. 
To  prevent  these  annoyances,  the  dairy- 
maid should  be  i)rovided  with  a  supple  cane 
or  switch,  and  tap  the  ears  of  ever}'  one 
disposed  to  be  troublesome.  Discipline, 
while  it  does  no  harm  to  those  subjected 
to  it,  impresses  on  others  the  necessity  of 
obedience.  We  err  if  we  consider  animals, 
because  they  are  dumb  and  young,  inca- 
pable of  instruction  of  any  kind.    On  the 


632 


PR  ACTICE— SPR]  NG. 


contrary,  tliey  are  very  susceptible  of  it, 
and  Its  influence  is  evinced  by  habitual 
forbearance  from  wrong. 

2292.  On  car$e  farms  no  calves  are  brought 
up,  those  produced  by  the  cows  which  supply  the 
people  with  milk  being  sold  to  rearers  of  stock, 
or  fattened  for  the  butcher.  On  pastoral  farms, 
devoted  to  sheep,  the  same  plan  is  usually  pur- 
sued ;  but  on  those  which  rear  cattle  only,  as  on 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  in  Wales,  and  in  Ire- 
land, the  calves  are  suckled  by  the  mothers,  and 
entirely  brought  up  by  them — which,  as  I  have 
already  said,  is  an  excellent  plan,  provided  the 
mothers  are  well  fed,  and  make  their  calves  fol- 
low them  over  the  pastures,  and  then  they  will 
become  strong,  and  be  free  of  disease.  On  dairy 
farms  calves  are  not  brought  up,  excepting  as 
many  of  the  quey  calves  as  shall  be  required  to 
renovate  the  stock  of  cows,  the  milk  being  appro- 
priated to  quite  other  purposes  ;  nevertheless,  it 
is  in  the  dairy  districts  that  the  calves  are  best 
fattened  for  the  butcher. 

2293.  Strathaven  in  Scotland  has  long  been 
famed  for  rearing  good  rial  for  the  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh  markets.  The  dairy  farmers  there 
retain  the  quey  calves  for  maintaining  the  num- 
ber of  the  cows,  while  they  feed  the  male  calves 
for  veal.  Their  plan  is  simple,  and  may  be 
followed  anywhere.  Milk  only  is  given  to  the 
calves,  and  very  seldom  with  any  admixture,  and 
they  are  not  allowed  to  suck  the  cows.  Some 
give  milk,  but  sparingly  at  first,  to  whet  the 
appetite,  and  prevent  surfeit.  The  youngest 
calves  get  the  first  drawn  milk,  or  fore -broads,  as 
it  is  termed,  and  the  older  the  aftfrings,  even  of 
two  or  three  cows,  being  the  richest  portion  of 
the  milk.  After  being  three  or  four  weeks  old, 
they  get  abundance  of  milk  twice  a-day.  They 
get  plenty  of  dry  litter,  fresh  air,  moderate 
warmth,  and  are  kept  nearly  in  the  dark  to  check 
sportiveness.  They  are  not  bled  during  the  time 
they  are  fed,  and  a  lump  of  chalk  is  placed  within 
their  reach.  They  are  fed  from  4  to  6  weeks, 
when  they  fetch  from  £3  to  £4  apiece  ;  and  it 
is  found  more  profitable  to  fatten  the  larger  num- 
ber of  calves  for  that  time,  to  succeed  each  other, 
of  from  25  lb.  to  30  lb.  per  quarter,  than  to  force 
a  fewer  number  beyond  the  state  of  marketable 
Teal.* 

2294.  The  plan  followed  of  fattening  calves, 
for  thirty  miles  round  London,  is  very  diiferent. 
There,  the  cows  are  made  to  suckle  the  calves 
three  times  a-day  for  the  first  three  or  four  days, 
and  afterwards  twice  a-day.  If  the  cow  is  full 
of  milk,  two  calves  are  put  to  her  ;  and,  at  any 
rate,  one  calf  is  put  on  after  another  is  fattened 
off.  In  this  way,  the  veal-farmers  keep  from  6 
to  12  cows  each,  and  convert  their  whole  milk 
into  veal.  The  calves  are  placed  in  boarded 
boxes,  4  feet  high,  and  just  large  enough  inside 
for  a  calf  to  turn.  The  floor  is  also  boarded  ;  the 
boards  having  holes,  are  raised  from  the  ground, 
and  littered  with  clean  wheat-straw.     A  lump  of 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  yigriciilture,  vol.  v.  p. 
;]:  Combe  On  Digestion 


chalk  is  placed  within  reach  of  each  calf.  The 
calf  is  fed  for  10  weeks,  when  it  will  attain  about 
35  lb.  per  quarter  or  more,  and  is  then  warranted 
prime  veal.  A  calf,  however,  of  9  or  10  .^tones, 
will  fetch  a  shilling  or  two  a-stoiie  more  than  one 
of  17  or  18  stones.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
English  veal-farmers  believe,  contrary  to  those 
of  Strathaven,  that  a  calf  grows  and  fattens  faster 
after  it  is  10  weeks  old  than  before,  and  requires 
less  milk  to  carry  it  on  ;  and  the  profit  is  greater, 
inasmuch  as  one  large  calf  incurs  only  one  prime 
cost,  one  risk  of  life, and  one  commission;  whereas, 
two  small  calves  incur  twice  the  cost  and  risk  of 
life.  The  butchers  bleed  the  calves  repeatedly  be- 
fore slaughtering  them  ;  and  they  judge  of  the 
colour  of  the  flesh  by  looking  at  the  inside  of  the 
mouth. and  white  of  the  eyes.  "  The  profit  of 
fattening  calves,"  observes  Mr  Main,  "  may  be 
judged  of  by  an  example  in  figures,  which  I  have 
oft  experienced.  A  calf  is  suckled  for  10  weeks, 
and  weighs  from  10  to  11  stones  imperial,  »inA:JH<7 
the  offal,  as  it  is  called  in  London.  The  calf 
fetches  £5  at  market,  from  which  deducting  SOs. 
which  it  might  have  been  sold  for  when  a  week 
old,  and  5s.  salesman's  commission,  leaves  a  profit 
of  £3,  5s,  or  6s.  ()<1.  per  week  for  the  cow's  milk. 
Now,  deducting  2s.  6(1.  per  week  for  the  keep  of 
the  cow,  the  bare  profit  left  is  only  4s.  per  week. 
But  it  must  be  remembered,  that  a  good  cow  will 
fatten  off"  two  calves  while  siie  is  in  milk — some  I 
have  liad,twoand  ahalf :  but  thiscanbe  butrarely 
accounted  on.  Still,  taking  one  cow  with  an- 
other, kept  for  the  purpose  of  suckling,  her  annual 
returns  will  be  nearly  what  it  is  commonly  esti- 
mated at,  namely,  £12.  To  insure  this,  or  any 
other  snm,  as  clear  profit,  depends  entirely  on  the 
attention  bestowed  on  the  cows  and  calves.  Some 
cows  are  odd-tempered,  letting  down  their  milk 
only  to  their  own  calves,  and  withholding  it  from 
those  they  are  made  to  foster.  This,  if  not  cor- 
rected, will  injure  both  cow  and  calf ;  the  one 
will  be  starved,  and  the  other  will  soon  become 
dry."t 

2295.  Veal  is  generally  considered  a  delicate 
species  of  meat,  is  held  in  high  repute  as  a  dish, 
and  always  fetches  a  higher  price  in  the  market 
than  beef  or  mutton,  being  9d.  per  lb.  when  beef 
is  6d.  or  7d;  and,  being  thus  accounted  delicate, 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  fresh  fried  veal  takes 
so  long  as  4  J  hours  to  digest. + 

2296.  Navel-ill.—  On  examination  after  the  first 
drink  is  given  to  the  calf,the  navel-string  may  per- 
haps continue  slowly  to  bleed.  "  In  this  case," 
advises  Mr  Youatt,  "  a  ligature  should  be  passed 
round  it  close,  but,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  not  quite 
close  to  the  belly.  Possibly  the  spot  at  which 
the  division  of  the  cord  took  place  may  be  more 
than  usually  sore.  A  pledget  of  tow,  well  wetted 
with  Friar's  balsam,  !^hould  be  placed  over  it, 
confined  with  a  bandage,  and  changed  every 
morning  and  night  ;  but  the  caustic  applications 
that  are  so  frequently  resorted  to  should  be 
avoided.  Some  times,  when  there  has  been  previous 
bleeding,  and  especially  if  the  caustic  has  been 
used  to  arrest  the  hemorrhage,  and  at  other  times 
249.  f  Ibid.  p.  611. 

ar^d  Dietetics,  p.  136. 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


-S33 


when  all  other  things  seemed  to  have  been  going 
on  well,  inflanimatiou  suddenly  appears  about  the 
navel  between  the  third  and  eighth  or  tenth  day. 
There  is  a  little  swelling  of  the  part,  but  with 
more  redness  and  tenderness  than  such  a  degree 
of  enlargement  could  indicate.  Although  there 
may  be  nothing  in  the  first  appearance  of  this  to 
excite  alarm,  the  navel-ill  is  a  far  more  serious 
business  than  some  imagine.  Mr  Sitwell,  an 
intelligent  breeder  at  Barmoor  Castle  in  Nor- 
thumberland, says,  '  that  in  his  part  of  the  coun- 
try, as  soon  as  the  calf  takes  on  this  disease,  they 
consider  it  as  dead  ;  and  butchers  and  graziers 
will  not  purchase  any  calves  until  the  usual  time 
for  having  the  disorder  is  passed.'  Fomentation 
in  the  part,  in  order  to  disperse  the  tumour,  the 
opening  of  it  with  a  lancet  if  it  evidently  points, 
and  the  administration  of  2  or  3  oz.  doses  of 
castor  oil,  made  iuto  anemulsion  by  means  of  an 
egg,  will  constitute  the  first  treatment  ;  but  if, 
when  the  inflammation  abates,  extreme  weakness 
should  come  on,  as  is  too  often  the  rase,  gentian 
and  laudanum,  with  perhaps  a  small  quantity  of 
port  wine,  should  be  administered."*  In  my 
own  calves  a  single  instance  of  this  disease  was 
never  ex])erienced,  but  a  careful  examination  of 
the  navel-string  was  made  both  before  and  after 
the  calf  was  first  fed, 

2297.  Costit€n<^ss.— The  black  and  glutinous 
fffices  that  had  been  accumulating  in  the  intes- 
tines of  the  calf,  during  the  period  of  its  foetal 
existence,  should  be  got  rid  of ;  and  there  is  no 
aperient  better  suited  for  the  purpose  than  beistyn. 
The  dairymaid  who  throws  it  away,  does  not 
know  the  jeopardy  in  which  she  places  the  lives 
of  calves.  Should  the  beistyn  not  have  the  elfect 
soon  of  removing  tlie  freces,  2  or  3  oz.  of  castor 
oil,  beat  up  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  or  in  thick 
gruel,  should  be  administered,  and  a  scruple  of 
powdered  ginger,  to  act  as  a  carminative.  In 
cases  of  actual  costiveness,  which  young  calves 
are  very  liable  to  contract,  and  inattention  to 
which,  at  first,  is  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  many  of 
the  best  young  stock,  arising  partly  from  reple- 
tion of  milk  at  times,  when  calves  are  permitted 
to  suck  the  cows,  or  when  they  eat  too  much  hay 
at  one  time  after  the  milk  has  been  too  suddenly 
removed  from  them  at  weaning,  active  measures 
should  be  adopted  to  prevent  its  confirmation,  as 
the  case  will  soon. become  hopeless,  fever  inevit- 
ably ensue,  and  the  food  harden  into  a  mass  in 
the  maniplies.  Doses  of  warm  water,  containing 
a  solution  of  2  or  3  oz.  of  Epsom  salts,  should  be 
frequently  administered,  both  to  soften  the  mat- 
ter in  the  stomach  and  move  the  bowels. 

2298.  Scouring. — Calves  are  liable  to  a  disease 
of  an  opposite  nature  from  this,  namely,  looseness, 
scouriag,  or  diarrhcea.  They  are  most  subject  to 
it  when  put  out  to  grass,  though  stiU  on  milk,  at 
too  early  an  age.  I  should  say  that,  if  so  treated 
before  attaining  2  months,  they  are  certain  of 
being  afiected  with  it.  One  means  of  prevention 
is,  to  retain  the  calves  in  the  house  or  shed  till 
they  are  at  least  2  months  old,  and  if  a  little 
older  so  much  the  better.     Of  course,  it  is  only 


the  latest  calves  that  are  likely  to  be  too  soon 
put  on  grass,  the  earlier  having  attained  the 
mature  age  for  weaning  before  the  grass  is  ready. 
In  the  house,  scouring  may  be  brought  on  by 
starvation  and  excess,  and  on  grass  by  a  sudden 
change  of  food.  As  long  as  the  calf  is  lively,  and 
takes  its  milk,  there  need  be  no  apprehension  from 
a  thin  discharge  of  f»ces  ;  but  dulness  and  loath- 
ing of  food,  accompanied  by  discharge,  should 
create  alarm.  The  first  application  of  a  remedy 
should  be  a  mild  purgative,  to  remove,  if  possible, 
the  irritation  of  the  bowels  ;  and  then  should 
follow  anodynes,  astringents,  and  alkalie*,  with 
carminatives,  the  Avithdrawal  of  every  sort  of 
green  food,  and  the  administration  of'  flour  or 
pea-meal  gruel.  The  following  mixture  the  far- 
mer is  called  to  "  rely  on,  and  it  is  recommended 
that  he  should  have  it  always  by  him,  as  it  will 
do  for  all  sucking  animals — namely,  4  oz.  of  pre- 
pared chalk,  1  oz.  of  Winter's  bark,  powdered,  1 
oz.  of  laudanum,  and  1  pint  of  water.  Give  2  or 
3  table-spoonfuls,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal, 2  or  3  times  a-day."+  Another  prescription 
is,—"  Take  \  oz.  to  f  oz.  of  tincture  of  rhubarb, 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  according  to  the 
age  and  strength  of  the  calf.  To  be  given  eA'ery 
alternateday,  in  case  one  dose  is  not  sufiicient.  I 
have  used  the  remedy  for  several  years,"  says  a 
writer,  "  and  have  not  lost  a  calf."  J  Mr  E.  E. 
Dawson,  Ingethorpe,  Grantham,  recommends 
this, — "  For  young  calves  boil  4  oz.  of  ground 
black  pepper  in  half  a  pint  of  ale  ;  add  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  ginger  ;  mix  together  ;  to  be  given 
lukewarm  every  morning  until  the  calf  recovers 
of  its  weakness  :  to  have  its  milk  as  nsuah 
Older  calves  will  require  \  more  for  a  complete 
cure.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  making  use 
of  the  above  recipe,  that  the  animal  does  not 
receive  the  mixture  too  fast ;  for  want  of  this 
attention  mischief  may  be  done.'"  §  I  liave  given 
all  these  remedies  for  the  scour  in  calves,  as  it 
appears  that  it  may  be  removed  by  various  means, 
and  one  may  be  more  efficacious  in  one  locality 
than  in  another.  I  never  saw  among  my  calves 
but  one  instance  of  serious  scouring,  and  it 
occurred  before  the  calf  was  put  to  grass.  It 
was  a  short-horn  quey-calf,  and  the  medicine  which 
effected  a  cure,  after  trying  many,  was  taken 
from  White's  Farriery.  "■  The  immediate  cause  of 
the  disorder,"  observes  White,  "appears  most 
frequently  to  be  an  unhealthy  action  of  the  liver, 
which  seems  to  form  bile  of  an  acrid  or  hurtful 
quality,  by  which  the  bowels  are  constantly  irri- 
tated. I  would  advise,  therefore,  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  complaint,  to  give  the  following 
drink  for  three  successive  mornings,  which  will 
rather  increase  the  scouring  at  first ;  and  when  the 
efi"ect  of  this  medicine  has  ceased,  let  the  astring- 
ent drink  be  given  every  morning  and  evening." 
Thelaxative  drink  consists  of  quicksilver  pill,from 
1  to  2  drachms,  India  rhubarb  14  drachm,  castor 
oil  2  oz.  in  half  a  pint  of  gruel.  These  should  all 
be  well  mixed  before  being  given,  as  the  quick- 
silver pill  is  heavy,  and  will  fall  down.  While 
taking  this  medicine,  the  animal  should  not  be 
exposed  to  either  cold  or  wet,  and  all  its  drinks 
should   be  warm  fluids,  of  which  thin  gruel  ia 


Youatt  On  Cattle,  p.  558.  +  Johnson's  Farmer's  Encycloj)a;dia,  art.  Diarrhcea. 

Bell's  Weekli/  Messenger  for  March  1842.  §  Mark  Lane  Express  for  November  1842. 


684 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  best.  The  astringent  drink  is  made  of  starch, 
2  oz.,  wlii>li  is  made  a.-i  if  for  stiffening  clothes, 
with  1  quart  of  warm  water  ;  to  this  add  lauda- 
num 1  ilrachm,  ginger  li  drachm,  and  Japan 
earth  \  oz.  I  owght  to  mention  that  these  pre- 
scriptions are  recommended  by  White  for  cows, 
that  fore  lives  being  milder  ;  but  having  tried  the 
•ne  for  calves  without  success,  I  adopted  those 
for  cows,  and  succeeded — by  only  taking  half  the 
quantities  of  the  ingredients  prescribed,  which 
was  just  the  quantities  given  above.  "Anobser- 
Tation  we  have  made,  when  treating  of  some 
other  diseases,"  remarks  White,  "  is  equally 
applicable  to  this — that  is,  at  an  early  period  of 
the  ilisorder,  a  cure  may  generally  be  effected  by 
the  treatment  above  described;  but  if  neglected, 
and  suffered  to  go  on  until  the  itructure  of  the 
affected  part  is  injured,  medicine  is  but  a  useless 
expense.'"  * 

2299.  C<ilf-lousf. — It  is  not  a  little  singular,  in 
a  phy-iological  point  of  view,  that  there  should 
be  A  peculiar  pediciilar  parasite  approyiriaUd  to 
tie  caJf;  yet  such  appears  to  be  the  case,  although 
the  creature  is  by  no  means  common.  It  is  very 
lik'?  the  ox-louse.  Ihrmatopinus  eiirvfternHs,  fig. 
100,  but  comparatively  narrower,  and  having  two 
row:!  of  dusky  spots  on  the  abdomen.  It  is 
termed Hcenuttopinut  tUuli,  or  louse  of  the  calf.f 

2300.  Mr  Youatt  gives  a  description  of  cas- 
trating bull-calves  in  France  by  means  of  torsion, 
termed  listourna<}e.  Th«  effect  of  the  torsion 
seems  to  be,  that  the  testicles  remain  fixed 
atrainst  the  abdomen,  and  gradually  wither  away. 
The  animal  is  usually  bled  after  the  operation, 
and  half  of  the  allowance  of  food  is  only  given  ; 
and  it  may  be  sent  to  pasture  on  the  second  or 
third  day.  if  the  weather  is  favourable.  Although 
this  mode  of  castration  does  not  seem  very  pain- 
ful to  the  animal,  and  is  rarely  attended  by 
any  dangerous  results  ;  yet  we  are  informed  of 
the  state  in  which  it  leaves  the  ox,  that  ^  the 
animal*  that  are  thus  emasculated  are  said  to 
preserve  more  of  the  form  of  the  bull  than  others 
from  whom  the  testicles  are  excised  :  they  also  re- 
tain more  of  the  natural  desires  of  the  bull, and  are 
occasionally  very  troublesome  among  the  cows."* 

2301.  It  is  improbable  that  the  breeders  of 
this  country  will  follow  a  practice  which  will 
let  loo.se  such  a  horde  of  rujIiM  amongst  their 
herds;  as  they  are  already  too  well  aware  of  the 
trouble  which  even  a  single  riglin  and  chaser  gives 
on  a  farm. 


ON  THE  SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 

2302,  "When  wheat  is  sown  in  spring, 
it  is  usually  after  turnips,  whether  the.«e 
have  been  entirely  stripped  from  the  land, 
OT  partly  cimsunied  on  the  ground  by 
sheep.  Whichever  of  these  states  of  the 
turnip  croj>  niaj'  be  chosen  to  be  followed 


by  wheat,  it  is  not  merely  sufficient  to 
raise  a  good  crop  of  turnips  with  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  manure  for  once  upon  an 
exhausted  soil,  to  insure  a  good  crop  of 
spring  wheat;  the  land  should  be,  and 
should  have  been  for  some  time,  in  good 
heart,  otherwise  the  attempt  will  inevi- 
tably end  in  disappointment. 

2303.  Wheat  cannot  be  sown  in  spring 
in  every  sort  of  weather,  and  upon  every 
variety  of  soil.  Unless  the  soil  possesses 
a  certain  degree  of  firmness,  arising  from 
clay,  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  wheat — at  least  it  is  more  profitable  to 
sow  barley  upon  it;  and  unless  the  weather 
is,  besides,  as  dry  as  to  allow  strong  soil  to 
be  ploughed  in  early  spriug,  it  is  also  more 
profitable  to  defer  the  wheat,  and  sow 
barley  in  the  proper  season.  The  general 
climate  of  a  place  aflfects  the  question  of 
sowing  wheat  there  in  spring ;  and  it 
seems  a  curious  problem  in  climate  why 
wheat  sown  in  autumn  should  come  to 
maturity  at  a  place  where  spring  wheat 
will  not.  Elevation  of  position,  even  in  a 
favourable  latitude,  produces  similareftVcts. 
Experience  iu  these  well-known  elfects 
renders  the  farmers  of  Scotland  chary  of 
sowing  wheat  in  spring,  unless  the  soil  is 
in  excellent  condition,  and  the  weather 
very  favourable  for  the  purpose.  But, 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances, 
it  has  not  been  sown  after  the  first  week 
in  March,  until  these  few  years,  when  a 
variety  of  wheat  has  been  introduced  into 
Scotland,  named  April  wheat,  because  it 
may  be  sown  as  late  as  that  month. 

2304.  On  farms  possessing  the  advan- 
tages of  favourable  soil  and  climate,  and 
on  which  it  is  the  custom  to  sow  spring 
wheat  every  year,  the  turnip-land  is 
ploughed  with  that  view  up  to  a  certain 
period  of  the  season,  usually  the  begin- 
ning of  March ;  and  even  on  those  on 
which  spring  wheat  can  only  be  stiwn 
occasionally,  when  a  favourable  field 
comes  in  the  course  of  rotation,  or  the 
w  eather  proves  tempting,  the  land  should 
still  be  so  ploughed  as  advantage  may  be 
taken  to  sow  the  wheat.  Should  the 
weather  take  an  unfavourable  turn  for 
this  purpose,  the  soil  may  afterwards  be 
easily  worked  for  barley. 


White's  Farriery,  vol.  iv.  p.  57-9.  t  Denny's  MohOiiraphia  Anoplurorun  Britannia. 

t  Youatt  Om  Cattle,  p.  561. 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


535 


2305.  The  land  should  only  receive  one 
furrow — the  seed-fnrrow,  for  spring  wheat; 
and  if  it  were  ploughed  oftener  after  a 
manured  green  crop,  and  in  spring,  when  it 
had  become  tender  by  the  winter  frost,  it 
would  want  that  firmness  so  essential  to 
the  growth  of  wheat.  The  mode  of 
ploughing  this  seed-furrow  depends  upon 
circumstances.  If  the  land  presents  a 
visible  form  of  ridge,  and  soon  becomes 
wet,  it  should  be  gathered  up,  fig.  20, 
and  then  it  will  have  the  appearance  of 
being  twice  gathered  up,  as  in  fig.  26.  If 
it  is  flat,  and  the  subsoil  somewhat  moist, 
gathering  up  from  the  flat  will  answer 
best,  as  in  fig.  20.  If  the  soil  has  a  dry 
subsoil,  though  of  itself  a  pretty  strong 
clay,  it  may  be  cast  fig.  22  with  gore- 
furrows,  (7o6'.)  And  should  it  be  fine  loam, 
resting  on  an  open  bottom,  the  ridges  may 
be  cast  together  without  gore-furrows,  as  in 
fig.  22.  It  is  probable  that  a  whole  field 
may  not  be  obtained  at  once  to  plough  up 
in  either  of  these  waj'^s,  and  such  a  case 
rarely  happens  in  regard  to  preparing 
land  for  spring  wheat ;  but  when  it  is  de- 
termined to  sow  it,  a  few  ridges  should  be 
ploughed  up  as  convenience  offers,  and 
then  a  number  of  acres  sown  at  one 
time.  In  this  way  a  whole  field  may  be 
sown  by  degrees  ;  whereas  to  wait  until  a 
whole  field  can  be  sown  at  once,  niay  pre- 
vent the  sowing  of  spring  wheat  altogether 
in  the  proper  season.  Bad  weather  may 
set  in,  prevent  the  sowing,  and  con- 
solidate the  land  too  much  after  it  had 
been  ploughed ;  still  a  favourable  week 
may  occur,  and,  even  at  the  latter  end  of 
the  season,  the  land  may  be  ribbed  with 
the  small  plough,  in  the  manner  to  be  after- 
wards described,  which  will  move  as  much 
of  tlie  tender  part  of  the  soil  on  the  sur- 
face as  sutHcieutly  to  bury  the  seed. 

230*].  The  land,  having  been  ploughed, 
should  be  sotcn  as  quickly  as  possible ; 
fur  which  purjK)se  the  seed-wheat  sliould 
have  been  measured  up  in  the  sacks,  or 
ready  to  be  measured  up  in  the  ct)rn-barn 
or  granary,  and  the  means  of  pickling  it 
provitled  fur.  Wheat  shouhl  be  sown 
thick  in  spring,  as  there  is  no  time  for  the 
plant  to  sto'jl  or  tiller — that  is,  to  throw 
up  young  slioots  from  the  roots,  as  in  the 
case  of  autumnal  sown  wheat.  About  3 
bushels  per  imperial  acre  will  suftice  for 
seed  for  spring   wheat,   which   does   not 


tiller,but  less  would  suffice  forwinter  wheat. 
A  controversy  about  thick  and  thin  sowing 
is  carrying  on  at  present,  to  which  we 
shall  direct  our  attention  at  a  convenient 
time. 

2307.  Seed- wheat  should  be  jnckled— 
that  is,  subjected  to  preparation  in  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  liquor — before  it  is  sown,  in 
order  to  insure  it  against  the  attack  of  a 
fungal  disease  in  the  ensuing  summer, 
called  smut,  which  renders  the  crop  com- 
paratively worthless.  Some  farmers  aflTect 
to  despise  this  precaution,  as  originating 
in  an  unfounded  reliance  on  an  imaginary 
specific;  but  the  existence  of  smut,  and  its 
baneful  effect  upon  the  wheat-crop,  are  no 
imaginary  evils ;  and  when  experience 
has  proved,  in  numberless  instances,  that 
steeped  grain  prevents  the  appearance 
of  this  serious  disease,  the  small  trouble 
which  pickling  imposes  may  surely  be 
undertaken,  rather  than  place  the  entire 
crop  in  jeopardy.  Whf/  pickling  the  seed 
should  have  the  effect  of  preventing  the 
smut  in  the  crop,  is  a  question  more  easily 
asked  than  answered ;  and  it  is,  perhaps, 
because  it  has  never  received  a  satisfac- 
tory answer,  that  pickling  is  disregarded 
by  some  farmers.  No  valid  objection  can 
be  stated  against  the  practice,  for  the  pal- 
pable fact  stands  obvious  to  conviction, 
that  one  field  sown  with  pickled  wheat, 
and  otherwise  managed  in  the  usual  ^vay, 
will  escape  the  smut ;  while  the  adjoining 
one,  managed  in  exactly  a  similar  manner, 
but  sown  with  wheat  in  its  ordinary  state, 
will  be  almost  destroyed  with  the  disease. 
I  have  seen  such  a  case  tested  by  two 
neighbouring  farmers,  the  Messrs  Fenton, 
late  tenants  of  Nevay  and  Eassie,  in  For- 
farshire. It  is  true  that,  on  some  farms, 
wheat  sown  in  its  usual  state  escapes  the 
disease,  which  I  have  heard  the  late  Mr 
Oliver,  Lochend,  near  Edinburgh,  state  was 
the  case  on  his  farm ;  and  it  is  also  true 
that  pickling  does  not  entirely  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  the  disease  on  other  farms ; 
but  such  cases  do  not  prove  that  every 
farm  must  also  be  free  of  the  snmt:  indeed 
no  one,  beforehand,  can  aver  that  any  farm 
shall  be  so  ;  and  while  so  much  uncer- 
tainty exists,  the  safer  practice  is  to  pickle 
the  seed,  the  expense  being  a  mere  trifle. 
It  is  now  an  ascertained  fact,  that  vaccina- 
tion will  not  insure  immunity  from  small- 
pox, yet  it  certainly  very  much  modifies 


586 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


ita  attack  when  it  does  occur,  atnl  pre- 
cisely £>y  is  the  case  with  pickling  wheat. 

2308.  Wheat  is  pickled  in  this  way. 
For  some  time,  2  or  3  weeks,  let  a  tub,  as  c, 
fig.  200,  be  placed  to  receive  a  quautity  of 
chamber  ley,  and  whenever  the  ammonia 

Fig.  200. 


TUB  PICKLIXG  OF  WHBAT, 


is  felt  disengaging  itself  from  the  ley,  it  is 
ready  for  use.  It  is  better  that  the  am- 
monia be  as  strong  as  to  smart  the  eyes, 
and  water  be  added  to  dilute  it,  than  that 
the  ley  be  used  fresh.  This  tub  should 
be  removed  to  the  straw-barn,  as  also  the 
wheat  in  sacks  to  be  pickled,  and  part  of 
the  floor  swept  clean,  to  be  ready  for  the 
reception  of  the  wheat  Let  two  baskets, 
h  and  </,  be  provided,  capable  of  holding 
easily  about  half  a  bushel  of  wheat  each, 
having  handles  standing  upright  above 
the  rims.  Pour  the  wheat  into  the  basket 
h  from  the  sack  a,  and  dip  the  basketful 
of  wheat  into  the  tub  of  ley  c  as  far  down  as 
completely  to  cover  the  wheat,  the  upright 
handles  of  the  ba-skets  preventing  the  hands 
of  the  operator  being  immersed  in  the  ley. 
After  remaining  in  the  liquid  for  a  iaw^ 
seconds,  lift  up  the  basket,  let  the  surplus 
liquid  run  out  of  it,  and  then  place  it  upon 
the  drainer  e,  on  the  empty  tub/,  to  drip 
still  more  liquid,  till  the  empty  basket  is 
filled  with  wheat  and  dipped  in  the  tub. 
Now  empty  the  dripped  basket  d  of  its 
wheat  on  the  floor;  and  as  every  basketful 
is  emptied,  let  a  person  spread,  by  riddling 
through  a  wire  wheat-riddle,  fig.  157,  a 
little  slaked  caustic  lime  upon  the  wheat. 
Thus  all  the  wheat  wanted  at  the  time  is 
pickled  and  emptied  on  the  floor,  when 
the  pickled  and  limed  heap  is  turned  over 
and  over  again,  till  the  who'e  mass  appears 
uniform. 


2309.  The  mixing  by  turning  is  most 
surely  managed  in  this  way. — Let  two 
men  be  each  provided  with  a  square- 
mouthed  shovel,  fig.  83,  and  let  them 
turn  over  the  heap,  one  bearing  the 
helve  of  his  shovel  in  the  right  hand,  and 
the  other  with  his  left — both  making  their 
shovels  meet  in  their  edges  upon  the  floor, 
under  one  end  of  the  heaj)  of  wheat,  and, 
on  lifting  each  shovel-full  of  wheat,  turn 
them  over  behind  them,  proceeding  by 
shovelfuls,  to  the  ether  end  of  the  heap. 
Let  them  return  in  a  similar  manner  in 
the  opposite  direction,  and  as  often,  until 
the  heap  of  wheat  is  completely  mixed 
and  dried  with  the  lime.  The  pickled 
wheat  is  then  sacked  up,  and  carried  to 
the  field  in  carts. 

2310.  Other  substances  beside  chamber 
ley  are  used  for  pickling  wheat,  such 
as  brine  of  salt,  sutticiently  strong  to 
float  an  egg;  solution  of  blue  vitriol — all 
good  enough,  I  dare  say  ;  but  when  so 
simple,  etficient,  and  easily  obtained  an 
article  as  ley  can  be  had,  it  appears 
to  me  unnecessary  to  employ  anything 
else.  It  is  powerful,  and  can  destroy 
vegetable  life  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
and,  on  this  account,  the  wheat  should  be 
sown  immediately  after  being  ])ickled ; 
and  as  this  danger  exists,  no  more 
should  be  pickled  at  one  time  than  can 
immediately  be  sown.  The  use  of  the 
quick-lin>e  seems  merely  to  dry  the  ley 
quickly,  so  that  the  grains  may  l>e  easily 
separated  from  one  another  in  the  act  of 
sowing;  though  it  may  eft'ect  some  chemi- 
cal change  serviceable  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  employed. 

2311.  Sowing  hy  hand. — There  is  some 
art  in  setting  down  sacks  of  seed-corn  on 
the  field.  It  should  be  ascertained  how 
many  ridges  of  the  field  to  be  sown  are 
containe<l  in  an  acre — a  fact  which  I  have 
recomniende<l  to  the  attention  of  the  stu- 
dent in  (571,)  so  that  the  sacks  maybe 
set  down  between  so  many  ridges,  as  each 
sack  or  row  of  sacks  shall  contain  seed  to 
sow  the  ground  between  them  at  the  sj)eci- 
fied  quantity  of  seed  to  tlie  acre.  Tiiis 
instruction  should  be  given  to  the  plough- 
man before  he  proceeds  to  the  field  with 
the  sacks,  otherwise  he  may  set  them  down 
either  too  close  or  too  wide.  One  row 
of  sacka  is  sufticient,  when  the  ridges  are 


SOWING  OF  SPKING  WHEAT. 


537 


just  long  enough  for  the  sower  to  carry  as 
much  seed  as  will  bring  him  back  again  to 
the  sack,  and  the  sacks  should  be  set  down 
in  the  middle  of  the  ridge  ;  when  the  ridges 
are  short,  the  sacks  may  be  set  down  on 
a  headridge  ;  and  when  of  such  a  length 
as  the  sower  cannot  return  to  the  sack  by 
a  considerable  distance,  two  sacks  should 
be  set  down  on  the  same  ridge,  dividing  the 
length  of  the  ridge  equally  between  them. 
The  setting  down  of  the  sacks  should  be 
begun  from  the  side  at  which  the  sowing 
commences,  and  this  again  depends  on  the 
form  of  the  surface  of  the  field. 

231  2.  If  the  s»rface  is  level,  it  matters 
not  which  side  of  the  field  is  chosen  for 
commencing  operations  ;  but  if  inclined, 
then  that  side  which  lies  to  the  left  while 
looking  down,  or  to  the  right  on  looking 
up  the  inclination,  should  begin  the  sowing. 
The  reason  for  this  preference  is,  that  the 
first  stroke  of  the  harrows  along  the  ridge 
is  most  difiicult  for  the  horses  to  draw;  and 
it  is  easiest  for  them  to  execute  the  first 
stroke  doicnhUl.  This  first  action  of  the 
harrows  is  called  hreal-ing-in  the  land. 
The  sacks  are  always  placed  on  the  furrow- 
brow"  of  a  ridge,  (738,)  that  the  hollowness 
of  the  open-furrow  beside  it  may  give  ad- 
vantage to  the  person  who  carries  the  seed, 
to  take  it  out  more  quickly  and  easily  as  it 
sinks  in  the  sack. 

2313.  The  carrier  of  the  seed  is  a  field- 
worker,  and  the  instant  the  first  sack  of 
seed  is  set  down,  she  proceeds  to  untie  and 
roll  down  its  mouth,  and  fill  the  rusky 
fig.  201,  with  seed,  and  carries  the  first 
quantity  to  the  sower,  who  should  be  ready 
sheeted  awaiting  her  arrival  on  the  head- 
ridge at  the  side  of  the  field.  Her  endea- 
vour should  be  to  supply  him  with  such  a 
quantity  at  a  time  as  will  bring  him  in  a 
line  with  the  sack  when  he  wants  more  ; 
and  as  the  sacks  are  placed  about  half- 
way down  the  ridges  when  only  one  sack 
is  wanted,  this  may  easily  be  arranged ; 
but  when  there  are  two  rows  of  sacks,  she 
must  go  from  sack  to  sack  on  the  same 
ridge,  and  endeavour  to  make  the  most 
convenient  arrangement  for  the  sower,  it 
being  her  special  duty  to  attend  to  his 
wants,  and  not  his  to  attend  to  her  conve- 
nience. This  regular  plan  will  give  her 
the  least  trouble,  and  supply  the  sower 
always  with   the   requisite   quantities   of 


seed — for,  otherwise,  nothing  can  be  more 
annoying  to  a  sower  than  to  have  his  sheet 
served  too  full  at  one  time,  and  with  a 
stinted  quantity  at  another  ;  and  it  loses 
much  time  to  him  to  be  obliged  to  wait 
the  arrival  of  the  seed-carrier,  whereas  she 
should  be  awaiting  his  arrival.  If  the 
sacks  of  seed  are  conveniently  placed,  with 
one  on  a  ridge,  one  active  seed-carrier  will 
serve  two  sowers  ;  but  when  two  sacks  are 
required  for  a  ridge,  and  more  than  one 
sower,  two  carriers  will  be  required.  Bet- 
ter that  the  carriers  have  little  to  do  than 
that  the  sowers  should  lose  time,  which 
they  assuredly  will  incur  when  the  car- 
riers have  too  much  to  do. 

2314.  The  rush/,  or  seed-basket,  fig. 
201,  is  usually  made  of  twisted  straw  in 

p.^  ^„.  rows  above  each 

"'  ~    *  other,  fastened 

together  by 
means  of  withes 
.of  willow.  It 
'^  is  provided 
with  a  couple 
of  handles  suf- 
ficient to  admit 
the  ^joints  of 
the  fingers,  and 
alsoarini  round 
the  bottom,  of  the  same  material,  upon 
which  to  stand.  In  the  Border  counties 
it  is  carried  on  the  head  of  the  seed- 
carrier  when  full ;  in  other  parts  in  the 
arms,  with  the  bottom  rim  supported  by 
the  haunch.  It  should  be  filled  each  time 
with  just  the  quantity  of  seed,  and  no 
more,  which  the  sower  requires  at  one  time. 
The  mouth  of  the  sack  should  always  be 
kept  rolled  round  upon  itself,  that  the  seed 
may  be  easily  and  quickly  taken  out,  for 
little  time  is  usually  at  the  dis-posal  of  the 
carrier.  The  carrier  should  be  careful  not 
to  spill  the  seed  upon  the  ground  on  taking 
it  out  of  the  sack,  otherwise  a  thick  tuft  of 
corn  will  unprofitably  grow  upon  the  spot. 

2315.  As  one  sack  becomes  empty,  it 
should  be  taken  by  the  carrier  to  the 
nearest  sack,  and  as  they  accumulate, 
should  be  put  into  one,  and  thus  carried 
forward  out  of  the  way  of  the  harrows.  It 
is  too  common  to  see  the  sacks  allowed  to 
lie  upon  the  ground  where  they  are  emp- 
tied, and  flung  aside  as  the  harrows  come  to 
them,  and  thus  are  not  unfrequently  torn. 


THE  SEED-CORN  RUSKV. 


538 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


231(1.  The  sower  is  habited  in  a  pecu-     years.     Tlie  difficult  point  is  to  nia^e  tne 
liar  manner — lie  puts  on  a  sotcitii^-s/ieet,     sowinsr-sheet  fit  the  sower  on  the  top  of 
Tlie  most  convenient  form  of    the  left  shoulder,  where  the  greater  part  of 


fijr.    202. 


Fig.  202. 


tlie  weight  of  the  corn  rests  ;  and,  in  at- 
tempting this,  the  principal  tiling  to  he 
considered  is,  to  make  the  stra]i,  whitli 
goes  over  tlie  shoulder,  broad  enough,  and 
take  the  slope  of  the  top  of  the  sliouhler 
from  the  neck  downwards.  The  gather- 
ings of  the  cloth  on  each  side  of  the  slioul- 
der-top  should  bo  as  neatly  executed  as  in 
a  shirt,  and  a  couple  of  tapes  should  be 
drawn  through  a  slot-hem,  to  be  tied  tight 
in  front  of  the  sheet  across  the  breast.  Fig. 
202  shows  very  correctly  the  manner  in 
which  a  well-made  sheet  should  be  put  on 
and  held. 


2317.  A  irts/?-^^  of  wicker-work,  such  as 

;,^^«5^-    in  fig.  203,  is  very  commonly  used  in  Eng- 

"!^<^*^  land  for  the  sowing  of  seed.     It  is  sus- 

^>^  Fig.  203. 


THE  METHOD  OF  PUTTING  ON  THE  SOWING- 
SHEET,  AND  OF  HAND-SOWING. 

one  is  that  of  the  semi-spheroid,  made  o. 
linen  sheeting,  having  an  opening  large 
enough  along  one  side  of  its  mouth  to 
allow  the  head  and  right  arm  of  a  man  to 
pass  through,  and  the  portion  passed  under 
rests  upon  his  left  shoulder.  On  distend- 
ing its  mouth  with  both  hands,  and  on 
receiving  the  seed  into  it,  the  superfluous 
portion  of  the  sheet  is  wound  tight  over  the 
left  arm,  and  gathered  under  it  into  the 
left  hand  ;  by  which  it  is  firmly  held,  while 
the  load  of  corn  is  thus  securely  supported 
by  that  part  of  the  sheet  which  passes  over 
the  left  shoulder  across  the  back,  and  under 
the  right  arm.  The  right  arm,  which 
throws  the  seed,  finds  easy  access  to  the 
corn  from  the  open  side  of  the  mouth  of  the 
sheet,  between  the  left  hand  and  the  breast 
of  the  sower.  A  square  sheet,  knotted 
together  in  three  of  its  corners,  and  put  on 
in  a  similar  manner,  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  sowing-sheet ;  but  one  formed  and  sewed 
of  the  proper  shape,  and  kejjt  for  the  pur- 
j)ose,  is  a  much  more  convenient  article. 
Linen  sheeting  makes  an  excellent  mate- 
riiij  for  a  sowing-sheet,  and,  when  washed 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  will  last  many 


THE  ENGLISH  SOWING  BASKET. 

peuded  by  girths,  fastened  to  the  two 
loops  shown  on  the  rim  of  the  basket,  by 
passing  the  girth  from  the  left-hand  loop 
over  the  left  shoulder,  behind  the  back  to 
the  other  loop — or  from  one  h^op  to  the 
other,  round  the  back  of  the  neck  ;  and  the 
left  hand  holds  the  basket  steady,  by  the 
wooden  stud  on  the  other  side  of  the  rim. 
Such  an  instrument,  no  doubt,  answers  the 
purpose  of  the  sower,  or  it  would  not  have 
been  so  long  in  use  ;  but,  for  my  part,  I 
much  jirefer  the  comfortable  feel  of  the 
linen  sheet  to  the  hard  friction  of  the 
wicker  basket. 

2318.  Both  these  utensils  for  sowing 
seed  are  intendetl  for  the  use  of  one  hand 
onlv,  but  some  sowers  throw  the  seed  with 
both  hands,  and  then  the  instrument  must 
be  made  to  suit  the  jiractice.     Such  a  one 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


5S9 


is  a  basket,  or  box  made  of  thin  deal, 
the  nearest  side  curved  to  suit  the  front  of 
the  body.  It  is  suspended  by  girths  fast- 
ened to  loops  on  the  side  next  the  sower, 
and  passed  round  the  back  of  the  neck. 
A  strap  and  buckle  fastens  it  round  the 
body ;  and  the  further  side  is  suspended 
by  straps  slanting  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
sower,  and  fastened  to  the  strap  buckled 
round  behind  his  body.  A  more  simple 
form  of  sowing-sheet  for  both  hands  is  a 
linen  semi-spheroidal  bag,  attached  to  a 
hoop  of  wood  or  of  iron-rod,  formed  to 
fit  the  body,  buckled  round  it,  and  sus- 
pended in  front  in  the  manner  just  de- 
scribed. Both  hands  are  thus  at  liberty  to 
cast  the  seed. 

2319.  In  sowing  with  one  hand,  the 
sower  walks  on  the  third  and  fourth  fur- 
row-slices from  the  open-furrow,  which  he 
keeps  on  his  right  hand.  Taking  as  much 
seed  as  he  can  grasp  in  his  right  hand,  he 
stretches  his  arm  out  and  a  little  back, 
with  the  clenched  fingers  looking  forward, 
and  the  left  foot  making  an  advance  of  a 
moderate  step.  When  the  arm  has  attained 
its  most  backward  position  the  seed  is  be- 
gun to  be  cast,  with  a  quick  and  forcible 
thrust  of  the  hand  forward.  At  the  first 
instant  of  the  forward  motion,  the  fore- 
finger and  thumb  are  a  little  relaxed,  by 
which  some  of  the  seeds  drop  upon  the 
furrow-brow  and  in  the  open-furrow ;  and 
while  still  further  relaxing  the  fingers 
gradually,  the  back  of  the  hand  is  so  also 
turned  upwards,  until  the  arm  becomes 
stretched  before  the  sower,  by  which  time 
the  fingers  are  all  thrown  open,  with  the 
back  of  the  spread  hand  uppermost.  The 
motion  of  the  arm  being  always  in  full 
swing,  the  grain,  as  it  leaves  the  hand,  and 
partaking  of  its  momentum,  receives  such 
an  impetus  as  to  be  projected  forward  in 
the  form  of  a  figure  corresponding  to  the 
sweep  made  by  the  hand.  The  forward 
motion  of  the  hand  is  accompanied  by  a 
coresponding  forward  advance  of  the  right 
foot,  which  is  planted  on  the  ground  the 
moment  the  hand  casts  forward  the  bulk 
of  the  seed.  The  action  is  attempted  to 
be  represented  by  fig.  202.  The  figure 
which  the  seed  describes,  on  falling  upon 
the  ground,  is  like  the  area  of  one  end  of 
the  longer  axis  of  a  very  eccentric  ellipse, 
having  one  angle  resting  on  the  open-fur- 
row, and  the  other  stretching  2  or  3  feet 


beyond  the  crown  of  the  ridge,  the  broadest 
part  of  the  area  being  on  the  left  hand  of  the 
sower  where  he  walks.  The  moment  the 
seed  leaves  it,  the  handisbroughtbackto  the 
sowing-sheet,  while  the  left  foot  is  advanced 
simultaneously,  and  the  hand,  thence  re- 
plenished, is  stretched  back  for  a  fresh  cast. 
Thus  the  right  hand  and  right  foot  move 
regularly  and  simultaneously/,  while  the 
left  hand  and  left  foot  move  also  simul- 
taneously, but  alternately  with  the  right. 

2320.  The  seed  ought  to  be  cast  equally 
over  the  ground.  If  the  hand  and  feet  do 
not  move  regularly,  the  ground  will  not  be 
equally  covered,  but  a  strip  left  almost 
bare  between  the  casts.  When  the  braird — 
that  is,  the  young  plants — come  up,  they 
will  show  themselves  in  stripes  like  the 
steps  of  a  ladder ;  and  hence  this  species 
of  bad  sowing  is  named  in  the  country 
laddering,  or  happergaivin.  This  error 
is  most  apt  to  be  committed  by  a  sower 
with  a  stiff  elbow,  who  always  casts 
the  grain  too  high  above  the  ground.  The 
arm  should  always  be  thrown  well  back 
and  stretched  out,  though,  in  continuing 
the  action,  it  will  become  painful  in  the 
inner  part  of  the  elbow  joint.  If  the  hand 
is  opened  too  soon,  too  much  of  the  seed 
falls  upon  the  furrow-brow,  and  the  crown 
will  receive  less  than  its  proportion.  This 
fault  young  sowers  are  very  apt  to  commit, 
from  the  apprehension  that  they  may  re- 
tain the  seed  too  long  in  the  hand.  If 
the  hand  is  brought  too  high  in  front,  the 
seed  is  apt  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  wind, 
and  tossed  in  a  diff'erent  direction  from  that 
intended.  High  casting  is  a  very  common 
error  with  sowers,  and  is  unsafe  in  practice 
in  windy  weather.  When  the  wind  be- 
comes strong,  the  sower  is  sometimes  obliged 
to  walk  on  the  adjoining  ridge  to  the  wind- 
ward, to  sow  the  one  he  wishes ;  and  a  sower 
who  casts  high  will  never  make  good  work 
in  such  a  case.  In  casting  high,  the  hand 
is  elevated  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the 
elbow,  whereas  it  should  always  sweep 
below  that  line.  The  hand  should  be  kept 
low,  the  arm  stretched  out,  and  the  seed 
made  to  fly  ofi"  in  a  curve  in  front,  by  a 
sharp  turn  up  of  the  back  of  the  hand,  and 
a  free  opening  of  the  fingers  near  the  end 
of  that  action,  the  nearest  parts  of  the  seed 
falling  within  two  paces  of  the  sower.  Seed, 
when  so  cast,  will  be  little  aftected  by  even  a 
strong  wind.     Some  sowers  take  long  steps 


540 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


and  fill  their  band  with  the  seed  as  if  in  a 
shovel,  and  make  long  casts,  causing  some 
of  the  seed  to  reach  across  the  ridge  from 
open-furrow  to  open-furrow.  Such  a  sower 
will  spill  the  seed  behind  the  band,  and 
make  bad  work  in  wind.  The  step  should 
be  short,  the  casts  frequent,  and  the  seed 
held  firmly  in  the  hand,  when  the  whole 
work  is  under  complete  command.  The 
sower  should  never  bustle,  and  try  to  hurry 
through  his  work  :  he  should  commeiice 
with  such  a  steady  pace  as  be  will  be  able 
to  maintain  during  the  day's  work.  Some 
conceited  sowers  always  sow  a  whole 
ridge  with  one  cast,  and  if  they  do  it  well, 
it  must  be  by  mere  chance  ;  for,  while  they 
are  obliged  to  walk  on  the  side  of  the  crown 
of  the  ridge,  they  must  cast  high  before  the 
grain  can  reach  from  one  open-furrow  to 
the  other ;  and,  with  the  least  wind  mov- 
ing, there  is  no  chance  of  making  good 
work.  And  even  in  a  decided  calm,  the 
side  of  the  ridge  on  the  left  hand  must 
receive  the  cast  in  the  opposite  way  from 
the  other  side — that  is,  from  the  crown  to 
the  open-furrow ;  while  the  correct  way  is, 
to  receive  it  from  the  open-furrow  to  the 
crown — because,  when  any  stray  grains  fly 
away  from  the  cast  farther  than  they  should 
do,  they  will  fall  near  the  crown,  where  the 
thickest  part  of  the  soil  is  to  be  found  on 
the  ridge;  whereas,  in  the  other  case,  the 
stray  grains  will  fall  into  the  open-furrow, 
where  they  are  not  wanted,  and  where 
they  will  most  probably  perish. 

2321.  A  sower  with  one  hand  only  at- 
tempts to  sow  half  a  ridge  with  one  cast. 
When  the  ridge  is  single,  fig.  20,  he  keeps 
the  open-furrow  on  his  right  hand  ;  when 
it  is  double,  that  is,  cast  together,  fig.  22, 
he  goes  first  up  and  down  the  ridge,  round 
the  crown,  and  then  up  and  down  on  the 
furrow-brows,  keeping  the  open-furrows 
on  his  right  hand.  When  the  land  is 
ploughed  two-out-and-two-in,  fig.  25,  a 
mark  of  some  sort,  such  as  a  feering-pole, 
fig.  18,  at  both  ends  of  the  ridges,  will  be 
required  to  keep  him  in  the  proper  line 
between  the  crown  and  opeu-furrows  ;  but 
when  two  sowers  work  together,  they 
guide  one  another  in  the  position  to  be 
kept  on  such  ])loughed  land. 

2322.  A  sower  with  both  hands  makes 
the  casts  alternate,  the  hand  ami  foot  of 
the  same  side  moving  simultaneously,  and, 


moving  along  the  crown  of  the  ri<lge,  casts 
the  seed  from  the  crown  towards  tlie  open- 
furrow  on  both  sides— thereby  violating 
the  rule  of  good  sowing  in  throwing  the 
stray  grains  into  the  open-furrow."  A 
man  who  sows  in  this  manner  mu.st  cast 
high,  to  avoid  striking  his  hands  upon  the 
seed-basket,  and  in  a  windy  day  has  no 
command  over  his  work.  I  can  see  no 
advantage  attending  this  mode  of  sowing 
over  the  other;  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  con- 
siderable risk  of  scattering  the  seed  un- 
equally— for,  however  dexterous  an  ambi- 
dexter sower  may  become,  his  left  arm 
will  not  make  so  perfect  a  cast  as  his  right, 
if  he  is  a  right-handed  person.  In  calm 
weather,  he  may  get  on  tolerably  well — as 
also  with  the  wind  direct  in  his  face  or  in 
his  back  ;  but  a  side-wind  must  puzzle  him, 
for,  while  adjusting  himself  to  it  for  one  of 
the  hands,  he  places  the  other  in  the  most 
disadvantageous  position.  In  short,  he 
ought  not  to  sow  with  both  bands  in  wind. 

2323.  The  mode  I  have  seen  in  Ireland 
of  sowing  is  to  make  a  step,  then  stand  still, 
and  cast  the  seed  with  two  short  and  one 
long  swing  of  the  arm.  This  is  slow  work. 
The  process  seemed  very  similar  to  what 
I  have  witnessed  in  nursery  grounds,  in 
the  sowing  of  the  seeds  of  forest  trees  and 
shrubs. 

2324.  Pickled  wheat  annoys  the  sower, 
the  caustic  lime  acting  upon  the  skin  of 
the  sowing  hand,  and  shrivelling  it.  It 
also  rises  in  impalpable  dust,  and  adheres 
to  the  eyelids  and  lips,  and  even  sticks 
upon  the  face  when  in  a  state  of  perspira- 
tion. It  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid  this 
annoyance,  especially  when  a  gentle  wind 
blows  upon  theback — the  face  is  then  almost 
smothered  in  the  eddy.  To  prevent  future 
bad  consequences  of  the  lime,  the  hands 
anil  face  should  first  be  washed  with  milk, 
and  the  milk  then  washed  clean  oil'  with 
warm  water  and  soap;  and,  lastly,  the 
eyelids,  lips,  and  back  of  the  hand, 
anointed  with  cream  or  butter. 

232:5.  It  is  obvious  that,  in  sowing  with 
the  hand,  the  corn  is  scattoretl  j.romiscu- 
onsly;and,  in  whatever  arrangement  the 
jdants  may  come  up,  depends  on  the 
form  of  the  ground— whether  in  lines  along 
the  common  furrows,  or  in  drills.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  drills  are  formed  by  the 


SOWING  OF  SPRJNG  WHEAT. 


541 


corn  falling  into  the  hollows  of  ribs  made 
by  the  small  plough ;  and  in  the  former, 
the  seed  falls  into  the  hollow  of  the  com- 
mon plough  furrows,  and  the  plants  would 
come  up  in  narrow  irregular  drills,  but 
that  their  arrangement  is  made  broad- 
cast by  the  action  of  the  harrows  after  the 
sowing. 

2326.  Sowing  with  machines. — Seed 
is  sown  with  machines  as  well  as  by  the 
band,  and  the  machines  sow  it  either  broad- 
cast or  in  drills,  according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  farmer.  A  material  difference  exists 
in  the  utility  of  these  two  classes  of 
machines :  the  broadcast  one  sows  grass 
seeds  as  well  as  grain,  while  the  drill 
machine  cannot  sow  grass-seeds,  and  the 
adoption  of  the  one  or  the  other  by  the 
farmer  is  partly  a  question  of  expense. 
Another  material  difference  between  them 
is,  that  the  broadcast  machine  deposits 
the  seed  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  is  in  fact  a  direct  substitute  for  hand- 
sowing  ;  and  as  it  deposits  the  seed  A'ery 
regularly — more  so  than  is  done  by  the 
majority  of  sowers  by  the  hand — this 
machine  is  now  much  used,  and  will  pro- 
bably ultimately  supersede  hand-sowing 
altogether.  The  drill  machine  deposits 
the  seed  at  once  at  a  specific  depth  under 
ground  in  rows,  and  at  such  distances  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  with  such  thickness 

Fig- 


in  the  rows,  as  the  will  of  the  farmer  may 
decide.  The  seed  being  left  by  the  broad- 
cast machine  on  the  ground  like  hand- 
sowing,  is  buried  in  the  soil,  more  or  less 
deep  as  the  harrows  may  chance  to  lake  it, 
whereas  the  drill  machine  deposits  the  seed 
in  the  soil,  at  any  depth  the  farmer  chooses, 
and  all  the  seed  at  the  same  depth,  thereby 
giving  the  farmer  such  a  command  over 
the  position  of  the  seed  in  the  soil,  as  no 
broadcast  machine  or  hand-sowing  can  pos- 
sibly do.  I  shall  describe  in  general  terms 
both  classes  of  sowing-machines,  and  then 
we  shall  be  the  better  able  to  judge  which 
is  the  most  useful  and  perfect. 

2327.  The  Broadcast  soicing-machiite. 
— There  are  various  forms  of  this  machine  ; 
but  the  one  I  have  chosen  for  an  illustra- 
tion is  one  manufactured  by  Mr  James 
Slight,  Edinburgh,  because  I  think  it  ex- 
hibits the  machine  in  the  most  perfect  form, 
not  only  doing  the  work  easily  and  well, 
but  is  so  constructed  that  its  long  sowing- 
chest  is  divided  into  sections,  the  two  end 
ones  of  which  can  be  folded  upon  the  central 
division,  whereby  the  machine  may  pass 
through  any  field-gate  without  having  to 
remove  the  sowing-chest,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  be  done  in  all  other  similar  machines. 
Fig.  204,  is  a  view  in  perspective  of  the 
entire  machine,  as  it  appears  at  work. 
The  carriage  is  marked  aba;  the  hind 
204. 


THE  BROADCAST  SOWING-MACHINE. 


wheels  are  c  c ;  the  nigh-side  wheel  is  fixed 
dead  upon  the  axle,  carrying  the  axle  round 
with  it  to  give  motion  to  the  pitch-chain, 
at  a  in  the  centre,  where  it  is  seen  as  if 
entering  the  chest;  the  off-side  wheel  runs 
loose.  The  front  wheel,  seen  partially  at 
J,  is  usually  of  cast-iron,  and  is  supported 
on  cast-iron  shears,  and  turns  on  a  pivot 


in  an  effectual  swivel  carriage.    The  horse- 
shafts  are  n  n,  and  the  splinter-bar  is  m. 

2328.  The  seed-chest  o  o  is  18  feet  in 
length;  a  part  of  the  cover  of  the  chest 
forming  a  hinged  flap.  The  two  extreme 
segments  of  the  chest  are  supported  by  tho 
light  tension  chain  i"  i'  i'  i",  which  passes 


642 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


over  tlie  two  upright  iron  stanchions  k  k\ 
the  tops  of  which  i'  i'  form  the  suspending 
fulcra  for  the  chain,  while  its  extremities 
are  secured  at  the  points  i"  i"  with  adjust- 
in*'  nuts.  These  chains  support  the  two 
ends  of  the  chest,  which  is  divided  in  three 
pieces. 

2329.  The  soicing-geer  of  the  machine 
is  connected  with  the  main  axle  of  the 
carriage  hy  the  pitch-chain  a.  Shafts 
extend  the  entire  length  of  the  chest, 
coupled  at  the  junction  of  the  segments 
of  the  chest  by  means  of  small  clutch 
couplings  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  shaft, 
and  these  engage  or  disengage  of  them- 
selves when  the  segments  of  the  chest  are 
let  down  or  folded  up.  The  shafts  are 
armed  with  the  seed-wheels,  32  being  re- 
quired for  an  18  feet  chest.  The  wheels 
are  of  cast-iron,  of  very  light  fabric  ;  their 
points  being  slightly  rounded,  to  adapt 
them  to  the  concave  groove  or  cup  that  is 
formed  in  the  back  of  the  chest  around 
each  discharging  orifice. 

2330.  Corresponding  to  each  seed- wheel, 
a  discharging  orifice  is  formed  in  the  back 
of  the  chest.  The  position  of  the  seed- 
wheels,  in  relation  to  the  bottom  ?<  of  the 
cliest,  is  such  as  to  make  the  teeth  turn 
at  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  clear  of 
the  bottom.  The  seed  orifices  are  de- 
femled  by  iron  plates,  the  fixing  of  which 
recjuires  some  attention,  in  order  that  the 
orifices  may  exactly  coincide  with  those 
of  the  slides ;  without  perfect  coincidence 
in  these  two  parts,  the  sowing  will  be  un- 
e(jn;il.  To  effect  the  precise  adjustment 
of  tlie  orifices,  the  slide  is  made  in  two 
halves,  and,  at  each  end  of  the  chest,  an 
adjusting  screw  v  acts  in  a  nut  attached 
to  tlie  end  of  the  chest,  the  point  of  each 
screw  being  brought  to  bear  against  the 
end  of  the  slide ;  and  their  sliutting  is 
eli'ected  by  moving  the  slide  still  further 
to  the  right  hand,  by  means  of  the  levers 
«c,  until  the  orifices  are  entirely  closed. 
Both  ends  of  the  chest  having  undergone 
this  operation,  which  is  done  in  an  instant, 
but  in  reverse  directions,  the  machine  may 
go  to  any  distance  without  discharging  a 
grain  ;  but  whenever  it  has  been  turned 
into  the  next  ridge,  the  levers  w  are 
thrown  in  the  o])p(isite  direction,  moving 
the  slide  towards  the  adjusting  screw  v ; 
and  this  being  done  at  both  ends,  the  ori- 


fices will  have  attained  precisely  the  same 
area  as  before  ;  and  thus  the  shutting  and 
opening  again  to  the  same  area,  and  of 
course  the  same  discharge,  is  effected  for 
any  number  of  turns,  without  the  smallest 
variation,  so  long  as  the  screw  v  remains 
unaltered.  The  sowing-geer  of  this  ma- 
chine has  undergone  a  variety  of  changes. 
In  the  example  before  us,  the  pitch-chain 
is  employed  to  communicate  motion  from 
the  first  mover — the  carriage  axle — to  the 
seed-wheels.  It  is  simple,  but  it  keeps 
the  seed-wheels  constantly  in  motion, 
whether  sowing  or  not,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  a  tendency  to  injure  the  grain  that 
lies  in  contact  with  the  wheels;  but  to 
avoid  any  apprehension  on  this  score,  a 
gearing  may  be  employed,  which  disen- 
gages the  seed-wheels  from  the  first  mover 
by  means  of  a  lever. 

2331.  For  the  purpose  of  e((ualising  the 
distribution  of  the  seed  over  the  surface 
of  the  ground  after  it  has  left  the  dis- 
charging orifice,  the  bottom-board  of  the 
seed-chest  is  made  to  project  beyond  the 
back  of  the  chest,  forming  an  apron  on 
which  the  seed  is  first  received  from  the 
orifice,  and,  being  thus  checked  in  its  de- 
scent, is  thereby  more  uniformly  scattered 
over  the  surface.  Another  precaution  is 
taken,  the  better  to  secure  a  uniform  dis- 
charge, in  the  case  of  sowing  on  ground  that 
has  a  high  inclination.  In  sowing  up  hill, 
in  sucli  situations  the  weight  of  the  seed  is 
thrown  more  upon  that  side  of  the  chest 
from  which  it  is  discharged,  tending  there- 
by to  increase  the  discharge.  On  sowing 
down  hill,  on  the  other  hand,  the  effect  of 
pressure  is  reversed,  and  the  discharge 
will  be  less.  To  obviate  these  incon- 
veniences, a  tilting  motion  has  been  intro- 
duced to  the  seed-chest,  but  which  of 
course  renders  the  machine  a  little  more 
costly. 

2332.  As  the  seed-chest  is  18  feet  in 
length,  and  it  may  sometimes  be  desirable 
to  reduce  its  breadth  of  sowing  to  16  or  to 
15  feet,  to  suit  ridges  of  these  breadths, 
the  reduction  is  eficcted  by  stopping  two, 
three,  or  more  of  the  seed-orifices  at  each 
end,  by  means  of  a  flat  swing-clasp  turn- 
ing upon  a  pin. 

2333.  In  using  this  machine,  it  is  fre- 
quently drawn  by  one  horse;  but  it  forms 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


543 


a  rather  heavy  draught,  and  is,  therefore, 
more  frequently  the  work  of  two  horses. 
The  chest  is  filled  from  end  to  end  with 
the  seed-corn,  and,  the  horses  walking  in 
the  furrow,  the  machine  sows  the  half 
ridge  on  either  side.  When  the  chest  has 
been  filled,  and  the  machine  brought  to 
that  position  which  places  the  horses  in 
the  furrow, — the  sower  having  previously 
determined  the  degree  of  opening  in  the 
orifices  that  will  deliver  the  desired 
quantity  per  acre,  he  throws  each  slide 
outward  against  its  graduating  screw, 
which  will  produce  the  proper  opening ; 
and,  this  done,  the  horses  are  driven  for- 
ward. On  arriving  at  the  farther  end  of 
the  ridge,  and  before  entering  upon  the 
head- ridge,  the  slides  are  withdrawn  to- 
wards the  centre,  closing  up  the  vents ; 
the  machine  is  then  turned  round  on  the 
head-ridge,  and  takes  up  a  position  on 
the  next  furrow,  "when  the  process  is  re- 
peated, and  so  on  till  the  field  is  sown  all 
over,  the  head-ridges  being  the  last  por- 
tion of  the  work ;  and  here  the  blinding 
of  the  extreme  orifices  come  frequently 
into  play,  if  the  head-ridges  are  of  less 
breadth  than  the  single  ridges  of  the  field, 
wdirch  they  should  never  be. 

2334.  The  eye  of  an  experienced  sower 
■will,  on  passing  over  a  few  yards  with 
the  machine,  by  simple  ocular  inspection, 
be  able  to  judge  of  the  quantity  of  seed 
he  is  bestowing  upon  the  soil.  If  ex- 
perimental accuracy  is  required,  the  sower 
may  then  put  into  the  chest  as  much  grain 
as  will  just  cover  the  seed-wheels,  and 
then  measure  in  one  or  two  bushels,  and 
proceed  to  sow  this  until  as  much  remains 
as  will  just  cover  the  wheels  again,  so  that 
the  measured  quantity  is  found  to  have 
been  discharged.  By  now  measuring  the 
number  of  yards  in  length  that  have  been 
sown  with  two  bushels,  he  will  ascertain 
by  calculation  the  proportional  <piantity 
required  for  an  acre.  Thus,  let  the  in- 
tended quantity  to  be  sown  ujmn  an  acre 
be  3  bushels,  or  any  other  number,  and 
that  1  bushel  has  been  sown  in  the  experi- 
ment, which  has  covered  276  yards  of  a 
15  feet  ridge,  or  two  half-ridges  equal  to 
15  feet,  or  5  yards.  The  imperial  acre 
contains  4840  square  yards,  and  this 
divided  by  5,  the  yards  in  the  breadth  of 
the  ridge,  we  have  968  as  the  number  of 
lineal  yards  in  length  of  a  15  feet  ridge 


to  make  up  an  acre ;  and  one-third  of 
this,  or  322*66  lineal  yards,  is  the  extent 
that  should  have  been  covered  by  1 
bushel  of  seed-corn.  The  machine  having, 
as  supposed,  covered  only  276  yards,  it 
follows  that  the  sowing  is  about  one- 
seventh  part  of  the  bushel  too  thick — the 
graduating  screws,  therefore,  must  be 
turned  forward  a  little,  and  the  experi- 
ment repeated,  if  thought  necessary.  It  is 
seldom,  however,  that  such  experiments 
will  be  required  in  the  hands  of  a  practical 
sower. 

2335.  In  reference  to  the  inconvenience 
attending  the  great  length  of  the  seed- 
chest,  when  it  is  in  one  length,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  the  method  by  which  it  is 
shifted  is  this  : — In  its  working  state,  the 
chest  is  kept  in  its  bolsters  by  means  of 
two  quadrants  attached  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  chest,  one  being  on  each  side  of 
the  carriage :  these  are  formed  concentric 
with  the  curvature  of  the  bolster,  and  a 
bolt,  over  which  the  quadrant  slides, 
is  screwed  into  the  side  of  the  carriage, 
and  this  retains  the  chest  in  its  place. 
When  it  is  found  necessary  to  move  the 
chest,  the  two  bolts  are  unscrewed,  which 
sets  the  chest  at  liberty ;  it  is  then  lifted 
from  its  bolsters  and  laid  longitudinally 
on  the  carriage.  In  this  operation,  how- 
ever, the  pitch-chain,  when  that  medium  of 
power  is  employed,  has  to  be  disengaged 
by  withdrawing  a  coupling-link  from  the 
chain  ;  but  when  the  lever  is  emjjloyed, 
there  is  nothing  required  but  the  unscrew- 
ing of  the  quadrant-bolts,  to  set  the  chest 
at  liberty.  It  is  then  lifted  and  laid  longi- 
tudinally on  the  carriage  as  before. 

2336.  The  price  of  these  machines  ranges 
from  £10  to  £12.  Being  a  machine  neces- 
sarily composed  of  many  parts,  it  cannot  be 
constructed  at  a  small  cost ;  but  it  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  costly  machine,  when  it 
sows  all  the  species  of  the  cereal  grains 
equally  well,  as  well  as  the  grass  seeds. 

2337.  The  Common  or  £^ast  Lothian 
DrUl-aotcinci  machine,  is  here  taken  to  illu- 
strate the  principles  of  the  drill  machine. 
Though  it  may  be  deficient  in  some  points 
as  compared  with  those  of  Berwickshire  and 
Roxburghshire,  yet  its  extreme  simplicity 
and  cheapness  has  brought  it  into  very  ex- 
tensive adoption,  not  only  in  East  Lothian, 


544 


rRACTICE-SPRING. 


but  in  otlier  districts  where  the  diill 
system  is  followed.  Fig.  206  is  a  view 
ill  persnective  of  this  inacliine,  having  drills 
to  sow  .six  rows,  which  is  the  size  most 
generally  used,  chiefly  because  it  can  be 
drawn  hy  one  horse;  hut  also,  in  the  event 
of  its  being  employed  along  swelling 
ridges,  its  covering  hut  a  small  breadth 
secures  a  nearly  equal  depth  for  the  depo- 
sition of  the  seed,  which  cannot  be  easily 
done  under  the  same  circumstances  if  the 
machine  is  mounted  with  agreater  number 
of  coulters.     But  it  follows  from  the  jie- 

Fig. 


culiarity  of  structure,  tlie  coulters  being 
permanently  fixed  in  position  for  the  depth 
to  whici)  they  penetrate  the  soil,  that  the 
machine  is  best  atlapted  for  sowing  across 
the  ridges;  and  hence  it  is  almost  invari- 
ably worked  in  that  direction,  though, 
when  worked  in  the  direction  of  the  ridge, 
the  breadth  covered  by  the  machine  is 
ecjual  to  nearly  one-third  of  a  15  feet 
ridge. 

2338.  In  the  construction,  a  is  a  bed- 
plank,  across  the  ends  of  which  are  bolted 

205. 


THli  EAST  I.OTHIAN  GRAIN  DRILL-MACHINE. 


the  tw-o  side-bars  b  b,  which  are   crossed  in  the  upper  side  of  the  bed-plank,  from 

by  the  bar  m  m,  bolted   to  the  side-bars,  which  it  })asses  down  the  tubes  ii  into  the 

serving  a  special  purjK)se.  to  be  afterwards  sheatlis  of  the  coulters,  by  which  it  isdepo- 

noticed;   and   tliese    four  parts  form   the  sited  into  the  rut  formed  by  the  sheaths. 
simple  frame-work  of  the  machine.     The 


seed-chest  c  is  placed  between  the  side- 
bars b,  and  attached  to  those  and  the 
bed- plank.  The  chest  is  mounted 
similar  to  the  broadcast  machine,  (2328,) 
excej)t  that,  in  place  of  the  apron  on 
which  the  seed  falls  in  tlie  broadcast,  the 


2339.  From  the  construction  and  action 
of  this  machine,  and  the  resistance  of  the 
soil  to  the  passage  of  the  coulters  through 
it,  there  is  a  constant  tendency,  produced 
by  the  traction  of  the  horse  when  the  ma- 
chine is  in  action,  to  elevate  the  extrcinity 


orifices    deliver  the  seed    directly    into  a     of  the  handles;  and  by  thus  swinging  upon 


small  hopper-shaped  aperture  formed  in 
the  bed-j)lank.  The  axle  of  one  of  the 
carriage-wheels  is  J,  coupled  to  the  small 
shaft  of  the  seed-wheels,  thereby  giving 
them  the  requisite  motion,  their  revolution 
coinciding  with   that  of  the   wheels,  and 


the  axle  of  the  wheels,  the  coulters  are 
withdrawn  from  their  action  on  the  soil, 
and  from  forming  the  rut  for  the  reception 
of  the  seed.  The  tendency  thus  jn-oduced 
being  greater  than  a  man  is  cajiablc  of 
ccmtinuing  to  contend  with,  is  counteracted 


the  o])posite  wheel  d  turns  upon  an  axle  by    the    application    of   a    balance-chain, 

fixed   permanently    upon   the    bed-frame,  producing  a  change   of  direction    in   the 

The  horse-shafts  e  are  jointed  to  the  bed-  line  of  draught,  and  of  the  point  of  attach- 

plauk.     The  coulters  ^-  /t  are  furnished  at  nient  of  the  draught.     When  the  chain  is 

the  lower  end   with  a  pointed  sheath   of  brought    under    ^Mision,    and    the   shafts 

sheet-iron.     The  seed,  on  leaving  the  ori-  borne  up  by  the  horse,  the  resistance  to 

fices,  falls  into  the  funneb shaped  receptacle  the  coulters  is  transferred  to  the  back  of 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


545 


the  horse.  The  marker  n  n  is  another 
appendage  to  the  machine,  which,  although 
not  so  necessary  as  the  bahmce-chaiii,  is 
yet  generally  applied  to  tliis  drill-niachine, 
especially  when  sowing  across  the  ridges. 
It  consists  of  the  bar  mm,  and  the  nuirk- 
iug-rod  m  n.  The  use  of  the  marker  is 
to  trace  a  line  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
parallel  to  the  direction  in  which  the  ma- 
chine travels,  and  at  a  distance  from  the 
middle  point  of  the  surface  covered  by  the 
machine,  equal  to  the  entire  breadth,  so 
covered ;  hence,  on  returning  to  sow  the 
next  breadth,  the  horse  should  walk  ex- 
actly upon  the  line  drawn  by  the  marker. 
In  sowing  with  the  machine  here  described, 
the  distance  from  line  to  line  will  be  4 
feet  6  inches;  the  distance  between  the  rows 
being  9  inches.  The  wheels  are  usually  set 
54  inches  apart,  measuring  at  the  point 
where  they  rest  on  the  ground ;  or  their 
distance  in  any  machine  may  be  found  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  coulters  by  the 
number  of  inches  given  to  the  interval 
between  the  rows  or  coulters ;  thus  six 
coulters  at  9  inches  of  interval,  give 
6  X  9  =  54  inches.  From  the  construction 
of  the  machine  it  is  found,  that  when  the 
balance-chain  is  under  tension,  the  coulters 
are  drawn  to  the  ground,  and  the  handles 
also  drawn  downward;  but  on  releasing 
the  chain,  which  is  done  at  the  land-ends 
and  turnings,  the  conductor  must  support 
the  handles,  to  keep  the  coulter  from  the 
ground,  and  in  this  state,  if  the  handles 
are  let  go  when  the  machine  is  standing, 
the  coulter  will  pass  forward,  and  the 
handles  will  fall  to  the  ground.  To  pre- 
vent this  last  inconvenience,  a  crutch  is 
usually  appended  to  the  marker-bar,  which, 
on  stopping,  is  allowed  to  drop  to  a  per- 
pendicular position,  resting  on  the  ground, 
and  tlms  keeps  the  machine  upon  a  level. 
This  appendage,  not  being  of  much  impor- 
tance, is  left  out  of  the  figure.  The  price 
of  this  machine  varies  from  £6  to  £lO. 

2340.  New  Lever-drill  sowing-ma- 
chine.— This  drill  sowing-maciiine  was 
introduced  to  public  notice,  a  few  years 
ago,  by  Mr  James  Slight  of  Edinburgh. 
Mr  Slight  having  been  impressed  with  the 
superiority  of  the  improved  English  lever- 
drills,  but  seeing  at  the  same  time  the 
difficulty,  or  impossibility,  of  introducing 
such  an  expensive  machine  into  Scottish 
practice,  was  induced  to  make  the  attempt 
of  ingrafting   what   appeared  the  better 

VOL.  I. 


parts  of  the  English  machine  upon  the 
more  simple  machinery  of  the  Scottish  one 
— the  one  just  described — thus  producing 
a  maciiine  little,  if  anything,  inferior  to 
the  original,  at  one-third  of  the  price. 
The  results  appear  to  justify  the  expecta- 
tions, for  the  new  lever-drill  has  now  been 
tested  in  the  hands  of  a  number  of  prac- 
tical judges,  and  found  to  give  entire 
satisfaction,  either  sowing  grain  alone,  or 
depositing  granulated  manures  along  with 
the  seed  in  any  required  proportion.  The 
figure  here  given  of  the  machine  repre- 
sents it  without  the  manure-chest,  which, 
when  adopted,  isplaced  immediately  before 
the  seed-chest,  making  very  little  change 
in  the  appearance,  and  adding  little  to  the 
apparatus,  except  the  cheat  itself. 

2341.  Fig.  206  represents  this  machine 
in  perspective.  In  the  construction  of  this 
drill,  the  bed-frame  a  a  consists  of  two 
side  rails  with  three  principal  cross  rails, 
besides  a  minor  rail,  forming  the  bearing 
or  platform  of  the  seed-funnels.  The 
entire  width  of  the  bed-frame  for  a  Q-rovr 
drill  is  4  feet  7  inches  over  all,  and  the 
length  over  the  rails  is  4  feet  3  inches. 
The  seed-chest  b  is  constructed  and 
mounted  in  every  respect  similar  to  that 
of  the  broadcast  machine,  fig.  204,  ex- 
cepting again  the  projecting  apron,  which 
in  the  drill-machine  is  not  required,  and 
in  the  mode  of  communicating  motion  l^o 
the  seed-wheels.  The  carriage-wheels 
are  c  c.  The  fore-wheel  is  mounted  on 
sheers,  and  e  is  one  of  the  two  pillars  of 
the  swivel-plate,  to  whichthe  splinter-bar 
J  is  attached.  The  shafts  are  g  g.  The 
remaining  parts  of  the  fore-carriage  are 
precisely  the  same  as  in  fig.  204  for  the 
broadcast  sowing-machine.  The  sowing 
geer  in  the  lever-drill  consists  of  a  wheel 
fixed  upon  the  inward  end  of  the  nave  of 
the  carriage-wheel,  on  the  nigh  side ;  of 
a  second  wheel  k,  placed  intermediate 
between  it  and  the  third  wheel  I,  which 
last  is  mounted  on  a  continuation  of  the 
seed-wheel  shaft.  The  intermediate  wheel 
k  is  supported  upon  a  stud  in  the  end  of 
a  bent  lever,  the  handle  of  which  is  seen 
below  the  roller  p;  by  means  of,  which 
the  wheels  is  withdrawn  from  the  wheels, 
to  stop  the  motion  of  theseed-wheelst  The 
discharging  apparatus  of  the  seed-chest 
is  precisely  the  same  as  in  fig.  204,  with  the 
slide  A,  lever  i,  and  adjusting  screw.  From 
the  orifice  in  the  slide,  the  seed  falls  into 

2  m 


546 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


telescope  funnels  k,  m  m,  the  uppermost 
beinf  fixed  to  tlie  bed-frame,  and  the 
lowermost  to  the  lever  nn.     To  the  quad- 


rant 0  the  levers  n  n  are  jointed  upon  a 
rod  of  iron,  which  extends  from  side  to 
side    of   the  bed-frame.    Tlie  levers  are 


Fig.  206. 


slight's  new  levkr-drill  sowing-machine. 


forked  at  the  end,  and  diminish  gradually 
to  the  extremity  n,  which  is  turned  up  to 
prevent  the  weight  from  being  dropt  off. 
The  weight  is  a  block  of  cast-iron  of  from 
3  to  7  lbs.  weight,  of  which  there  may  be 
several  sizes,  to  be  applied  according  to 
the  state  of  the  land,  its  purpose  being  to 
press  the  coulter  into  the  ground.  The 
point  of  the  coulter,  sinking  1  inc))  deeper 
than  the  sheath,  gives  the  seed  a  more  pul- 
verised bed  than  can  be  produced  with  a 
coulter  that  is  level  below,  A  wooden 
roller^,  furnished  with  a  ratchet,  is  sup- 
ported in  a  light  iron  standard  at  each 
end,  upon  the  side-bar  of  the  bed-frame. 
A  light  chain  q  from  each  lever  is  attaclied 
to. the  roller,  and  a  cross  r  being  fixed  upon 
the  right  hand  side,  the  roller  can  thus  be 
turned  round  by  means  of  the  cross-arms, 
the  chains  wound  up  to  any  desired  ex- 
tent, and  the  coulters  lifted  from  the 
ground.  This  operation  is  found  conveni- 
ent at  the  turnings,  or  at  any  time  when 
the  machine  is  not  sowing,  and  the  roller, 
chains,  and  levers,  are  held  in  the  desired 
position  by  the  pall  s  falling  into  the  rat- 
chet uheel.  The  coulters  are  represented 
nearly  out  of  the  ground,  and  when  let 
down  to  the  working  level,  they  penetrate 
to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  wheels,  where  they  rest 
on  the  ground,  is  equal  to  54  inches,  as  in 
the  common  drill  ;  one  of  the  wheels, 
therefore,  will  always  fall  into  the  track 
of  the  former  round,  whicli  may  serve  as 
a  marker  to  the  conductor  of  the  machine  ; 


but,  though  not  shown  in  the  figure,  a 
marking  bar,  similar  to  that  of  the  com- 
mon drill,  is  usually  fitted  to  it  as  a  mov- 
able appendage. 

2342.  From  the  construction  of  this 
machine,  with  its  fore-wheel  and  with  its 
lever-coulters  independently  movable,  its 
motions  are  more  steady  and  its  man.-ige- 
ment  more  easy,  while  the  freedom  of 
vertical  motion  in  the  coulters  gives  it  the 
advantage  of  sowing  on  any  kind  of  sur- 
face, on  ridges  however  round,  at  equal 
depths  for  every  coulter,  and  either  across 
or  along  the  ridges  with  equal  facility. 
The  price  of  these  machines  ranges  from 
i^lOto£l8. 

2343.  To  render  the  expensive  English 
drill-machines  more  generally  useful,  it 
is  not  an  uncommon  practice  in  England 
for  the  owner  of  one  to  travel  the  country 
with  it  at  seed-time,  and  undertake  to  sow 
the  fields  of  any  farm,  where  the  farmer 
may  choose  to  employ  him.  The  charge  is 
usually  2s.  6d.  per  imperial  acre,  the  farmer 
supplying  the  requisite  number  of  horses 
to  work  the  drill,  and  undertaking  to 
deliver  it  at  the  farm  on  which  it  is  to  be 
next  employed. 

2344.  The  land,  whether  sown  by  hand  or 
with  either  sort  of  Tuachine,  must  be  har- 
rowed ;  but  the  time  of  using  tl)e  harrows 
difierson  the  sort  dfmacliine  used  forsowing 
the  grain.   When  the  grain  is  sown  by  hand 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


547 


or  with  the  broadcast  machine,  the  harrow 
is  used  after  the  grain  has  heen  sown  ;  but 
in  sowing  with  either  of  the  drill  machines, 
the  harrow  is  first  used  to  put  the  land 
into  the  proper  state  for  the  machine,  and 
it  is  used  to  the  extent  required  to  give  the 
land  such  a  proper  degree  of  harrowing  as 
the  nature  of  the  crop  to  be  sown  requires. 
I  shall  first  describe  the  harrow  before 
directing  the  manner  in  which  the  land 
should  be  harrowed. 

2345.  "  The  Harrow — considering  the 
operation  it  has  to  perform,"  observes  Mr 
Slight,  "•  in  covering  the  seeds  that  have 
been  cast  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil — is  an 
implement  of  no  small  importance  ;  and 
yet  its  effects  are  apparently  rude  and  un- 
certain,  while  its  construction  is  of   the 


simplest  order.  So  simple,  indeed,  is  this 
construction,  that  at  a  very  remote  period 
it  appears  to  have  taken  that  form  which, 
in  so  far  as  the  simple  principles  of  its  ac- 
tion are  concerned,  JS  almost  incapable  of 
further  improvement."  The  dimensions  of 
the  rectangular  barrows  are,  on  an  average, 
3  feet  9  inches  in  breadth,  measuring  over 
the  bulls,  and  3  feet  10  inches  in  length 
over  the  slots. 

2346.  The  improved  form  given  to  the 
harrow,  as  above  alluded  to,  changes  the 
rectangle  into  a  rhomboid,  and  this,  when 
duly  proportioned,  gives  to  the  implement, 
as  has  been  supposed,  as  high  a  degree  of 
perfection,  in  point  of  form,  as  it  appears 
capable  of  attaining.  Fig.  207  represents 
a  pair  of  the  rhomboidal  harrows  in  the 


Fig.  207. 


THE  WOODEN  RHOMBOIDAL  HARROWS 

working  position.  The  frame  of  these 
harrows  consists  of  the  same  number  of 
parts  as  the  common  sort,  above  alluded 
.to,  four  bulls  a  a  a  «,  and  four  slots  6 
h  b  b.  The  breadth  of  the  frame  over  the 
bulls,  at  right  angles. to  them,  is  3  feet  6 
inches,  and  in  the  same  manner  over  the 
slots  the  length  is  the  same ;  but  the  bulls 
extend  at  each  end  4  inches  beyond  the 
slots,  making  their  entire  length,  including 
the  obliquity,  about  4  feet  6  inches.     The 


WITH  THEIR  YOKE  OF  SWING-TREES. 

dimensions  of  the  parts  vary  a  little,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  material 
employed.  In  each  liarrow  is  an  iron  bar 
c  c,  having  a  number  of  holes  punched  in 
it,  for  the  attaclinuMit  of  the  yoke.  Each 
bull  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  and 
at  each  division  the  bulls  are  bored  with 
an  auger  for  the  reception  of  the  tines. 
The  length  of  the  tine  is  about  10  inches, 
of  which  6  or  7  iuches  project  below  the 
bulls. 


548 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2n47.  There  is  one  point  in  the  im- 
provement of  this  liarrow  tliat  appears  of 
even  more  importance  than  the  rhomboi- 
flai  8liai)e — it  is  the  joints  or  hinges  d  d. 
In  tlie  one  harrow,  tlie  tail  of  the  double 
joints  of  the  hinge  is  prolonged  into  a  bolt 
d  e,  d  e  passing  through  all  the  bulls,  and 
secured  with  screw-nuts  at  e  e.  The  single 
joints  are  in  like  manner  prolonged  into 
the  bolts  f  g-,  f  g  thus  serving  to  add 
greatly  to  the  strength  as  well  as  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  harrows.  The  loose 
joints  d  f,  d  f  have  been  found  to  answer 
their  purpose  much  better  than  the  well- 
fitted  joints  originally  given  to  them,  by 
their  allowing  a  great  freedom  of  ac- 
tion, and  the  double  joints  d  d  are  there- 
fore now  usually  made  as  in  the  figure. 
The  eye  of  the  single  joint  /  has  great 
freedom  to  play  upon  the  joint-bolt. 

2348.  From  the  figure  of  the  rhomboi- 
dal  harrow,  when  duly  constructed,  it  can 
only  perform  its  maximum  of  effect  when 
drawn  forward  with  it-s  slots  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  its  motion,  and 
this  is  effected  by  the  master  swing-tree 
A.  This  tree,  for  harrows  of  the  dimen- 
sions here  described,  requires  to  be  4  feet 


8  inches  in  length  between  the  points  of 
attachment,  and  it  is  connected  to  the 
harrows  by  means  of  the  8  hooks  and 
shackles  at  c  c.  The  balance  of  draught 
of  the  harrows  is  adjusted  by  shifting  the 
shackles  into  the  different  holes  of  the 
bars  c  c,  until  the  harrows  are  found  to  lie 
at  right  angles  to  the  draught  wiien  in  mo- 
tion ;  and  this,  be  it  observed,  is  not 
attained  by  having  an  equal  number  of 
tines  on  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the 
swing-tree  k,  for  there  is  found  to  be  a 
greater  resistance  to  the  forward  motion 
of  the  implement  on  the  left  than  there  is 
upon  the  right  side,  arising,  it  is  supposed, 
from  the  tines  presenting  a  broader  sur- 
face to  resistance  on  that  side  than  on  the 
other.  The  other  ])arts  of  the  yoke,  i  k  l^ 
are  the  common  plough  swing-trees,  fig. 
6.  Wooden  harrows  cost  £2, 15s.  per  pair. 

2349.  The  extensive  application  of  iron 
has  of  late  years  brought  the  use  of  that 
material  to  the  formation  of  the  harrow  as 
well  as  of  the  plough,  and  iron  harrows 
are  now  coming  very  generally  into  use, 
both  in  the  rectangular  and  the  rhoml)oi- 
dal  form.  Fig.  208  represents  the  malle- 
able-iron rhomboidal  harrow,  as  commonly 


Tai  IRON  RHOMBOIDAL  HARROWS,  WITH  THUR  TOKB  OF  8WIN0-TRSK8. 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


549 


constructed,  and  its  dimensions  are  the 
same  as  already  given  for  those  of  wood. 
The  arrangement  of  tlie  parts  are  some- 
what different,  and,  from  the  nature  of 
the  materials,  the  dimensions  of  the  parts 
differ  also  more  materially.  Thus,  the 
bulls  a  a  aa  are  swelled  out  where  the 
mortises  for  the  slots  are  formed,  and  also 
for  the  tines,  their  ends  projecting  only  2 
inches  beyond  the  slot.  The  slots  are 
b  b  b,  and  there  being  only  three  of  them, 
the  middle  one  is  so  placed  as  to  be  free  of 
the  middle  row  of  tines;  while  the  end 
slots  are  elongated  towards  the  meeting 
sides  of  the  pair,  and  are  there  formed 
into  the  hinge-joints  f/ J,  as  formerly  de- 
scribed for  the  wooden  harrows.  The 
bars  c  c  are  inserted  in  the  projecting  ends 
of  the  first  and  second  bulls,  and  the  master 
swing-tree  k  is  attached  to  them  by  twisted 
S  hooks.  The  swing-trees  i  k  I  are  the 
same  as  described  for  the  wooden  harrows. 
The  construction  of  the  iron  harrow  is  so 
similar  to  the  others,  that  it  is  unnecessary 
toenter  into  further  details  regarding  it;  but 
it  may  be  remarked,  that,  from  the  almost 
imperishable  nature  of  the  materials,  as 
compared  with  wood,  there  seems  every 
reason  to  expect  the  iron  implement  will 
entirely  supersede  the  wooden  ;  and  though 
the  price  of  the  iron  harrows  is  conside- 
rably above  that  of  wood,  the  additional 
first  cost  is  more  than  repaid  by  the  greater 
durability  of  the  iron.  There  is  good 
reason  also  to  believe,  that,  by  a  construc- 
tion more  adapted  than  the  present  to  the 
nature  of  the  material,  the  price  may  yet 
be  considerably  reduced. 

2350.  The  form  of  the  tines  is  that 
which  has  its  cross  section  forming  an 
exact  square,  and  inserted  in  the  bull  with 
its  diagonal  pointing  in  the  direction  of 
the  progressive  motion.  This  form  and 
position  of  the  tine,  however  -nell  adapted 
to  the  soil,  caimot,  with  propriety  for  safety 
to  the  implement,  be  used  in  the  wooden 
harrow  from  the  powerful  tendency  it  has 
to  split  the  wood.  In  the  iron  implement 
this  difficulty  does  not  exist ;  and  as  this 
form  of  tine  is  in  every  respect  best  adapted 
to  the  intended  purpose,  it  should  never 
be  omitted  in  the  iron  harrow.  Whatever 
be  the  cross  section  of  the  tine,  in  that 
part  which  passes  through  the  bull,  the 
projecting  part  is  tapered  towards  the 
point,  not  uniformly  but  a  little  barrelled. 


and  terminates  ir>  an  obtuse  point.  In  all 
wooden  harrows  the  tines  are  simply  driven 
firmly  into  the  wood  after  it  has  been  bored. 
In  most  iron  harrows  they  are  fixed  in 
the  same  manner ;  but  as  the  tines  are 
sometimes  liable  to  become  loose,  when 
simply  inserted  and  driven  down  by  the 
hammer,  they  are,  when  a  more  perfect 
construction  is  followed,  fixed  by  being 
driven  from  below,  and  secured  by  a  screw- 
nut  above. 

2351.  The  dotted  parallel  lines  in  figs. 
207  and  208  represent  the  lines  which  the 
tines  make  in  the  ground  in  the  act  of 
harrowing  it ;  and  as  they  are  at  equal 
distances,  it  follows  that  the  harrows,  as  in 
the  figures,  are  set  in  the  proper  manner 
fur  working.  They  are  wrong  set  when 
these  lines  are  not  at  equal  distances. 

2352.  The  harrows  follow  the  sowersj 
each  sower  keeping  2  pair  of  harrows  em- 
ployed when  the  land  receives  a  double  tine 
— that  is,  backwards  and  forwards  on  the 
same  ground,  that  is,  on  the  same  ridge, 
which  the  breaking-in  of  the  seed  should 
always  receive.  I  have  said  that,  on 
inclined  ground,  for  the  sake  of  the  horses, 
that  end  of  the  field  should  be  first  sown 
which  gives  the  horses  the  advantage  of 
breaking-in  the  ground  down  hill  (2312.) 
If  the  sowing  commences  at  the  top  of  the 
declination,  the  harrows  start  at  once  for 
the  breaking-in  down  the  hill ;  but  if  it 
commences  at  the  foot  of  the  inclination, 
the  harrows  will  have  to  go  an  extra  land- 
ing to  the  u})per  side  of  the  field  and 
begin  there.  Two  pairs  of  harrows  work 
best  together,  their  united  breadth  cover- 
ing the  entire  ridge,  and  lapping  over  the 
crown  where  the  soil  is  thickest.  One 
pair  takes  the  lead,  by  going  on  the  near 
side  of  the  ridge,  while  the  other  pair 
follows  on  the  off  side,  but  the  leader 
usually  takes  that  side  of  the  ridge  which 
is  nearest  the  open  field.  Each  pair  of. 
harrows  should  be  provided  with  double 
reins,  one  rein  from  each  horse ;  and  every 
ploughman  should  be  made  to  walk  and 
drive  their  horses  with  the  reins  from  be- 
hind the  harrows.  If  a  strict  injunction 
is  not  laid  upon  them  in  this  respect,  the 
two  men  will  be  found  walking  together, 
the  leading  one  behind  the  harrows,  the 
other  at  the  head  of  his  horses,  with  their 
attention  more  engrossed  in  talk  than  the 


650 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


work  ill  liaiid.  Indeed,  in  some  i)arts  of 
the  country,  the  ploughman  who  drives  tlie 
hindmost  pair  of  harrows  does  not  think  it 
requibite  to  employ  reins  at  all,  so  sure  is 
he  of  leading  his  horses  by  the  head  ;  and 
the  leader,  to  give  himself  less  trouble 
than  using  his  voice,  only  guides  the  near 
horse  with  a  single  rein.  It  is  the  con- 
stant use  of  the  single  rein  which  renders 
horses,  in  those  parts  of  the  country,  more 
easily  hied  than  hupped,  (692,  693.)  The 
double  rein,  on  the  other  hand,  enables  the 
ploughman  to  hup  his  horses  with  ease; 
though,  doubtless,  the  horses  will  turn 
more  naturally  towards  their  driver  than 
away  from  him. 

2353.  To  draw  the  harrows  as  they 
should  be  drawn,  is  in  reality  not  so  light 
v/ork  for  horses  as  it  seems  to  be ;  and, 
when  the  tines  are  new  sharpened  and 
long,  and  take  a  deep  hold  of  the  ground, 
the  labour  is  considerable.  To  harrow 
the  ground  well — that  is,  to  stir  the  soil  so 
as  to  allow  the  seed  to  descend  into  it,  and 
bring  to  the  surface  and  pulverise  all  the 
larger  clods — requires  the  horses  to  go  at  a 
smart  pace  ;  and  not  only  for  this,  but  on 
all  occasions,  harrows  should  be  driven 
with  a  quick  motion. 

2354.  If  the  men  owe  the  steward  a 
grudge  for  his  sharp  discipline,  spring- 
wheat  sowing  is  a  favourable  time  to  take 
advantage  of  him,  when  the  land  is  natur- 
ally friable  and  the  horses  are  quite  fresh, 
and  also  when  the  lime  of  the  pickle  is 
sure  to  annoy  the  sower's  face,  and  he  is 
unable  to  walk  quickly  on  the  rather  soft 
land.  If  they  keep  the  harrows  close  at 
his  heels,  for  very  shame  he  must  sow  hard 
to  keep  before  them ;  and  should  he  be  a 
slow  sower  and  a  heavy  walker,  he  will 
get  a  good  heating.  It  is  always  prudent 
in  a  sower  to  start  the  sowing  as  soon  as 
the  first  sackful  of  seed  is  set  down,  to  get 
in  advance  before  the  sacks  are  all  set 
down  and  the  harrows  yoked.  Indeed, 
he  must  have  one  ridge  sown  before  the 
harrows  can  commence  their  work.  I 
never  saw  a  man  sowing  with  his  coat  on 
but  a  wish  arose  to  see  the  harrows  kept 
close  at  his  heels  to  punish  him  for  the 
lazy  trick. 

2355.  In  conducting  the  harrowing  after 
the  seed,  the  mode  must  be  guided  by  the 


circumstances  of  the  case.  If  the  harrow^- 
ing  commences  at  the  foot  of  the  inclina- 
tion, the  ridge  next  the  fence  should  be 
ascended  by  both  the  pairs  of  harrows; 
and  on  gaining  the  top  of  the  inclination, 
tlie  second  ridge  is  descended,  to  break- 
in  the  seed;  and  hieincf  both  the  horses  at 
the  foot,  the  first  ridge  is  again  ascended, 
which  finishes  its  double  tine  ;  and  though 
both  tines  have  been  given  on  it  in  tlie 
same  direction,  the  anomaly  'should  be 
submitted  to,  in  order  to  gain  a  favourable 
point  for  the  horses  to  break-in  the  seed. 
Hieing  the  horses  again  on  the  upper 
head-ridge,  the  third  ridge  is  broke-in  ; 
and  hieing  again  on  the  lower  head-ridge, 
the  second  ridge  is  ascended,  and  is  thus 
finished  of  its  double  tine.  Thus  by  hie- 
ing both  pairs  of  harrows  at  both  ends, 
one  ridge  is  brokc-in  on  going  down,  and 
another  receives  the  double  tine  on  coming 
up,  and  this  is  a  simple  and  easy  mode  of 
working  the  horses.  Suppose  the  harrow- 
ing had  been  begun  at  the  top  of  the 
declivity,  the  breakiug-in  will  then  com- 
mence at  once  on  going  down  hill,  and 
to  preserve  the  advantage,  the  harrows 
come  up  the  same  ridge  and  finith  it 
with  a  double  tine;  and  soon  with  every 
succeeding  ridge.  As  there  is  little  room 
for  2  pairs  of  harrows  to  turn  at  the  end 
of  one  and  the  same  ridge,  the  leading 
harrows  are  driven  straight  forward  upon 
the  head-ridge,  and  the  horses  are  hied  so 
as  to  make  them  move  round  upon  the 
far  side  of  the  head-ridge,  and  still  hied 
round,  they  take  up  their  place  on  the 
same  side  of  the  ridge  they  had  come  down ; 
while  the  hind  harrows  are  hupped  so  far 
at  the  end  of  the  ridge  as  to  give  them 
room  to  tnrn  by  the  far  side  of  the  head- 
ridge,  and  then  hieing,  take  up  their  posi- 
tion on  the  same  side  of  the  ridge  they  had 
come  down,  in  rear  of  the  leading  harrows, 
which  by  this  time  have  gone  on  to  their 
side  of  the  ridge,  and  are  moving  onwards. 
The  entire  movement  is  easily  and  quickly 
managed  with  double  reins;  but  with  a 
single  rein,  or  with  the  voice  alone,  this 
mode  of  turning  at  the  end  of  a  ridge  is 
apt  to  create  confusion.  If  the  inclined 
field  is  begun  to  be  sown  at  the  opposite 
side,  the  same  arrangements  as  I  have 
just  described  for  easy  breaking-in  of 
the  seed  for  the  horses,  and  according  as 
the  harrowing  is  begun  at  the  foot  or  top 
of  the  inclination,  should  be  followed ;  but 


SOWING  OF  SPRIKG  WHEAT. 


551 


in  following  them  here  the  horses  will  have 
to  be  hupped  instead  of  hied^  because  now 
the  open  side  of  the  field  is  on  a  different 
hand.  I  have  recommended  the  hieing 
because  it  is  more  easy  for  the  horses, 
they  being  more  accustomed  to  it;  but 
instead  of  always  hupping^  wliich  this  last 
mode  imposes,  there  is  a  plan  of  avoiding 
the  inconvenience — and  it  is  this:  Take  in 
a  division  of  6  ridges,  and  the  harrowing  of 
tliem  is  begun  on  the  last-sown  ridge,  and 
continued  over  the  six  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  the  first  of  them  had  begun  the  pro- 
per side  of  the  field  ;  the  effect  is,  that  the 
harrowing  proceeds  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  that  in  which  the  sowers  are 
walking,  instead  of  proceeding  in  the  same 
direction.  When  onedivisi(m  of  six  ridges 
has  received  a  double  tine  of  harrowing, 
another  is  taken  in,  until  the  entire  field 
is  finished  being  broken-in. 

2356.  After  the  appointed  piece  of 
ground,  whether  a  whole  field,  or  part  of 
one,  has  been  sown  and  broken-in,  the 
land  is  cross-harrouced  a  double  tine,  that 
is,  at  right  angles  to  the  former  harrowing, 
and  to  the  ridges ;  but  as,  in  tiiis  oj)eration, 
the  ground  is  not  confined  within  the 
breadth  of  ridges,  the  harrows  cover  as 
much  of  the  ground  as  they  can,  and  get 
over  it  in  less  time  than  in  breaking-iu ; 
besides,  any  second  harrowing  is  easier  for 
the  horses,  and  they  can  of  course  walk 
faster. 

2357-  The  harrowing  is  finished  by 
another  double  tine  along  the  ridges,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  breaking-in  ;  but  this  last 
operation  is  both  easily  and  quickly  jier- 
formed,  the  soil  now  being  free  and  uni- 
form in  texture. 

2358.  To  judge  of  the  harrowing  of  land, 
the  sense  of  feeling  is  required  as  well  as 
that  of  sight.  When  well  done,  the  friable 
}X)rtion  of  the  soil  seems  uniformly  smooth, 
and  the  clods  lie  freely  upon  the  surface : 
the  ground  feels  uniformly  soft  under  the 
foot.  When  the  land  is  not  enough  har- 
rowed, the  surface  appears  rough,  the  clods 
are  half  hid  in  the  soil,  and  the  ground 
feels  unequal  under  the  foot — in  some  parts 
resisting  its  pressure,  in  others  giving  way 
to  it  too  easily. 

2359.  The  well  harrowino;  of  land  is  a 


point  of  more  importance  than  seems  ge»a- 
rally  to  be  imagined.  Its  object  is  not 
merely  to  cover  the  seed,  but  to  pulverise 
the  ground,  and  render  it  of  a  uniform 
texture.  Uniformity  of  texture  maintains 
in  the  soil  a  more  equal  temperature,  not 
absorbing  rain  so  fast,  or  admitting  drought 
so  easily,  as  when  the  soil  is  rough  and 
kept  open  by  clods.  Whenever  the  tex- 
ture becomes  uniform,  the  harrowing  should 
cease,  though  the  appointed  number  of 
double  tines  have  not  been  given  ;  for 
it  is  a  fact,  especially  in  light,  soft  soils, 
that  more  harrowing  than  is  necessary 
brings  part  of  the  seed  up  again  to  the 
surface. 

2360.  Should  the  spring  wheat  be  sown 
early  in  the  season,  that  is,  in  January  or 
near  to  the  end  of  February,  the  ridges 
should  be  water-furrmced,  in  order  that, 
in  case  of  much  rain  falling,  or  snow  melt- 
ing, it  may  find  opportunities  of  running 
off  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  the  water- 
furrow  in  every  open  furrow  between  the 
ridges.  What  of  the  spring  wheat  is  sown 
late  in  the  spring,  that  is,  in  the  last  of 
February  and  beginning  of  March,  the 
water-furrowing  need  not  be  executed 
until  after  the  sowing  of  the  grass  seeds 
has  been  finished — and  these  are  usually 
sown  immediately  after  the  sowing  of  the 
wheat — but  the  actual  determination  of 
doing  so  depends  upon  the  relation  which 
the  last-sown  break  of  spring  wheat  bears 
to  the  whole  extent  of  the  field.  Should 
the  last  sowing  embrace  the  last  portion 
of  the  field,  then  the  grass  seeds  will  be 
sown  not  only  over  the  last  break  of  the 
spring  wheat  sown,  but  the  entire  field, 
and  the  water-furrowing  will  be  given 
after  the  sowing  of  the  grass  seeds ;  but 
should  there  still  be  another  break  to  sow 
of  spring  wheat,  the  grass  seeds  will  be 
delaj'ed  in  their  sowing  until  the  whole  field 
shall  have  been  sown  with  the  wheat ;  and 
in  that  case  the  last  break  of  the  spring 
wheat  should  be  water- furrowed  immedi- 
ately after  it  has  been  sown.  Should  the 
last  break  of  the  spring  wheat  sown  be  as 
late  as  is  prudent  for  the  season  to  sow 
any  more,  and  there  be  still  a  portion  ot 
the  field  to  be  ploughed,  that  portion  will 
be  reserved  for  barley,  and  the  grass 
seeds  will  be  delayed  in  the  sowing  until 
the  barley  is  sown,  and  then  the  entire 
field,  including  all  the  portions  of  it  sown 


552 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


with  spring  wbeat,  will  be  sown  with  the 
grass  seeds  at  one  time. 

2361.  Water-furrowing  is  the  making 
of  a  plough-furrow  in  every  open-furrow, 
for  tlie  purpose  of  forming  channels  by 
which  the  rain-water  may  flow  ofl^  the 
surface  of  the  land.  It  is  executed  with  a 
common  plough  and  one  horse,  or  with  a 
double  mould-board  plough  and  one  horse  ; 
and  as  the  horse  walks  in  the  open-furrow, 
tlie  plough  following  obliterates  the  horse's 
foot-marks.  The  double  mould-board 
plough  is  a  better  implement  for  making 
water-furrows  than  the  common  plough, 
because  it  forms  a  channel  having  equal 
sides,  and  the  furrow-slice  on  eacli  side 
cast  up  by  the  mould-board  is  small,  and 
cannot  prevent  the  water  reaching  from 
the  ridge  into  the  water-furrow,  whereas 
the  common  plough  casts  up  a  rather  large 
furrow-slice  on  one  side,  and  makes  a  sharp 
hollow  furrow  on  the  other.  Either  plough 
is  used  simply  in  going  u])  one  open-furrow 
and  down  another  until  the  field  is  finished, 
the  horse  being  hied  at  the  turn  into  every 


open-furrow.  The  water -furrowing  of 
spring  wheat  is  always  done  after  the  har- 
rowing, and  finishes  the  work  of  the  field 
for  the  time. 

2362.  The  double  mould-hoard  plough. 
This  is  an  implement  not  only  useful  in 
water-furrowing  any  kind  of  soil  after  it 
has  been  sown  with  grain,  but  is  an  essen- 
tial one  in  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  and 
turnip  crops.  When  duly  constructed,  it 
is  highly  etficient  in  the  formation  of  drills 
or  ridgelets  for  the  potato  or  turnip  crop, 
setting  up  at  each  turn  the  half  of  a  ridge- 
let  on  each  side;  while  the  common  plough, 
so  much  used  for  this  purpose,  sets  up  only 
a  half  ridgelet  at  each  turn,  doing,  there- 
fore, but  half  the  work.  In  a  variety  of 
farms,  also,  it  is  much  employed  in  summer 
in  the  earthing  up  of  the  potato  and  tur- 
nip crops,  for  which  purpose  it  is  frequently 
made  of  wood,  but  in  all  cases  the  iron 
plough  is  to  be  recommended. 

2363.  Fig.  20.9  is  a  representation  of  a 
common  double  mould-board  iron  plough^ 


Fig.  209. 


THE  DOUBLE  MOULD-BOARD  PLOUGH. 


equipped  for  the  purpose  of  water-furrow- 
ing or  earthing-up.  The  frame-work  of  it 
is  pretty  much  in  form  of  the  common 
plough,  except  that  the  beam  a  lies  right 
in  the  central  line  of  the  whole  plough. 
The  bridle  b  is  variously  formed  accord- 
ing ta  the  taste  of  the  nuiker,  but  always 
po:-sessing  the  properties  of  varying  the 
point  of  draught  upward  and  downward 
as  well  as  right  and  left ;  the  breast  d 
forms  part  of  the  body-frame;  the  share 
e  is  plain  on  both  sides,  spear-pointeil,  and 
is  set  upon  the  head  of  the  body- frame; 
the  right  and  left  mould-boards  are  /",/; 
the  handles  are  g.  The  length  of  this 
plough  is  1 0  feet.  The  mould-boards  of 
such  ploughs  are  liable  to  great  variation 


in  their  form :  some  of  them  Lave  little  or 
no  twist,  and  others  variously  contorted. 
Tiiose  of  the  present  figure  have  been 
selected  as  possessing  all  the  requisite 
qualifications  for  an  earthing-up  plough. 

2364.  The  land  being  thus  sown  and 
harrowed,  I  give  in  fig.  210  a  representa- 
tion of  a  field  in  the  act  of  being  sown  by 
hand,  as  a  record  of  a  practice  which  wiil 
probably  soon  become  obsolete :  a  is  the 
sower  with  his  hand  swung  back,  ready  to 
make  the  cast  with  the  seed — he  is  fur- 
nished with  a  sowing-sheet;  b  represents 
the  sower  after  he  has  made  the  cast,  and 
the  seed  has  entirely  left  his  hand,  and  is 
partly  lying  in  the  ground  and  partly  fall- 


SOWING  OF  SPKIXG  WHEAT. 


553 


ingfrom  hisIiantl,forniiiigtlie  section  of  the  occupied  by  the  sowers,  who  are  each 
ellipse  at  c,  as  formerly  described  (231.9;)  M-alking  ou  the  third  and  fourth  furrow- 
d  is  the  op-'U  furrow  between  the  ridges     slices  from  the  open  furrow — this  distance 

Fig.  210. 


\^^ 


THE  SOWING  OF  CORN  BY  HAND. 


allows  the  seed  to  fall  as  much  towards 
the  open-furrow  as  it  should  do,  while  it 
places  the  sower  as  far  upon  the  ridge  as 
enables  him  easily  to  cover  the  half  of  the 
ridge  entirely  with  seed;  e  is  the  field- 
worker  who  carries  the  seed — she  is  in  the 
act  of  returning  to  the  sack  %  for  more  seed, 
taking  the  rusky  with  her,  after  she  has 
served  both  the  sowers  with  a  fresh 
supply ;  i  is  the  sack  containing  the  seed 
placed  upon  the  furrow-brow  of  the 
ridge,  and  there  is  yet  as  much  seed  in  it 
as  will  supply  the  sowers  until  they  shall 
have  passed  it;  /is  the  leading  pair 
of  horses,  drawing  the  leading  pair  of 
harrows ;  g  shows  the  harrows  as  they 
cover  the  ground  from  the  furrow-brow 
over  the  crown  of  one  side  of  a  ridge,  and 
from  the  crown  to  the  furrow-brow  of  the 
other  side ;  h  is  the  leading  ploughman, 
driving  his  horses  with  double  reins,  and 
the  following-man  at  g  is  also  behind  the 
harrows,  having  the  double  reins  in  his 
bands,  and  not  going  at  his  horses'  heads  in 
a  line  with  the  foremost  ploughman  h. 
There  are  only  two  pairs  of  horses  shown 
in  the  figure,  which  can  only  serve  one 
sower,  although  two  sowers  are  shown  ; 
the  other  pair  of  horses  may  be  supposed 
to  be  following  these,  ou  the  ridge  immedi- 
ately beyond  the  one  they  are  harrowing. 

2365.  Another  method  of  sowing  spring 
wheat,  very  different  from  what  I  have  yet 
described,  remains  to  be  mentioned,  namely. 


after  grass.  In  this  case  spring-wheat 
takes  the  place  of  oats.  It  is  a  very  unusual 
practice  to  sow  wheat  after  grass  at  all  in 
Scotland,  though  it  is  very  common  in  Eng- 
land, and  its  success  there  attests  the  supe- 
riority of  the  English  climate.  Another 
circumstance,  perhaps,  that  promotes  the 
culture  of  spring  wheat  on  lea  in  Eng- 
land, in  preference  to  oats,  is,  that  the 
climate  is  too  dry,  and  too  warm 
in  the  southern  counties,  for  the  perfect 
growth  of  the  oat ;  and  oatmeal  not  being 
wanted  for  food  to  the  people  of  England, 
may  also  direct  the  efi'orts  of  the  agricul- 
turists there  to  the  growing  of  as  much 
wheat  as  possible,  which  efforts  the 
drought  and  heat  of  the  climate  second 
very  materially.  The  very  opposite  of 
these  circumstances  operate  to  encourage 
and  maintain  the  culture  of  oats  in  Scot- 
land. The  climate  is  humid,  which  is 
congenial  to  the  growth  of  the  oat  plant; 
and  it  is  not  so  warm,  even  in  summer,  as 
to  stint  its  perfect  development,  while  oat- 
meal has  long  been  a  favourite  food  of  the 
work-people.  Xow  that  wheat  bread 
is  more  used  by  the  labouring  population 
thau  it  has  hitherto  been,  it  is  worthy  of 
consideration  whether  more  wheat,  and  less 
oats,  might  not  be  raised  in  Scotland.  The 
only  way  I  seeof  substituting  the  one  crop 
for  the  other  is  by  sowing  spring  wheat 
on  lea;  for  spring  wheat,  after  turnips,  is 
as  extensively  cultivated  as  the  nature  of 
the  weather  in  spring  permits  every  year; 


554 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


and  ev©n  now  it  is  not  in  every  season 
that  spring  wheat  ripens  in  this  country, 
though  this  remark  refers  only  to  its  culture 
after  turnips,  instead  of  barley;  and  it  may 
prove  to  be  a  fact  that  spring  wheat  will 
thrive  better  after  grass  than  after  turnips. 
Its  culture  after  turnips  has  long  been  tried, 
and  experience  rather  dissuades  from  ex- 
tending it;  and  as  that  after  grass  is  but 
of  recent  origin,  experience  cannot  yet 
guide  the  Scottish  farmer  in  the  matter. 
The  chief  obstacle  to  sowing  wheat  in 
spring  is  the  peculiar  effect  of  the  two 
principal  classes  of  soil  on  the  growth  of 
that  plant.  Clay  soils  are  too  inert  in  this 
climate  to  mature  the  growth  of  wheat  in 
a  few  months ;  and  the  lighter  soils, 
though  more  promotive  of  quick  vegeta- 
tion, want  stamina  to  support  the  wheat 
plant,  which  really  requires  a  somewhat 
clayey  soil  to  bring  it  to  maturity :  and 
the  lighter  soils,  besides,  are  too  easily 
affected  by  drought  in  early  spring ;  and 
it  is  no  uncommon  circumstance  to  ex- 
perience a  severe  drought  in  Scotland  in 
March,  in  tlie  prevalence  of  the  E.  wind 
iu  spring  which  causes  it. 

2366.  As  to  sowing  wheat  on  lea  in 
autumn,  several  circumstances  deserve  con- 
sideration before  such  a  practice,  exten- 
sively at  least,  can  be  adopted.  Wheat 
cannot  safely  be  sown  in  Scotland  after  the 
end  of  October,  which  is  about  the  time  it  is 
sown  after  potatoes,  and  that  is  considered 


as  late  as  it  can  be  sown  in  safety  until 
spring  arrives.  To  plough  up  lea  before 
October  would  be  to  sacrifice  the  aftermath, 
which  is  not  only  good  feeding  for  stock, 
but  the  want  of  it  would  throw  the  stock  too 
early  upon  the  turnips,  and  make  too  long 
a  winter.  One  misfortune  for  Scotland  is, 
that  no  forage  plant  exists  fit  for  the  use  of 
stock  in  autumn  but  the  aftermath.  The 
only  alternative,  therefore,  is,  to  devise  a 
means  to  consolidate  the  lighter  soils,  so  as 
they  may  be  enabled  to  withstand  the  inor- 
dinate drought  of  spring,  and  support  the 
wheat  plant  until  it  attains  maturity  ;  and 
the  only  meaus,  it  would  appear,  we  have 
of  doing  this  is  the  use  oi  the presser-roller. 

2367.  The  Presser-roUer.—The  chief 
object  of  the  application  of  the  presser- 
roller  is  to  produce  consolidation  in  the 
soil  over  a  narrow  space,  in  which  space 
the  seeds  of  plants  are  to  have  root ;  hence 
its  effects  are  applicable  only  to  the  drill 
system  of  culture,  and  that  only  under  the 
particular  circumstance  of  a  consolidated 
soil  whose  ordinary  texture  is  too  loose 
and  friable  for  the  continued  support  of 
the  wheat  plant,  and  close  contact  in  the 
furrow-slices  of  the  soil  on  being  ploughed 
from  ffrass  for  a  seed-furrow. 

2368.  Thepresser-rolleris  represented  in 
its  most  common  form  by  fig.  211,  which  is  a 
view  of  the  machine  in  perspective,  and  is 
of  extremely  simple  construction.      The 


Fig.  211. 


TilK  PIIESSER- ROLLER. 


carriage  consists  of  a  rectangular  frame  distance  apart,  though  9  to  10  inches  is  the 

a  a.     A  pair  of  horse-shafts  f/,  are  bolted  usual   space.      The  axle  carries   also   the 

upon  the  frame,  on  the  nigh  side.    A  cast-  light  carriage-wheel  «.  The  off-side  shaft  i, 

iron  bracket  c,  su])ports  the   frame  upon  is  .snpporte<l  by  the  iron  stay- rod/;  and 

the  axle — this  axle  carries  the  two  press-  two  iron-scrapers  ff,  are   attached  to  the 

ing-wheels  d  d,  which  are  provided  with  hind    bar,    for    the    purpose  of   throwing 

the  means  of  being  fixed  at  any  desired  off  any  soil  that  may  adhere  to  the  wheels. 


WING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


556 


2369.  Fig.  212,  is  an  edge-view  of  the 
two  pressing  wheels  detached  from  the 
carriage,  in  which  a  a  is  the  axle,  b  b  are 
the  two  pressing- Avheels  as  they  appear 
edgeways,  their  weight  being  about  2  cwt. 

Fig.  212. 


/T# 


/  -/•         / 

ACTION  OF  THE  EDGE  OF  THE  PRESSING-WHEELS. 

each.  The  pressing-wheels  are  held  at 
the  required  distance  by  the  square  collars 
c  c  c  :  d  d  represents  a  transverse  section 
of  the  ground  undergoing  the  pressing 
process  :  the  shaded  part  of  the  section 
exhibits  the  state  of  a  soft  loose  soil  when 
pressed  by  the  roller;  and  the  dotted  lines 
ef\  e/,  that  of  the  newly  ploughed  lea 
undergoing  the  operation  of  consolidation. 

2370.  As  explained  above,  and  with 
reference  again  to  fig.  211,  the  pressing- 
wheels  are  to  be  understood  as  running 
always  upon  the  last  turned-up  furrows 
but  one ;  while  the  carriage-wheel  e  runs 
always  upon  the  solid  land,  where  the 
horse  also  walks,  the  shafts  being  placed 
at  that  side.  But  the  presser  is  now  being 
more  advantageously  used  as  to  time,  in 
the  consolidation  of  soft  soils  by  beino- 
constructed  \\\i\\fom%  six,  or  more  press- 
ing-wheels ;  and  in  this  form  the  carriage- 
wheel  is  not  required.  In  using  the  presfjer 
of  this  construction,  the  field  must  be 
ploughed  for  the  seed-furrow  all  over, 
eitlier  entirely  or  in  part,  before  the  press- 
ing is  begun  ;  and  the  field  is  regularly 
gone  over  by  the  presser,  which,  from  its 
now  increased  weight,  will  require  two 
horses.  In  this  form,  with  six  pressing- 
wheels,  and  with  two.  horses,  the  machine 
will  press-roll  from  8  to  9  acres  in  a  day. 
The  entire  weight  of  the  six  wheel  rollers 
amounts  to  about  12  or  13  cwt.  The  price 
of  the  two-wheeled  presser  is  about  £6, 


10s.  and  for  each  additional  wheel,  with 
its  mounting,  jBl,  12s. 

2371.  The  presser  is  used  in  this  man- 
ner for  pressing  the  soil  after  lea.  It  is 
most  economically  used  in  conjunction 
with  two  ploughs,  by  following  the  last 
one,  and  moving  the  pressing-wheels  upon 
the  two  furrow-slices  they  had  immedi- 
ately laid  over.  It  not  only  compresses 
the  slices  into  less  bulk,  but  indents  a 
groove  on  each  of  them,  which  receives 
the  seed  when  it  is  sown.  With  1  presser, 
2  acres  of  ground  can  only  thus  be  com- 
pressed in  the  course  of  a  day,  and,  where 
a  considerable  extent  of  spring  wheat  may 
be  sown,  this  rate  of  compression  would 
be  too  slow.  Either  the  number  of 
pressers  should  be  increased,  or  a  consi- 
derable extent  of  land  pressed  before  it  is 
sown ;  as  it  would  be  tiresome  work  to 
sow  only  two  acres  a-day  of  a  large  field, 
which  might  require  a  fortnight  of  2 
ploughs  to  plough.  As  the  weather  in 
spring  is  precarious,  and  the  season  for 
sowing  spring  wheat  limited,  the  most 
convenient  plan  for  most  farmers  would 
be  to  have  2  pressers  in  operation,  and 
sow  the  ground  compressed  every  two 
days — that  is,  8  acres — which  would  be  a 
large  enough  sowing  of  spring  wheat  in 
one  day  upon  a  farm  that  worked  5  pairs 
of  horses ;  or,  on  farms  employing  a  smaller 
number  of  horses,  the  better  plan  would 
be  to  have  one  of  the  larger  pressers  which 
covers  more  ground,  and  is  worked  by  a 
pair  of  horses.  The  former  plan,  as  re- 
gards time,  may  be  followed  with  perfect 
safety  to  the  wheat  crop,  as  a  double  tine 
along  of  the  harrows  is  quite  sufficient  to 
cover  pressed  spring  wheat ;  and  it  should 
receive  no  more,  unless  perhaps  a  single 
tine  again  along,  in  case  the  surface  is 
not  yet  sufficiently  fine ;  but  cross-harrow- 
ing would  discompose  the  seed  that  had 
fallen  in  rows  into  the  grooves  made  by 
the  pressers.  Another  plan  is  to  plough 
and  press  the  lea  early  in  winter,  when  it 
would  consolidate  still  more,  and  then 
sow  an  entire  field  with  wheat  in  spring, 
when  the  weather  is  favourable;  and  should 
it  prove  not  so,  the  ground  would  be  ready 
for  oats.  This  last  plannught  be  followed 
on  light  soils,  which  are  in  a  rich  enough 
condition  for  spring  wheat  :  or  the  lea 
might  be  ploughed  in  winter  and  not 
pressed  until  spring  before  being  sown. 


556 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2372.  This  same  instrument  may  be 
beneficially  eniploj'ed  in  compressing  light 
turnip-land  when  ploughing  into  ridges,  to 
render  it  more  fit  for  spring  wheat ;  and  in 
using  it  for  this  purpose  it  might  be  em- 
ployed in  the  same  manner  as  on  lea. 

2373.  But  the  pressor  may  be  employed 
on  even  strong  lea,  and  the  crop  of  wheat 
consequent  thereon  increased  to  a  sensible 
degree,  as  the  following  case  will  testify: — 
"  A  very  striking  instance  of  the  utility 
of  this  machine,"  saj's  Mr  Hugh  Watson, 
Keillor,  Forfarshire,  "  was  exhibited  on  a 
field  belonging  to  my  friend  Captain  Bar- 
clay Allardyce  of  IJry,  who  last  season 
(1832)  broke  up  a  piece  of  grass  land 
near  his  mansion-house,  supposed  to  have 
lain  out  about  100  years.  It  was  a  strong 
soil,  and  required  4  horses  to  work  the 
plough,  and  it  was  followed  by  the  presser, 
leaving  the  work  in  such  a  finished  state 
that,  although  Captain  Barclay's  intention 
was  to  sow  the  field  with  oats,  after  the 
preparation  of  a  winter's  exposure,  he  was 
induced  to  try  a  crop  of  wheat,  and  suc- 
ceeded beyond  his  expectation,  having 
reaped  50  bushels  per  imperial  acre  ;  while 
the  probability  is,  that,  if  the  field  had 
been  sown  in  spring  with  oats,  they  would 

all  have  rotted I  have    used  the 

presser,"  continues  Mr  Watson,  "  for  two 
seasons,  and  can  with  confidence  recom- 
mend it  on  all  light  soils  with  every  sort 
of  corn  crop."*  It  would  thus  appear 
that  the  use  of  the  presser  is  almost  of 
general  application,  and  that  the  ground 
may  be  ploughed  a  considerable  time  before 
it  is  sown,  which  renders  it  of  use  on  a 
winter  furrow.  Farmers, both  in  Forfar  and 
Fife  shires,  I  am  aware,  have  used  this 
instrument  for  several  years,  and,  from 
what  I  can  learn,  with  success. 

2374.  As  regards  the  probability  of 
success  in  raising  spring  wheat  in  Scotland 
after  lea,  theory  wouhl  commend  the  prac- 
tice, provided  the  presser  were  used  in 
preparing  the  soil.  The  oat  jilant  grows 
very  well  in  ploughed  lea  without  the  as- 
sistance of  the  presser,  and  why  should 
not  wheat?  This  is  an  obviuus  question 
for  a  person  to  put  who  looks  no  deeper 
than  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
root  of  the  oat  plant  is  chiefly  fibrous,  and 


extends  in  fibres  around  near  the  surface. 
The  consolidation  which  the  ground  re- 
ceives, as  far  as  the  tines  of  the  harrows 
reach,  is  sutficient  for  the  oat ;  but  not  so 
for  the  wheat  —  as,  besides  the  fibrous 
roots  which  it  also  pushes  around  near  the 
surface,  it  sends  a  strong  tap  and  other 
roots  downwards,  which,  on  finding  no 
sufficient  hold  in  the  void  spaces  so  nume- 
rous under  the  furrow-slices  of  ploughed 
lea,  but  where  it  is  necessary  to  afford 
requisite  anchorage  to  the  plant,  they  are 
constrained  to  descend  still  farther,  until 
they  reach  the  undisturbed  subsoil  under 
the  line  of  the  ph. ugh  draught,  where 
they  no  doubt  find  sutficient  stability,  but 
insufficient  support.  The  range  of  the 
roots  of  the  wheat  and  the  oat  plants  are  as 
different  as  that  of  those  of  the  oak  and 
the  Scots  fir.  Let  the  soil,  however,  be 
compressed  by  the  presser,  and  the  wheat 
I)lant  then  finds  the  requisite  security  for 
its  roots ;  and  the  decomposed  vegetable 
matter  of  the  lea  supports  it,  as  well  as  it 
would  the  oat  plant  in  the  same  place. 
Wheat  is  grown  after  lea  in  England  with- 
out pressing;  but  I  suspect  the  practice  is 
chiefly  confined  to  good  clay  land  ;  and  we 
know,  besides,  that  the  furrow  which  the 
English  ploughman  gives  to  the  lea  is 
shallow  and  flat,  so  that  the  roots  of  the 
plant  find  no  difficulty  in  pushing  through 
it,  and  establishing  themselves  in  the  sub- 
soil, which  is  comparatively  much  nearer 
the  air  and  manure  of  the  soil  than  in 
Scotch  lea-ploughing.  I  suspect  also  that, 
were  wheat  sown  after  rye-grass  lea,  it 
would  no  more  succeed  in  England  than 
in  Scotland,  where  there  is  no  otlier  species 
of  grass  to  i)recede  it,  there  being  no  pure 
clover  leas  or  old  pasture  to  prepare  for 
wheat. 

2375.  With  regard  to  the  varieties  of 
wheat  which  ought  to  be  sown  in  spring', 
I  cannot  advise  with  confidence.  The 
unintelligible  classification  of  wheat  by 
botanists,  into  beardless  in  winter,  and 
bearded  in  spring,  in  .as  far  as  it  aflects 
agriculture,  is  apt  to  mislead  tlie  farmer; 
and  were  he  so  far  to  rely  on  the  opinions 
of  botanists  as  to  try  these  two  distinctions 
of  wheat  in  the  season  said  to  be  t^uitable 
to  each,  he  would  certainly  be  disap- 
pointed, and  the  results  would  probably  be 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  yo\.  iv.  545. 


SOWING  OF  SPRING  WHEAT. 


557 


the  very  opposite  anticipated.  For  this 
reason  I  quite  agree  with  Mr  Lawson  in 
what  he  has  said  on  the  subject.  "  Botan- 
ists," he  states,  "generally  divide  the  com- 
mon beardless  and  bearded  wheats  into 
two  distinct  species,  terming  the  former 
Tr'iticum  h'lbernum^  or  winter  wheat,  and 
the  latter  Triticum  cestivum^  or  summer 
wheat.  But  the  propriety  of  the  distinc- 
tion may  well  be  questioned,  more  parti- 
cularly as  the  chief  distinguishing  character 
between  them  consists  in  the  varieties  of 
the  former  being  beardless,  or  nearly  so, 
•while  the  awns  of  the  latter  are  generally 
2,  3,  or  more  inches  in  length  ;  and  it  being 
an  established  fact,  that  the  awns  or  beards 
in  grasses  form  by  no  means  a  permanent 
specitic  distinction,  and  that  in  many  cases 
they  do  not  even  constitute  a  variety,  so 
much  does  their  presence  or  absence  de- 
pend upon  the  effects  of  climate,  culture, 

soil,  &c But  the  principal 

objection  to  the  names  commonly  used  is, 
that  they  make  no  proper  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  great  classes — winter  and 
spring  wheats.  For  instance,  under  Triti- 
cum hibernum  are  included  several  of  the 
earlier,  and,  without  doubt,  the  best  sorts 
of  spring  wheat;  and  under  Triticum 
cestivum  are  included  several  bearded 
wheats  equally  hardy,  and  requiring  as 
long  time  to  arrive  at  maturity  as  our 
common  winter  sorts."*  Colonel  Le 
Couteur  falls  into  the  same  error  when 
treating  of  the  classification  of  wheat,  by 
dividing  all  wheats  into  the  two  un- 
meaning distinctions  of  "  beardless  or 
winter  wheats  "  and  "  bearded  or  spring 
wheats,"  as  I  have  formerly  remarked  in 
(I844.)t 

2376.  Although  the  subject  is  thus 
rendered,  by  botanists  and  writers  on  the 
cultivated  varieties  of  wheat,  sufficiently 
puzzling  to  the  farmer,  yet  some  consider- 
ations may  direct  you  in  the  choice  of 
spring  wheat.  I  may  premise  that  you 
cannot  make  a  mistake  in  regard  to  a 
winter  wheat ;  for,  however  early  may  be 
the  habit  of  the  variety  sown,  the  very 
circumstance  of  its  having  been  sown  in 
autumn,  when  sufficient  time  is  not  given 
to  the  plant  to  reach  maturity  before  winter, 
will  convert  it  for  that  season  into  a  winter 
variety.     The  wheat  plant  is  a  true  annual, 


but  when  sown  late,  and  the  progress  of 
its  growth  is  retarded  by  a  depression  of 
temperature,  it  is  converted  for  the  time 
into  a  biennial.  It  is  therefore  highly 
probable,  that,  as  the  nature  of  wheat  is 
to  bring  its  seed  to  maturity  in  the  course 
of  one  season,  any  variety  sown  in  time  in 
spring  would  mature  its  seed  in  the  course 
of  the  ensuing  summer  or  autumn.  I  be- 
lieve this  to  be  a  fact ;  nevertheless,  cir- 
cumstances may  occur  to  modify  the  fact 
in  thisclimate.  Under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances,  the  wheat  plant  requires  a 
considerable  time  to  mature  its  seed ;  and 
a  variety  that  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
winter,  on  being  sown  in  spring  in  the 
same  latitude  will  not  mature  its  seed  that 
season,  should  the  temperature  fall  much 
below  the  average,  or  should  it  be  culti- 
vated on  very  inferior  soil  to  what  it  had 
been  accustomed ;  so  that,  in  practice,  it 
is  not  safe — at  least  in  so  precarious  a 
climate  as  that  of  Scotland — to  sow  every 
variety  of  wheat  in  spring.  Wlieat  from  a 
warm  to  a  cold  climate,  will  prove  earlier 
in  the  latter  than  the  native  varieties, 
and,  in  so  far,  is  better  suited  for  sowing 
in  spring;  and  if  you  can  ascertain,  besides, 
that  the  same  variety  is  an  early  one  in 
the  warm  latitude— bringing  its  seed  to 
maturity  in  a  short  period,  perhaps  not 
exceeding  4  months — then  you  may  safely 
sow  it  as  a  spring  wheat,  whether  it  be  a 
red  or  white  coloured  —  a  bearded  or  a 
beardless  variety. 

2377.  In  my  own  experience  of  spring- 
wheat,  the  old  Lammas  red,  and  another 
old  variety,  which  I  have  not  heard  of  for 
many  years,  the  Cobham  red,  were  con- 
sidered excellent  varieties  of  spring  wheat. 
Of  the  Lanmias  red,  I  have  seen  a  field  of 
35  acres  sown  on  the  8th  March,  and 
cut,  an  excellent  crop,  on  26th  August, 
in  that  memorable  year  for  all  kinds  of 
good  crops,  1815.  The  variety  exists  at 
the  present  day,  and  is  still,  I  believe,  a 
favourite  with  many  farmers,  and  de- 
servedly so. 

2378.  A  late  variety  of  spring  wheat 
was  introduced  into  culture  a  few  years 
since,  under  the  name  of  fern  wheat,  and  ia 
now  termed  April  wheat,  because  it  may 
be  sown  as  late  as  April,  and  yet  be  cut 


Lawson's  AgrictUturist^s  Manual,  p.  1-2. 


t  Le  Couteur  On  Wheat,  p.  78-9. 


568 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


down  ripe  at  the  termination  of  the  ordi- 
nary harvest.  By  an  experiment  made  in 
1833,  and  related  by  Mr  Lawson,  the 
fern  wheat,  on  being  sown  on  the  26th 
March,  along  with  common  white  and 
Essex  red  wheat,  was  cut  on  the  2Tth 
August,  after  having  been  only  five  months 
in  the  ground,  while  the  others  were  not 
cut  until  the  30tli  September,  and  their 
comparative  produce  and  weight  were  as 
follows  : — 

Produce  per  acre.  Weight  per  boshel. 

qrs.     bus-  lb. 

Fern  wheat,  4        4  6.'JJ 

Essex  red  wheat,  3       6  62^ 

Common  white  wheat,     3        3J  60i 

The  April  wheat  very  much  resembles  a 
wheat  grown  in  North  America,  under 
the  name  of  the  Italian,  from  whence  it 
probably  found  its  way  to  this  country. 

2379.  It  is  awned,  the  spike  very  long, 
6  inches,  and  is  red  coloured.  The  grain 
is  small,  elongated,  with  the  median  line 
well  marked,  opaque,  somewhat  tlinty,  and 
lively  red  colour.  The  produce  in  East 
Lothian  has  frequently  been  .5  quarters 
per  imperial  acre,  and  the  weight  from  60 
lb.  to  64  lb.  per  bushel.  It  is  well  liked 
by  the  bakers,  and  its  price  rules  about  the 
same  as  other  sorts  of  red  wheat  of  the 
same  weight.  The  straw  is  tall,  and  softer 
than  that  of  the  winter  wheat.  It  requires 
to  be  carefully  pickled  before  being  sown, 
being  much  given  to  smut;  and  it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  until  too  ripe,  as  it 
is  liable  to  shake  out  of  the  chaft'.  Whether 
it  will  pay  better  than  barley,  in  ordinary 
years,  remains  to  be  seen;  but,  as  it  is  gain- 
ing in  repute,  we  may  conclude  that  it  does 
so  in  many  cases.* 


ON  THE  DRILLING  UP  OF  LAND. 

2380.  While  the  ploughing  and  sow- 
ing of  the  turnip  land  with  sjiring  wheat 
may  be  progressing  in  the  early  spring 
months,  whenever  the  weather  is  favour- 
able for  the  operation,  preparation  should 
be  making  for  others  of  the  earliest  spring 
crops,  the  earliest  of  which  may  be  re- 
garded the  bean  and  the  pea.  Beans  and 
pease  are  usually  cultivated  on  strong 
land,  having  a  considerable  tenacity  by 
means  of  the  clay  it  contains;  and  as  this 


sort  of  land  is  not  in  a  state  to  be  worked 
in  spring,  but  only  when  the  weather  ie 
dry,  unless  it  has  been  thoroughly  drained, 
or  is  incumbent  on  a  porous  subsoil,  it  is 
not  in  every  season  that  the  bean  and 
the  pea  can  be  cultivated.  Beans  and 
pease  may  also  be  cultivated  in  lighter  and 
naturally  dry  soils,  provided  they  are  well 
manured.  Whatever  may  be  the  state 
and  quality  of  the  soil,  one  mode  of  culti- 
vating the  bean  and  the  pea  is  upon  drills, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  potato  and  the 
turnip ;  and  it  is  therefore  requisite  that 
you  understand  the  method  of  making  up 
the  land  into  drills,  before  proceeding  to 
the  details  of  the  cultivation  of  the  bean 
or  the  pea  in  that  particular  manner. 

2381.  i)ri7^i«9.— Drilling  is  a  form  of 
ploughing  very  different  from  the  ordinary, 
but  not  unlikeinappearance  to  that  mode  of 
ploughing  stubble  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, named  rib-])loughing,  fig.  30,  and  which 
I  noticed  only  to  condemn.  The  principal 
reason  for  my  condemnation  was,  that 
while  it  professed  to  turn  up  the  soil  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  it  left  un- 
touched by  the  plough  and  buried  more 
than  the  half  of  it,  thus  in  a  great  mea- 
sure frustrating  its  avowed  object.  In  so 
far  as  the  drilling  is  concerned,  it  also 
leaves  a  large  proportion  of  the  soil  be- 
tween one  side  of  the  drill  and  the  other 
quite  untouched  by  the  plough ;  but  then 
the  part  untouched  now  had  been  ploughed 
and  cleaned  previous  to  being  drilled  up, 
otherwise  it  could  not  well  be  subjected 
to  that  operation  ;  so  that  drilling  affects 
only  the  operations  directly  in  connexion 
with  the  manuring  of  the  soil  and  the 
sowing  of  the  seed.  On  this  account 
drills  ought  not  to  be  formed  on  land  in  a 
hard  state,  as  the  object  of  nuiking  them 
at  all  is  to  afford  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
loose  soil  to  cover  the  manure  deposited 
in  them,  and  the  roots  of  plants  sufficient 
freedom  to  roanj  in  search  of  that  manure  ; 
and  also  to  afford  an  opportunity,  notwith- 
standing the  presence  of  a  crop,  to  clear  the 
land  of  weeds,  by  stirring  it  occasionally 
with  the  proj)er  implements.  There  is  no 
way  of  effecting  all  these  objects  so  eflec- 
tually  as  by  drilling.  Accordingly,  all 
crops  intended  to  meliorate  and  clean  the 
ground  are  cultivated  in  drills,  and  these 


•  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  18. 


DRILLING  UP  OF  LAND. 


559 


are   beans,    potatoes,   turnips,    mangold- 
wurzel,  &c. 

2382.  On  entering  upon  the  subject 
of  drilling,  the  remarks  shall  be  made 
without  reference  to  the  special  case  of 
sowing  beans,  though  that  lias  given  rise 
to  the  subject  at  present,  but  rather  in  re- 
ference to  the  ordinary  operations  which  pro- 
vide and  render  the  soil  in  the  best  state  for 
being  elevated  into  drills.  The  specialities 
connected  with  drilling  will  be  stated  when 
we  come  shortly  to  treat  of  the  culture  of 
the  bean.  After  the  land  has  been  much 
ploughed  and  harrowed,  and  rolled,  to 
render  it  friable,  it  becomes  flat,  whatever 
may  have  been  the  form  of  ridge  in  which 
it  had  before  been  ploughed ;  and  it  is  in 
the  best  state  for  being  ploughed  into 
drills  when  flat.  Yet  heavy  land  which 
is  constantly  retained  in  ridges  of  a  round- 
ed form,  such  as  twice-gathered- up,  fig. 
26,  will  exhibit  the  ridged  form  even  after 
it  has  been  well  pulverised  by  ploughings, 
harrowlngs,  and  rollings;  it  will  still  ap- 
pear as  if  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  fig. 
20,  and  had  been  harrowed  and  rolled  fine 
on  the  surface.  Light  soil  with  the  same 
work  will  appear  quite  flat,  and  of  a  uni- 
form surface  throughout,  though  not  with 
that  levelness  which  implies  that  every 
portion  of  its  surface  was  in  the  same  plane. 

2383.  This  distinction  in  the  appearance 
of  ground  that  has  been  ridged  and  not 
ridged,  should  be  kept  in  view,  as  it  will, 
in  a  great  measure,  determine  the  width 
of  space  that  should  be  left  between  the 
drills.  This  distinction  is  entirely  occa- 
sioned by  the  different  form  in  which  the 
different  sorts  of  soils  had  been  previously 
ploughed.  Strong  soil  is  always  kept 
round  by  repeated  gatherings  up,  fig.  20, 
or  gatherings  up  based  on  casting  with 
gore-furrows,  fig.  23,  which  imprint  even 
npon  a  wrought  surface  a  flatness  across 
the  top  of  the  ridge,  but  with  an  evident 
mark  along  the  open  furrows;  whereas 
the  lighter  soils  are  usually  only  once 
gathered  up,  fig.  20,  cast  together  without 
gore-furrows,  fig.  22,  or  ploughed  two- 
out-and-two-in,  fig.  25,  which,  after  being 
wrought  down,  give  a  flatness  across  the 
ridges  with  a  slight  waving  indentation  in 
the  open  furrows. 

2384.  In  whichever   state  the  surface 


may  be,  whether  completely  flat  or  exhi- 
biting a  slight  indication  of  rounded  ridges, 
the  drills  are  made  of  the  same  form,  and 
in  various  ways.  They  are  made  by  one 
landing  of  the  plough,  when  they  are  said 
to  be  single,  or  they  are  made  with  a  bout 
of  the  plough,  when  they  are  called  double; 
and  both  single  and  double  drills  are  made 
either  towards  ox  from  ihefeering.  The 
ultimate  form  of  the  two  difi'erent  modes 
are  apparently  the  same,  but  that  which 
makes  them /rom  the  feering  is  the  truest 
drill,  as  I  shall  show. 

2385.  In  beginning  to  make  drills,  let 
us  take  one  of  the  simplest  cases  that  pre- 
sent themselves,  namely,  a  field  having  a 
straight  side  at  its  farthest  end,  and  hav- 
ing the  forms  of  ridges  still  visible ;  and 
as  it  is  requisite  in  strong  land  to  preserve 
a  form  of  surface  which  will  keep  it  as  dry 
as  possible,  the  drills  should  be  so  made 
upon  the  ridges  as  to  be  accommodated 
between  the  open  furrows.  If  the  ridges 
are  15  feet  in  width,  6  drills  of  30  inches 
apart  will  fill  up  the  space  between  the 
open  furrows;  and  if  IS  feet  wide,  8 
drills  of  27  inches  will  answer  the  same 
end.  When  the  ground  is  flat,  the  width 
of  the  drills  may  be  adapted  according  to 
will.  I  have  seen  it  stated  in  cases  of 
drilling  land  for  turnips  in  England,  that 
18  inches  was  a  good  distance  to  be  pre- 
served between  drills ;  but  what  good  can 
be  obtained  by  adopting  a  space  too  nar- 
row for  the  free  operation  of  the  imple- 
ments required  to  keep  the  ground  clean, 
I  cannot  imagine. 

2386.  Suppose,  then,  that  the  ridges 
present  a  form  of  15  feet  in  width  on 
strong  land,  the  drills  should  be  made  30 
inches  wide,  and  they  are  made  in  this 
way.  Begin  at  the  end  of  the  field  farthest 
from  the  gate,  and  where  the  fence  runs 
in  a  straight  line;  and  set  up  3  feering 
poles,  fig.  18.  in  a  straight  line  upon  the 
higliest  furrow-brow  of  the  second  ridge 
fr(jm  the  fence,  and  15  inches  from  the 
middle  of  its  open  furrow.  Split  out  the 
feering  along  the  line  of  tite  poles,  turning 
over  the  furrow-slices  first  to  one  hand 
and  then  to  the  other,  like  the  furrow- 
slices  m  and  n,  along  the  feering  k  I,  fig. 
ly.  The  reason  that  the  first  feering  is 
made  on  the  furrow-brow  is,  that  when 
the  drills  are  afterwards  split  to  cover  the 


560 


PRACTICE-SPRING. 


dung,  or  whatever  else  is  put  in  them,  the     then  become  the  hollow  between  the  drills 
place  which  the  hollow  of  the  feering  fur-     occupying  the  furrow-brow  of  both  ridges. 
row  now  occupies  will  be  tilled  up  into  a 
drill,  and  the  present   open  furrow  will         2387.  In  fig.  213,  suppose  a  i  to  be  the 

Fig.  213. 


THE  MODE  OF  PLOUGHING  SINGLE  DRILLS. 


feering  in  the  furrow-brow  of  the  ridge,     upon  the  firm  ground.     Hieing  the  horses 
On  passing  up  from  a  to  &,  the  plough  lays     again,  the  plough  goes  up  byy?,  forming 


over  the  furrow-slice  c  d,  and,  the  soil  hav- 
ing been  pulverised,  it  crumbles  down  in 
a  round-toppctl  narrow  heap  upon  the 
firnrer  land  under  it.  On  gaining  the 
head-ridge  at  tlie  other  end  of  the  feering, 
the  horses  are  hiirL  and  the  plough  comes 
down  tlie  same  furrow  from  b  to  a,  laying 
over  a  similar  furrow  n  o  upon  the  firm 
land,  which  of  course  assumes  a  similar 
form  to  c  of.  A  similar  feering  is  made  in 
the  furrow-brow  of  the  6th  ridge  from  the 
last,  and  so  ou  upon  every  6th  ridge  across 
the  field ;  but  ere  the  field  is  all  feered 
for  drilling,  some  of  the  drills  are  begun 


another  drill  like  the  others,  and  comea 
back  by  r,  forming  another  drill.  The 
ploughman  does  not  measure  off  the  width 
of  every  d7-ill  he  makes  in  this  manner, 
his  eye  being  able  to  keep  him  right  for  a 
number  of  drills,  across  whicli  he  then 
lays  his  plough-stafl',  to  ascertain  how  he 
is  proceeding,  whether  the  drills  are  too 
narrow,  or  too  wide,  and  then  again  pro- 
ceeds with  the  work.  It  will  be  observed, 
from  this  description,  that  since  the  mak- 
ing of  the  feering  in  the  furrow  a  b,  one 
drill  is  formed  every  time  the  plough  goes 
up  in  the  direction  of  ef^  and  another  in 


to  be  formed  between  the  feerings,  that  coming  down  in  that  of  i  t.  In  this  way 
the  operations  may  be  proceeded  with  for  the  horses  h\e  round  the  feering  a  b,  and 
which  the  land  is  drilled.  the  jdough  makes  2  drills  every  bout  till 

2  ridges  on  each  side  of  the  feering  a  b  are 
2388.  To  proceed,  then,  with  the  drilling  drilled  up,  and  the  last  drill  is  made  close 
at  the  first  feering :  a  distance  of  30  inches,  beside  the  fence- 
previously  determined  on  as  the  width  of 
the  drill,  is  measured  oft'  from  a  to  e,  and 
this  the  ploughman  does  with  his  plough- 
staff",  fig.  .5,  upon  which  the  different 
breadths  of  drills  executed  on  the  farm 
should  be  notched  oflf.  The  plough  then 
proceeds  from  e  to  y,  preserving  a  paral- 
lelism with  the  feered  furrow  a  b,  laying 
over  the  furrow-slice  g  h  upon  the  firm 
ground,  upon  which  it  crumbles  down  as 
did  the  former  furrow  c  d.     On  hieinq  the 


2389.  When  this  takes  place,  the  plough- 
man goes  to  the  next  feering,  where  he 
finds  two  furi'ows  split  out  for  him  as  at  a 
/y,  and  he  forms  drills  around  it  in  the 
same  manner,  till  2  ridges  on  each  side  are 
also  drilled.  Two  ridges  having  thus 
been  drilled  to  the  right  and  left  of  the 
first  feering,  and  two  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  second,  and  as  six  ridges  inter- 
vene between  the  feerings,  two  riilges  of 
horses  at  the  other  end  of  the  drills,  a  the  six  have  yet  to  be  drilled,  upon  which 
similar  distance  of,30  inches  is  marked  off"  the  drills  are  formed  by  hupping  the 
from  b  to  i,  the  plough  passes  down  from  horses  from  the  first  set  of  drills  to  the 
»  to  <,  laying  over   the  furrow-slice  /  m     second,  still  turning  the  furrow-slices  upon 


DRILLING  UP  OF  LAND. 


561 


and  towards  the  firm  ground.  But,  in 
doing  this,  caution  is  requisite  to  make 
these  latter  drills  of  the  exact  width  of  30 
inches,  that  the  last  formed  one,  into  the 
open  furrow  at  the  junction  of  the  two 
feerings,  shall  just  be  no  more,  and  no  less, 
than  the  30  inches  in  width.  The  caution 
is  exercised  by  the  ploughman  applying 
his  plough-stafi"  frequently  to  ascertain  the 
breadth  of  the  ground  to  be  drilled,  as 
well  as  the  width  of  the  drills  themselves; 
and  should  he  find-  that  he  has  more  or 
less  ground  than  he  should  have  for  the 
number  of  drills  he  has  yet  to  make,  he 
must  modify  the  width  of  each  drill,  so  far 
as  that  the  whole  number  may  be  as  near 
the  width  as  possible,  and  not  put  any 
surplus  or  deficient  ground  entirely  to 
the  last  drill.  Another  caution,  of  no  less 
importance,  is  to  ascertain  if  the  ground 
for  the  last  drills  is  of  equal  breadth  at 
both  ends  at  the  head-ridges ;  for,  if  this 
particular  is  not  attended  to,  the  last  drill 
may  run  out  to  a  point  at  one  head- 
ridge,  and  be  too  broad  at  the  other.  In 
closing  every  feering,  therefore,  the  great- 
est caution  is  required  to  preserve  the  ex- 
act breadth  of  the  drills  throughout  their 
entire  lengths.  This  a  skilled  ploughman 
will  execute  with  great  accuracy. 

2390.  This  is  one  way  of  forming  single 
drills,  and  the  following  is  another  :  In- 
stead of  splitting  out  the  feering  a  h,  fig. 
213,  as  just  described,  the  ploughman  lays 
the  two  furrow-slices  together,  and  forms 
a  finished  drill  on  the  line  of  feering,  in 
place  of  a  hollow  furrow  ;  and  this  he  does 
by  hupping  the  horses  instead  of  hieing 
them,  as  in  the  former  case.  Still  hupping 
the  horses,  and  measuring  ofl^  the  width  of 
the  drill  as  formerly,  the  next  drill  is  made 
in  the  direction  oife,  by  laying  the  furrow- 
slice  towards  the  drill  made  up(m  the  line 
of  feering,  the  outer  edge  of  the  furrow- 
slice  sending  its  crumbled  earth  to  the  edge 
of  the  plough  track,  left  in  making  the 
drill  in  the  feering.  The  next  drill  is 
made  in  the  direction  of  t  i,  again  laying 
the  furrow-T-slice  towards  the  plough-track. 
in  forming  the  previous  drill.  The  drills 
are  thus  formed  around  the  first  feering 
over  the  2  ridges  on  each  side,  then  over 
the  2  ridges  on  each  side  of  the  second 
feering,  hy  hupping  the  horses;  and  the 
space  of  the  2  ridges  between  them  is  closed 
•with  drills,  accompanied  with  the  precau- 

VOL.  I. 


tions  noticed  above,  and   by   hieing   the 
horses. 

2391.  The  distinctive  difference  betwixt 
the  two  methods  is,  that  the  one  is  the 
exact  opposite  of  the  other.  In  the  firsts 
the  furrow-slices  are  laid  over  from  the 
feerings  towards  the  unploughed  land,  and 
the  horses  are  first  hied^  and  then  linpped 
when  closing  the  two  feerings.  In  the 
second  method,  the  furrow-slices  are  laid 
over  towards  the  feerings  and  the  ploughed 
land,  and  the  horses  are  first  hupptl^  and 
then  hied  on  closing  the  two  feerings. 
The  treatment  of  the  horses  may  be  re- 
garded as  alike  in  both  cases;  but  the  land  is 
differently  treated.  In  the  second  method, 
the  furrow-slice  being  laid  over  towards 
the  open  track  left  by  the  plough  in  mak- 
ing the  previous  drill,  should  the  land  be 
at  all  cloddy,  when  it  is  strong,  or  stony 
when  it  is  light — the  clods  and  stones  will 
roll  down  the  crumbling  furrow-slice,  and, 
having  acquired  an  impetus  by  the  action 
of  the  ear  of  the  mould-board,  find  their 
way  into  the  hollows  between  the  drills  ; 
and  this  is  actually  found  to  be  the  case. 
When  the  width  of  the  drills  is  as  much  as 
30  inches,  this  inconvenience  is  less  likely 
to  happen  than  when  it  is  27  inches,  when 
I  have  seen  it  occur  to  a  considerable 
degree.  The  immediate  inconvenience 
occasioned  by  the  clods  and  stones  is,  the 
interruption  they  give  to  the  progress  of 
the  bean-barrow  when  the  land  is  drilled 
for  tlie  bean-crop  ;  and  as  they  occupy 
the  best  part  of  the  drill,  where  the  dung 
is  deposited,  they  are  covered  up  with  the 
dung,  remain  amongst  it,  and  form  obstruc- 
tions to  the  roots  of  plants  which  push 
themselves  into  the  manure  in  search  of 
nourishment.  At  all  events,  they  do  no 
good  there. 

2392.  In  the  first  method,  this  inconve- 
nience and  every  other  are  entirely  avoid- 
ed. No  clods  and  stones  can  roll  into  the 
furrow  when  the  land,  in  making  the  drills, 
is  laid  over  upon  the  firm  ground  ;  and  the 
next  passage  of  the  plough  not  only  sweeps 
away  every  clod  and  stone,  but  leaves  a 
small  stripe  of  clean  ground  between  the 
former  furrow-slice  and  its  own  track,  as 
between  t  and  o,  &c.,  fig.  213,  and  which 
track  is  thus  left  clear  and  open,  ready 
for  the  bean- barrow,  or  the  dung  that  may 
be  deposited  in  it.     These  advantages  are 

2n 


562 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


so  obvious  tliat  no  argument  in  support  of 
them  seems  necessary  ;  and  they  warrant 
the  ailuption  of  the  method  as  an  invari- 
able practice. 

2393.  When  the  ground  is  flat — that  is, 
when  tlie  ridiies  are  not  remarkably  promi- 
nent— the  drills  are  made  the  common  width 
of  27  inches — some  persons  make  them  28 
inches— and  their  feering  is  conducted  in 
the  same  way  ;  but  in  setting  oiT  breaks  of 
feering,  when  there  are  no  ridges  to  mea- 
sure the  proper  distances,  care  is  requisite 
to  make  the  breadth  of  the  feering  such  as 
to  contain  a  determinate  number  of  drills 
of  the  fixed  width,  otherwise  an  error  will 
inevitably  occur  at  the  closings  of  the  feer- 
ings.  Thus,  if  the  drills  are  27  inches  in 
width,  in  a  feering  of  30  yards  broad,  6 
ridges  of  15  feet,  which  is  a  very  conve- 
nient breadth  of  feering,  the  number  of 
drills  will  be  exactly  40. 

2394.  For  making  double  drills,  the 
feering  is  made  in  a  different  manner  from 
that  for  making  the  single.  Suppose, 
again,  that  the  ridges  are  visibly  marked 
in  the  ground,  the  first  feering  is  taken  on 
the  furrow-brow  of  the  ridge  nearest  the 
fence,  at  l/i  inches  from  its  open  furrow 
space,  and,  setting  up  a  straight  line  of 
poles,  split  out  the  feering  by  ploughing 
up  and  down  in  the  same  furrow.  Sup- 
pose this  furrow  to  be  represented  by  the 
line  cf  in  fig.  1 9,  then  set  up  a  square- 
table  at  d,  and  mark  off  therefrom  a  line 
with  poles  at  right  angles  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrow  through  *  to  t.  Removing 
the  square-table  to_<7,  set  off  a  similar  and 
parallel  line  in  the  direction  of  the  other 
arrow  through  it  to  v.  Split  out  these  lines 
with  the  plough  lightly,  as  straight  as  the 
ploughman  can,  and  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
rows will  form  a  guide  to  set  off  the  exact 
breadth  of  the  feering  at  right  angles  to 
the  first  feering. 

2395.  Ploughmen  expert  at  drilling  are 
apt  to  contemn  such  guides  in  forming 
double  drills,  because  they  conceive  they 
can  preserve  the  widths  sufficiently  well 
by  the  eye.  And,  no  doubt,  ploughmen 
are  to  be  found  who  drill  with  precision, 
and  I  have  met  with  such,  though  very 
few  in  number  ;  but  the  generality  of  them 
cannot  be  intrusted  to  drill  without  a  guide 
of  some  sort,  and  there  is  none  more  simple 


and  effectual  than  the  one  I  have  described 
and  recommended  ;  and  where  si//y/<' drill- 
ing is  to  be  executed  on  land  on  which  no 
ridge  is  visible,  it  is  imjxissible  for  the 
most  expert  driller  to  set  off  the  feerings 
with  sufficient  accuracy.  Ploughmen,  I 
know,  try  to  do  it,  and  I  have  seen  good 
ones  nearly  succeed  in  it,  but  never  witness- 
ed one  who  was  not  obliged  to  modify  the 
width  of  the  drills  at  the  closings,  when 
he  had  no  such  guide  as  the  above. 

2396.  Strict  accuracy  in  regard  to  drills 
is  not  required  in  some  crops,  such  as  in 
the  bean  and  potato ;  but  with  regard  to 
the  turnip,  which  is  sown  with  a  machine 
set  to  a  given  width,  unless  the  drills  are 
very  nearly  alike  in  breadth  at  both  ends, 
the  sowing  must  be  imperfectly  performed. 
The  means  of  attaining  accuracy  being  so 
simple — merely  drawing  two  or  throe  fur- 
rows across  the  field  —  it  is  culpable  to 
neglect  them.  There  will  be,  I  am  cer- 
tain, more  time  spent  by  the  ]iloughman  in 
measuring  the  width  of  the  drills  with  his 
plough-staff,  at  every  closing  over  a  field, 
than  he  would  sj)end  in  drawing  a  few 
cross-furrows  at  first ;  and,  after  all  the 
adjustments,  his  mind  is  not  entirely  satis- 
fied of  the  accuracy  of  the  work.  Nay, 
with  all  the  assistance  cross-furrows  can 
afford  him,  he  will  still  have  to  measure 
the  widths  of  the  drills  with  his  plough- 
staff  at  every  closing  ;  but  he  is  much  less 
likely  to  err  in  the  measurements,  while 
having  the  cross-furrows  certainly  to  guide 
him  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the 
drills,  than  in  measuring  them  at  a  sup- 
posed right  angle.  This  is  so  self-evident 
that  the  most  obstinate  ploughman  must 
allow  that  the  cross-furrows  afford  much 
assistance. 

2397.  The  double  drills  are  formed  in 
this  way  ;  and  first  on  the  supposition  that 
the  ridges  are  visible  at  1.5  feet  asunder. 
After  the  furrow-slice  c  d,  fig.  213,  is  laid 
over  at  the  feering  of  a  h  along  the  nigh- 
side  furrow-brow  of  the  ridge  nearest  the 
fence,  as  directed  above,  the  horses  are 
hupped^  and  the  plough  is  made  to  come 
down  at  the  prescribed  width  of  drill  of  30 
inches,  along  the  line/r,  and  to  jtut  a  fur- 
row-slice against  the  feering  furrow-slice 
cd,  in  doing  which  the  drill  receives  a 
somewhat  sharp-pointed  crest.  At  30 
inches  this  ciest  is  never  very  sharp,  but 


DRILLING  UP  OF  LAND. 


568 


at  27  iucbes  it  may  be  made  as  sharp  as 
you  please,  by  making  tbe  plough  go 
a  little  deeper.  Then,  hieing  the  horses, 
tiie  plough  again  goes  along  ef^  at  30 
inches  from  cd,  and  lays  over  the  large 
furrow-slice  g  h  on  the  firm  ground.  Hup- 
ping again,  the  horses  come  down  p,  and 
lay  a  small  furrow-slice  to  complete  the 
drill  hg  ;  and  so  on,  one  drill  after  another. 
No  breaks  of  feerings  are  required  in  this 
mode  of  drilling,  as  every  drill  is  finished 
as  it  is  formed  ;  and  the  precautions  re- 
quired are,  that  the  proper  widths  of  the 
drills  are  preserved  throughout  their 
lengths,  in  which  they  may  be  easily 
checked  by  the  assistance  of  the  cross-fur- 
rows. This  method  of  double-drilling  is 
analogous  to  the  first  mode  of  single-drill- 
ing, (2388,)  which  lays  the  furrow-slice 
towards  the  iinploughed  ground. 

2398.  The  other  mode  of  double-drilling 
is  analogous  to  the  second  mode  of  single- 
drilling  (2390.)  After  the  feering-poles  are 
set  up,  as  in  the  former  case,  the  ploughing 
is  commenced  from  the  other  headridge, 
and  the  first  furrow-slice  n  o  '\s,  laid  over 
while  coming  down  b  a.  The  horses  are 
then  hied,  and  the  plough  is  passed  up  the 
same  furrow  in  the  opposite  direction  a  b, 
and,  having  little  earth  to  lay  over,  only 
a  small  furrow-slice  is  laid  towards  c  d. 
Hupping  the  horses,  the  plough  is  then 
brought  downfe,  which  being  a  fresh  fur- 
row, the  furrow-slice  d  cis  large,  and  com- 
pletes the  drill  d  c.  Hieing  the  horses,  the 
plough  again  passes  along  the  last  furrow 
in  the  opposite  direction  e  /,  and,  hav- 
ing little  earth  to  take,  lays  over  the 
small  furrow-slice  towards  g  h  ;  and  then 
hupping  again,  a  large  furrow-slice  is  laid 
over  from  /?,  and  completes  the  drill  h  g, 
and  so  on,  one  drill  after  another,  at  the 
requisite  width. 

2399.  The  same  difierence  exists  in  the 
two  modes  of  making  these  double  drills, 
as  in  making  the  single.  Thus,  in  the 
first  method,  the  large  furrow-slice  is  laid 
over  upon  the  firm  ground,  and  the  drill 
is  finished  by  the  second  and  smaller 
furrow-slice  ;  whereas,  in  the  second 
method,  the  smaller  furrow-slice  is  first 
formed,  and  the  larger  one  is  laid  towards 
the  already  drilled  land,  and  upon  the 
smaller  furrow-slice  which  was  first  turned 


2400.  On  considering  carefully  both 
modes  of  drilling,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  two  sides  of  a  double  drill  cannot  be 
equal.  The  side  which  receives  the  furrow- 
slice  raised  from  the  firm  land  receives  a 
larger  quantity  of  earth  than  the  one 
which  receives  the  small  furrow-slice  de- 
rived from  the  same,  though  rather  wider 
track,  out  of  which  the  former  large 
slice  had  been  taken.  The  immediate 
consequence  of  this  inequality  of  earth 
upon  the  two  sides  of  a  drill  is  to  give  it 
the  form  of  an  unequal  triangle,  and  its 
effect  on  the  growth  of  any  seed  deposited 
within  the  drill,  is  to  cause  the  germ  of 
the  plant  to  grow  out  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  side,  between  the  meeting  of  the  two 
furrow-slices,  instead  of  the  top  of  the 
drill.  This  effect  is  palpably  shown  by  the 
sloping  direction  in  which  a  strong  stem 
of  beans  or  potatoes  pushes  itself  out  of 
the  drill;  and,  to  obviate  any  deformity  in 
the  future  growth  of  these  plants,  the  tops 
of  the  drills  are  lowered  by  harrowing  as 
much  as  to  allow  the  stems  to  grow  up- 
right. 

2401.  The  inconvenience  of  the  unequal 
form  of  the  double  drill  attends  both  modes 
of  making  them,  but,  of  the  two,  the  one 
which  lays  the  large  furrow-slice  ujjon  the 
open  land  possesses  two  advantages  over 
the  other :  the  first,  that  no  clods,  large 
or  small,  can  roll  from  the  top  of  the  drill 
into  the  hollow:  and  the  other,  that  the 
finished  drills  are  less  trampled  by  the 
horses  in  making  the  succeeding  drills. 
This  last  circumstance  may  be  explained 
by  referring  to  fig.  2 1 3.  When  the  plough, 
for  instance,  goes  up  e  f  to  commence  a 
new  drill,  it  cuts  the  firm  ground  along 
that  line,  laying  the  furrow-slice  g  h  upon 
the  firm  ground  on  the  right,  and  leaving 
on  the  left  a  small  sjjace  of  firm  ground 
c  e  and  df,  between  the  line  of  the  plough 

/  e  and  the  crumblings  of  the  previous 
large  furrow  or  unfinished  drill  c  d.  In 
doing  this,  the  furrow-horse  walks  up  the 
hollow  of  the  former  made  drill  a  b  to 
guide  him  in  the  exact  line  he  should  go, 
and  the  other  goes  up  on  the  firm  ground 
by  the  side  of  e/.-  On  returning,  the 
furrow-horse  comes  down  e  f,  while  the 
other  comes  by  /?,  while  the  plough  is 
making  uj*  the  small  side  of  the  drill  d  c; 
and  in  doing  this  the  footsteps  of  the  horse 
that  went  up  the  finished  drill  a  b  are  left 


M4 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


untouched.  Tliis  may  be  considered  by 
some  a  matter  of  little  importance,  as, 
from  the  generality  of  the  practice  in 
parts  of  the  country,  it  seems  to  be  re- 
garded of  little  importance ;  and  in  the 
case  of  some  horses  which  walk  neatly 
and  narrowly  in  a  drill,  the  impressions  of 
their  footsteps  may  be  almost  unobserved 
in  its  bottom  ;  but  in  the  case  of  a  horse 
which  walks  wide  behind,  and  of  all  weak 
horses  which  stagger  under  their  draught, 
both  sides  of  the  drills  are  much  trampled; 
and,  in  strong  land,  the  foot-prints  injure 
the  soil  by  holding  water. 

2402.  The  foot-marks  may  be  obliter- 
ated in  this  way:  Instead  of  perfecting  the 
drills  one  by  one  in  succession,  let  an  in- 
termediate drill  remain  unfinished  between 
the  one  that  is  finishing,  and  the  other  that 
is  forming.  For  example :  Instead  of 
finishing  the  second  side  of  the  drill  h  g 
by  returning  down  the  hollow/ e,  let  the 
drill  remain  unfinished  until  the  new  drill 
P  is  formed  so  far  as  to  lay  over  its  first 
furrow  on  the  firm  ground.  Then  let 
the  plough  come  down  h  a,  having  the 
furrow-horse  before  it,  and  it  will  oblite- 
rate its  footmarks,  and  let  the  other  horse 
come  down  the  new-formed  furrow  p. 
There  is  another  advantage  attending  this 
mode — that  one  of  the  horses  goes  in  a 
hollow  of  a  drill  formerly  made  to  guide 
it  in  the  proper  line  of  the  drill.  With 
regard  to  the  mode  which  lays  the  large 
furrow-slice  towards  the  drilled  land,  it 
seems  impossible  but  to  leave  the  finished 
drills  trampled.  For  example:  When  the 
plough  comes  down/e  to  lay  over  the  large 
furrow  towards,  and  to  finish  the  drill  c  (/, 
the  furrow-horse  comes  down  h  a,  and 
the  other  upon  the  firm  land  by//?;  and 
again,  when  the  plough  passes  up  e  /, 
to  lay  the  small  furrow-slice  towards  g 
h,  the  furrow-horse  passes  np  a  b,  and 
leaves  it  trampled. 

2403.  When  the  ground  is  quite  flat, 
double  drills  may  be  made  27  inches  wide, 
and  the  same  width  may  be  adopted  when 
ridges  of  18  feet  are  visible.  A  feering 
of  6  ridges  of  18  feet  exactly  includes  64 
drills  of  27  inches,  so  that  where  drills 
are  desired  at  27  inches  in  width,  tlie 
land  should  either  be  in  18-feet  ridges,  if 
ridged,  or  it  should  be  flat,  otherwise  27- 
inch  drills  on  15-feet   ridges   will   place 


some  of  them  in  the  open  furrow,  which, 
in  strong  land,  cannot  fail  to  prove  inju- 
rious to  the  turnips  on  them  in  winter. 
When  the  soil  is  thorough-drained,  it  is  of 
no  importance  where  the  drills  are  situated; 
but,  until  that  operation  is  performed,  it  is 
necessary  to  attend  to  the  safety  of  tiie 
crop,  which  is  done  by  avoiding  having 
drills  in  the  open  furrow  on  strong  un- 
drained  land. 

2404.  It  may  have  occurred  to  you  to 
inquire,  that  if  a  perfect  drill  cannot  be 
formed  by  a  bout  of  tlie  common  plough, 
why  should  it  not  be  formed  by  one  land- 
ing with  a  double  mould-board  plough  ? 
The  inquiry  is  a  natural  one,  and  can 
receive  a  satisfactory  answer.  Were  a 
drill  perfectly  formed,  its  vertical  section 
would  give  a  triangle  whose  height  ia 
equal  to  half  the  length  of  the  base.  The 
height  to  which  a  conmion  plough  can  ele- 
vate the  crest  of  a  drill  is  that  of  the  ear 
of  itsmould-board,  which,  in  Small's  plough, 
fig.  2,  is  12  inches;  and  tiiis  heiglit  con- 
forms to  a  drill  of  only  24  inches  in  width 
as  regards  the  depth  it  can  go.  Such  a 
plough,  therefore,  to  make  a  drill  of  the 
usual  width  of  27  inches,  will  either  leave  a 
flat  space  on  its  top  of  3  inches  in  breadth, 
or  it  will  leave  a  tiny  sharp-crested  drill 
of  3  inches  in  breadth  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hollow  of  the  drill.  A  common  plough 
varies  in  width,  from  the  ear  of  the  mould- 
board  to  the  landsiile.  from  18  inches 
(Wilkie's)  to  20  inches  (SmalTs.)  A  bout  of 
Wilkie's  plough  could  thus,  apparently, 
make  a  drill  36  inches,  and  that  of  Small  8 
40  inches  inwidth  in  a  bout,  were  it  pluugh- 
ed  to  the  full  breadth  either  was  capable  of; 
but  the  plough  cannot  lay  over  two  fur- 
rows in  breadth  equal  to  twice  its  own 
width,  because  the  open  track  of  the  for- 
mer furrow  would  not  afl'ord  sufticient 
earth  on  the  land  side  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure of  the  plough,  and  not  having  which, 
it  could  not  raise  a  second  furrow  equal  to 
the  first.  The  second  furrow,  therefore, 
must  be  taken  by  the  plough  nearer  the 
side  of  a  drill  than  in  the  middle  of  the 
hollow  between  two  drills ;  and  it  is  this 
expedient  which  gives  every  drill  one 
sloping  and  one  more  perpendicular  side. 

2405.  A  double  mould-board  plough, 
constructed  as  it  ordinarily  is,  would  make 
drills  as  wide  as  are  required ;  but  wh^n 


SOWING  OF  BEANS. 


565 


its  mould-boards  are  set  to  make  27-inch 
drills,  it  is  found  that  they  are  too  wide 
below  to  allow  the  plough  to  go  as  deep 
as  to  give  the  drills  their  proper  elevation 
of  13^5  inches.  But  the  mould-hoards  of 
the  double  mould-hoard  plough  have  been 
so  modified  in  construction  as  to  allow  the 
plough  to  go  as  deep  as  is  requisite  to 
form  a  proper  drill,  or  rather  to  form  two 


halves  of  two  drills  at  one  landing.  This 
eftect  has  been  attained  by  simply  cutting 
away  the  under  part  of  the  mould-boards. 

2406.  Where  the  double  mould-board 
plough  is  employed  for  forming  drills,  the 
mould-board  is  made  to  fit  the  shield  a,  fig. 
214  ;  it  then  stretches  away  to  a  length 
of  2  feet  6  inches  along  the  upper  edge, 


Fig.  -214. 


THE  DOUBLE  .MOULD-BOARD   PLOUGH   FOR  FORMING  DRILLS. 


the  point  b  being  at  a  height  varying  from 
11  to  14  inches  above  the  sole-line.  At 
this  point  the  depth  of  the  mould-board 
is  only  6  inches,  so  that  the  lower  edge 
runs  off  at  a  considerable  elevation,  and 
the  surface  having  not  more  than  3  inches 
of  twist,  it  is  the  lower  edge  only  of  the 
board  that  eflects  the  purpose  of  laying  up 
the  earth  to  form  the  drill. 

2407.  The  sock  c  should  be  double- 
feathered,  to  take  a  firm  hold  of  the  ground. 

2408.  In  working  the  plough,  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  drills,  there  is  fre- 
quently a  marking-bar  jointed  to  the  beam 
immediately  before  the  breast  a;  the  bar 
folds  to  either  side,  and,  having  an  adjust- 
able double-edged  scraper  fitted  to  it,  a  rut 
is  drawn  on  the  surface  at  the  proper  dis- 
tance for  the  centre  of  the  next  furrow. 


ON  THE  SOWING  OF  BEANS. 

2409.  The  best  season  for  sowing  beans 
is  February.  The  plant  taking  at  least 
seven  months  to  bring  its  seed  to  maturity, 
unless  the  seed  is  sown  early,  time  will 
not  be  afforded  the  plant  to  arrive  at 
maturity.  A  very  favourable  season,  in- 
deed, may  hasten  the  plant  through  its 
course  of  vegetation  in  a  shorter  time;  but 


an  unfavourable  one,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  so  retard  that  course,  when  even  the 
seed  had  been  sown  in  its  proper  season, 
as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  the  seed 
altogether.  Both  effects  are  frequently 
experienced;  and  so  much,  as  is  well  known, 
does  the  bean  crop  depend  on  the  state  of 
the  weather,  that  it  is  no  uncommon  cir- 
cumstance to  raise  a  superabundant  crop 
one  season,  whilst  in  the  very  next  the 
crop  may  almost  be  an  entire  failure.  No 
dependence,  therefore,  can  be  placed,  in 
Scotland,  on  the  result  of  the  bean  crop, 
and  on  that  account  it  is  not  cultivated  so 
extensively  as  it  is  entirely  for  the  sake 
of  the  bean  itself,  as  for  that  of  a  crop  of 
excellent  fodder  from  the  stravv%  which  is 
of  itself  valuable  in  every  farm  which 
rears  live  stock.  Though  the  crop  should 
fail  as  a  seed-producing  one,  it  never  fails 
in  the  same  season  to  produce  good  fodder. 
A  dry  season  may  stint  the  growth  of  the 
haulm,  but  will  produce  beans  of  fine 
quality,  and  a  wet  one  may  prevent  the 
production  of  the  seed,  but  will  afford  a 
large  crop  of  fodder. 

2410.  Beans  are  raised  most  in  accor- 
dance with  their  nature,  and  with  most 
profit,  on  clay  soils  suited  to  the  culture  of 
wheat ;  and  in  these  soils  they  may  be 
raised  without  manure,  provided  thev  fol- 
low a  manured  crop  or  a  single   cereal 


566 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


crop.  And  they  may  also  be  raised  on 
lighter  soils,  provided  manure  is  directly 
applied  for  their  special  use. 

2411.  The  portion  of  ground  occupied 
hy  the  bean  crop  is  not  arbitrarily  chosen, 
but  follows  in  a  regular  course  of  cropping, 
succeeding  a  cereal  crop  which  is  not  laid 
down  with  grass.  The  ground,  therefore, 
allotted  to  the  bean  crop  was  in  stubble  in 
autumn,  and,  the  crop  requiring  early  at- 
tention in  spring,  its  ground  in  stubble 
would  be  ploughed  early  in  winter,  (774.) 
In  England  the  bean,  in  some  cases,  is 
raised  on  lea,  and  succeeds,  of  course  ;  but, 
in  such  a  course  of  cropping,  the  bean  is 
put  in  immediate  comparison  with  the 
cereal  crop  which  should  have  occupied 
the  lea,  and  in  a  wet  season  it  will  stand 
the  comparison  very  poorly  as  regards 
produce. 

2412.  The  particular  culture  practised 
for  raising  beans  is  not  dependent  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  but  is  meant  to  suit  the 
nature  of  that  plant's  growth,  and  the 
state  of  the  soil  in  reference  to  cleanliness. 
From  the  structure  of  the  plant,  which 
bears  fruit-pods  on  its  stem  near  the  ground 
as  well  as  at  the  top,  it  should  have  both 
light  and  air;  and  its  leaves  being  nearer 
the  top,  and  its  stem  comparatively  bare, 
space  is  aiforded  near  the  ground  for  weeds 
to  grow.  The  plant  possessing  these  pro- 
perties, unless  the  air  is  admitted  below, 
and  opportunity  afforded  for  removing 
weeds,  the  crop  will  not  be  luxuriant,  nor 
the  land  be  cleaned. 

2413.  Now,  one  plan  only  exists  by 
which  both  these  objects  can  be  secured, 
which  is,  to  place  the  plants  in  roirs  or 
drills.  The  air  will  then  reach  both  sides 
of  every  row  ;  and  if  the  rows  are  placed 
as  far  asunder  as  to  allow  the  horse  to 
Work  between  them,  the  two  objects  of 
vigour  to  the  plant,  and  cleanliness  of  the 
Soil,  will  be  attained. 

2414.  Beans  were  wont  to  be  sown 
broad-cast;  but  though  the  jilants  had 
stood  as  far  asunder  as  to  afford  them 
sufficient  air,  it  was  almost  impracticable 
to  destroy  the  weeds  by  hand-hoeing,  at 
least  those  which  grew  after  the  beans 
were  a  little  advanced.  There  are  farmers 
iu  clay  land  districts  who  still  sow  beans 


broadcast,  though  their  reason  for  persist- 
ing in  the  practice  is  not  very  obvious, 
even  were  the  laml  quite  clean — which 
it  certainly  is  not,  and  never  will  be,  under 
the  broadcast  culture.  Be  the  reasons 
of  the  preference  for  sowing  beans  broad- 
cast what  they  may,  the  practice  is  now 
limited  compared  to  the  drill-method. 

2415.  If  you  look  at  figs.  27  and  28, 
you  will  find  that  the  winter-furrows  given 
to  land  of  strong  character  are  cleaving 
down  without  and  with  gore-forrows. 
The  gore-furrows  keep  the  land  dry  all 
winter,  and  it  is  as  good  a  device  for  the 
purpose  as  is  known  ;  and  where  beans  are 
desired  to  be  raised,  the  stubble-land  would 
best  be  ploughed  iu  autumn,  with  gore- 
furrows,  tig.  28.  Suppose,  then,  you  find 
the  land  in  spring  cloven  down  with  gore- 
furrows,  the  first  operation  is  to  harrow 
down  the  furrow-slices  across  the  ri(h]es, 
in  doing  which,  the  land  being  strong,  and 
lying  in  a  rougli  state,  the  harrows  will 
take  a  firm  hold  of  it,  and  tear  it  to  pieces 
in  a  contrary  direction  from  what  it  had 
been  cut  by  the  plough  in  autumn  ;  and  the 
immeiliate  effect  will  be,  the  filling  up  of 
the  open  furrow  h,  fig.  28,  and  also  of  the 
gore-iurrows  a  a :  the  surface  of  the 
land  will,  in  fact,  be  nearly  flat.  If  the 
land,  however,  has  become  very  much 
consolidated  in  winter,  by  reason  of  snow 
or  rain,  and  little  frost,  a  cross-harrowing 
will  have  little  effect.  It  might  then  be 
harrowed  along  the  ridges,  which  may 
even  j)rove  of  little  service ;  and,  in  such 
cases,  harrowing  may  altogether  be  dis- 
pensed with.  When  the  land  is  pretty 
dry,  early  as  the  season  is  in  February,  it 
will  harrow  well  if  it  has  been  ameliorated 
by  frost ;  but  should  it  not  be  so  dry  as  to 
bear  the  horses  without  sinking,  it  had 
better  be  let  alone  for  a  few  days,  or  even 
a  week  or  two.  Dry  land  and  dry  weather 
are  both  requisite  for  good  harrowing ;  and 
in  its  turn  harrowing  exposes  the  land  to 
drought.  Every  draught  of  horses  should 
be  put  to  the  harrows,  to  get  it  done  as 
quiikly  as  possible.  Perhaps  one  double 
tine  will  suffice  altogether — at  all  events, 
it  should  suffice  for  the  first  day ;  and 
should  the  weather  continue  dry,  and 
the  land  require  it,  next  day  it  should  re- 
ceive a  second  double  harrowing  in  an 
opposite  direction,  when  it  will  be  in  a 
much  better  state  for  receiving  it  after  the 


SOWING  OF  BEANS. 


short  interval,  than  harrowing  ever  so  often 
at  one  time. 

2416.  For  strong  land  a  stronger  harrow 
than  the  common  one  is  employed  in  some 
quarters,  called  the  brake-harrow,  which 
is  only  an  enlargement  of  the  common  im- 
plement, wherein  every  part  is  increased 
in  size  and  weight,  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  down  and  pulverising  rough  and 
stubborn  land.  Brakes  are  made  of  vari- 
ous forms,  such  as  rectangular,  rhomboidal, 
and  triangular ;  and  every  form  has  its 
advocates,  the  preference  being  given  fre- 
quently to  that  which  accident  had  thrown 
in  the  way  of  the  experimenter  ;  and, 
without  taki!ig  measures  to  compare  its 
effects  with  those  of  other  forms,  the  imple- 
ment is  marked  as  the  most  perfect  of  its 


kind.  There  appears  no  good  reason  for 
concluding  that  any  one  of  the  above  forms 
is  better  than  another,  provided  proper 
weight  is  put  on  the  implement,  and  the 
tines  be  of  proper  length  and  number,  and 
disposed  in  a  manner  that,  with  a  duly 
applied  draught,  will  make  an  equal  dis- 
tribution of  its  pulverising  effects  over  the 
surface  which  it  covers.  The  extended 
application  of  draining  appears  in  a  great 
measure  to  be  superseding  the  brake- 
harrow. 

2417.  But  when  the  land  cannot  be 
sufficiently  impressed  by  the  harrows,  re- 
course should  be  had  to  the  grubber,  which 
is  a  much  better  implement,  in  every  re- 
spect, than  the  brake-harrow.  Fig.  21 5  is  a 
view,  in  perspective,  of  Kirkwood's grubber. 


Fig.  215. 


kirkwood's  grubber. 


which  I  consider  a  good  implement  of  its 
class,  as  well  in  the  execution  of  the 
work  done  by  it,  as  for  the  facility  with 
which  the  tines  are  taken  out  and  let  down 
again  into  the  soil.  This  grubber  may  be 
considered  as  consisting  of  two  parts,  the 
tine-frame,  and  the  carriage  with  its  wheels 
and  handles,  the  two  being  connected  by 
means  of  the  apparatus  for  elevating  the 
tine-frame,  and  by  a  joint-rod  which  is 
common  to  both,  the  whole  being  con- 
structed of  malleable  iron,  except  the  wheels. 
The  tine-frame  \s,  a  a;  the  muzzle  a"  is 
provided  with  several  holes,  in  which  the 
draught  shackle  and  hook  can  be  attached, 
to  regulate  in  some  degree  the  tendency  to 
earth.  The  beam  b  h  is  bent  upwards  at  a', 
above  the  frame  a,  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing the  bridle  u  u'.  The  tines,  of  which  this 
form  of  the  implement  contains  7,  h  h,  &c. 
are  bent  at  the  point  as  in  the  figure,  with  a 
slight  tendency  to  earth,  and  are  flattened 


out  at  the  point ;  and  they  are  secured  at 
any  required  degree  of  earth  by  an  iron 
wedge  to  each  tine. 

2418.  The  carriage  consists  of  the  axle 
d  d,  on  which  are  mounted  the  two  handles 
or  levers  c  c.  The  levers  are  perfor?ited 
for  the  joint-rod  g,  the  position  of  which 
in  the  tine- frame  is  such  as  just  to  allow  the 
extremities  o  to  pass  the  axle  when  the 
frame  is  being  raised  or  depressed.  The., 
levers  extend  backward,  and  terminate 
in  sockets  into  which  wooden  helves  are 
inserted.  The  carriage  is  supported  on 
the  hind-wheels//;  and  the  fore-part  of 
the  frame  on  the  castor-wheel  i,  with  its 
shears  k  I,  and  crank-lever  /  n.  The 
connexions  between  the  carriage  and 
frame  also  form  the  elevating  apparatus, 
by  which  the  tine-frame  is  moved  up  and 
down  in  positions  always  parallel  to  the 
horizon. 


568 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2419.  In  working  tlie  machine,  it  is  re- 
quisite that  tlie  conductor  have  it  in  his 
power  to  regulate  and  preserve  a  uniform 
depth  for  the  tines,  and  to  be  able  to  with- 
draw the  tines  from  the  earth.  To  ac- 
complisli  this  part,  the  connecting-rod  i 
lias  small  mortices  in  it,  to  the  number  of 
6  or  8,  at  very  close  intervals.  A  nut  or 
slide-box  1/'  is  fitted  to  slide  easily  upon 
it;  and  it  can  be  fixed  at  any  point  by 
dropping  a  pin  through  this  and  any  re- 
quired mortise.  The  bridle  u  u'  consists 
of  two  similar  parts,  Tlie  handle  v  x  tc 
is  made  of  such  length  as  will  bring  the 
eye  w  within  reach  of  the  conductor — but 
it  can  be  shortened  or  lengthened  at  plea- 
sure; and  this  is  done  to  make  the  cross- 
head  fall  in  behind  the  end  of  the  connect- 
ing-rod when  the  tines  are  in  the  ground, 
which  thus  lock  them  that  they  cannot 
rise  out  of  the  ground,  although,  from  any 
malformation  of  the  tines,  they  might  have 
a  tendency  to  do  so  were  this  lock  not 
applied.  But  while  the  tines  preserve  their 
due  form,  the  lock  is  not  required.  A  pro- 
longed screw-nut  at  p  is  also  put  upon  the 
handle  ;  and  when  the  tine-frame  is  raised 
out  of  the  ground  for  travelling,  the  nut  is 
adjusted  to  fall  in  before  the  checks  of  the 


stays  at/), and  thus  keeps  up  thetine-frarae 
without  the  continued  aid  of  the  con- 
ductor. 

2420.  Ducie's  Grubber,  or  cultivator, 
the  production  of  Earl  Ducie,  is  based,  in 
its  construction,  on  the  improved  form  of 
Finlayson's  and  of  Kirkwood's  grubbers. 
In  this  cultivator  we  have  the  high  wheels 
raising  the  tine-frame  to  a  height  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground  that  must  greatly 
jjrevent  the  choking  of  the  tines  in  foul 
land,  by  the  accumulation  of  roots  about 
their  neck  ;  and  this  is  further  secured  by 
the  curvature  which  they  possess.  The 
castor-wheel  in  front,  being  double,  is  an 
improvement  on  the  crank-lever  and 
shears,  and  decidedly  superior  to  them; 
and  the  apparatus  for  elevating  the  tine- 
frame  exhibits  a  fine  mechanical  taste, 
though  the  ap])lication  and  arrangement 
of  the  screw,  the  wheel  and  axle,  and  the 
levers  to  effect  the  purpose,  is  perhaps  an 
example  of  too  much  elaboration  for  the 
particular  case. 

2421.  Fig.  216  is  a  view  in  perspective 
of  this  implement.  It  consists  of  a  frame 
a  a,  which  carries  five  tinea  b  b,  &c.,  with 


Fig.  216. 


THE  DUCIK  CULTIVATOR. 


which  the  machine  is  armed.  The  frame 
thus  constructed  is  mounted  on  two  high 
wheels  d  d,  which  support  the  body  of  the 
tine  frame  ;  and  the  front  or  a])ex  of  the 
frame  is  supported  on  the  double  castor- 
wheels  e  e,  which  are  mounted  on  a  re- 
versed T-form  axle,  to  the  stem  of  which 


h,  the  draught-shacklo  p  is  applied  in  a 
permanent  position,  so  that  the  shackle 
and  stem  shall  turn  together,  and,  by  con- 
sequence, the  wheels  also,  forming  thus  a 
castor-wheel  of  the  most  perfect  descrip- 
tion. The  elevating  and  depressing  of  the 
tine-frame   is   accomplished   by    a    very 


SOWIXG  OF  BEANS. 


569 


beautiful  combination  of  parts.  When  the 
tine-frame  is  to  be  raised,  the  winch- 
handle  m  is  turned,  by  a  sufKcient  num- 
ber of  revolutions  of  the  screw  I ;  and  by 
reversing  the  motion  of  the  winch-handle 
m,  the  frame  is  low^ered— and  these  move- 
ments will  be  made  with  perfect  accuracy, 
preserving  to  the  tine-frame  a  correcti}' 
horizontal  position  at  any  height  within 
the  range  of  its  lift.  An  index  is  attached 
to  the  main  axle  as  seen  at  p,  which  is 
divided  in  the  proportion  of  inches  in 
depth  of  the  penetration  of  the  tines ;  but 
this  is  one  of  its  least  important  points. 

2422.  The  weight  of  the  cast-iron  grub- 
bers may  be  averaged  at  10  cwt.,  and 
their  price  at  ,^15. 

2423.  The  action  of  any  of  these  grubbers 
in  the  soil  is  to  stir  it  effectually  as  deep 
as  their  tines  descend,  and  at  the  same 
time  retain  the  surface  soil  in  its  exist- 
ing position — an  operation  which  bestows 
the  softuess  of  a  ploughed  surface,  whilst  it 
preserves  the  original  upper  surface  dry, 
which  the  plough  cannot  do.  This  advan- 
tage is  especially  appreciated  in  early 
spring,  when  it  is  precarious  to  turn  over 
the  soil  with  the  plough  ;  and  should  rain 
follow,  the  land  would  be  easily  made  much 
wetter,  and  worse  to  work  with  any  suc- 
ceeding implement,  than  if  it  had  not  been 
ploughed  at  all. 

2424.  Should  the  circumstances  be  un- 
favourable— that  is,  the  time  limited,  the 
land  raw  and  not  very  clean,  and  the 
weather  precai'ious — the  grubber  will  put 
the  land  into  a  state  for  harrowing,  of 
which  it  should  receive  at  least  one  double 
tine  along  the  ridges,  the  grubbing  hav- 
ing been  given  across  them  ;  and,  should 
this  not  be  sufficient  to  reduce  the  clod 
to  a  moderate  size,  another  double  tine 
should  be  given  across  the  ridges,  when 
the  land  will  be  ready  to  be  ploughed  for 
the  seed. 

2425.  Should  circumstances  be  in  the 
most  favourable  state — that  is,  with  plenty 
of  time,  with  the  soil  suited  to  the  crop, 
the  land  clean  and  dry,  and  the  weather 
fair — instead  of  using  the  grubber,  the  land 
should  be  ploughed,  and  in  the  reverse 
order  in  which  it  had  been  ploughed  in 
autumn.     It  should  then  be  harrowed  a 


double  tine  along  the  ridges,  and  a  double 
tine  across  them,  when  it  will  be  ready  to 
be  ploughed  for  the  seed. 

2426.  In  one  of  these  two  states  the  soil 
will  be  found  in  the  spring;  and  after  the 
above  treatment,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  soil,  the  ploughing  is  conducted  on  the 
determination  whether  the  land  is  to  be 
manured  or  not,  and  whether  the  seed  is 
to  be  sown  in  drills  or  broad-cast. 

2427-  If  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  broad- 
cast iCithout  manure^  a  ploughing  is 
requisite  in  spring — a  grubbing  will  not 
suffice — and  the  furrow  should  be  the  op- 
posite of  the  one  ploughed  in  autumn. 

2428.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  in  rows 
on  the  Jiat^  a  ploughing  is  also  requisite, 
and  the  furrow  should  also  be  the  reverse 
of  that  ploughed  in  autumn. 

2429.  If  to  be  sown  in  drills,  each  drill 
should  be  formed  in  the  single  way  (2388,) 
when  the  land  is  nearly  in  a  clean  and 
tolerably  friable  state ;  but  if  somewhat 
foul  and  waxy,  the  drills  should  be  formed 
double  (2397.) 

2430.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  broad- 
cast, tvith  manure,  the  manure  may  be 
spread  upon  the  stubble  and  ploughed  in, 
in  autumn,  which  will  much  expedite  the 
labour  in  spring.  In  that  case  plougliing  is 
requisite  in  spring,  and  the  furrow  should 
be  the  reverse  of  that  given  in  autumn. 
The  manure,  however,  can  be  applied  in 
spring,  and  should  be  so  upon  the  surface, 
formed  by  the  ploughing  in  autumn,  pre- 
ceded by  a  double  harrowing  should  the 
surface  still  be  rough  and  cloddy,  and 
after  being  ploughed  the  land  will  be  ready 
for  the  seed. 

2431.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  in  rotes 
on  the  fiat,  the  manure  may  be  also  conve- 
niently spread  ujion  the  stubble  and 
ploughed  down  in  autumn  ;  and  the  furrow 
given  in  spring  should  be  in  the  reverse 
order  it  was  ploughed  in  autumn,  when 
the  surface  will  be  ready  fur  the  seed. 

2432.  Thougli  the  seed  be  sown  in 
drills,  the  manure  may  still  be  spread 
broadcast  upon  the  stubble,  and  ploughed 
down  in  autumn,  and,  on  the  land  being 


870 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


double  drilled  in  spring,  it  will  be  ready  for 
the  seed.  But  should  the  manure  be  applied 
in  sprinir,  tlie  drills  should  be  of  the  single 
form  (2388,)  in  the  first  instance,  the 
manure  deposited  in  them, and  then  covered 
with  the  double  drill  (2397,)  when  they 
will  be  ready  for  the  seed. 

2433.  As  this  last  method  is  the  one  in 
which  I  think  the  bean  ought  always  to  be 
sown,  I  shall  describe  the  remainder  of  the 
operation  more  in  detail.  On  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  manure  is  to  be  applied  in  the 
spring,  it  is  taken  either  from  a  dunghill, 
into  which  the  dung  has  been  wheeled, 
and  not  trampled  down,  such  as  is  men- 
tioned in  (2013,)  or  from  the  dung-shed 
in  the  field  in  which  the  beans  are  to  be 
sown,  into  which  it  had  been  wheeled 
when  taken  from  one  of  the  courts  in  the 
course  of  winter,  and  forked  up  into  a 
dunghill  without  being  trampled.  Hav- 
ing been  brought  out  in  winter,  when  little 
fermentation  goes  on,  and  being  applied 
only  in  spring,  the  dung  will  be  in  a  good 
state  for  spreading  on  the  beau  land.  On 
the  land  being  drilled  up  in  the  single 
Fig.  217,  form,  as  directed  above,  the 
dung  is  taken  by  the  tilt 
cart,  fig.  175,  along  the 
drills,  the  horse  occupying 
the  centre  hollow  of  three 
drills,  and  each  wheel  going 
into  the  hollow  of  the  drill 
on  each  side.  The  horses 
are  led  from  the  dunghill  by 
field  -workers,  while  the 
ploughmen  remain  at  the 
dunghill  filling  the  carts. 
The  steward  takes  off  the 
back  board  of  the  cart,  and 
slips  it  on  edge  upon  the 
nave  of  the  wheel,  to  carry 
it,  and  keeps  it  there  by  put- 
ting the  ])in  w  Inch  fastens 
it  usually  into  the  slit  of  the 
stud  ordinarily  occupied  by 
the  pins.  He  then  tilts  the 
cart-body  a  little  up  in 
front,  which  depresses  the 
THB  DfNG-DRAG.  hiuilcr  jiart  as  much  ;  and 
taking  the  dung-drag,  fig.  217 — which  is 
5  feet  long,  and  may  have  two  or  three 
prongs — he  ])ulls  out  a  small  heap  of  dung 
into  the  hollow  of  the  centre  drill,  and  so 
on,  heap  after  heap,  until  the  cart  is  emp- 
tied, the  horse  being  led  along  the  drill 


I 


by  the  field-worker  who  drives  him.  The 
moment  the  heap  of  dung  is  pulled  out  of 
Fig.  218,  the  cart,  and  the  horse  haa 
advanced  ai  few  steps,  a 
field- worker  divides  the 
heap  into  three,  putting  an 
equal  portion  into  the  hol- 
low of  each  drill  on  each 
side  of  the  heap,  with  a 
small  graip  like  fig.  82;  and 
then  3  field-workers  follow, 
one  in  each  hollow,  having 
each  a  small  three-pronged 
graip,  fig.  218,  which  is  3^ 
feet  long,  by  which  she 
divides  the  heap  left  by  the 
preceding  field-worker,  and 
spreads  it  along  the  drill 
until  it  reaches  the  next 
heap  dragged  out  by  the 
steward,  who  is  the  sole 
judge  of  the  quantity  of 
manure  to  be  applied. 

THE  THREE  „.„,       t  i-,i         ,i      . 

PRONGED  DUNG  2434.  Immediately  that 
GRAIP.  three  drills  are  thus  man- 
ured by  the  cart,  and  spread  by  the 
field-workers,  a  man  wheels  along  the 
top  of  the  dung  in  each  hollow,  the  bean 
drill  or  hean-barroir,  and  sows  the  seed 
with  it.  The  bean- barrow  is  one  of  the 
simplest  in  its  construction.  It  is  made  in 
a  form  resemlding  a  wheel-barrow,  and 
hence  its  name.  Fig.  219  is  a  view  in 
perspective  of  the  machine  in  its  most 
common  form ;  a  a  I  c  are  a  pair  of  stilts, 
that,  when  joined  to  form  the  bed-frame 
of  the  barrow,  has  the  portion  from  I  to  c 
parallel ;  while  the  parts  from  b  to  a  spread 
out  to  form  the  handles  of  the  barrow. 
The  portion  from  c  to  dis  open  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  wheel  e.  A  small  axle  car- 
ries a  small  chain-wheel/.  The  principal 
wheel  e  also  carries  a  chain- wheel  g  upon 
its  axle,  and  the  pitch-chain /^(7  is  stretched 
over  the  two  wheels,  by  which  means  the 
progressive  motion  of  the  machine  on  the 
wheel  e  gives  motion  to  the  seed-cylinder 
on  the  axle  of  /.  A  seed-chest  b  d  h  i  is 
raised  upon  the  bed-frame,  and  is  some- 
times covered  with  a  jointed  lid,  but  this 
is  not  essential.  A  spout  k,  is  attached  to 
the  bed-frame,  for  the  purpose  of  directing 
the  seed  to  the  furrow  in  wliicli  the  machine 
is  moving;  and  the  legs  /  I  are  attached  to 
the  handles  to  prevent  the  latter  from  fall- 
ing  to   the  ground   when   the   barrow  is 


SOWING  OF  BEANS. 


571 


stopt.  The  pincbiug-screw  m  is  applied 
to  the  purpose  of  adjusting  a  slider  placed 
■within  the  chest,  for  the  more  correct  gra- 


duation of  the  discharge ;  and  the  slider  is 
for  this  purpose  armed  with  a  tuft  or  brush 
of  bristles,  that  comes  in  contact  with  the 


Fig.  219, 


THE  BEAN  DRILL  OR  BARROW. 


seed  cylinder.  The  entire  fabric  is  gene- 
rally of  very  slender  and  light  construc- 
tion. 

2435.  Besides  the  method  here  exhi- 
bited, of  driving  the  seed-cylinder  by 
means  of  a  pitch-chain,  there  are  other 
modes  of  effecting  the  same  purpose.  One 
of  these  is  by  attaching  short  cranks  to 
each  end  of  the  axles  of  the  principal 
wheel  and  the  seed-cylinder,  the  pair  on 
each  axle  standing  at  right  angles  to  each 
other ;  and  a  light  connecting-rod  passes 
from  the  one  to  the  other  on  each  side  of 
the  machine.  This  forms  a  very  perfect 
communication  of  the  motion  from  the 
principal  to  the  minor  axle,  and  is  very 
certain  in  its  operation,  but  it  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  pitch-chain.  The  same 
is  also  effected  by  employing  two  pairs  of 
small  mitre-wheels;  but  it  is  equally  ex- 
pensive as  the  cranks  and  connectinij^-rods. 
Common  chain  may  also  be  adopted,  along 
with  acutely  grooved  pulleys ;  but  the 
action  of  this  is  less  certain  than  either  of 
the  others. 

2486.  On  the  seed  being  sown,  the 
ploughs  split  the  drills  formerly  made  into 
two,  covering  the  dung  with  their  mould, 
and  finishing  the  work  with  the  drills  in 
the  double  form. 

2437.  When  it  is  determined  to  man- 
ure the  land  in  spring,  and  sow  the  seed 
in  rows  in  the  flat,  the  harrows  are  first 
sent  over  the  surface  a  double  tine  if  it 


is  rough  and  cloddy,   and  has  not  been 

reduced  by  the  winter's  frost,  and  then  the 
dung  is  spread  broadcast  upon  the  surface. 
The  dung  of  course  has  been  prepared  in 
the  same  manner  as  related  for  that  used 
in  drills.  The  dung  is  ploughed  in  ;  but 
as  the  largest  and  rankest  portions  of  the 
dung  may  not  be  easily  buried  by  the 
plough,  it  is  proper  to  make  a  field-worker 
follow  each  plough,  and  press  down  the 
prominent  portions  of  the  dung  into  the 
plough-track  with  the  small  graip,  fig. 
218.  At  every  tJdrd  furrow,  a  man  sows 
the  seed  along  it  with  the  bean-barrow, 
fig.  219;  and  the  most  convenient  and 
expeditious  mode  to  keep  the  barrow  at 
work  in  sowing,  is  to  cause  three  ploughs 
to  go  before  it,  one  following  the  other  at  a 
short  distance,  and  turn  over  the  three 
furrows ;  and  as  ihe  furrows  are  about  9 
inches  in  breadth,  the  three  furrows  will 
place  the  rows  of  beans  at  27  inches 
apart.  This  ploughing  finishes  the  ope- 
ration. 

2438.  An  apparatus  for  sowing  beans 
in  drill  is  attached  to  one  of  the  ploughs 
employed  in  giving  the  seed-furrow.  It 
consists  of  a  seed- cylinder,  placed  in  a 
small  case  or  frame,  having  an  axle  passing 
through  the  case,  which  last  is  surmounted 
by  a  small  hopper  to  contain  the  seed. 
This  apparatus  is  attached  to  the  plough 
immediately  behind  and  within  the  line  of 
the  mould-board — in  the  bosom  of  the 
plough,  as  it  is  termed — havinga  conductor 
or  spout,  from  the  seed-cylinder  to  the 


572 


PRACTICE—  SPRING. 


bottom  of  tlie  furrow,  to  conduct  tlie  seed 
to  its  bed.  Tlie  motion  of  tlie  seed-cylin- 
der for  tlie  delivery  of  the  seed,  is  produced 
in  two  different  ways ;  first,  the  axle  of 
the  cylinder  may  be  extended  from  the 
case  to  the  land-side  handle  of  the  ptough, 
or  tail  of  the  beam,  where  it  will  have  a 
bearing  in  which  it  turns  round.  Upon 
this  extension  of  the  axle,  a  light  iron 
loop  or  shears  is  loosely  fitted,  and  in  the 
shears  is  placed  an  iron  wheel,  whose  axle 
is  borne  at  both  ends  by  the  shears.  A 
grooved  pulley  is  fixed  upon  the  end  of 
this  axle,  and  a  corresponding  pulley  upon 
the  prolongation  of  the  axle  of  the  seed- 
cylinder,  while  a  chain  or  band  encircles 
the  two  pulleys.  The  iron  wheel,  which 
is  so  placed  as  to  run  in  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow,  will  thus,  when  the  plough  is  in 
motion,  be  made  to  revolve  by  its  contact 
with  the  ground,  and,  through  the  pulleys 
and  chain,  will  also  cause  the  seed-cylinder 
to  revolve  and  discharge  the  seed  as  the 
plough  advances;  and  this  will  continue 
as  long  as  the  iron  wheel  remains  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground.  In  order  to  pro- 
duce a  cessation  of  the  sowing  process, 
when  required,  a  cord  is  attached  to  the 
hind  extremity  of  the  shears,  and  is  passed 
backward  between  the  handles  of  the 
plough,  till  it  comes  within  reach  of  the 
ploughman,  who,  by  pulling  the  cord,  and 
hooking  it  upon  a  stud  provided  for  that 
purpose,  raises  the  iron  wheel  from  the 
ground,  and  thus  stops  further  motion  of 
the  seed-cylinder,  and  consequently  the 
sowing  process.  When  the  plough  has 
again  reached  the  third  furrow  from  the 
la^t  sown — and  this  plough  should  be  the 
hindmost  of  the  three  mentioned  above — 
the  ploughman  relaxes  the  cord,  when  the 
wheel  again  settles  down  upon  the  ground, 
and  the  sowing  process  proceeds  as  before. 

2439.  The  other  method  of  giving  mo- 
tion to  the  seed-cylinder  is  accomplished 
by  giving  the  extension  of  its  axle  a  uni- 
versal joint,  and  continuing  tlie  extension 
a  few  inches  to  landward  of  the  land-side 
of  the  plough,  but  without  a  bearini,'  upon 
it.  Upon  this  extremity  of  tiie  extended 
axle  the  iron  wheel  is  placed,  which  in 
this  case  will  be  required  of  larger  diam- 
eter, so  that  the  axle  may  run  clear  of  the 
tail  of  the  plough-beam.  By  this  arranire- 
nient  the  wheel  will  run  upon  the  unbroken 
land.     It  will  also  require  a  stay  of  rope, 


or  of  light  iron  rod,  extending  from  a  col- 
lar upon  the  axle,  forward  to  an  e^'e-bolt 
attached  to  the  side  of  the  beam,  near  the 
coulter-box.  From  the  collar  on  the  axle 
also  a  cord  extends  backward  to  the  hand 
of  the  ploughman,  whereby  he  has  the 
same  command  over  the  wheel  in  this 
position  for  setting  on  and  off  the  sowing 
process,  as  just  described  for  the  first 
method — the  universal  joint  in  the  shaft 
serving  in  the  present  case  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  shears  in  the  former. 

2440.  When  the  land  is  to  be  manured 
in  tlie  spring  and  the  seed  sown  broadcast, 
the  dung  is  prejiared  as  in  the  two  modes 
formerly  mentioned,  and  spread  broadcast 
upon  the  surface,  the  future  part  of  the 
operation  depending  on  the  state  of  the 
weather.  Should  the  weather  promise  to 
be  fair  until  the  bean-sowing  is  finished, 
the  dung  maybe  ploughed  in,  a  field-worker 
burying  the  prominent  portions  with  the 
small  graip  as  described  above,  the  seed 
sown  upon  the  ploughed  surface,  har- 
rowed in  with  a  double  tine,  and  the  ridges 
water-furrowed.  Should  the  weather 
seem  precarious,  which  is  its  ordinary  state 
in  spring  in  this  country,  the  safest  plan 
is  to  sow  the  seed  broadcast  upon  the 
spread  dung,  and  plough  in  both  seed  and 
dung  together,  when  the  surface  will  be 
safe  from  further  danger. 

2441.  The  ordinary  sort  of  bean  culti- 
vated in  the  fields  is  the  horse  bean,  shown 
bv  fig.  ISO.  I  have  seen  a  small  white 
bean,  called  the  Heligoland,  tried  in  the 
fields,  and  it  might  answer  as  to  yield  in 
favourable  seasons ;  but  the  straw  is  defi- 
cient compared  with  that  of  the  horse  bean, 
which  is  an  important  consideration  in  a 
crop  whose  fodder  is  valuable,  and  the 
yield  of  whose  grain  is  precarious. 

2442.  The  quantity  of  beans  usually 
sown  is  5  bushels  per  acre.  On  inferior 
soils  a  little  more  is  allowed,  say  6  bushels; 
and  it  is  considered  that  the  broadcast 
mode  of  culture  requires  more  seed  tlian 
the  drill  system. 

2443.  I  have  said  that  as  the  drills,  when 
made  up  in  the  double  form,  are  necessarily 
unequal  in  their  sides  (2400.)  the  germ  of 
the  voiingbean  plant  would  find  its  way  to 
the  air  through  the  upper  part  of  the  side 


SOWING  OF  BEANS. 


573 


of  the  drill  instead  of  the  top,  were  it  not 
relieved  by  removing  that  portion  of  the 
mould  which  causes  the  inequality  in  the 
drill,  and  this  is  done  by  the  harrow,  which 
should  be  made  to  pass  over  the  drills  a 
single  or  a  double  tine,  according  as  the 
ground  is  in  a  rough  or  smooth  state. 
About  a  fortnight  after  the  sowing  is  a 
good  time  for  harrowing  the  drills,  if  the 
surface  is  at  all  dry ;  and  if  wet,  it  should  be 


delayed  for  a  few  days,  and  the  first  period 
of  a  dry  state  of  the  surface  taken  advan- 
tage of.  The  common  harrow,  fig.  207, 
is  what  is  best  suited  for  harrowing  the 
groimd  that  has  been  ploughed  flat  with  a 
common  furrow,  whether  the  seed  be  sown 
in  rows  or  broadcast,  and  it  is  even  used 
for  harrowing  down  drills ;  but  a  better 
implement  for  harrowing  drills  is  the  drill- 
har-row,  of  which  fig.  220  is  a  geometrical 


THE  DRILL-HARROW. 


plan  of  one  of  the  rectangular  form.  This 
harrow  is  always  worked  in  pairs;  and,  to 
render  it  applicable  to  its  intended  purpose, 
it  is  made  of  an  arch  form,  partially  em- 
bracing the  curvature  of  the  drill  ;  and  on 
this  account  it  is  best  fabricated  of  iron. 
The  two  leaves  of  the  pair  a  a  are  con- 
nected by  two  coupling-rods  k  /,  which  are 
formed  to  expand  or  contract  to  any  re- 
quired width  of  drills  ;  and  each  leaf  is  fur- 
nished with  a  chain  i  i  to  which  a  draught- 
bar  or  swing-tree  n  is  attached,  and  to 
■which,  again,  the  horse  is  yoked  at  h  h. 
The  bar  and  chain,  iu  this  mode  of  yoking, 


serve,  by  their  weight,  to  produce  such  a 
catenarian  curvature  as  to  make  the  verti- 
cal line  of  traction  leave  the  harrows  nearly 
in  a  horizontal  line,  giving  them  thus  the 
fullest  effect  on  the  drill. 

2444.  The  harrows  are  26  inches 
from  centre  to  centre  of  the  outside  bars 
or  bulls,  the  length  33  inches,  and  the 
number  of  tines  15:  they  will  draw  streaks 
on  the  surface  at  equal  distances  of  Ig  inch 
nearly.  The  middle  bull  e  of  each  harrow 
is  prolonged  a  little  forward  at  y,  for  the 
attachment  of  the  shackle  of  the  draught- 


«74 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


chain.  The  tines  are  about  4  inches  in 
length  bekiw  the  bars,  and  tapering  to  a 
bhmt  point.  The  pair  of  harrows  are 
drawn  by  one  horse,  walking  between  the 
drills ;  the  weight  of  the  pair,  with  the 


mounting,  is  about  90  lbs.,  and  the  price 
from  30s.  to  35s.  complete. 


2445.  Fig.  221  shows  a  cross  section,  at 
the  front  bar,  of  both  the  leaves  of  the 


Fig.  221. 


THE  SECTION  OF  THE   DRILL-HaRROW. 


harrow,  of  the  arched  form  and  direction 
of  the  tines,  and  the  adaptation  of  their 
form  to  the  drills.  In  the  front  bar^^^,  the 
right  hand  tine  may  be  left  out,  as  its  place 
may  be  taken  up  by  that  of  the  third  bar, 
leaving  5  tines.  In  the  second  cross-bar 
there  are  also  5  tines,  and  in  tlie  third,  5. 
The  two  leaves  are  connected  and  kept  at 
due  distance  by  the  coupling-rods  k,  which 
may  be  placed  wider  or  closer  if  thought 
necessary.  This  construction  of  the  coup- 
ling-rods affords  the  means  of  adapting 
the  harrows  to  any  width  of  drills. 

2446.  Triangular  drill-harroics  are 
considered  by  some  farmers  as  superior  in 
effect  to  the  rectangular  form  ;  with  due 
attention  to  the  division  and  jilaceuient  of 
the  tines,  they  may  no  doubt  he  rendered 
equally  effective,  and  probably  more  so, 
but  the  advantages  are  not  prominently 
marked. 

2447.  When  land  intended  for  beans  is 
foul,  it  should  certainly  not  be  dunged  in 
autumn,  unless  there  is  time  to  work  and 
clear  it  with  two  plough  ingsaTid  harro  wings. 
Land  not  well  suited  for  beans,  and  un- 
able to  be  dunged  in  autumn,  on  account 
of  its  state  of  foulness,  or  in  spring  by 
reason  of  wet  weather,  should  not  be  sown 
with  beans  for  that  season. 

2448.  Cro'js-ploughingbefore  winter  is  approved 
of  by  some,  as  a  preparation  of  tlie  land  for  beans, 
under  certain  circumstances.  Thus  the  late  Mr 
Brown,  Markle,  East  Lothian,  after  intimating 
tliat  the  first  furrow  in  early  winter,  for  beans, 
should  be  a  deep  one,  proceeds  to  say  that  "  the 
first  furrow   is   usually  given  across    the    field, 


which  is  the  hcst  method  when  only  one  spring 
furrow  is  intended  ;  but  as  it  is  now  ascertained 
that  two  spring-furrows  are  highly  advantageous, 
perhaps  the  one  in  winter  ought  to  be  given  in 
length ;"  and  Professor  Low's  opinion  bears 
a  similar  meaning,  on  light  land,  when  he  says, 
"  When  the  bean  is  to  be  sown  in  spring  after 
a  corn-crop,  the  land  should  receive  a  deep 
ploughing  before  winter,  generally  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  former  ridges,  so  as  to  keep  the 
land  dry.  Sometimes,  in  case  of  dry  land,  the 
pluughin^i  may  he  across  the  ridijrs  ;  and 
then  the  plough,  passing  along  the  former 
open  farrows,  is  to  form  new  open  furrows  in 
the  same  place.  In  either  case,  care  is  to  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  stagnating  of  water  on  any 
part  of  tlie  surface."*  I  would  deprecate  the 
permitting  any  sort  of  land  to  lie  in  the  cross- 
furrow  all  winter,  and  especially  that  of  such  a 
character  as  might  bear  a  crop  of  beans.  Hav- 
ing little  fear  of  the  consequences,  I  cross- 
ploughed  a  field  of  "25  acres  of  haiel  loam,  rest- 
ing on  a  moderately  retentive  clay  subsoil,  im- 
mediately after  harvest,  with  the  view  to  ridge  up 
the  land  again  before  the  winter,  and  to  forward 
the  spring-work  for  the  potatoes  and  turnips, 
for  both  of  which  crops  the  soil  was  well  adapted. 
But  the  weather  completely  changed,  and,  instead 
of  being  ridged  up,  the  land  was  only  water-fur- 
rowed in  the  open  furrow  of  every  ridge,  and 
gaws  cut  where  requisite,  in  the  hope  that  it 
would  lie  in  a  safe  state  all  winter.  In  this, 
however,  I  was  mistaken  ;  it  worked  very  un- 
kindly for  the  potatoes  and  turnips,  and  it  never 
forgot,  during  the  whole  course  of  the  rotation, 
the  souring  it  had  received  in  the  cross-furrow  ; 
and  yet  the  land  was  of  so  pleasant  and  light  a 
character  that  1  should  never  have  thought  of 
sowing  beans  upon  it. 

2449.  I  cannot  agree  with  Mr  Brown,  when 
he  recommends  sowing  beans  in  every  third 
furrow,  instead  of  in  drills,  when  the  season  is 
unfavourable,  because,  if  land  cannot  be  drilled, 
neither  should  it  be  ploughed,  nor  will  it  become 
so  soon  dry  after  common  ploughing  as  after 
drilling.    Nur  do  I  agree  with  him  that  inconve- 


*  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  second  edition,  p.  267. 


SOWING  OF  PEASE. 


675 


niences  must  be  submitted  to  in  adverse  seasons, 
because  I  would  change  my  mode  of  culture  to 
suit  the  season.*  Instead  of  practising  ques- 
tionable modes  of  culture,  after  the  land  had 
received  a  good  furrow  before  winter,  I  would 
decline  harrowing,  and  immediately  drill  it  in 
spring  with  even  one  horse,  which  would  be  quite 
able  to  make  such  a  drill  as  would  cover  the 
beans  sown  by  the  barrow ;  and  both  land  and 
seed  might  remain  in  this  state  for  some  time 
without  harm.  This  plan  possesses  the  farther 
advantage  of  being  in  time  even  after  the  oat- 
seed  is  finished,  as  the  land  will  require  no 
harrowing  to  lighten  the  earth  upon  the  seed, 
which  is  no  more  than  covered  ;  and  the  seed, 
being  so  situate,  will  vegetate  14  days  earlier 
than  if  it  had  been  ploughed  with  the  ordinary 
furrow.  When  dry  weather  ensues,  the  land  may 
be  worked  to  advantage,  while  the  crop  is  grow- 
ing. Such  an  expedient  may  be  adopted  on 
land  suitable  for  beans  and  in  clean  condition, 
rather  than  the  crop  should  be  mistimed. 

2450.  It  was  an  observation  of  the  late  De 
CandoUe,  that  "  it  is  remarkable  that  the  botani- 
cal character  of  the  Lepuminosce  should  so  strictly 
agreewiththe  propertiesof theirseeds.  Thelatter 
may  be  divided  into  two  sections,  namely,  the  first 
SarcolobcE,  OT  those  of  wliich  the  cotyledons  are 
thick,  and  filled  with  fecula,  and  destitute'  of 
cortical  pores,  and  which,  moreover,  in  germina- 
tion do  not  undergo  any  change,  but  nourish  the 
young  plant  by  means  of  that  supply  of  food 
which  they  already  contain  ;  second,  the  Phyl- 
lolobce,  or  those  of  which  the  cotyledons  are 
thin,  with  very  little  fecula,  and  furnished 
with  cortical  pores,  which  change  at  once  into 
leaves  at  the  time  of  germination,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  elaborating  food  for  the  young  plant. 
All  the  seeds  of  the  sarcolohce  are  used  as  food 
in  difi'erent  countries,  and  none  of  those  of 
phyllolobcE  are  ever  so  employed." 

2451.  The  ancient  Greeks  had  some  strange 
notions  regarding  the  properties  of  the  bean. 
Thus  Didymus  the  Alexandrian  says,  "  Do  not 
plant  beans  near  the  roots  of  a  tree,  lest  the  tree 
be  dried.  Tiiat  they  may  boil  well,  sprinkle  water 
with  nitre  over  them.  Physicians,  indeed,  say  that 
beans  make  the  persons  tliat  eat  them  heavy  ; 
they  also  think  that  they  prevent  night  dreams, 
for  they  are  flatulent.  They  likewise  say,  that 
domestic  fowls  that  always  eat  them  become 
barren.  Pythagoras  also  says  that  you  must  not 
eat  beans,  because  there  are  found  in  the  flower 
of  the  plant  inauspicious  letters.  They  also  say 
that  a  bean  that  has  been  eroded  becomes  whole 
again  at  the  increase  of  the  moon :  that  it  will 
by  no  means  be  boiled  in  salt  water,  nor,  conse- 
quently, in  sea-water,"  &c.  f 


ON  THE  SOWING  OF  PKASE. 

24.52.  Pease  are  sfiwn    to   a   iimcli  less 


extent  than  they  were  some  years  ago, 
the  change  being  effected  partly  from  pea- 
meal  having  become  less  an  article  of  food 
of  the  labouring  population,  and  partly 
from  a  nicer  sense  of  cleanly  culture  en- 
tertained by  our  farmers.  It  is  a  matter 
of  general  observation,  that  annual  weeds 
are  much  encouraged  in  growth  amongst 
pease ;  and  the  pea  being  a  precarious 
crop,  yielding  a  small  return  of  grain,  ex- 
cept in  fine  warm  seasons,  the  mere  cir- 
cumstance of  a  good  crop  of  straw  is  in- 
sufficient to  afford  remuneration  for  a 
scanty  crop  of  grain,  accompanied  with  a 
foul  state  of  land.  Hence  turnips  have 
been  generally  substituted  for  the  pea. 

2453.  The  pea,  for  a  long  period,  was 
only  sown  broadcast;  but  seeing  their 
tendency  to  protect  weeds,  and  observing 
that  drill-culture  rendered  the  land  clean, 
it  was  conjectured  that  pease  sown  in  drills 
would  admit  of  the  land  being  cleansed  in 
the  intervals.  In  practice,  however,  it 
was  found  that  the  straw  by  its  rapid 
growth  soon  creeps  along  the  ground,  and 
prevents  the  use  of  the  weeding  instru- 
ments. 

2454.  But  the  more  common  practice 
now  is  to  sow  pease  and  beans  together, 
their  seasons  of  growth  coinciding.  The 
stems  of  the  bean  serve  as  stakes  to  sup- 
port the  bines  of  the  pea.  The  proportion 
the  pea  bears  to  the  bean  when  thus  mixed, 
is  as  1  to  3,  or  sometimes  only  as  many 
pease  are  sown  as  their  straw  shall  serve 
to  make  bands  to  bind  the  beans  in  sheaves 
at  harvest. 

2455.  It  is  somehow  considered  of  little 
moment  how  the  land  shall  be  ploughed 
when  the  pea  is  to  be  sown  by  itself. 
Sometimes  only  one  furrow  after  the  stub- 
ble is  given ;  and  when  the  land  is  tender, 
and  pretty  ciean,  a  sufficient  tilth  may  be 
raised  in  this  manner  to  cover  the  seed, 
which  requires  neither  a  deep  soil  for  its 
roots,  which  are  fibrous  and  spreading 
near  the  surface,  nor  a  deep  covering  of 
earth  above  them,  2  inches  sufficing  for 
the  purpose.  But  the  single  furrow  does 
no  justice  to  the  land,  whatever  it  may  do 
for  the  crop.  The  land  should  certainly 
receive  one  furrow  at  least  in  spring,  after 


*  Brou-u  Oil  lianil  Jjjairs,  vol.  ii.  p.  57-59. 


+  Owen's  Geopoyiika,  vol.  i.  p.  82. 


576 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  winter  furrow;  and  that  furrow  may 
either  he  a  douMe  drilling  or  an  ordinary 
furrow,  according  to  the  mode  of  culture 
adopted,  or  it  should  receive  at  lea^t  a 
close  gruhbiug. 

24:56.  Pease  are  sown  bv  hand  when 
cultivated  broadcast,  and  with  the  barrow 
when  iy  rows,  in  every  third,  or  more 
commonly  in  every  furrow.  When  sown 
with  beans,  they  are  deposited  by  a  bar- 
row ;  when  sown  on  drilled  land  by  the 
band,  the  seed  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
drills,  and  is  covered  by  the  harrows  being 
made  to  pass  across  the  drills. 

2457.  Like  beans,  pease  are  sown  on 
ploughed  lea  in  some  parts  of  England. 
In  Scotland,  the  farmers  know  their  in- 
terest better  than  to  bestow  good  grass 
land,  which  will  yield  a  luxuriant  crop  of 
oats,  on  so  generally  thriftless  a  crop  as 
the  field-pea.  On  lea,  the  pea  is  dibbled 
in  on  the  face  of  a  flat  lea  furrow-slice, 
the  holes  being  placed  about  9  inches 
asunder.  When  varieties  of  the  white 
pea  are  cultivated  in  the  field,  as  in  the 
southern  counties  of  England,  these  various 
modes  of  sowing  them  by  themselves  may 
deserve  attention ;  and  also  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  large  towns,  where  the  garden 
pea  may  be  cultivated  in  the  fiehi.  and  sent 
in  a  green  state  to  the  vegetable  market;  but 
in  other  respects  they  are  inferior  to  rais- 
ing them  in  comjtany  with  the  bean. 

2458.  Since  the  pea  can  be  cultivated 
along  with  the  bean,  it  can  grow  on  strong 
soils;  and  its  spieadinir  roots  enable  it  to 
grow  on  thin  clays,  where  the  bean  does 
not  thrive.  The  pea  thrives  best  on  light 
soils.  In  clay,  it  produces  large  bulk  of 
straw,  a!)d  the  production  of  grain  de- 
pends on  the  season  being  dry  and  warm  ; 
and  as  these  are  not  the  usual  character- 
istics of  our  climate,  the  probability  agrees 
with  the  fact  that  the  pea  yields  but  an 
indifferent  crop.  On  light  soils,  its  straw 
being  scanty,  though  the  yield  of  grain 
is  large  in  proportion,  it  is  not  usually 
prolific.  Sir  John  Sinclair  states  that  the 
pea  does  not  yield  a  crop  above  once  in 
tea  years.* 

2459.  Dung  is  never  given  to  the  pea 


when  sown  by  itself,  it  having  the  effect 
of  producing  much  straw  and  little  grain. 

2460.  Of  the  varieties  of  the  field-pea 
I  have  shown  one,  the  partridge  gray  pea, 
in  fig.  litO.  It  is  suited  to  liirht  soils,  and 
late  situations,  and  is  considered  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  and  prolific  when  the  crop 
is  full.  It  is  superseding  the  gray  Hast- 
ings, which  were  sown  in  similar  circum- 
stances. The  pea  least  adapted  to  clay 
soils,  and  late  in  ripening,  is  the  com- 
mon gray  pea,  which,  taking  the  same 
time  to  ripen  its  seed  as  the  bean,  is  suited 
to  sow  with  the  bean,  when  both  sorts  of 
grain  are  cultivated  together.  Its  haulm 
is  considered  excellent  fodder,  better  than 
that  of  the  early  varieties. 

2461.  Pease  are  sown  thick,  4  bushels 
per  acre  being  the  common  allowance 
when  sown  in  rows  and  drills,  and  4j 
bushels  when  sown  broadcast. 

2462.  When  pease  and  beans  are  reaped 
together,  they  are  separated  when  thrashed 
simply  by  riddling,  the  j>eas  passing 
through  the  meshes  of  the  riddle,  while 
the  beans  are  left  on  the  riddle. 

2463.  Many  varieties  of  the  garden  pea 
are  cultivated  in  the  field  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  large  towns,  for  the  supply  of 
the  vegetable  market.  This  species  of 
culture  is  chiefly  conducted  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London,  and  in  the  counties 
of  Middlesex,  Kent,  and  SuflTolk.  The 
early  Charlton  pea  has  long  been  in  cul- 
tivation and  is  prolific.  The  pearl,  and 
blue  and  white  Prussian  pease  are  very 
prolific.  The  Carolina,  blue  scimitar,  and 
blue  and  green  tall  and  dwarf  imperial 
are  also  good.  It  is  a  pity  that  the  Dan- 
zig pea  yields  so  poorly  in  this  country, 
for  a  more  beautifully  round,  small,  bright 
3'ellow  coloured,  transparent  pea  cannot 
be  imagined.  It  is  imported,  however, 
for  splitting  and  boiling  whole. 


ON  THE  SOWING  OF  TARES. 

2464.  As  it  is  very  desirable  to  have 
tares  ready  for  cutting  as  a  forage  crop 
for  horses  in  the  time  of  harvest,  and  as 


*  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  p.  384. 


SOWING  OF  PE-ASE. 


577 


harvest  may  be  early  in  any  season,  it  is 
prudent  to  sow  early  a  small  extent  of 
ground  with  tares ;  and  althougli  the  har- 
vest may  be  delayed  longer  than  expected, 
and  it  continue  longer  than  will  allow  the 
horses  to  enjoy  the  tares  before  they  have 
become  too  old,  the  crop  will  nevertheless 
not  be  lost,  as  the  pigs  will  be  delighted 
to  eat  them,  when  confined  in  the  courts 
before  and  during  the  harvest. 

2465.  For  this  reason,  tares  should  be 
sown  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  March, 
and  successive  sowings  should  take  place 
until  May,  when  the  crop  will  continue 
until  the  commencement  of  the  consump- 
tion of  the  turnip.  In  doing  this,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  periods  of  cut- 
ting will  approach  nearer  each  other,  as  the 
sowings  approach  the  summer;  so  that  the 
farther  the  season  advances,  the  greater 
intervals  of  time  should  elapse  between  the 
sowings,  and  the  larger  the  space  of  ground 
sown  at  each  time. 

2466.  Tares  thrive  admirably  well  on 
all  kinds  of  soils,  and  on  ploughed  lea 
•without  even  manure ;  but,  in  this  case,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  it  displaces 
an  equal  extent  of  the  oat  crop — an  unde- 
sirable competition,  if  carried  to  the  ex- 
tent of  several  acres. 

2467.  They  will  also  grow  well  upon 
the  unoccupied  ground  or  fallow  break, 
but  not  without  manure.  The  manure 
may  be  spread  upon  and  ploughed  down 
with  the  stubble  in  autumn ;  but  if  the 
manuring  is  delayed  till  the  spring,  the 
culture  is  precisely  that  of  the  pea  when 
sown  broadcast. 

2468.  Tares  are  almost  always  sown 
broadcast ;  and  as  the  plant,  when  growing 
healthily,  is  succulent  and  unable  to  sup- 
port itself,  a  few  oats  are  mixed  with  the 
seed,  whose  stems  serve  to  support  the 
bines  of  the  tare.  The  Hopetoun  oat 
is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  as  possessing 
the  strongest  stem ;  and  next  to  it  is  the 
potato  oat.  Wheat  could  support  the  tare 
better  than  even  the  oat;  but  stock  dislike 
wheat  when  mown  as  forage,  so  that  the 
plant  would  be  wasted,  whereas  the  oat 
plant  is  a  pleasant  forage. 


2469.  From   1^  to   2  bushels  of  tares 

TOL.  I. 


and  1  bushel  of  oats  per  acre  will  suffice 
for  seed  when  the  land  is  good,  and  has 
been  well  manured;  but  on  a  light  soil, 
though  manured,  from  2  to  2^  bushels  per 
acre  will  be  required  o^  the  tare,  the  plant 
not  growing  there  so  ;rank  and  strong. 
When  sown  alone,  which  some  farmers  pre- 
fer, from  3  to  4  bushels  of  seed  will  be  re- 
quired per  acre.  I  have  seen  a  large  pro- 
portion of  a  crop  of  tares  destroyed  by 
rotting  on  the  ground,  when  too  thickly 
sown,  in  a  season  that  happened  to  be 
moist  and  warm  ;  and  therefore  a  sprink- 
ling of  oats  sown  amongst  them  is  a  wise 
precaution  to  support  the  crop  and  pre- 
vent the  rotting. 

2470.  Tares  are  cultivated  for  seed  as 
well  as  forage,  and  the  culture,  as  far  as 
the  soil  is  concerned,  is  quite  the  same. 
It  is  recommended  to  sow  beans  amongst 
tares  intended  for  seed,  to  afford  thera 
support  in  climbing;  and  the  proportion 
the  beans  should  bear  to  the  tares  is  as  I 
to  4  of  measure  of  the  seed.  Tares  for  seed 
are  also  cultivated  with  the  bean,  sowing 
the  tares  in  the  projjortion  of  1  to  4  of 
beans  in  measure.  The  tares  are  easily 
separated  from  the  beans  by  riddling. 
Tares  intended  for  seed  should  be  sown 
as  earl^  in  spring  as  the  state  of  the 
land  will  permit  the  work  to  proceed. 
Both  the  pigeon  and  poultry  are  fond  of 
the  seed  of  the  tare. 

2471.  The  tare  belongs  to  the  natural  order  of 
Le<jumiiwsoe,  of  the  system  of  Jussieu  ;  the  order 
and  class  Diadelp/iia  Decandria  of  Linnseus;  and 
in  sub-class  iii.  Per'ujynous  Ej:o<iens  ;  alliance  42, 
JRosa/es ;  order  209,  FabiacecK  ;  tribe  3,  Vicia 
of  the  natural  system  of  Lindley.  The  cultivated 
tare  or  vetch  is  named  Vicia  satixa.  In  the 
wild  state  it  is  a  native  of  Europe,  in  corn  or 
cultivated  fields  ;  plentiful  in  Britain  ;  also  ia 
North  America,  about  Fort  Vancouver.  Flower 
purple.  This  is  a  very  variable  plant  in  the 
form  of  the  leaflets,  in  the  size  of  the  stems,  and 
in  the  colour  and  size  of  the  seeds.  The  Vicia 
Nurbunensis,  Narbonne  vetch,  and  the  Vicia 
serrati/ulia,  serrate-leafleted  vetch,  are  cultivated 
on  the  Continent.  Dr  Anderson  has  recom- 
mended the  culture  of  the  Vicia  sepium,  hedge- 
vetch  ;  and  a  writer  in  the  Bath  Papers  advo- 
cates that  of  the  Vicia  cracca,  tufted  vetch.  All 
these  are  eminently  beautiful  native  plants,  but 
are  too  tiny  in  the  leaf  and  attenuated  in  the 
stem  to  render  them  probably  profitable  in  cul- 
tivation. There  are  108  described  species  of 
Vicia — a  name  said  to  be  derived  from  vincio,  to 
bind  together,  because  the  species  have  ten- 
drils by  which  they  bind  themselves  to  other 
plants. 

2o 


578 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2472.  The  white-flowered  or  Hopetoun  tare, 
Vkia  satira,  jlore  albo,  is  a  variety  of  tare  which 
"  bids  fair,"  as  Mr  Lawson  says,  "  in  a  short 
time  to  supersede  the  old  summer  tare.  It  was 
selected  from  a  field  a  few  seasons  since  by  Mr 
Patrick  Sheriff,  late  of  Mungoswells,  East- 
Lothian,  tiie  originator  of  the  Hopetoun  oat,  and 
several  other  improved  varieties  of  cereal  grains, 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  winter  1838,  kindly 
sent  to  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's 
Museum  about  12  seeds  of  this  new  vetch,  several 
of  which  were  sown  the  following  spring  ;  and 
the  produce,  both  in  seeds  and  bulk  of  haulm, 
compared  with  any  of  the  other  varieties  which 
were  grown  alongside,  was  fully  double.  Its 
seeds  are  of  a  light  bluish  or  green  colour,  and 
possess  little  of  the  strong  taste  peculiar  to 
the  common  tare;  so  that,  in  addition  to  its  other 
properties,  these  may  become  at  least  useful  with 
the  white-seeded  variety,  or  Canadian  lentil,  for 
culinary  purposes."* 


ON  THE  ROLLING  OF  LAND. 

2473.  The  common  land-roller  is  an 
implement  of  great  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, the  acting  part  of  it  being  a  cylinder 
of  wood,  of  stone,  or  of  metal.  Simple  as 
this  implement  appears,  there  is  hardly  an 


doubtful  position  as  to  fitness.  This 
brings  us  to  cast-iron,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly the  most  appropriate  of  all  materials 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  unnecessary  here  to 
enter  into  the  inc^uiry  as  to  the  most  ad- 
vantageous diameter fi»r  a  land-roller;  the 
subject  has  already  been  elaborately  dis- 
cussed :  t  let  it  suffice  to  say,  that  expe- 
rience has  proved  that  a  diameter  of  2  feet 
is,  under  any  circumstances,  tlie  one  that 
will  produce  the  best  effects  with  a  mini- 
mum of  labour  from  the  animals  of  draught ; 
the  weight  being  of  course  proportioned 
to  the  force  usually  applied,  which  is 
in  general  2  horses.  The  weight  of  roller, 
including  the  frame  corresponding  to  this, 
is  from  12  to  15  cwt. ;  but  it  is  belter  that 
the  roller  itself  be  rather  under  the 
weight,  and  that  the  carriage  be  fitted  up 
with  a  box,  in  which  a  loading  of  stones 
can  be  stowed,  to  bring  the  machine  up  to 
any  desired  weight.  Such  a  box  is  besides 
useful  in  affording  the  means  of  carrying 
off  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  any 
large  stones  that  may  have  been  brought 
to  the  surface  by  the  previous  opera- 
tions.     In  a   larire  and  heavy  roller,  in 


article  of  the  farm  in  which  the  farmer  is     one  entire  cylinder,  the  inconvenience  of 


turning  at  the  headlands  is  very  conside- 
rable, and  has  given  rise  to  the  improve- 
ment of  having  the  cylinder  in  two  lengths  ; 
this,  with  a  properly  constructed  carriage, 
produces  the  land-roller  in  its  most  perfect 
form. 

2474.  Fig.  222  is  a  perspective  of  the 
land- roller  constructed  on  the  foregoing 
principles  :  a  is  the  carriage-frame, 
crossed  by  the  horse-shafts  b.  The  cylin- 
der c  is  in  2  lengths  of  3  feet  to  3  -feet  3 
inches  each,  and  2  feet  in  diameter;  the 
thickness  of  the  metal  is  according  to  the 
Meight  required.  The  axle,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  cylinder  being  in  two 
lengths,  requires  to  be  of  considerable 
strength,  and  of  malleable  iron  ;  upon 
frequently  employed  for  the  formation  of  this  the  two  sections  of  the  cylinder  re- 
land-rollers,  may  be  considered  as  least  volve  freely,  and  the  extremiiies  of  tlie 
adapted  of  all  materials  for  the  purpose;  axle  are  supported  in  bushes  in  the  senn- 
its deficiency  of  weight  and  liability  to  circular  end-frames.  Two  iron  stay-rods 
decay  renders  it  the  most  objectionable  of  pass  from  the  end  frames  to  the  shafts  as 
all  others.  Stone,  though  not  deficient  an  additional  sujqwrt  to  the  latter.  Tlie 
in  weight,  possesses  one  marked  disad-  prico  of  the  land-roller,  fitted  uj)  as  here 
vantage,  liability  to  fracture ;  tJiis  of  itself  represented  ami  described,  is,  according  to 
is  sufficient  to  place  stone   rollers   in    a     weight,  from  £  10  to  £14. 

*  Lawson's  AgricuUurhVs  Manual,  Supplement,  p.  48. 
t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.i.  p.  700. 


more  liable  to  fall  into  error  in  its  selec- 
tion. From  the  nature  of  its  action,  and 
its  intended  effects  on  the  soil,  there  are 
two  elements  that  should  be  particularly 
kept  in  view — weight  and  diameter  of  the 
cylinder.  By  the  former  alone  can  the 
desired  effects  be  produced  in  the  highest 
degree,  but  these  will  be  always  modified 
by  the  diameter.  Thus,  a  cylinder  of  any 
given  weight  will  produce  a  greater  pul- 
verising effect  if  its  diameter  is  one  foot, 
than  the  same  weight  would  produce  if 
the  diameter  were  two  feet ;  but  then  the 
one  of  lesser  diameter  will  be  much  worse 
to  draw ;  hence  it  becomes  necessary  to 
choose  a  mean  of  these  opposing  principles. 
In  doing  this,  the  material  of  the  cylinder 
comes  to  be  considered.     Wood,  which  is 


KOLLING  OF  LAND. 

Fig.  222. 


57» 


THE  I,AND-ROLLER. 


247-5.  In  using  the  roller,  the  2  horses 
are  joked  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  double  horse-cart,  shown  in  Plate 
III.  Tiie  rolling  is  always  effected  across 
the  line  of  ridges,  for  otherwise  the  open 
furrows  would  not  receive  any  benefit 
from  it.  Although  the  dividing  of  the 
cylinder  into  two  parts  facilitates  the  turn- 
ing of  the  implement,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  attempt  to  turn  the  roller  sharp  round, 
as  part  of  the  ground  turned  upon  will  be 
rubbed  hard  by  the  cylinders ;  and  where 
young  plants  grow  upon  tliose  parts,  such 
as  young  clover,  the  probable  effect  would 
be  to  kill  them.  The  rolling  is  executed 
in  feers  of  30  yards  in  width,  hieing  the 
horses  one  half  of  the  feering,  and  hupping 
them  in  the  other  half,  the  same  as  in 
ploughing  ridges,  two-out-and-two-in,  fig. 
25.  It  is  not  necessary  to  carry  the  feer- 
ing-poles  to  the  field  for  making  these 
feerings  ;  the  first  line  of  the  feering  be- 
ing easily  kept  straight  across  the  field 
by  placing  clods  or  stones  in  the  line. 
When  the  ploughman  becomes  fatigued  in 
walking,  it  is  quite  allowable  for  him  to 
sit  on  the  front  of  the  framing,  for  which 
purpose  a  space  to  sit  upon  is  either 
boarded  or  wrought  into  a  seat  with  hard- 
twined  straw-rope,  and  thence  drive  the 
horses  with  double  reins  and  whip.  With 
such  an  indulgence  a  frail  plouglunan,  em- 
ployed mostly  in  ploughing,  could  take  a 
day  or  more  at  rolling,  when  urgent  work 
was  employing  at  the  time  the  stronger 
horses  in  the  cart.  Wqre  a  6-feet  roller 
to  proceed  uninterruptedly  for  10  hours, 
at  the  rate  of  1\  miles  per  hour,  it  would 
roll  about  18  acres  a-day ;  but  what  with 
the  time  spent  in  the  turnings  and  the 


marklngs-off  of  feerings,  14  acres  a-day 
may  be  considered  a  good  day's  work — 
7  acres  at  each  yoking.  When  the  we.ither 
is  favourable,  and  a  large  extent  of  ground 
has  to  be  rolled,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  ap- 
point 2  pair  of  horses  to  work  the  roller, 
from  dawn  to  night-fall,  each  pair  working 
4  hours  at  a  time.  In  this  way,  16  hours' 
constant  rolling,  from  4  in  the  morning 
to  8  at  night,  may  be  obtained  in  the 
course  of  24  hours,  and  33^  acres  rolled 
within  the  day  with  one  roller.  This 
roller  is  an  instrument  used  not  so  much 
to  crush  clods  as  to  render  the  surface  of 
the  ground  smooth  ;  at  least  it  effects  the 
latter  purpose  much  better  than  the  former, 
which  is  best  executed  by  a  class  of  im- 
plements named  clod-crushers,  to  be  after- 
wards described ;  and  the  roller  should  (mly 
be  used  when  thesurface  of  thegroundisdry. 


ON  THE  TRANSPLANTING  OP  TURNIP  BULBS 
FOR  PRODUCING  SEED. 

2476.  It  is  quite  easy  for  every  farmer 
to  raise  as  much  turnip-seed  every  year  as 
to  serve  the  wants  of  his  farm. 

2477.  As  3  lbs.  per  acre  is  the  most 
that  is  required  f(jr  seed  to  sow  a  crop  of 
turnips,  and  as  30  bushels  the  acre  is  a 
very  moderate  crop  of  turnip-seed,  at  the 
weight  of  50  lbs.  the  bushel,  the  small 
sj)ace  of  10  square  yards  of  ground  will 
su[)ply  all  the  seed  required  for  every  acre 
of  turnips  grown  on  the  farm.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  jtlants  producing  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  turnips  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  each  other;  because,  if  planted 


580 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


near,  it  is  not  only  quite  possible,  but  highly 
probiible,  that  one  variety  will  be  impreg- 
nated by  another  ;  bees  and  other  insects 
carrying  the  pollen  of  the  flower  of  one 
variety  to  the  flowers  of  the  others. 

2478.  Let  a  piece  of  ground  be  selected 
for  each  of  one  or  more  varieties  of  seed 
to  be  raised — and  spare  spaces  and  corners 
of  ground  exist  on  most  farms,  which  may 
be  converted  into  nurseries  for  such  a 
purpose  : — let  the  ground  receive  a  little 
dung ;  and  the  best  mode  of  procuring  a 
friable  mould  ujjon  it  is  to  turn  it  over 
with  the  spade,  bringing  off  the  stones 
and  weeds  that  may  be  found  in  it. 

2479.  Then  select  the  best-formed  bulbs 
of  the  different  kinds,  such  as  those  in  fig. 
88,  one  kind  after  another,  in  the  fields  in 
which  they  are  growing :  take  them  up 
carefully,  preserving  the  roots  and  fibres 
in  the  bulbs  as  entire  as  possible,  and 
removing  the  shaw  nearly  close  to  tlie 
bulb.  On  carrying  each  kind  to  its  re- 
spective piece  of  ground,  a  trench  is  made 
in  a  line,  deep  enough  to  contain  the  bulb 
with  its  root.  The  bulbs  are  inserted  at  12 
inches  apart,  and  as  deep  as  to  leave 
their  tops  only  above  the  ground,  when 
the  earth  has  been  returned  into  the 
trench.  It  is  generally  recommended  to 
place  the  rows  of  the  plants  at  1^  foot 
asunder,  but  I  should  say  3  feet  asunder, 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  as  much 
air  as  possible  for  the  plants,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  affording  room  to  a  person  to 
pass  between  the  rows  to  watch  the  seed, 
when  it  is  near  ripe,  from  the  depredation 
of  small  birds,  which  are  very  fond  of 
turnip-seed.  More  space  will  of  course 
be  required  for  the  rows  placed  thus  wide 
apart,  but  the  plants  will  be  stronger,  and 
tliey  will  be  the  better  guarded  against 
the  birds,  which  will  drop  amongst  the 
jdants  within  a  yard  of  the  person  watch- 
ing them. 

2480.  The  best  time  for  transplanting 
turnips  is  about  the  beginning  of  March, 
before  symptoms  of  spring  growth  appear 
in  them. 

2481.  In  large  and  more  open  pieces  of 
ground,  such  as  a  part  of  the  fallow  field, 
the  plough  may  be  employed  not  only  to 
turn    over  the   ground,   but  to   form  the 


trenches  for  the  transplanting,  and  the 
harrow  may  also  be  employed  lor  rc<iucing 
the  ground  into  a  mould. 

2482.  This  mode  of  transplanting  the 
bulb  takes  a  part  of  the  crop  of  turnips 
from  the  animals  ;  and  on  this  account, 
were  it  desired  to  raise  turnrp-seed  on  a 
large  scale,  it  is  evident  that  it  could  not 
be  done  but  at  the  cost  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  growing  crop.  In  such  a 
case  it  is  quite  possible  to  raise  the  seed  from 
seeds  instead  of  bulbs,  and  this  method 
will  be  described  in  its  proper  season. 

2483.  It  may  be  proper  to  caution  the 
young  farmer  that  the  ground  thus  occu- 
pied for  raising  tuniip-seed  should  be  pro- 
tected by  a  fence  against  stock,  other- 
wise the  crop  will  sutler  severely. 


O.N  THE  SOWING  OF  OATS. 

2484.  Ploughed  lea  ground  is  always 
sown  with  oats  in  Scotland,  except  where 
spring  wheat  and  tares  may  be  sown  to  a 
limited  extent ;  though  in  England,  wheat, 
whether  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  is  very 
frequently  sown  upon  it.  Besides  on  lea, 
oats  are  sown  in  Scotland,  in  the  more 
elevated  districts,  on  land  after  turnips,  in 
lieu  of  barley. 

2485.  After  what  has  been  said  of 
ploughing  lea  ground  (780  ;)  of  the  mode 
of  sowing  seed  by  the  hand,  fig.  202,  and 
by  machines,  fig.  204;  of  the  properties 
of  different  kinds  of  oats  cultivated  in  this 
country  (1925,  &c.,)  little  requires  to  be 
added  here  on  the  sowing  of  oats,  but  only 
on  the  manner  in  which  that  operation  is 

Jinifhed. 

2486.  Beans  and  spring  wheat  are  not 
sown  upon  every  species  of  farm  ;  the 
former  being  most  profitable  in  deep  strong 
soils,  and  the  latter  is  only  to  be  com- 
mended after  turnips,  eaten  off  by  sheep, 
on  land  in  good  heart,  situate  in  a  favour- 
able locality  for  climate  ; — but  oats  are 
sown  on  all  sorts  of  farms,  from  the  strong- 
est clay  to  the  lightest  sand,  and  from  the 
highest  point  to  which  arable  culture  has 
reached  on  moorland  soil,  to  the  bottom  of 
the  lowest  valley  on  the  richest  deposit. 
The  extensive  breadth  of  its  culture  does 


SOWING  OF  OATS. 


581 


not,  however,  imply  that  the  oat  is  natur- 
ally suited  to  all  soils  and  situations,  for 
its  fibrous  and  spreading  roots  indicate  a 
predilection  for  friable  soils ;  but  its 
general  use  as  food  among  the  agricultural 
population,  and  its  ability  to  support  the 
strength  of  horses,  have  induced  its  uni- 
versal culture  in  Scotland  ;  and  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact,  that  this  plant  has  adapted 
itself  admirably  to  the  various  circum- 
stances in  which  it  is  cultivated,  most  pro- 
bably owing  to  its  receiving  its  favourite 
food  everywhere,  namely,  the  decomposed 
grasses  which  enrich  the  soils  it  grows 
upon. 

2487.  All  the  varieties  of  oats  cultivated 
may  be  practically  classed  under  three 
heads,  the  common^  the  improved,  and  the 
Tartarian.  The  common  varieties  in- 
clude all  those  having  a  pyramidal  spike, 
soft  straw,  elongated  grains  possessing  a 
tendency  to  become  awny,  and  late  in 
reaching  maturity.  Among  the  named 
varieties  are  the  following  in  common  use 
— early  and  late  Angus^  Kildrummie^ 
JBlainslie,  white  Siberian,  fig.  184,  Cum- 
berland, sandy,  and  Dyock,  (which  two 
last  are  recent  varieties,)  and  others.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  character- 
istics of  each  variety,  as,  in  the  respective 
districts  in  which  they  are  sown,  each  is 
considered  best  suited  to  the  locality  in 
which  it  is  cultivated, — an  opinion  which 
may  safely  be  disputed.  The  four  last 
named  are  in  high  repute  at  present,  owing 
to  their  recent  introduction  ;  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  every  recent  variety  will  answer 
best  for  a  shorter  or  longer  period.  All 
common  oats  are  sown  on  tiie  inferior  soils, 
and  in  the  most  elevated  fields  of  farms, 
and  the  best  season  for  sowing  them  is  the 
beginning  of  March. 

2488.  Of  the  improved  varieties,  the 
potato  oat  was  long  cultivated  as  the 
only  one,  fig.  185  ;  but,  of  late  years,  the 
Hopelotiyi  oat  has  been  added  to  the  list. 
Before  it,  the  Georgian  was  intro<luced,  but 
did  not  succeed.  Both  the  potato  and  Hope- 
toun  oats  have  long  strong  straw,  large 
pyramidal  spikes,  come  early  to  maturity, 
and  are  cultivated  on  the  best  and  lowest 
lying  ground.  The  gi'ains  are  very  similar, 
the  Hopetoun  being  distinguislied  by  a 
tinge  of  red  on  the  bosom.  These  oats 
are  sown  a  fortniirht  after  the  common. 


2489.  The  cultivation  of  the  Tartarian 
varieties,  both  hlack  and  white,  is  chiefly 
confined  to  England,  for  the  use  of  horses, 
and  are  there  caWed/ecd  oats.  I  am  sur- 
prised that  this  oat  continues  to  be  culti- 
vated, being  so  coarse,  as  well  as  disagree- 
able in  the  barn  with  its  long  hygrometric 
awns.  Its  panicles  grow  on  one  side  of 
the  rachis,  fig.  186. 

2490.  The  ploughed  lea-ground  should 
be  dry  on  the  surface  before  it  is  sown,  as 
otherwise  it  will  not  harrow  kindly  ;  but 
the  proper  colour  of  dryness  should  be  dis- 
tinguished from  that  imposed  by  dry  hard 
frost.  It  will  not  be  proper  to  wait  until 
every  spot  of  the  field  is  alike  dry,  as 
thorough-draining  even  will  not  insure 
that;  though  spottiness  shown  in  spring 
is  a  good  criterion  whether  land  has  been 
enough  drained,  or  where  it  most  requires 
draining. 

2491.  Should  the  leahave  beenploughed 
some  time  before,  and  from  young  grass, 
the  furrow-slices  will  be  found  to  lie  close 
together  at  seed-time  ;  but  when  recently 
ploughed,  or  from  old  lea,  or  on  clay  land 
in  a  rather  wet  state,  the  furrow-slices 
will  not  lie  close  together,  but  be  as  far 
asunder  as  to  allow  a  good  deal  of  the 
seed  to  drop  down  between  them ;  and 
when  this  happens,  the  seed  is  lost,  as  oats 
will  not  vegetate  from  a  depth  of  6  or  7 
inches.  In  all  such  cases,  the  ground 
should  be  harrowed   a  single  tine  before 


2492.  When  oats  are  sown  by  hand 
upon  dry  lea-ground,  the  grains  rebound 
from  the  ground  and  dance  about  before 
depositing  themselves  in  the  hollows 
between  the  crests  of  the  furrow-slices, 
and  thus  accommodate  themselves  to  the 
form  of  the  ground,  and  are  not  so  liable 
to  form  happergaicin  in  sowing  as  other 
grains.  Were  the  ground  only  harrowed 
along  the  ridges,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
seed  in  the  furrow-slices,  the  crop  would 
come  up  in  regular  rows  as  if  sown  by 
drill;  butastheland  is  also  cross-harrowed, 
the  braird  conies  up  broadcast. 

2493.  The  quantity  of  common  oats 
usually  sown  is  6  bushels  to  the  acre ; 
and  in  deep  friable  land  in  good  heart,  5 
bushels  of  potato  oats. 


^92 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2494.  A  man  does  a  good  day's  work 
if  he  sows  broadcast  16  imperial  acres  of 
ground  in  10  hours,  that  is,  scatters  80 
bushels  of  potato  oats  and  96  bushels  of 
common  oats  in  that  time.  Some  men  can 
sow  120  bushels  of  common  and  100  of 
potato  in  the  time,  that  is,  20  acres ;  and 
double-handed  sowers  can  sow  even  more 
than  this  latter  quantity. 

2495.  Two  sowers  keep  one  seed-carrier 
fully  employed,  and  if  the  sacks  are  not 
conveniently  placed  (2311,)  one  will  not 
be  able  to  supply  them  both,  but  2  seed- 
carriers  will  easily  supply  3  sowers ;  and 
every  sower  employs  2  pairs  of  harrows 
breaking-in  after  him,  with  a  double  tine; 
so  that  the  number  of  sowers  is  regulated 
by  the  number  of  pairs  of  harrows  that  a 
farm  can  furnish.  The  arrangement  of 
the  labour  for  sowing  an  oat-field  may  be 
seen  in  fig.  210,  where  2  sowers  and  1 
seed-carrier  are  represented,  but  the  har- 
rows of  1  sower  are  only  shown  in  view. 

2496.  The  tines  of  the  harrows  should 
be  particularly  sharp  when  covering  in 
seed  upon  lea.  After  the  land  is  broken 
in  with  a  double  tine,  it  is  harrowed  across 
with  a  double  tine,  which  cuts  across  the 
furrow-crests,  and  then  along  another 
double  tine,  and  this  quantity  generally 
suffices.  At  the  last  harrowing  the  tines 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  no  stones 
should  be  allowed  to  be  trailed  along  by 
the  tines,  to  the  injurious  rubbing  of  the 
surface.  On  old  lea,  or  hard  land,  another 
single  turn  across  or  angle-ways  may  be 
required  to  render  the  land  fine  enough  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  on  free  soil  a  single 
tine  along  after  the  double  one  across 
may  suffice.  In  short,  the  harrowing 
should^  be  continued  as  long  and  no  longer 
than  the  ground  feels  uniformly  smooth 
and  firm  under  the  foot,  there  being  no 
hard  places,  or  sinkings  by  the  pressure 
of  the  foot.  The  head-ridges  are  harrowed 
by  themselves  at  the  last. 

2497.  The  laud,  after  oat-seed  sow- 
ing, is  always  icater-furrowed  in  every 
open-furrow  (2361.) 

2498.  It  should  also  be  rolled  (247-5,) 
according  to  circumstances  ;  that  is,  the 
young  braird  on  strong  land  being  retarded 
in  its  growth,  when  the  earth  is  encrusted 


by  rain  after  rolling,  it  is  safe  to  leave  the 
rolling  until  the  end  of  spring,  when  the 
crop  has  made  a  little  progress,  and  the 
weather  is  usually  dry.  Light  friable" 
land  should  be  rolled  immediately  after 
the  seed  is  sown  and  harrowed,  if  there  is 
time  to  do  it ;  but  the  rolling  of  one  field . 
should  cause  no  delay  to  the  sowing  of 
others  in  dry  weather.  There  will  be 
plenty  of  time  to  roll  the  ground  after  the 
oat-seed  and  other  urgent  operations  at 
this  season  are  finished,  when  rolling  can 
be  so  speedily  performed  as  described  in 
(2475.) 

2499.  The  cutting  of  ^a?f*  shonld  never 
be  neglected  in  finishing  off  an  oat-field,  to 
carry  off  water  along  hollows  or  by  the 
open-furrow  along  the  lowest  head-ridge, 
as  particularly  described  in  (779.)  In 
the  best  drained  fields,  gaws  may  be 
required  in  peculiarly  hollow  spots. 

2500.  Oats  are  sown  broadcast  by 
machinery  as  well  as  by  the  hand.  The 
machine  is  the  same  as  is  used  for  sowing 
spring  wheat,  and  seen  in  fig.  204.  As 
at  first  constructed  upon  two  wheels, 
this  machine,  when  loaded  with  a  full 
complement  of  oat-seed,  was  too  heavy 
for  a  horse's  back,  especially  on  going  down 
hill;  but  the  addition  of  the  third  wheel 
disposes  of  the  objection,  and  I  believe  the 
machine  is  now  extensively  employed  in 
tiie  sowing  of  corn.  The  land  is  harrowed 
after  the  seed  is  sown  with  the  broadcast 
sowing  machine,  the  same  as  after  sowing 
by  the  hand. 

2.501.  Oats  are  also  sown  in  rows  by 
such  drill-machines  as  are  represented  in 
figs.  205  and  206.  In  using  a  drill-ma- 
chine, the  land  should  first  be  harrowed, 
a  double  tine  along,  and  then  a  double  tine 
across  the  ridges,  and  again  a  single  tine 
along.  The  drill  then  sows  the  oats  across 
the  ridges,  and  the  land  is  finished  by 
harrowing  a  single  tine  also  across  the 
ridges.  The  water-furrowing  and  rolling 
should  be  executed  in  the  manner  just 
recommended  for  broadcast  sowing. 

2502.  The  drill  seems  to  me  not  well 
adapted  for  s<jw  m^  corn  on  /m-ground. 
The  coulters  cannot  pass  through  the  soil, 
even  after  it  has  been  well  cut  with  the 
harrows,  with  the  facility  they  do  through 


SOWING  OF  OATS. 


583 


ground  in  otber  states ;  and  on  hard  ground 
and  upon  old  lea,  it  is  questionable  whether 
the  coulters  can  penetrate  so  far  as  to  de- 
posit the  seed  at  a  depth  to  be  out  of  reach 
of  birds  and  drought ;  and  every  stone  in 
such  soil  being  firndy  imbedded,  will  be  apt 
to  cause  tlie  drill  to  go  out  of  its  proper 
course,  while  the  risk  of  partially  displac- 
ing the  still  uncorrupted  turf  will  be  im- 
minent. The  turf  would  be  less  disturbed 
were  drills  made  to  sow  the  seed  along  the 
ridges,  as  fig.  206.  In  all  these  latter  cases 
I  would  recommend  the  broadcast  machine 
ox  the  band  in  preference  to  the  drill ;  and 
I  would  confine  the  drill  to  the  sowing  of 
oats  on  tender  land,  as  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  towns,  where  it  is  made  tender  by  the 
application  of  large  quantities  of  street- 
manure,  and  where  drilling  is  advisable  as 
aftording  a  facility  for  clearing  the  land 
of  surface-weeds,  a  multitude  of  which, 
and  especially  wild  mustard,  Sinapis 
arvensis,  are  apt  to  spring  up  from  the 
use  of  street -manure.  In  England,  how- 
ever, where  the  drilling  of  grain  is  general, 
it  must  be  owned  that  their  ploughing 
with  the  wheel-plough  and  sowing  with 
the  drill-machine,  are  so  perfect  in  their 
eflfect,  that  the  seed  is  laid  in  the  furrows 
with  certainty,  and  without  at  all  disturb- 
ing the  furrow-slice.     The  soil  of  England 

Fig. 


is  probably  more  generally  smooth  than 
that  of  Scotland. 

2503.  At  a  time  when  a  less  rational  system 
of  husbandry  was  pursued  than  now  happily 
prevails — that  is,  when  land  was  allowed  to  be 
overrun  with  surface-water ;  when  lea  was 
ploughed  out  of  choice  in  a  wet  state,  because 
the  labour  of  doing  it  was  easier  for  half-starved 
jaded  horses  ;  when  land  was  harrowed  with 
small,  light,  loose  harrows,  furnished  with  short 
blunt  tines  ;  when  the  lea-turf  consisted  chiefly 
of  the  tough  roots  of  perennial  weeds — in  these 
circumstances  lea-ground  required  a  great  deal 
of  harrowing  to  bring  it  to  a  tolerable  degree  of 
tilth — eight  or  nine  double  tines  being  considered 
no  more  than  necessary.  The  great  length  of 
time  required  to  do  this,  obliged  the  oat-seed  to 
be  begun  early,  so  early  indeed  as  Tusser  recom- 
mends it  in  January,  and  by  the  time  the  crop 
was  finished,  every  man  and  beast  were  almost 
worn  out  with  fatigue.  The  land  being  now 
tender  and  fertile  by  draining,  cleaning,  and 
manuring,  oats  have  time  to  come  to  maturity 
when  sown  long  after  January,  and  its  harrow- 
ing is  now  finished  in  one-third  of  the  time,  and 
with  one-fourth  the  labour  it  required  then. 

'2504.  The  oat-crop,  when  very  young,  that  is, 
when  the  plant  has  not  pushed  its  leaves  more 
than  2  inches  above  the  ground,  is  subject  to  a. 
very  severe  attack  of  the  grub  or  larva  of  a  parti- 
cular insect,  the  Tipulaoleracea,2feadotc-crane- 
Jli/,  attacking  its  roots,  and  causing  the  plant  to 
decay,  and  even  to  die  when  seriously  injured.  The 
perfect  female  insect  is  represented  of  the  natural 
size  at  a,  fig.  223,  and  which  will  at  once  be 
223. 


ttt'^THB  LJRGE  INSECT  WHICH  PRODUCES  THE  GRUB  IN  OAT-FIELDS— THE  WHEAT-Ff,V. 


684 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


recognised  as  that  well  known  by  the  familiar 
names  of  Longlegt,  Tailors,  Jenny-the-fpinner. 
Its  body  is  nearly  1  inch  long,  of  a  brownish-gray 
colour,  and  its  wings  pale-brown.  In  the  female 
the  abdomen  is  thickest  near  the  middle,  from 
which  it  tapers  to  a  point  at  the  hinder  extre- 
mity ;  that  of  the  male  is  thickest  at  the  hinder 
extremity,  which  forms  a  kind  of  club.  "  This 
insect,"  says  Mr  Duncan, "  is  very  plentiful  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Its  long  legs  are  of  great  advantage  to 
it  in  the  places  it  frequents,  as  they  enable  it  to 
skip  over  the  grass  as  if  on  stilts  ;  and  it  still 
farther  facilitates  its  motions  while  so  doing,  by 
keepini;  the  wings  expanded,  to  render  it  buoy- 
ant. The  female  lays  a  great  number  of  eggs, 
which  are  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  insect,  and  of  a  black  colour.  These  she 
places  at  some  depth  in  the  earth,  which  she 
pierces  for  the  purpose  with  her  ovipositor.  The 
insects  may  easily  be  seen  performing  this  ope- 
ration, and  it  will  at  ouce  be  known  that  they 
are  so  employed  by  the  singular  position  they 
assume.  The  body  is  placed  in  a  perpendicular 
direction,  supported  on  the  hinder  feet  and  ex- 
tremity of  the  abdomen,  while  the  wings  are 
expanded,  and  the  anterior  legs  rest  on  the  sur- 
rounding plants.  When  a  sufficient  number  of 
eggs  have  been  laid  iu  one  spot,  the  insect  moves 
Oil  to  another,  without  changing  the  vertical  pos- 
ture of  her  body,  merely  dragging  herself  for- 
ward by  her  fore-legs,  aiding  her  movements 
with  her  wings."  It  is  in  the  larva  state  that 
these  insects  injure  crops  ;  meadow-grass  not 
being  their  only  food,  they  attack  different  kinds 
of  corn,  especially  oats,  the  effects  of  grubbing 
in  which  are  well  known  to  every  farmer.  When 
full  grown,  the  larvae  are  in  the  shape  of  an 
elongated  cylinder,  somewhat  suddenly  attenu- 
ated at  both  extremities,  and  are  of  a  dull  grayish 
colour,  and  without  feet.  The  head  is  furnished 
with  two  hooks,  one  on  each  side.  The  pupa  is 
not  unlike  the  chrysalis  of  some  kinds  of  moth  ; 
and  it  is  nearly  of  the  same  colour  as  the  larvae, 
the  edges  of  the  segments  being  furnished  with 
pretty  strong  hairs.  The  larvae  reside  generally 
about  1  or  2  inches  beneath  the  surface,  mining 
their  way  among  the  roots  of  the  herbage,  and 
causing  it  to  wither  for  want  of  nourishment. 
They  prefer  a  soil  which  has  been  long  undis- 
turbed by  the  plough  ;  and  if  it  contains  some 
portion  of  peat-earth,  it  seems  thereby  better 
adapted  to  their  tastes.  "  In  the  rich  district  of 
Sunk  Island,  in  Holdemess,  in  the  spring  of 
1813,"  say  Messrs  Kirby  and  Spence,  "hundreds 
of  acres  of  pastures  have  been  entirely  destroyed 
by  them,  being  rendered  as  completely  brown  as 
if  they  had  suffered  a  three  months'  drought, 
and  destitute  of  all  vegetation  except  a  few 
thistles.  A  square  foot  of  the  dead  turf  being 
dug  up,  210  grubs  were  counted  in  it  ;  and  what 
furni^hes  a  striking  proof  of  the  prolific  powers 
of  these  insects,  last  year  it  was  difficult  to  find 
a  single  one."*  "  After  mentioning  their  exten- 
sive devastations,  it  may  occasion  surprise,"  as 
Mr  Duncan  well  remarks,  "  to  be  told  that  many 


gots  eat  nothing  but  the  fiue  mould  they  find  at 
the  roots  of  plauts,  and  that  the  injury  caused  to 
the  latter  arises  solely  from  their  disturbing  the 
soil,  and  preventing  the  rootlets  fixing  themselves. 
Such  was  the  opinion  of  Reaumur  ;  and  the 
generality  of  subsequent  writers  on  the  subject 
have  yielded  to  his  authority.  .  .  Mr  Stick- 
ney,  who  has  published  '  (Jbserrations  on  the 
Grub,'  made  some  experiments  for  the  express 
purpose  of  determining  this  point,  and  they  con- 
vinced him  that  the  larva;  devour  the  roots  of 
grasses.  Indeed,  unless  this  were  the  case,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  account  for  the  herbage 
withering  to  such  au  extent  in  places  where  the 
maggots  prevail  ;  for  this  could  never  arise  from 
such  small  creatures,  even  though  very  numerous, 
burrowing  in  and  loosening  the  soil.  When 
earth-worms  are  plentiful,  they  must  produce  a 
considerable  disturbance  in  the  soil  by  their 
winding  galleries  ;  but  these,  so  far  from  retard- 
ing, have  ahvays  been  regarded  as  promoting  the 
growth  of  plants.  '  The  grub  of  this  tipula,' " 
says  Mr  Stickney,  as  quoted  by  Mr  Duncan, 
"  '  commits  its  ravages  chiefly  in  tlie  first  crop, 
after  the  breaking  up  of  the  grass-land,  also 
after  clover  and  beans  ;  the  fly  from  which  the 
insect  is  produced  having  deposited  its  eggs  in 
the  soil  amongst  the  grass,  clover,  or  beans.  .  .  . 
On  investigating  the  habits  of  this  insect,  I  found 
that  it  took  tlie  fly-state  about  the  beginning  of 
the  month  of  August;  I  therefore  concluded,  as 
we  got  our  clover-hay  from  the  Jaud  a  little  after 
midsummer,that,  if  we  ploughed  theclover  stubble 
any  time  after  that,  and  before  the  month  of  August, 
it  would  be  nearly  free  from  the  grub,  as  instinct 
has  directed  the  fly  not  to  leave  its  eggs  upon  the 
naked  soil  where  no  vegetable  is  growing.  I 
knew  of  no  application  to  the  land,'  adds  Mr 
Stickney,  '  that  will  in  any  way  destroy  the 
grub;  but  we  are  much  indebted  to  the  rook, and 
a  variety  of  other  birds,  for  keeping  its  depre- 
dations within  limited  grounds. 'f  The  satura- 
tion of  the  soil,"  concludes  Mr  Duncan,  "  with 
some  caustic  fluid,  seems  the  only  way  by  which 
this  maggot  can  be  destroyed.  The  perfect  in- 
sects are  easily  caught;  but  they  are  so  generally 
distributed,  and  usually  so  plentiful,  that  their 
destruction  in  this  way  would  be  a  hopeless 
task."4: 

2505.  The  TOok{CorTusfrugiIegus)  may  be  seen 
busily  engaged  in  turning  over  every  loose  turf 
clod  on  a  grubbed  field  of  oats,  after  the  young 
crop  has  evidently  assumed  an  unhealthy  hue. 

2506.  This  hue  should  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
yellowish  tint  exhibited  by  the  plant  when  the 
support  derived  from  the  seed  is  exhausted,  and 
before  the  rootlets  have  obtained  sufficient  hold 
of  the  ground  to  maintain  the  plant.  The  grub 
taint  is  of  a  bluish  and  reddish  tint,  and  many  of 
the  plants  evidently  appear  to  be  dying,  and  the 
consequence  is,  that  large  spaces  are  left  without 
a  plant.  The  usual  expedient  employed  by  the 
farmer  is  rolling  the  ground,  especially  in  tlie 
night;  but  this  is  a  useless  remedy.  Crosskill's 
clod-crusher   would  be   a  much   more    effectual 


eminent  observers  are  of  opinion,  that  these  mag 

*  Kirby  and  Spence's  Introduction  to  Entomology,  yo\.  i.  p.  181. 
+  British  Farmer'$  Magazine,  vol.  vi.  p.  321.  *  Journal  of  ^Agriculture,  vol 


xi.  p.  368-72. 


LUCERNE. 


585 


instrument  for  this  purpose  than  the  common 
roller.  Holes  have  been  recommended  to  be 
made  9  inches  in  depth,  and  a  few  inches  asunder, 
with  the  dibble,  into  which  the  grub,  it  is  said, 
will  fall,  and  they  might  then  be  destroyed  by 
pouring  an  acid  upon  them.  The  ravages  are 
generally  committed  in  dry  weather  with  an  E. 
wind,  and  when  rain  falls  they  cease. 

2507.  It  is  surprising  how  a  field  will  recover 
the  effects  of  grubbing.  One  season  a  field  of 
mine,  of  fine  deep  hazel  loam,  after  two  years' 
grass,  was  dreadfully  grubbed,  and  after  trying 
the  usual  remedies  to  get  quit  of  the-  insects, 
without  effect,  a  rainy  night  silenced  them. 
Most  of  the  field  appeared  bare  after  having 
exhibited  a  beautiful  braird,  but  on  the  plants 
renewing  their  growth,  they  tillered  out  with 
great  force,  and  almost  covered  the  ground  as 
thickly  as  desirable.  At  harvest  the  crop  was  a 
very  strong  one,  the  straw  being  difficult  for 
women  to  cut  with  the  common  sickle  ;  the 
spikes  were  very  large  and  full;  the  stocks, 
when  set  without  hood-sheaves,  stood  about  6 
feet  in  height,  and  the  yield  was  not  less  than 
60  bushels  to  the  acre.  On  good  soil  I  should 
have  no  fear  of  potato  oats  tillering  out  after 
being  severely  grubbed,  sufficiently  to  afiFord  a 
good  crop;  but  such  a  result  should  not  be  ex- 
pected of  common  oats  upon  inferior  soils. 

2508-  There  are  reasons  for  believing  that,  in 
some  cases  at  least,  the  withering  of  the  wheat 
crop  in  spring,  which  had  been  sown  on  lea  in 
autumn,  was  occasioned  by  this  insect.  Rolling 
with  Crosskill's  clod-crusher  has  been  tried,  and 
found  at  least  partially  successful  in  destroying 
the  grub,  and  relieving  the  crop. 

2509.  The  spring  treatment  of  the  oat  crop  in 
Germany  is  thus  described  by  Thaer  : — "  Oats 
are  annually  sown  more  thickly  than  any  other 
kind  of  grain,  either  because  the  bushel  contains 
fewer  grains,  or  because  oats  do  not  grow  so 
bushy  as  other  kinds  of  corn,  excepting  on  very 
rich  soils.  One  half  more  seed  than  would  be 
considered  as  the  proper  quantity  for  any  other 
kind  of  grain  must  be  sown  in  this  case;  and  on 
broken-up  grass  land,  which  has  only  had  one 
ploughing,  the  quantity  had  better  be  doubled, be- 
cause all  the  seeds  do  not  come  up. 

2510.  "  To  insure  the  success  of  a  crop  of  oats, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  seed  should  be  plump, 
fresh,  and  uninjured  by  fermentation.  Oats 
which  have  acquired  an  unpleasant  taste  or  smell 
while  in  the  sack  or  store-house,  certainly  come 
up  from  the  ground  like  others,  but  they  pro- 
duce a  weakly  plant,  which  perishes  at  the 
flowering  season.  I  accidentally  obtained  proofs 
of  this  during  the  period  1  was  studying  agricul- 
ture. There  is  no  grain,  besides  wheat,  in  which 
this  evil  requires  to  be  guarded  against  so  much 
as  in  oats. 


April :  in  broken-up  pasture  land,  they  are  sown 
in  the  middle  of  March,  if  possible  ;  but  where 
the  situation  is  warm,  the  sowing  may  be  de- 
layed as  late  as  the  commencement  of  June  ;  and 
it  is  when  thus  sown  that  oats  succeed  best,  pro- 
vided that  the  weather  is  favourable :  this  is 
occasioned  as  much  by  the  soil  having  received 
a  better  preparation,  as  it  is  by  the  destruction  of 
the  weeds  being  more  complete. 

2512.  "Oats  do  not  germinate  so  easily  as 
barley,  nor  is  the  process  of  germination  so  uni- 
form, excepting  where  it  takes  place  under  a 
very  favourable  temperature.  The  crop  does  not 
come  up  simultaneously,  nor  do  the  plants  ripen 
equally.  Many  weeds  which  germinate  with 
oats — as,  for  instance,  the  wild  mustard  and  the 
wild  radish — tend  materially  to  weaken  the  crop, 
and  should  therefore  be  destroyed  by  harrow- 
ing."* 

ON  LUCERNE. 

2513.  "In  Britain,"  says  Mr  Lawson, 
"a  great  deal  has  been  said  in  favour 
of  lucerne,  as  an  early  plant,  for  yielding 
fodder  before  the  red  clover ;  and  its  cul- 
tivation has  often  been  attempted,  and 
attended  with  various  degrees  of  success. 
The  climate' of  Scotland  has  been  con- 
sidered by  some  as  too  cold  for  its  growth ; 
but  the  numerous  failures  which  have 
taken  place  may  be  more  justly  attributed 
to  an  improper  choice  of  soil  than  to  any 
other  cause.  The  soils  which  appear  to 
be  most  congenial  to  it  are  those  of  a  very 
light  sandy  or  dry  nature;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, several  places  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Musselburgh,  near  Edinburgh,  where 
it  is  found  to  thrive  well,  although  exposed 
to  the  direct  influence  of  the  sea-breeze, 
and  to  be  fit  for  cutting  at  least  a  fort- 
night earlier  than  common  rye-grass  and 
red  clover.  Provided,  however,  the  sub- 
soil be  always  dry,  the  plant  penetrating 
to  a  considerable  depth  with  its  roots,  and 
particularly  if  it  be  of  a  calcareous  nature, 
it  is  not  indispensable  that  the  surface 
soil  be  very  sandy,  as  lucerne,  in  such 
cases,  is  found  to  grow  freely  on  medium 
black  loams ;  but  lands  wliich  have  a  damp 
.subsoil,  or  are  of  a  tenacious  nature,  and 
damp  in  winter,  are  totally  unfit  for  grow- 
ing it,  even  although  they  may  be,  in  the 
general  acceptation  of  tiie  term,  very  good 
s^ls."t 


2511.  "The  usual  period  for  sowing  oats  is  in  2514.  The  mode  of  culture  may  have 

•  Thaer's  Principles  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  438-9— Shaw  and  Johnson's  translation. 
•I*  Lawson's  Agriculturid's  Manual,  p.  159. 


586 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2516.  "This  mode  of  cultivating  this 
useful  plant  will  produce  8  tons  of  forage 
per  acre  ;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  when  so  much  is  taken  from  the 
ground,  much  manure  will  require  to  be 
given  in  return.  The  broadcast  plan  is 
very  much  preferable  to  drilling.  I  have 
known  many  sow  it  in  drills,  and,  after  a 
few  years,  give  it  up,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  trouble  and  expense  incurred  iu 
hoeing  and  cleaning;  but  the  broadcast 
system  saves  all  that  trouble. 

251 7.  "  I  sowed  my  lucerne  in  1 830,  and 
have  continued  mowing  and  manuring  it 
every  year  since ;  and  in  some  seasons  I 
have  got  as  much  as  12  tons  per  acre. 
It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  will  endure  cold 
if  cultivated  in  dry  soil ;  but  it  flourishes 
best  in  a  hot  summer,  when  I  have  seen 
it  run  to  the  height  of  5  feet  5  inches, 
though  its  usual  stature  is  about  4  feet ; 
and  when  all  the  other  grasses  were  burnt 
up,  it  has  remained  green  and  succulent. 
It  is  particularly  calculated  for  horses, 
though  pigs  will  greedily  consume  the 
refuse  that  comes  from  the  stable,  and 
thrive  well  upon  it ;  but  it  is  too  strong  in 
the  stalk  for  cows,  and  by  no  means  so  good 
for  them  as  tares.  If  cultivated  upon  proper 
soil,  an  acre  will  keep  three  strong  cart- 
horses for  6  months,  from  1st  May  to  Octo- 
ber ;  and  after  the  first  year  may  be  mowed 
twice  or  thrice,  according  to  the  seasons." 

2518.  The  lucerne  belongs  to  the  class  and 
order  Diadelphta  Decandria  of  Linna?us  ;  to  the 
family  Lefluminosce  of  Jussieu  ;  and  to  the  sub- 
class iii.,  Pcriiiiinous  Exogeus;  alliance  4'2,/?osa/«; 
order  209  Fahiacece;  tribe  2,  Loteoe,  and  sub-tribe 
3,  Tnf'ji'nr,  of  the  natural  system  of  Lindley.  It 
is  the  Medicaqo  satira  ofbotanfetfe  roots  sub-fusi- 
form, stem  erect, flowers  lar|^  an^^iolet-coloured. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  that  given  by  Diosco- 
rides  to  Median  grass. 

2.il9.  Lucerne  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
to  Greece  from  Asia.  The  Romans  were  well 
acquainted  with  its  properties  as  a  forage  plant, 
particularly  for  hurses.  Hartlib  endeavoured  to 
introduce  it,s  culture  into  England  in  the  time  of 
the  Commonwealth,  but  did  not  succeed.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  many  parts  of  Europe  in  the  fields  ;  but 
"it  is  very  remarkable  that  this  species  of  forage, 
to  which  so  much  importance  was  attacheJ  by 
the  Romans,  has  alt^igether  disappeared  from 
Italy.  We  are  assured  by  M.  Chateauvieux,  that 
not  a  single  plant  of  it  is  now  to  be  seen."  * 
*  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities — Art.  A<}ricultura.     New  edition.     This  article, 

by  Professor  Ramsay  of  Glasgow,  gives  the  most  correct  aud  satisfactory  epitome  of  the  agriculture 

of  the  Romans  I  have  seen. 


some  effect  on  the  success  of  cultivation. 
Mr  William  Pepper,  of  Falcon  Lodge,  near 
Sutton  Culdfield,  in  Warwickshire,  cul- 
tivates lucerne,  and  he  decidedly  prefers 
the  broadcjvst  to  the  drill  system  ;  and  he 
has  kindly  furnished  me  with  these  par- 
ticulars. He  says  that  "  a  light  dry  soil 
should  be  chosen  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  farmstead,  and  the  deeper  it  is  the 
better,  as  lucerne  has  a  long  root,  which 
I  have  known  strike  as  deep  as  6  feet. 
The  ground  should  be  quite  free  of  weeds, 
and  well  covered  with  good  foldyardmanure, 
which  should  either  be  dug  down  1 8  inches 
deep,  with  a  double  spit  of  the  spade,  or 
ploughed  down  with  a  double  furrow,  by 
one  plough  following  another.  The  best 
time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  about  the 
middle  of  March,  when  it  should  be  sowti 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  20  lbs.  per  acre,  at 
a  cost  of  Is.  8d.  per  lb.  It  may  be  har- 
rowed in  with  barley,  upon  laud  that  has 
carried  turnips, as  being  then  in  the  cleanest 
state ;  but  it  may  be  sown  after  grass  or 
stubble,  provided  the  laud  has  been  pro- 
perly laboured  and  cleaned." 

2515.  I  may  relate  here,  once  for  all, 
Mr  Pepper's  entire  culture  of  this  plant. 
"  Towards  tiie  latter  end  of  October,  or 
beginning  of  I^oA^ember,"  continues  Mr 
Pepper,  "  the  lucerne  should  be  covered 
with  light  stable  manure,  to  preserve  it 
from  the  frosts  during  the  winter;  and 
towards  the  beginning  of  March,  in  the 
ensuing  season,  it  should  be  harrowed 
with  light  grass-seed  harrows,  to  remove 
the  few  remaining  weeds,  and  rolled. 
After  it  has  been  mown  in  May  for  the 
first  time,  it  would  be  advisable  to  scatter 
over  it  again  a  light  dressing  of  manure, 
in  order  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the 
second  crop.  When  the  ground  is  cleared 
in  the  end  of  the  season,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  apply  harrows  upon  it  of  a  heavier 
descri])tion  than  tho.se  employed  in  the 
sea.son  before,  as  early  in  the  season  as  the 
crop  will  admit;  and  continue  to  harrow 
till  the  ground  is  free  of  all  weeds,  and 
almost  liki;  a  fallow,  as  the  lucerne  roots 
will  now  iiave  got  so  deep  as  not  to  be 
injured  by  harrowing;  and  when  immedi- 
ately covered  with  manure,  it  will  be 
found  free  of  weeds  in  spring. 


SAINFOIN. 


587 


2520.  As  a  successful  instance  of  cultivating 
the  lucerne  in  drills,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London,  I  may  mention  that  a  practical  writer 
recommends  it  to  be  sown  in  good,  dry,  deep 
soil,  well-manured,  in  drills  at  6  feet  asunder, 
and  to  cultivate  the  intervening  ground  with 
other  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  savoys,  cabbages, 
carrots,  &c.;  and  the  principle  upon  which  he  ad- 
vocates the  wide  drill  system  is  the  abundance  of 
air  given  to  the  plant  above,  and  of  room  to  the 
roots  below  the  ground,  whilst  the  intervening 
ground  can  be  kept  clean  by  the  culture  of  other 
useful  green  crops;  and  he  maintains  there  is  no 
other  mode  of  keeping  the  land  permanently 
clean,  and  that  lucerne  will  not  thrive  amongst 
weeds.  He  observes  that  "  the  quick  progress 
of  lucerne,  where  it  has  room,  is  remarkable. 
The  first  year,  only  2  tons  4  lbs.,  the  second,  8 
tons  17  lbs.,  the  third,  32  tons,  advancing  every 
year  to  four  times  the  quantity  it  produced  the 
year  preceding.  Another  remarkable  circum- 
stance is,  that  the  same  plants  produced  the 
third  year  almost  four  times  the  quantity  that 
they  did  the  second,  though  cut  but  once  more. 
The  second  year  they  produced  three  cuttings, 
and  the  third  year  but  four,  yet  the  produce  of  the 
four  cuttings  was  four  times  as  much  as  of  the 
three.  So  much  more  numerous,  larger,  and 
juicy  were  the  stalks  of  these  plants,  when  in 
vigour,  than  in  poor,  cold  land,  assisted  by  cul- 
ture only  ;  and  hence  some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  its  extraordinary  luxuriance  on  rich,  warm 
land,  well  cultivated,  and  also  manured.  The 
results  were,  i'20,  16s.  per  acre  per  annum  of 
clear  profit,  from  lucerne  planted  in  this  man- 
ner for  the  first  three  years  ;  but  after  this,  when 
the  leaves  of  the  plants  meet,  will  yield  full  crops, 
and  then  the  profits  will  be  much  greater — for 
the  value  of  the  lucerne  crops  alone  will  be  £30 
a-year  and  upwards,  and  this  with  less  trouble, 
and  much  greater  certainty,  than  any  other  tilled 
crops  in  common  husbandry.  The  value  of  the 
"lucerne  and  the  other  crops,"  he  admits,  "  will 
indeed  be  much  lower  remote  from  London,  and 
other  populous  cities,  and  for  fattening  cattle 
than  if  raised  for  sale  at  market  ;  yet  they  will 
still  be  very  profitable,  and  much  beyond  the 
common  profits  of  arable  land."*  Tf  a  near  ap- 
proach to  these  results  be  obtained,  the  lucerne 
is  worth  the  trial  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
large  towns  in  Scotland,  upon  dry  rich  ground, 
and  I  must  own  the  mode  of  culture  seems  fea- 
sible. This  writer  says  that  lucerne  should  only 
be  cut  when  in  the  bloom,  and  that,  in  convert- 
ing it  into  hay,  it  loses  three-fourths  of  its  weight. 

2521 .  The  variety  of  lucerne  named  the  falcate 
podded  lacerne,  Med ica(jo  falcata,  is  said  to  be 
the  kind  cultivated  in  Switzerland,  the  flowers 
of  which  are  usually  pale  yellow,  which  is  the 
most  common  colour  of  the  tribe,  but  occasion- 
ally violet  and  green.  There  are  81  species  of 
lucerne  described  by  botanists. 

2522.  The  ash  of  the  lucerne  contains  the  fol- 
lowing ingredients  according  to  Sprengei  : — 


Potash,  . 

Soda,    .  .  . 

Lime,   .  .  . 

Magnesia, 

Oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  &c.. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Sulphuric  acid. 

Chlorine, 

Silica,  .  .  . 


Per-centage  of  ash. 


1403 
6-44 

50-57 
3-64 
0-63 

13-68 
4-32 
3-23 
3-46 

10000 

9-55 


2523.  Lucerne  seed  weighs  62  lbs.  the  bushel, 
and  costs  about  90s.  per  cwt. 


ON  SAINFOIN. 

252-4.  The  sainfoin  is  a  most  valuable 
forage  plant  in  the  poor,  thin,  dry,  chalky 
districts  of  England  and  France,  where  it 
will  crrow  for  eii^dit  or  ten  years.  Although 
hardy  enough,  it  has  not  extended  itself 
to  the  nortli  of  England,  or  into  Scotland, 
most  probably  from  the  want  of  cal- 
careous matter  in  the  soil,  which  it  seems 
to  delight  in.  It  does  not  thrive  in 
strong  soils. 

2525.  It  is  preferred  to  be  cultivated  in 
the  broadcast  style,  and  may  be  treated 
precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  that  de- 
scribed above,  by  Mr  Pepper,  for  lucerne. 
"  A  very  judicious  method,"  as  mentioned 
by  Mr  Lawson,  "•which  is  practised  in 
some  parts  of  England,  is  to  sow  it  with 
about  half  the  quantity  of  barley,  or  other 
grain,  usually  sown  for  a  full  crop,  which 
gives  it  the  advantage  of  being  shaded,  and 
kept  moist  during  the  first  summer,  without 
the  chance  of  the  plants  being  weakened 
from  the  closeness  of  the  corn  crop.  In 
cases  where  the  barley  or  corn  is  drilled, 
the  sainfoin  should  be  drilled  across  the 
field — that  is,  the  drills  running  at  right 
angles  to  those  of  the  corn  crops."  t 

2526.  The  seed  of  sainfoin  is  large  and 
light ;  so  light  that,  in  harrowing  the 
ground  too  much,  it  is  apt  to  be  again 
brought  to  the  surface.  On  this  account 
it  had  better  be  sown  with  a  drill  machine; 
and  in  that  case  the  crop  should  be  in 
drills,  instead  of  broadcast. 

2527.  The  plant  comes  to  full  maturity 


The  Improved  Culture  of  Lucerne,  p.  177-80.  1775.         f  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  165 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


of  growth  in  3  years;  and,  though  it  will 
not  hear  to  he  cut  so  many  times  in  the 
year  as  lucerne,  it  makes  an  excellent 
easily  made  hay,  yielding  from  1  to  2  tons 
per  acre,  and  a  pleasant  aftermath  for 
stock. 

2528.  It  is  possible  to  cultivate  sain- 
foin as  a  one  or  more  years'  crop  of  grass, 
in  rotation  with  corn  crops,  instead  of  red 
clover  ;  hut  in  that  case  it  would  be  better 
to  be  accompanied  with  wliite  clover  and 
rye-grass ;  and,  being  a  perennial,  it  would 
have  the  advantage  of  red  clover  of  re- 
maining longer  than  one.  year  in  the 
ground,  should  it  be  desired  to  retain  the 
grass  beyond  that  period. 

2529.  The  sainfoin  belongs  to  the  class  and 
order  Diadelphia  Dccandria  of  Linnaeus  ;  to 
the  family  Lejuminosoe  of  the  natural  system  of 
Jussieu  ;  and  to  the  sub-class  iii.  Perigynous 
Exogens  ;  alliance  42,  liosales ;  order  209,  Fa- 
biacece ;  tribe  3,  Vicice,  and  sub-tribe  3,  Heyd- 
sarecB  of  the  natural  system  of  Lindley.  It  is 
the  Onohrychus  satira,  the  cultivated  sainfoin  of 
botanists,  roots  sub-fusiform,  stems  erect,  flowers 
in  spikes  or  long  foot-stalks,  of  a  beautiful  pink 
or  flesh  colour.  Its  generic  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  signifying  plants  grateful  to  the  ass  ; 
its  ordinary  name  is  evidently  from  the  French, 
meaning  consecrated  hay — from  its  property  of 
producing  an  excellent  sort  of  hay.  The  name 
was  doubtless  derived  from  France  along  with 
the  plant. 

2530.  The  intelligent  practical  writer  whom  I 
quoted  above,  on  the  subject  of  the  lucerne,  also 
treats  of  the  culture  of  sainfoin,  and  he  is  a  de- 
cided advocate  of  the  drill  system.  He  recom- 
mends sainfoin  to  be  cultivated  solely  to  be  made 
into  hay,  as  being  the  most  profitable  mode  of 
cultivating  it,  and  to  be  sown  in  double  rows  of 
12  inches  apart  and  30  inches  between  the  double 
rows,  or  in  single  rows  at  24  inches  apart,  and 
the  plants  4  inches  asunder  in  the  row.  This 
method  admits  of  the  land  being  thoroughly 
worked,  cleaned,  and  manured  whilst  the  crop 
is  growing,  and  then  the  plants  will  meet  in 
the  rows.  And  he  makes  the  sensible  remark, 
that  if  we  expect  to  reap  a  heavy  crop  three  or 
four  times  in  the  season,  we  must  lay  our  account 
to  manure  the  soil  well. 

2531.  The  sainfoin  yields  by  much  the  finest 
quality  of  hay  when  cut  before  the  blossom  comes 
out.  "  Tiiis  hay,  so  cut  before  blossoming,"  says 
Jethro  Tull,  "  has  kept  a  team  of  working  store 
horses,  round  the  year,  fat  without  corn,  and 
when  tried  with  beans  and  outs,  mixed  with  chatT, 
refused  it  for  the  hay.  The  same  fatted  some 
sheep  in  the  winter  in  a  pen,  with  only  it  and 
water  ;  they  throve  faster  than  other  sheep  at 

*  TalVa  Husbandry, p.  174-5,— 1 7(i2. 


the  same  time  fed  with  pease  and  oats.  The  hay 
was  weighed  to  them,  and  the  clear  profit 
amounted  to  £4  per  ton.  They  made  no  waste, 
though  the  stalks  Were  of  extraordinary  bigness; 
they  would  break  off  short,  being  very  brittle. 
This  grew  on  rich  land  in  Oxfordshire.  The 
second  sort  of  sainfoin  hay  is  cut  in  the  flower  ; 
and  though  much  inferior  to  the  virgin  hay,  it 
far  exceeds  any  other  kind,  as  yet  commonly  pro- 
pagated in  England  ;  and,  if  "  it  be  a  full  crop 
by  good  culture,  may  amount  to  above  3  tons  on 
an  acre.  This  is  that  sainfoin  which  is  commonly 
made,  and  the  larger  it  is  the  more  nourishing 
for  horses.  I  have  known  farmers,  after  full  ex- 
perience, go  three  miles  to  fetch  the  largest 
stalky  sainfoin,  when  they  could  have  bought  the 
small,  fine,  leafy  sort  at  home,  for  the  same  price, 
by  the  ton.  The  next  and  last  sort  of  sain- 
foin that  is  cut  only  for  hay  is  the  full-grown, 
the  blossoms  being  gone  or  going  off :  this  also 
is  good  hay, though  itfalls  short, by  many  degrees, 
of  the  other  two  sorts.  It  makes  a  greater  crop 
than  either  of  them,  because  it  grows  to  its  full 
bulk,  and  shrinks  little  in  drying."  t 

2532. — "  The  season  for  sainfoin  hay,"  says  the 
former  writer,  "  lasts  from  the  end  of  April,  or 
beginning  of  May,  to  the  first  or  second  week 
of  October,  or  between  five  and  six  months  ;  in 
which  time,  there  is  no  doubt  that  from  good  land, 
cultivated  as  above,  3  good  cuttings  will  be  ob- 
tained, amounting  to  7  or  8  tons  of  prime  hay 
per  acre,  or  about  30  tons  of  green  fodder. 

2533.  "  It  is  no  small  commendation  of  this 
plant  that  the  occupier  of  any  ordinary  land  may 
raise  good  sainfoin  upon  it ;  that  will  keep  a  dairy, 
or  fatten  beasts  and  sheep,  even  upon  land  that 
did  not  before  produce  tolerable  pasture  for  them. 
This  is  of  inestimable  benefit  to  hill  farmers,  whose 
dry  lands  are  of  little  profit  to  them,  but,  by  the 
proper  cultivation  of  sainfoin,  may  thus  be  made 
of  almost  equal  value  to  the  rich  low  lands  in 
dry  seasons,  and  iu  wet  seasons  superior  to 
them."  X 

2534.  These  commendations  may  not  suit  our 
Scottish  practice,  in  which  sainfoiil  is  unknown  ; 
but  now  that  red  clover  has  become  so  precari- 
ous a  crop,  and  is  at  all  events  only  an  annual, 
it  is  but  right  to  look  about  for  substitutes 
which  will  answer  for  as  long  a  period  at  least 
as  to  postpone  the  return  of  the  red  clover  for 
a  number  of  years,  and  allow  the  land,  in  tlie 
meantime,  to  be  rendered  again  fit  to  receive  it. 
But  as  to  making  sainfoin  and  such  plants  per- 
manent retainers  of  the  soil,  Professor  Low 
makes  these  just  observations.  "  If  ground  is  to 
be  mown  for  successive  years  for  forage  in  such 
soils  as  are  suited  to  it,  scarce  a  better  crop  can 
be  cultivated  than  sainfoin,  which  is  easily  grown, 
hardy,  and  productive.  But,  with  regard  to  this 
particular  mode  of  cultivation,  it  cannot  be  at  ail 
recommended.  It  is  not  the  most  beneficial  mode 
of  raising  crops  for  forage  ;  for,  independently  of 
the  smaller  produce,  the  keeping  of  land  under 
any  one  kind  of  crop,  and  manuring  it  upon  the 

t  Improved  Culture  of  Sainfoin,  p.  251. 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


589 


surface,  is  to  deprive  t!ie  cultivated  land  of  ma- 
nure for  an  object  whicli  may  be  better  attained 
by  other  means."  * 

2535.  The  a^]l  afforded  Ly  sainfoin  contains 
the  following  ingredients,  according  to  two  au- 
thorities : — 


Sprengel. 

IJuch. 

Potash, 

•29-57 

675 

Soda, 

6-28 

21-46 

Lime, 

3i-55 

31 -Ul 

Magnesia,     . 

4-14 

8-57 

Oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  &c., 

0-95 

1-74 

Phosphoric  acid 

13-17 

2(;-64 

Sulphuric  acid, 

4-90 

1-68 

Chlorine, 

'2-26 

1-31 

Silica, 

7-18 

110 

10000 

100-26 

Per-centage  of  ash,  6-96 


2536.  It  may  be  proper  to  mention  that  the 
sainfoin  seed  ought  to  be  new,  or  it  will  not  ger- 
minate. It  weighs  about  28  lbs.  per  bushel,  and 
varies  in  price  from  40s.  to  70s.  per  quarter, 
according  to  the  demand. 

2537.  Giant  Sainfoin. — "  The  introduction  of 
this  variety  of  sainfoin,"  says  Mr  Joseph  Hine, 
Newhaven,  near  Baldock,  Herts,  "was  purely  ac- 
cidental: it  was  clearly  a  foreign  species;  but 
although  various  purchases  of  foreign  seed  have 
subsequently  been  made,  in  liopes  of  obtaining 
the  same  variety,  they  have  hitherto  proved  un- 
successful. It  was  not  until  1842  that  my 
father,  who  was  the  then  tenant  of  the  farm  I 
occupy,  sufBciently  overcame  his  sceptical  no- 
tions in  reference  to  its  peculiar  properties  as  a 
distinct  species,  as  to  induce  him  to  give  it  a  fair 
trial;  then,  however,  he  procured  of  the  intro- 
ducer four  bushels  of  seed,  which  cost  him  80s. 
per  bushel.  This  was  dibbled  between  the  rows 
of  wheat  sown  upon  a  pea  stubble;  and  the  seed 
being  expensive,  we  endeavoured  to  drop  one 
seed  in  a  hole,  making  them  from  three  to  four 
inches  apart,  which  carried  it  over  nearly  three 
acres.  The  stubble  of  the  wheat  crop  was  left 
upon  the  land  during  the  winter,  but  beat  down 
and  raked  off  in  the  spring.  The  crop  was  good 
for  a  thin  plant,  and  would  have  cut  more  than 
30  cwt.  of  hay  per  acre;  but  my  father,  hoping 
to  get  two  crops  of  seed,  let  it  stand,  which  was 
injudicious,  experience  having  proved  that  it  is 
very  reluctant  of  going  to  seed  in  a  maiden  crop; 
and  the  second  crop,  although  it  went  to  seed 
again,  was  too  late  to  be  successful.  In  1844  the 
entire  piece  was  sown  for  hay,  and  produced  from 
five  to  six  tons,  and  early  in  September  it  was 
mown  again  for  seed,  which  produced  about  20 
bushels  per  acre;  this  was  sown  in  1845,  upon  a 
red  loam  with  a  chalk  subsoil,  after  beans  and 
pease,  which  had  been  well  manured  for  the 
same,  at  the  rate  of  2,,  24,  and  3  bushels  per 
acre,  upon  24^  acres  of  land,  which  has  this  sea- 
son  produced  more   than   50   tons   of  hay,  the 


thickest  sown  answering  the  best.  In  August  it 
was  mown  again  for  seed,  and  subsequently 
produced  a  good  eddish  for  feed.  The  s])ecie3 
has  now  been  tested  in  this  and  the  adjoining 
parish  for  15  years,  and  the  price  of  the  seed  has 
varied  during  that  period  from  50s.  to  803.  per 
bushel.  It  is  quite  clear  that  it  will,  like  lucerne, 
produce  three  crops  for  hay  or  soiling  in  one 
season ;  and  the  food  in  either  case  is  much  more 
nutritious.  I  had  12  acres  drilled  last  spring, 
1846,  upon  pea  stubble  wheat,  at  3  bushels  per 
acre;  the  wheat  was  very  fine,  and  partially 
down,  but  the  plant  of  the  sainfoin  is  good.  I 
shall  now  introduce  it  in  regular  course,  sowing 
about  12  acres  in  each  season  upon  pea  stubble 
wheat,  to  remain  three  years,  and  then  to  break 
up  for  wheat — by  which  method  it  will  be  per- 
ceived that  only  the  barley  crop  is  sacrificed  in 
one  round.  In  this  way,  if  successful,  I  shall 
obtain  36  acres  for  hay  each  year,  and  36  acres 
for  seed,  or  second  and  third  crop,  as  may  appear 
advisable.  This  will  furnish  me  with  all  the 
hay  I  require,  leaving  my  clovers  wholly  for 
sheep  feed ;  but  whether  this  will  prove  the  more 
excellent  mode  of  turning  this  peculiar  variety 
to  the  best  account,  experience  alone  can  deter- 
mine. I  shall  only  add,  that  I  have  a  very  large 
portion  of  my  crop  of  hay  remaining,  1847,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  the  seed  in  an  unthrashed 
state,  with  36  acres  in  plant."  + 


ON  THE  LAMBING  OP  EWES. 

2538.  The  lambing  season  of  Leicester, 
and  other  heavy  breeds  of  sheep,  reared 
in  the  arable  part  of  the  country,  com- 
mences about  the  llth  of  March,  and  con- 
tinues for  about  the  space  of  3  weeks. 

2539.  There  is  no  labour  connected  with 
the  duties  of  the  shepherd  which  tests  his 
attention  and  skill  so  severely  as  the  lamb- 
ing season ;  and  a  shepherd,  whose  un- 
wearied attention  and  consummate  skill 
become  conspicuous  at  that  critical  period 
of  the  flock's  existence,  is  an  invaluable 
servant  to  a  stock  farmer — his  services,  in 
fact,  are  worth  far  more  than  the  amount 
of  wages  he  receives  ;  for  such  a  man  will 
save  the  amount  of  his  wages  eveiy  year., 
when  compared  with  the  losses  sustained 
by  the  neglect  of  an  unskilful  shepherd, 
and  especially  in  a  precarious  season, 
when,  by  treating  the  ewes  and  the  lambs  in 
the  most  proper  manner  under  the  circum- 
stances, the  lives  of  many  are  preserved 
that  would  otherwise  have  been  lost.  To 
make  my  meaning  more  plain,  suppose  a 
shepherd  who,  having  attentively  observed 


*  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  2d  edition,  p.  416. 
t  Bell*!  Weekly  Messenger,  for  February  1847. 


590 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  tupping,  and  marked  the  reckoning  of 
every  ewe,  puts  the  ewes  in  proper  time  in 
a  suitable  place  to  Iamb  in, — renders  them 
requisite  assistance,  and  no  more,  at  the 
proper  instant  of  lambing,  and  treats  them 
afterwards  according  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  weather, — sees  that  the  lambs 
are  supplied  with  milk,  when  mothers 
happen  to  be  unkind,  or,  the  ewe  want- 
ing milk,  feeds  them  with  milk  obtained 
elsewhere, — knows  how  to  afford  relief  to 
the  ewe  in  case  of  sickness  and  inflamma- 
tion after  lambing,  and  castrates  the  lamb 
at  the  proper  period  of  its  strength,  and 
in  the  proper  state  of  the  weather, — knows 
the  manner  how,  and  the  time  when,  to 
put  an  additional  lamb  to  a  ewe  that  has 
abundance  of  milk,  and  take  it  from 
another  which  has  too  little  for  a  pair, — 
suppose  that  by  doing  all  this  in  a  skilful 
manner,  night  and  day,until  the  lambing  is 
not  only  entirely  completed,  but  the  lambs 
reared  are  beyond  danger,  he  saves  the 
lives  of  10  ewes  worth  40s.  each,  and  of 
20  lambs,  that  will  come  to  be  worth  20s. 
each,  and  this  is  no  extravagant  supposi- 
tion in  a  large  standing  flock  of  15  score 
of  ewes,  it  is  clear  that,  in  so  doing,  he 
will  save  the  amount  of  his  wages,  namely, 
£40.  Few  shepherds  are  so  successful, 
although  I  have  known  two  instances  of 
such  success ;  and  no  better  proof  need 
be  adduced  of  the  scarcity  of  skilful  shep- 
herds, than  the  loss  which  every  breeder 
of  sheep  sustains  every  year,  esj>ecially  in 
bad  weather.  I  knew  a  shei)lierd  who 
bestowed  unabating  attention,  but  was 
deficient  in  skill,  and,  being  overanxious, 
always  assisted  the  ewes  in  hiiubing  before 
the  proper  time  ;  and  as,  in  his  want  of 
skill,  he  kept  the  ewes  in  too  high  condi- 
tion, the  consequence  was  that  every  year 
he  lost  a  large  number  of  both  ewes  and 
lambs,  and  in  one  season  of  bad  weather 
the  loss  amounted  to  the  large  number  of 
2G  ewes,  and  I  forget  how  many  lambs, 
in  a  flock  of  only  10  score  of  ewes.  I 
knew  another  shepherd  who  was  far  from 
being  solicitous  about  his  charge,  though 
certainly  not  careless,  yet  his  skill  was  so 
certain  that  his  success  was  eminent,  and 
the  loss  of  a  ewe  or  of  a  land)  under  his 
charge  was  matter  of  surprise.  Of  these 
two  sorts  of  shepherds,  the  attentive  and 
the  skilful,  it  woid<l  appear  that  the  skil- 
ful is  the  safer,  and  of  cour.se  the  more 
valuable — evils  will  be  prevented  by  skil- 


ful attention,  and  cured  by  attentive  skill; 
but  it  is  only  by  the  union  of  both  qualities 
that  a  perfect  shepherd  is  constituted.  Such 
a  perfect  shepherd  I  had  the  good  fortune 
and  happiness  to  possess  all  the  time  I 
farmed.  I  cannot  assert  that  no  deaths 
occurred  in  the  flock  under  his  charge ;  but 
when  a  death  ensued  at  any  time,  it  was 
more  the  fault  of  the  times  than  of  his : 
the  diseases  of  sheep  were  not  so  well 
known  as  now,  and  no  veterinarians  were 
established  in  practice  in  the  country  then, 
as  now.  His  acuteness  perceived  when 
a  sheep  was  affected  long  before  any  one 
else  could  detect  it ;  but  a  remedy,  however 
early  and  well  applied,  will  at  times  fail. 

2540.  In  contradistinction  to  a  skilful 
shepherd,  let  me  advert  to  some  particulars 
mentioned  by  Mr  Price,  occurring,  appa- 
rently as  a  matter  of  course,  in  the  lamb- 
ing season.  He  says  that,  in  prej)aring 
ewes  for  lambing,  "■the  ewes  are  driven 
into  a  pound,  and  the  looker  takes  them 
singly,  throiDS  them  doicn,  and  removes 
with  the  shears  the  wool  on  their  tail, 
udders,  and  inside  of  their  thighs."  If 
this  is  a  common  practice,  think  of  its 
barbarity,  of  throwing  down  ewes  on  the 
ground  on  the  eve  of  lambing,  to  remove 
a  trifling  impediment  to  the  lamb's  suck- 
ing, which  can  be  removed  at  any  time  • 
after  lambing.  But  there  is  a  reason,  it 
seems,  for  this  treatment,  called  clotting, 
and  it  is  this, — "The  removal  of  the  wool 
renders  the  part  much  neater-"  (appear- 
ances, it  seems,  being  preferred  at  this 
particular  time  to  the  ease  of  the  animal,) 
"and  enables  the  lamber  to  see  when  theewe 
has  Itinibed,  from  a  stain  which  generally 
appears  on  the  back  part  of  her  udder. 
Were  7)ot  this  appearance  to  take  place, 
the  hiinher  would  somct'nnes  be  at  a  loss, 
as  the  young  ewes  frequently  desert  their 
young,  and  endeavour  to  escape  along  with 
the  other  ewes,  grazing  with  as  much  un- 
concern as  if  nothing  had  happened." 
Observe  the  great  skill  of  that  shepherd 
v/ho  is  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  or  not 
a  ewe  has  lambed,  or  whether  or  not  it 
has  strayed  from,  the  pound  without  his 
knowledge;  and  who  even  does  not  know 
whether  or  not  a  ewe  is  in  land),  until  he 
has  thrown  her  down  to  remove  the  wool ; 
for  "the  barren  ewes,  or  those  which  are 
not  pregnant,  are  distivguished^  at  the 
time  of  clatting,  by  not  having  any  swel- 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


591 


ling  in  their  udder  or  belly,  and  by  their 
skipping  about  nimbly,"  Think  also  of 
what  sort  of  care  is  bestowed  on  a  newly 
lambed  flock  in  a  low  country,  when  such 
losses  as  these  are  incurred  : — "  I  have 
known  thousands  of  lambs  lost  from  being 
drowned  in  a  wet  stormy  night ;  I  once 
beheld  30  or  more  lying  together  drowned 
in  a  ditch.  The  ewes  and  lambs  seek  the 
corners  of  pasture-fields  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  severe  weather;  and  when 
the  lambs  get  under  these  high  banks  and 
fall  in,  it  is  utterly  impossible  for  them  to 
extricate  themselves ;  besides,  us  there  are 
many  huddled  together,  they  often  push 
one  another  in."  That  lambing  pound 
must  be  a  strange  place  which  presents 
such  a  scene  as  this  : — "  Lambing  pre- 
sents a  scene  of  confusion,  disorder,  and 
trouble,  which  it  is  the  lamber's  business 
to  rectify,  and  for  wliich  he  ought  always 
to  be  prepared :  some  of  the  ewes  perhaps 
leave  their  lambs,  or  the  lambs  get  inter- 
mixed, and  the  ewes  which  have  lost  their 
lambs  run  about  bleating,  while  others 
want  assistance."  It  is  no  wonder  that 
such  a  shepherd  cannot  recognise  the  lambs 
of  ewes,and  therefore  they  must  be  marked : 
— "  The  twins  are  marked  with  a  mixture 
of  tar  and  lamp-black,  by  means  of  small 
figures  fixed  in  an  iron  handle  about  8 
inches  long;"  "and  the  twin  lambs  are 
easily  separated,  for  the  ewe  very  fre- 
quently walks  away  with  one  lamb,  leav- 
ing the  other  iu  the  field,  to  the,  confusion 
of  the  laniher ;  therefore  they  should  be 
marked  as  early  as  possil)le  to  prevent  this 
confusion."  "  The  lamber  must  take  the 
lamb  to  its  mother,  which  he  will  find  out 
by  its  number;"  and  yet  the  number,  it 
seems,  will  not  always  enable  the  lamb  to 
be  found  for  the  mother;  for,  if  the  lamber 
finds  a  young  lamb,  and  is  not  certain 
which  may  be  its  mother,  a  circumstance 
which  sometimes  occurs  when  ewQ^  drop 
twins,  and  leaves  one  of  them,  he  may 
readily  discover  her  by  taking  away  the 
lamb  she  is  fostering,  and  i)utting  the 
doubtful  one  on  in  its  stead,  when  she 
will  display  evident  tokens  whether  it 
belongs  to  her."  This  method  of  trial  and 
error  the  shepherd  will,  of  course,  have  to 
make  with  every  ewe  before  he  discovers 
the  true  mother;  and,  as  he  knows  neither 
mother  nor  lamb,  the  lamb  may  chance  to 


belong  to  a  ewe  which  has  a  single  lamb 
as  well  as  to  one  which  has  twins,  unless 
the  single  lambs  are  left  unmarked ;  or, 
at  any  rate,  he  may  present  the  marked 
and  known-to-be-a-twin  lamb  to  a  ewe 
that  has  lambed  only  a  single  one,  as 
readily  as  to  one  that  has  lambed  twins. 
It  will  excite  no  surprise  to  learn,  that 
with  shepherds  so  wretchedly  disqualified 
for  their  profession,  as  the  above  parti- 
culars show,  in  "  most  years  not  more 
lambs  than  one  to  each  ewe  "  were  ob- 
tained ;  and  that  out  of  800  ewes  of  a 
certain  flock  only  ]  00  pairs  were  saved, 
though  it  is  stated  by  Mr  Price,  that  with 
more  skill  afterwards  the  number  of  pairs 
increased  to  200.  Here,  then,  is  an  in- 
stance where  the  improved  skill  of  one 
man  saved  the  lives  of  200  lambs,  which 
would  come  to  be  worth  £200,  equalling 
the  wages  of  at  least  4  good  shepherds.* 
I  would  not  have  noticed  tliese  egregious 
blunders,  said  by  Mr  Price  to  be  committed 
by  shepherds  in  a  low  country  like  Rom- 
ney  Marsh,  in  Kent,  so  particularly,  had 
not  the  late  Mr  Youatt  adopted  the  senti- 
ments of  Mr  Price  in  the  very  particulars 
quoted  above,  in  his  excellent  treatise  on 
the  history  and  diseases  of  sheep,  t  Were 
a  shepherd  of  a  Leicester  flock  iu  Scotland 
so  ignorant  of  his  profession,  he  would 
ttot  only  be  quite  ashamed,  but  no  man 
would  hire  him  ;  and  neither  would  the 
shepherds  be  of  the  hill  country,  who  can- 
not have  so  intimate  a  knowledge  of  every 
individual  of  their  flock,  which  occujues  a 
wide  range  of  mountain  land,  as  shepherds 
tending  flocks  within  limited  bounds. 

2541.  Before  the  season  of  lambing 
arrives,  the  shej^herd  should  have  a  small 
paddock  of  1  or  2  acres,  or,  where  there 
is  no  paddock,  a  sheltered  corner  of  a  grass- 
field  of  small  size,  conveniently  situated  as 
near  the  steading  as  possible,  fenced  round 
with  nets,  and  fitted  up  with  sheds  made 
of  hurdles  set  up  in  the  most  sheltered 
part  against  a  wall  or  hedge,  and  lined  in 
tlie  inside  and  comfortably  roofed  with 
straw.  A  shed  of  this  temporary  con- 
struction may  be  seen  on  tlie  right  hand 
of  Plate  VII.,  beyond  the  Leicester  ewe 
and  lamb.  Such  straw-sheds  form  most 
comfortable  places  of  refuge  for  ewes  that 
lamb  in  the  night,  or  have  lambed  in  the 


Price  On  Sheep,  p.  115-26. 


t  Youatt  On  Sheep,  p.  500, 


592 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


daj,  and  rcfiuire  protection  from  frost, 
snow,  rain,  or  cold  in  the  niL'lit,  until  the 
ewes  are  j^erfectly  recovered  from  lanibin*^, 
and  the  lambs  snfiiciently  strong  to  bear 
the  weather  in  the  open  field. 

2542.  The  lever  hand  tnrnip-slicer,  fig. 
48,  will  be  found  on  such  occat^ions  a  con- 
venient in:?trument  for  cutting  turnips  into 
such  turnip-troughs  a.s  fig.  50,  for  the  ewes 
in  the  paddock,  or  into  small  boxes  for 
them  in  the  shed 

2543.  Common  kale  or  curly  greens  is 
excellent  food  for  ewes  that  have  lambed  ; 
being  mucilaginous  and  soluble,  it  is  bene- 
ficial in  encouraging  the  necessary  dis- 
charges from  the  ewe  after  lambing.  Ac- 
cording to  the  late  George  Sinclair,  1  lb., 
or  7000  grains  of  green  curled  kale  (Bras- 
sica  oleracea  viridis,)  yields  5680  grains 
of  water,  880  grains  of  woody  fibre,  and 
440  grains  of  nutritive  matter,  which  last 
is  all  soluble  in  water. '^  In  these  respects 
kale  is  better  food  for  ewes  after  lamb- 
ing than  raw  Swedish  turnips,  which  become 
rather  too  fibrous  and  astringent  in  spring 
for  the  secretion  of  milk. 

2544.  A  lantern,  such  as  fig.  8!>,  is  a 
great  assistant  at  night  to  a  shepherd; 
and  he  should  be  provided  with  his  crook, 
to  catch  a  ewe  quickly  should  she  be 
troublesome, — which  some  are  apt  to  be 
■wlien  the  pains  of  lambing  are  coming  upon 
them. 

2545.  As  foxes  are  apt  to  snatch  away 
young  lambs  at  night,  even  close  to  the 
lambing-houses,  I  have  fnund  an  eflectual 
preventive  lo  their  depredations  in  setting 
a  sheep-net,  as  in  fig.  44,  directly  in  front 
of  the  lambing-houses,  leaving  a  sufficient 
space  for  a  few  ewes  with  their  land)s  mak- 
ing their  lair  within  the  net.  When  thus 
guarded,  with  the  lantern  burning  outside, 
the  fcixes  are  afraid  to  enter  the  net,  being 
apprehensive  of  a  snare.  Such  an  exj)e- 
dient  is  even  more  necessary  in  the  comer 
of  the  field  chosen  for  the  lambing  ground. 
Besides  alarming  the  fox,  tlie  lantern  will 
be  found  a  useful  assistance  to  the  shepherd 
in  showing  him  the  ewes  as  they  evince 
symptoms  of  lambing.  A  net  and  lantern 
are  also  good  safeguards  against  foxes  at 


night  in  the  grass-field  occupied  by  the 
ewes  and  lambs,  and  where  they  should  be 
gathered  within  the  net  every  night.  This 
expedient  of  net  and  lantern  I  was  induced 
to  try,  after  losing,  for  a  year  or  two, 
.severid  lambs  by  the  fox ;  and  such  was 
its  efficacy  in  deterring  that  nightly 
prowlerfrom  visitiiigthe  lairoftheewesand 
lambs,  that  not  a  lamb  was  lost  ever  after. 
A  fox  will  not  meddle  with  a  lamb  above 
a  month  old. 

2546.  Being  thus  provided  with  the 
means  of  accouimodation,  the  shepherd, 
whenever  he  observes  the  predisposing 
symptoms  of  lambing  in  as  many  ewes  as 
he  knows  will  lamb  first,  —  and  these 
symptoms  are,  enlargement  and  reddening 
of  the  parts  under  the  tail,  drooping  of  the 
flanks,  patting  the  ground  with  the  feet, 
and  desire  for  separation  from  their  com- 
panions,— he  jdaces  them,  of  an  afternoon, 
within  the  enclosed  lambing  ground  in  the 
paddock,  and  provides  them  with  cut  tur- 
nips. The  more  immediate  symptoms  of 
land)ing  are — when  the  ewe  stretches  her- 
self frequently ;  separating  herself  entirely 
from  her  companions  ;  exhibiting  restless- 
ness by  not  remaining  in  one  place  for  any 
length  of  time;  lying  down  and  rising  up 
again  as  if  dissatisfied  with  every  })lace  ; 
pawing  the  ground  with  a  fore-foot  ;  bleat- 
ing as  if  in  quest  of  a  lamb  ;  and  appear- 
ing fond  of  the  lambs  of  other  ewes.  In  a 
very  few  hours,  or  even  shorter  time,  after 
the  exhibition  of  these  symptoms,  the  im- 
mediate symptom  of  lambing  is  the  expul- 
sion of  the  bag  of  water  from  the  vagina, 
which,  when  observed,  the  ewe  sbouhl  be 
narrowly  watched,  for  the  pains  of  labour 
may  be  expected  to  come  upon  her  im- 
mediately. When  these  are  felt  by  her, 
she  presses  or  strains  with  earnestness, 
changing  one  place  or  position  for  another, 
as  if  desirous  of  relief.  Up  to  this  time,  not 
a  hand  should  be  put  u2Jon  her,  nor  until 
the  yellow  hoofs  of  thefore-feet  of  the  lamb 
and  its  mouth  lying  upon  them,  are  dis- 
tinctly seen  to  ])resent  themselves  in  the 
passage. 

2547.  The  natural  presentation  of  the 
latnb  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  calf,  de- 
scribed in  (2204.)  When  time  has  been 
ffiven  to  observe  that  the  ewe  is  not  able 


•  Sinclair's  Hortut  Gramineus  W<^urneniu,  p.  407,  edition  of  1824. 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


593 


to  expel  the  lamb  by  her  own  exertions, 
it  is  tlie  duty  of  the  shepherd  to  render  her 
assistance,  before  her  strength  fails  by  un- 
availing straining.  The  exact  moment 
for  rendering  assistance  can  only  be  known 
by  experience ;  but  it  is  necessary  for  a 
shepherd  to  know  it,  as  there  is  no  doubt 
that  a  hasty  parturition  often  superinduces 
inflammation,  if  not  of  the  womb  itself,  at 
least  of  the  external  parts  of  the  ewe. 
When  assistance  should  be  rendered,  the 
ewe  is  taken  hold  of  as  she  lies,  and  laid 
gently  over  upon  the  ground  on  her  near 
or  left  side,  with  her  head  up  the  hill, 
where  the  ground  has  an  inclination ; 
and,  to  save  her  being  dragged  on  the 
ground  when  the  lamb  is  being  extracted, 
the  shepherd  places  the  heel  of  his  left  foot 
against  the  lower  part  of  the  belly  of  the 
ewe,  and  kneels  on  his  right  knee  on  the 
ground,  pressing  against  her  rump,  having 
the  body  of  the  ewe  below  his  own  body, 
between  the  heel  and  knee.  Having 
Lis  face  towards  the  tail  of  the  ewe, 
and  both  his  hands  free,  he  first  proceeds 
to  push  outfrom  him,  with  both  hands,  one 
leg  of  the  lamb  and  then  the  other,  as  far 
as  they  will  stretch  ;  then  seizing  both  legs 
firmly,  above  the  fetlock  joints,  between 
the  fingers  of  his  left  hand  he  pushes  the 
legs  from  him  rather  downwards  from  the 
ewe's  back,  with  considerable  force,  whilst 
by  pressing  upon  the  space  between  the  tail 
of  the  ewe  and  the  head  of  the  lamb  toirards 
him,  with  the  front  side  of  his  right  hand, 
he  endeavours  to  slip  the  vulva  of  the  ewe 
over  the  cantle  of  the  lamb.  The  action  of 
both  the  hands  must  be  made  simultane- 
ously with  the  strainings  of  the  ewe,  only 
to  assist  her, and  keep  good  what  is  obtained 
at  each  strain,  and  not  to  tear  the  lamb  from 
her  prematurely  by  force.  Whenever  the 
lamb's  head  is  clear,  the  shepherd  seizes 
the  upper  part,  of  the  neck  behind  the  head 
with  his  right  hand,  and  pulls  out  the  body, 
which  will  now  slip  out  witii  comparative 
ease.  The  lamb  is  then  placed  at  the 
ewe's  head,  for  her  to  lick  and  recognise, 
which  she  will  instantly  do,  if  her  labour 
has  not  been  severe  ;  but  if  so,  she  will 
likely  become  sick,  and  be  careless  of 
the  lamb  as  long  as  the  sickness  continues, 
which  is  evinced  by  quick  oppressed 
breathing.  Ifthepains  have  been  sharp,  and 
this  her  first  lamb,  and  she  is  not  overcome 
by  sickness,  the  ewe  may  probably  start 
to  her  feet,  and  run  away  from  the  lamb. 

VOL.  I. 


The  attempt  at  escape  must  be  prevented, 
and  the  end  of  the  tail  of  the  lamb  put 
into  her  mouth,  to  make  her  notice  it. 
If  she  continues  to  lie  on  her  side,  her 
abdomen  should  be  felt,  to  ascertain  if 
there  is  another  lamb  to  come  ;  and  if  there 
is,  the  pains  accompanying  its  passage 
may  have  been  the  cause  of  her  careless- 
ness for  the  first  lamb ;  and  if  the  second 
lamb  is  in  a  natural  position,  it  will  most 
probably,  by  this  time,  be  showing  itself 
in  the  passage,  which  if  it  be,  the  best 
plan  is  to  take  it  away  at  once  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  first,  and  the  ewe,  feeling 
the  attempt,  will  at  once  assist  on  her  part 
by  straining.  The  existence  of  a  second 
lamb  is  worth  attending  to  immediately 
on  another  account — some  ewes  become  so 
engrossed  with  the  first  lamb,  that  the 
pains  attending  the  second  are  neglected 
for  a  time.  When  a  second  lamb  is  found 
in  her,  she  must  be  watched,  that  whenever 
it  comes  into  the  passage  it  may  be  taken 
away  ;  but  unless  it  actually  makes  its  ap- 
pearance there,  it  should  not  be  attempted 
to  be  taken  away.  Should  it  not  make  its 
appearance  in  a  reasonable  time,  it  maybe 
suspected  that  the  lamb  is  either  dead,  or 
not  in  a  natural  position,  and  examination 
should  be  made  by  the  fingers  into  the 
state  of  the  case.  In  all  cases  of  twins,  exa- 
mination should  be  previously  made  that 
they  present  themselves  separately.  A 
dead  lamb  is  easily  known  by  the  feel,  and 
sh(mld  be  extracted  immediately,  as  it  can 
aff"ord  no  assistance  of  itself ;  but  should  the 
lamb  be  alive,  it  may  be  necessary  to  in- 
troduce the  hand  to  ascertain  its  position. 
Before  the  hand  is  introduced,  it  should 
be  smeared  with  goose-fat. 

2548.  The  extraction  of  a  lamb,  as  de- 
scribed above,  is  performed  by  a  shepherd 
who  has  no  assistants  ;  but  when  he  has 
them,  he  adopts  another  and  more  easy 
mode  for  the  ewe  and  himself.  An  assis- 
tant holds  the  ewe  upon  her  side,  in  any 
way  the  must  easy  for  her  and  himself,  to 
prevent  its  body  being  dragged  along  the 
ground  while  the  shepherd  is  extracting 
the  lamb  ;  and  in  doing  this,  the  shepherd 
places  himself  behind  the  ewe,  and,  on 
ascertaining  the  position  of  the  lamb, 
pulls  its  legs  towards  him,  whilst  the 
assistant  endeavours,  by  the  pressure  of 
the  side  of  his  hand  below  the  tail,  to 
make    the   vaginal    skin  pass   over    the 

2p 


AM 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


lamb's  head,  which  when  accomplisheJ, 
the  sliejilienl  seizes  the  back  of  the  neck 
by  his  left  hand,  and  holding  the  legs 
Still  in  hi;;  right,  takes  away  the  lamb  as 
quickly  as  he  can,  and  places  it  before 
the  ewe. 

2549.  There  is  great  difTerence  in  the 
disposition  of  the  ewes  themselves  to  assist 
in  the  lambing.  Some,  when  they  find 
thev  are  assisted,  give  themselves  little 
trouble;  others  strain  with  vigour  from 
first  to  last ;  and  some  only  strain  at 
long  intervale.  A  ewe  that  strains  strongly 
and  continuously,  will  become  sooner  ex- 
hausted than  one  that  takes  the  matter 
more  leisurely ;  and  in  the  former  case 
there  is  greater  danger  in  neglecting  to 
make  examination  of  the  presentation  in 
time,  before  the  ewe  has  become  exhausted. 
I  remember  of  seeing,  on  a  friend's  farm, 
a  lamb's  head  alone  hanging  out,  and, 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  that  state  too 
long,  the  lamb  was  strangled  to  death. 
This  was  a  case  of  neglect,  as  the  head 
should  not  have  been  allowed  to  come  out 
without  one  accom[>anying  leg  at  least. 
I  remember  of  another  case  in  which  there 
was  no  appearance  of  a  lamb,  though  the 
ewe  had  strained  for  a  considerable  time. 
On  examination,  it  was  found  that  the 
mouth  of  the  womb  was  closed  up.  In- 
flammation had  probably  at  one  time  ex- 
isted, and  a  discharge  of  lymph  had 
caused  the  adhesion.  The  shepherd,  no- 
thing daunted,  very  ingeniously  introduced, 
with  his  smeared  hand, a  pen-knife  between 
the  middle  and  fore-tingcrs  and  thumb,  and 
cut  an  incision  across  the  pursed  mouth  of 
the  womb,  and  liberated  two  lambs,  the 
ewe  not  being  the  least  the  worse  for  the 
operation. 

2550.  "When  lambing  has  taken  place 
in  the  day,  in  fair  weather,  the  ewe  with 
her  lambs  are  best  at  liberty  within  the 
enclosed  area  of  the  lambing  ground  ;  but 
in  rain  or  snow,  and  at  niglit,  she  should 
be  taken  into  the  shed  to  lamb,  and  kept 
there  for  some  time  until  the  weather 
proves  better,  or  she  is  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  the  parturition.  In  the  day,  it 
matters  not  for  lambs  how  cold  the  air  is, 
provided  it  be  dry.  It  is  considered  a 
good  sign  of  health  when  a  lamb  trembles 
after  birth.  The  cleansings  or  placenta 
generally  drops  from  the  ewe  in  the  course 


of  a  very  short  time,  in  many  cases  within 
a  few  minutes  after  lambing.  It  should  be 
carried  away,  and  not  allowed  to  lie  upon 
the  lambing  ground.  The  lamb  is  fondly 
licked  by  the  ewe  at  first,  and,  during 
this  process,  makes  many  fruitless  attempts 
to  gain  its  feet,  and  it  is  truly  surprising 
how  very  soon  after  an  easy  birth  it  will 
stand ;  and  the  moment  it  does  so,  its 
first  effort  is  to  find  out  the  teat,  express- 
ing its  desire  for  it  by  imitating  the  act 
of  sucking  with  its  lips  and  tongue,  utter- 
ing a  plaintive  cry,  and  wagging  its  still 
wet  long  tail.  There  are  various  obstacles 
to  its  finding  the  teat  at  first, — the  long 
wool  on  the  ewe's  flank  hides  it, — that  on 
the  udder  interferes  with  it — and,  what  is 
still  more  tantalising,  the  intense  fondness 
of  its  mother  urges  her  to  turn  herself 
round  to  it,  in  order  to  lick  it  with  her 
tongue,  muttering  affectionate  regards, 
while  the  wheeling  about  has  the  effect 
of  removing  the  teat,  the  object  of  the 
lamb's  solicitude.  When  at  length  a  hold 
of  it  is  obtained,  it  does  not  easily  let  it 
go  until  satisfied  with  a  good  drink.  When 
a  fond  ewe  has  twin  lambs,  one  can  easily 
obtain  the  teat,  while  she  is  taken  up  in 
caressing  the  other.  This  is  the  usual  be- 
haviour of  strong  lambs ;  and  on  once 
l^eing  filled  with  warm  milk,  they  increase 
in  strength  raj)idly,  and  are  soon  able  to 
bear  very  rough  weather. 

2551.  But  after  a  protracted  labour, 
the  first  lambs  of  young  ewes  are  so 
weakly  at  first  as  to  be  unable  to  reach 
the  teat  by  their  own  strength,  when  they 
must  be  assisted — and  the  assistance  is 
given  in  this  way:  Turning  the  ewe 
over  upon  her  rump,  the  shejtherd  kneels 
upon  the  ground  on  his  right  knee,  and 
reclines  her  back  against  his  left  leg, 
which  is  bej^  Removing  any  wool  from 
the  udder  ly  the  finger  and  thumb,  which 
is  all  that  is  necessary,  he  first  squeezes 
the  wax  out  of  the  teats,  and,  taking  a 
lamb  in  each  hand  by  the  neck,  opens 
the  mouth  of  each  with  a  finger,  and  ap- 
plies the  mouth  to  a  teat,  when  the  suck- 
ing proceeds  with  vigour. 

2552.  A  young  ewe  or  gimmer  is  apt 
to  be  shy  to  her  first  lamb,  but  after  she 
has  been  suckled,  either  in  this  or  in  the 
natural  way.  she  will  never  forsake  her 
offspring.     When  the  lambs  do  not  sue- 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


595 


ceed  at  once  in  sucking,  it  is  the  best  plan 
for  the  shepherd  soon  to  give  the  lamb 
its  first  suck  in  this  way,  which  not  only 
saves  it  much  trouble,  and  gives  it  strength, 
but  affords  himselfa  favoural)le  opportunity 
of  examining  the  state  of  the  mlder,  whether 
it  is  well,  or  feels  hard,  or  is  inflamed. 
Giinniers  generally  have  so  scanty  a  sup- 
ply of  milk,  that  it  is  expedient  for  the 
shepherd  to  support  their  lambs  partially 
on  cow's  milk  until  thev  have  the  requisite 
supply,  which  will  be  ituluced  partly  by 
suckling,  and  partly  from  increased 
nourishment  from  the  new  gra^s. 

2553.  When  the  shepherd  has  lambs  to 
support  for  a  short  time,  he  should  supply 
them  with  the  cow's  milk  at  regular  hours, 
such  as  in  the  morning  and  evening,  im- 
mediately after  the  cows  have  been  milk- 
ed, and  see  the  lambs  suckled  by  their 
mothers  during  the  day,  and  thus  endea- 
vour to  bring  on  a  sufficiency  of  milk. 
The  dairy-maid  should  put  the  cow's  milk 
for  the  shepherd  in  bottles,  wdien  the  cows 
are  milked  in  the  morning  and  evening, 
and  he  should  feed  the  young  lambs  while 
the  milk  is  warm  from  the  cow, — and  he 
feeds  them  in  this  way :  Sitting  down,  he 
takes  a  mouthful  of  milk  from  a  bottle, 
and  holding  up  the  mouth  of  the  lamb 
open,  he  lets  the  warm  milk  drop  into  it 
in  a  small  stream  from  his  mouth,  which 
the  lamb  drinks  as  fast  as  it  comes  ;  and 
thus  mouthful  after  mouthful  until  the 
lamb  is  filled.  The  auxiliary  supply  of 
milk  should  be  withheld  whenever  the  ewe 
can  support  her  lambs,  for  cow's  milk  is 
not  so  good  for  the  lamb  as  that  of  its  own 
mother. 

2554.  The  ewes  are  kept  on  the  lamb- 
ing ground  till  they  have  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  lambing,  the  lambs  have 
become  strong,  and  the  ewes  and  lambs 
have  become  well  acquainted  with  each 
other.  The  time  required  for  all  this  de- 
pends on  the  nature  of  the  lambing,  and 
the  state  of  the  weather:  the  more  severe 
the  lambing  has  been,  and  the  more  broken 
the  weather,  they  are  kept  the  longer  in 
ward. 

2555.  When  quite  recovered,  the  ewes, 
with  their  lambs,  are  then  put  into  a  field 
of  new  grass,  where  the  milk  will  flush 
upon  the  ewes,  much  to  the  advantage  of 


the  lambs.  It  is  generally  a  troublesome 
matter  to  drive  ewes  with  young  lambs  to 
any  distance  to  a  field,  as  the  ewes  always 
turn  round  upon  and  bewilder  the  lambs. 
A  dog  more  frequently  irritates  the  ewes 
than  assists  the  shepherd  in  this  task.  I 
believe  the  best  plan  is  to  lead  the  flock 
instead  of  driving  it,  by  carrying  a  single 
lamb,  belonging  to  an  old  ewe,  by  the  fore 
legs — which  is  the  safest  way  of  carrying 
a  lamb — and  walking  slowly  with  it  before 
the  ewe,  and  she  will  follow  bleating  close 
at  the  shepherd's  heels,  while  the  rest  of 
the  ewes  will  follow  her.  If  the  distance 
to  the  field  is  considerable,  the  decoy  lamb 
should  be  set  down  to  suck  and  rest,  and 
another  taken  for  the  purpose. 

2556.  With  plenty  of  food,  and  a  safe- 
guard of  net  and  lantern  at  their  lair  at 
night,  to  keep  off  the  foxes,  the  flock  will 
thrive  apace.  Such  a  safeguard  is  rarely 
adoj^ted.  To  know  whether  the  fox  has 
attacked  a  lamb,  he  always  seizes  it  by 
the  neck  behind  the  head,  and,  if  scared 
at  this  moment,  distinct  holes  made  by 
the  teeth  will  be  found  on  each  side  of 
the  neck ;  whereas  a  dog  seizes  any  part 
of  the  body,  and  worries  by  tearing  the 
under  part  of  the  neck.  The  fox,  if  not 
immediately  disturbed,  carries  off  his  prey, 
whilst  the  dog  leaves  behind  him  what 
he  does  not  eat.  Some  ewes  will  fight 
off  either  dog  or  fox,  and  be  able  to  pro- 
tect a  single  lamb  ;  whilst  others  become  so 
afraid  at  once  by  an  attack,  that  they 
know  not  whither  to  flee  for  refuge.  After 
such  an  attack,  the  bleatings  of  the  ewes 
and  lambs  in  search  of  each  other — aa 
unusual  occurrence  at  night — will  soon 
acquaint  the  shepherd  at  a  distance  of  the 
disaster  that  has  happened  to  his  flock. 

2557.  In  unnatural  presentations,  if  the 
head  is  bent  back,  it  must  be  brought  for- 
ward, and  if  one  or  both  legs  be  folded  back, 
they  must  also  be  brought  forward,  one 
by  one,  into  their  proper  position.  In 
short,  all  the  unnatural  presentations 
offered  by  a  lamb  require  the  same  means 
to  be  used  to  place  them  in  a  proper  posi- 
tion as  with  the  calf  ;  but  with  the  Leices- 
ter ewe  is  the  additional  difficulty  over 
the  cow,  of  two,  and  even  more  lambs 
at  a  birth,  and  the  increased  chance  of 
mistaking  a  leg  of  one  lamb  for  that  of 
another. 


596 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2558.  The  preceding  cases  ()f  lambing 
are  all  easy  to  the  shepherd ;  but  others 
occur  which  put  hia  skill  to  the  test. 
Malfiirmations  of  the  body  of  the  lamb 
create  difficult  parturition,  and  endanger 
the  life  of  the  ewe.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  bring  the  head  of  a  wry-necked 
lanib  into  the  passage  of  the  womb,  but  it 
must  be  done  before  the  entire  body  can 
be  extracted ;  and,  if  it  cannot  be  done, 
the  head  of  the  lamb  should  be  taken  oti' 
rather  than  the  ewe  should  lose  her  life. 

2559.  Sometimes  twin  lambs  die  in  the 

womb  several  days  before  the  period  of 
lambing;  and  as  they  cannot  present  them- 
selves in  the  berth,  they  must  be  extracted 
by  force,  or  even  cut  away  in  pieces  ;  and 
when  corruption  has  proceeded  a  consider- 
able length,  they  may  be  pulled  away  in 
pieces.  In  such  a  case  the  placenta  will 
be  corrupted,  and  it  may  be  a  considerable 
time  before  it  is  entirely  got  rid  of  by  the 
straining  of  the  ewe.  I  have  seen  it  so 
corrupted  as  to  come  aw^ay  in  small  dis- 
charges as  black  and  viscid  as  tar. 

2560.  A  breech  presentation  is  a  diffi- 
cult one,  and  the  extraction  is  impracti- 
cable until  the  hind  legs  are  first  brought 
out ;  and  in  extracting  by  the  breech,  the 
o{)eration  should  be  done  quickly  at  the 
last  to  prevent  the  lamb  drowning  in  the 
licjuor  amni.  In  all  cases  of  extraction, 
it  should  be  made  a  point  to  have  the  back 
of  the  lamb  next  to  the  back  of  the  ewe. 
To  obtain  these  ends,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  place  the  ewe  upright  upon  its  shoulder 
on  the  ground  and  its  tail  uppermost, 
to  cause  the  lamb  to  retire  into  the  womb 
while  the  shephenl  introduces  his  hand  to 
arrange  and  bring  forward  the  hind  legs 
in  tiie  proper  jiosition.  Such  an  opera- 
tion should  be  done  quickly,  though  with 
all  gentleness,  in  case  of  setting  up  an 
infianimation.  A  small  hand  is  of  great 
advantage  to  a  shepherd. 

2561.  Much  trouble  is  imposed  on 
8be])herd3  when  the  ewes  will  not  take 
their  own  lambs.  In  every  case  of  a  ewe 
refusing  to  let  her  own  lamb  suck,  the  shep- 
herd should  particularly  examine  the  state 
of  the  udder,  and  ascertain  the  cause  of  un- 
easiness; and,if  itbe  inflammation, remedial 
measures  must  be  used  to  reduce  it,  but  if 
well  the  ewe  must  be  put  under  discipline. 


2562.  The  discipline  consist.'*  of  imme- 
diately putting  her  into  the  siied,  and  con- 
fining her  to  a  spot  by  a  short  .ttrin;:  tied 
above  the  fetlock  joint  of  one  of  her  fore 
legs,  and  fastened  to  a  stob  driven  into 
the  ground,  or  to  the  hurdle.  As  she 
endeavours  to  leave  her  lamb,  the  string 
pulls  her  foot  off  the  ground,  and  while 
her  attention  is  taken  up  struggling  with 
the  string,  the  lamb  seizes  the  teat  and 
sucks  in  the  mean  time.  The  stratairem 
often  rej>eated,  makes  her  take  with  the 
lamb.  It  is  surprising  how  soon  a  lamb 
learns  to  steal  a  suck  from  the  ewe ;  if  it 
cannot  approach  by  the  flank,  it  will  seize 
the  teat  from  behind  between  the  hind  legs. 
When  a  ewe  will  allow  but  one  of  her 
twins  to  suck  her,  she  should  be  held  till 
both  do  it,  and  in  a  short  tinie  she  will 
allow  both. 

2563.  It  is  not  surprising  that  one  ewe 
should  refuse  to  take  the  lamb  of  another ; 
and  yet  it  is  necessary  when  a  lamb  is  left 
an  orphan,  or  hajipens  to  be  a  supernume- 
rary, to  mother  it,  as  it  is  termed,  upon 
another  ewe.  When  a  gimmer  that  has 
little  milk  has  twins  at  a  time  when 
another  ewe  that  has  plenty  of  milk  i»ro- 
duces  a  single  lamb,  it  is  for  the  benefit  of 
one  of  the  ewes  and  two  lambs,  that  the 
ewe  which  has  plenty  of  milk  should  bring 
up  two  lauibs ;  and  the  transference  is 
easily  accomplished  while  all  the  lambs 
are  still  wet,  and  two  of  them  are  j)laced 
before  the  ewe  at  the  same  time  ;  but  when 
a  ewe  does  not  die  till  two  or  three  days 
after  she  has  lambed,  it  will  he  difficult  to 
make  another  ewe  that  lambs  a  single 
lamb,  at  the  time  the  other  ewe  dies,  take 
the  older  lamb  along  with  her  own.  The 
usual  j)lan  is,  to  rub  the  body  of  the  older 
lamb  with  the  new  dropped  one,  before 
the  new  lambed  ewe  has  hatl  an  op])or- 
tunity  of  recognising  her  own  lamb,  and  to 
place  both  before  her  at  the  same  time,  and 
she  may  take  them  both  without  scruple; 
but  the  probability  is,  that  she  will  reject 
the  older  one.  She  should  then  he  put 
into  a  dark  corner  of  the  shed,  and  confined 
in  it  by  a  board  placed  across  the  corner, 
only  giving  her  room  to  rise  up  and  lie 
down,  and  to  eat,  but  not  to  turn  (|uickly 
round  upon  the  stranger  lamb  to  box  it  ; 
while  rultbing  itself  against  her  wool,  and 
sucking  her  against  her  inclination,  it  will 
acquire  the  mlour  of  her  own  lamb,  and 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


597 


ingratiate  itself  in  her  favour.  If  she 
persist  in  refusing  the  lamb,  the  discipline 
of  t^'ing  the  leg  must  be  resorted  to. 
Anotlier  troublesome  case  is,  when  the 
lamb  dies  at  birth  and  the  ewe  has  plenty 
of  milk,  while  another  ewe  has  twins 
which  she  is  unable  to  support.  The 
expedient  is  to  let  the  ewe  smell  her  own 
new-born  dead  lamb,  and  then  to  strip  the 
skin  immediately  off  it,  and  sew  it  upon 
the  boxlv  of  one  ot  the  lambs  belonging  to 
the  other  ev.-e,  and  present  the  foster-lamb 
to  her.  It  is  possible  that  the  dark  corner 
will  require  to  be  used  before  a  cordial 
reception  be  given  to  the  fuster-larab. 

2564.  Should  all  the  above  expedients 
fail  to  mothrr  the  lambs  upon  the  ewes — 
and  they  tnay  all  fail,  though  with  a  skil- 
ful shepherd  they  seldom  do — the  lambs 
should  be  taken  away  and  brought  up  as 
pets  on  cow's  milk. 

2565.  A  fat  ewe  has  always  a  small 
Iamb,  though  plump  and  lively,  and  she 
runs  a  great  risk  in  lambing,  of  inflamma- 
tion in  the  passage  of  the  wamb.  A  lean 
ewe  bears  a  lamb  with  large  extremities, 
and  til  in  and  weak  body.  A  very  old 
ewe's  lamb  is  both  small  and  weak.  A 
gimmer  bears  a  small  lamb,  and  not  having 
sutlicient  milk  to  rear  it,  it  continues  small. 
A  hogg's  lamb  is  still  smaller  and  weaker, 
and  generally  requires  to  be  brought  up 
as  a  pet. 

2566.  The  best  mode  of  managing  ewes 
for  rearing  good  lambs,  is  to  keep  them 
in  fair  condition  until  they  have  lambed, 
after  which  they  should  have  the  best  grass 
the  farm  can  afford.  New  grass  always 
produces  abundance  of  milk,  and  it  is 
ready  earlier  than  ohl.  In  case  of  snow 
covering  tlie  ground  in  spring,  when  the 
ewes  are  heavy  in  lamb,  they  should  get 
a  few  turnips  and  plenty  of  hay — clover- 
hay  if  possible — until  the  ground  is  again 
clear;  but  in  open  weather  in  winter, 
there  is  nothing  better  for  them  than  grass 
which  had  been  kept  rough  for  the  pur- 
pose in  autumn.  Whiie  confined  on  the 
lambing-ground,  the  ewes  should  have 
turnips  and  hay  to  support  them  ;  before 
lambing  and  after  lambing,  nothing  is 
better  for  them  than  cabbage  or  kale, 
and  in  lieu  a  little  oil-cake  will  encour- 
age the  necessary  discharges  and  purifi- 


cation of  the  womb.     New  grass  also  oper- 
ates medicinally  on  the  system  of  the  ewe. 

2567-  It  is  necessary  to  say  a  few 
words  on  the  rearing  oi  pet  lambs.  These 
consist  of  orphans  or  supernumeraries,  and, 
in  either  case,  are  deserted  creatures  w  hich 
would  die  were  they  not  reared  by  hand. 
As  a  remarkable  instance  of  lambs  being 
obliged  to  be  made  petsfrom  supernumerary 
births,  I  remember  one  season,  in  a  small 
flock  of  50  Leicester  ewes,  48  of  them 
had  twins,  and  2  trins.  The  two  Iambs 
which  formed  the  trins  were  properly 
taken  away  to  relieve  the  ewes,  and 
brought  up  by  hand  as  pets.  When  ewes 
die  it  is  scarcely  possible  avoiding  having 
pets,  on  account  of  the  improbability  of 
ewes  lambing  single  lambs  just  in  time  to 
receive  those  wiiich  have  become  orphans. 
Pet  lambs  are  supported  on  cow's  milk, 
which  they  receive  warm  from  the  cows 
each  time  they  are  milked,  and  as  much 
as  they  can  drink.  In  the  intervals  of 
meals,  in  bad  weather,  they  are  kept  under 
cover,  but  in  good  weather  they  are  put 
into  a  grass  paddock  during  the  day,  and 
under  shelter  at  night  until  the  nights 
become  warm.  They  are  fed  by  hand  out 
of  a  small  vessel,  which  should  contain  as 
much  milk  as  is  known  each  can  drink. 
They  are  first  taught  to  drink  out  of  the 
vessel  with  the  fingers  like  a  calf  (2276,) 
and  as  soon  as  they  can  hold  a  finger 
steady  in  the  mouth,  a  tin  tube,  about  3 
inches  in  length,  and  of  the  thickness  of  a 
goose  quill,  should  be  neatly  and  firmly 
covered  with  folds  of  linen,  and  used  as  a 
substitute  for  a  teat,  and  with  this  they 
will  easily  drink  their  allowance  of  milk. 
A  goose  quill  would  answer  the  purpose, 
were  it  not  that  it  is  easily  squeezed 
together  by  the  mouth.  When  the  same 
person  feeds  the  lambs,  who  ought  to  be 
the  dairy-maid,  the  lambs  soon  become 
attiiclied  to  l.er,  and  will  foUow  her  eve  y- 
where;  and  to  prevent  them  bleating  m 
her  absence,  and  annoj'ing  her  during  the 
day,  an  apron  or  a  piece  of  cloth  hung 
upon  a  stake  or  bush  in  the  paddock,  will 
content  them  and  keep  them  together  in 
quietness. 

2568.  It  is  a  common  practice  with  the 
shepherds  of  Leicester  sheep,  when  they 
wish  to  catch  a  ewe  to  give  a  weakly  twin 
lamb  a  suck,  or  to  examine  the  state  of 


598 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


her  udder,  to  stoop  down  and  run  in 
upon  her  from  behind  and  seize  lier  by  a 
liinJ  le".  This  is  a  safe  mo<le  of  catching 
a  sheep  when  dexterously  done  ;  but  when 
it  fails,  by  the  captor  not  keeping  himself 
out  of  view  until  be  seizes  the  ewe,  slie 
will  start  and  run  off,  and  alarm  the  other 
ewes  beside  her — and  every  alarm  to  a  ewe, 
whether  lambed  or  about  to  lamb,  is  in- 
jurious, and  at  any  rate  cannot  do  any 
good.  In  the  circumstances,  a  crook  does 
the  thing  quietly  and  securely.  It  consists 
of  a  round  rod  of  iron,  bent  in  the  form 
shown  in  fig.  224,  and  terminating  at  one 
end  in  a  knob,  and  at  the  other  end  in  a 
Fig.  •_>24.  socket,  which  receives  and 
is  fixed  to  a  wooden  helve, 
5  or  6  feet  long,  accord- 
ing to  fancy.  The  hind 
leg  is  taken  in  at  o,  from 
behind  the  sheep  ;  and  as 
its  narrow  edge  fills  up  the 
narrowest  jjart  beyond  a, 
it  has  plenty  of  room  to  be 
free  in  the  looped  space  in 
wliich  the  animal  is  se- 
cureii,  and  its  foot  easily 
slipped  through  the  loop. 
Some  caution  is  required 
in  using  the  crook,  for 
should  the  sheep  give  a 
sudden  start  f  jrward  to  get 
away,  the  inunieiit  it  feels 
THE  sHKPHKRi.'s  ^'le  crook  touch  its  leg,  it 
cRoiiK.  may  forcibly  draw  the  leg 

through  the  narrow  part, and  strike  the  fore 
edge  of  the  bone  with  such  violence  against 
the  bend  of  the  loop  as  to  cause  the  animal 
considerable  paiu,  and  even  occasion  lame- 
ness for  some  days.  On  quietly  embracing 
the  leg,  at  first  from  behind  the  ewe,  the 
crook  should  be  quickly  drawn  towards 
you,  so  as  to  bring  the  bend  of  the  loop 
against  the  leg  as  high  up  as  the  hock, 
and  to  lift  the  foot  off  the  ground,  before 
the  sheep  is  aware  of  the  movement ;  and 
being  thus  secured  at  once,  its  struggles 
■will  cease  the  moment  your  hand  seizes 
the  leg.  The  cro<^)k  is  held  in  the  figure 
to  catch  the  near  or  left  hind  leg. 

2569.  "When  the  male  lambe,  not  to  be 
kept  as  tups,  attain  the  age  of  from  10 
days  to  a  mouth,  i\\Qy  sltq castrated.  Some 
breeders  a<lvocate  castration  in  a  day  or 
two  after  birth,  whilst  others  will  not 
allow  the  operation  to  be  performed  until 


the  lamb  is  one  month  old.  My  opinion 
is,  that  both  these  periods  are  extremes. 
A  lamb  of  a  day  old  cannot  be  confirmed 
in  all  the  parts  and  functit)n8  of  its  body, 
and  in  many  instances  I  question  that  the 
testicles  cau  then  be  found.  At  a  month 
old,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lamb  mav  be 
so  fat  and  the  weather  warm,  that  the 
castration  may  be  followed  bv  fel>rile 
action.  I  prefer  the  operation  being  per- 
formed from  10  to  1.3  days,  when  the 
lamb  has  attained  some  strength,  and  yet  uo 
part  has  had  time  to  become  rigid. 

2570.  Great  caution  is  required  in  cas- 
trating lambs ;  it  should  not  be  done  in 
rainy,  cold,  or  frosty  weather;  nor  should 
the  lambs  be  lieated  by  being  driven  be- 
fore the  operation.  It  is  best  performed 
early  in  the  morning,  in  fresh  weather, 
with  a  westerly  breeze.  The  ewes  and 
lambs  should  be  driven  gently  to  a  corner 
of  the  field,  not  by  the  dog,  whose  duty 
is  only  to  prevent  a  ewe  breaking  away. 
One  assistant  sliould  catch  the  lambs,  and 
another  bold  them  while  the  shepherd 
operates.  It  is  not  easy  to  catch  the  leg 
of  a  lamb  with  a  sheep's  crook,  their  smalj 
active  linibs  easily  escaping  through  the 
loop,  but  it  may  be  effectually  use<l  in 
hooking  the  neck,  when  the  captor  rushes 
in  upon  the  lamb  and  secures  it.  Where 
there  is  a  bught  or  open  shed  in  a  field, 
the  lambs  an<l  ewes  may  be  driven  loosely 
in  and  the  lambs  captured  there.  Hill 
lambs  siiouKl  be  driven  the  night  before 
they  are  castrated  into  a  l»ught  or  enclosure, 
where  they  will  be  ready  and  cool  for  the 
operation  in  the  morning. 

2571.  Castration  is  performed  in  this 
way :  Let  the  assistant  hold  np  the  back 
of  the  body  of  the  lamb  against  his  left 
breast  and  shoulder,  and  with  each  hand 
raise  a  hind  leg  towards  the  body,  securing 
them  by  the  shank;  while,  to  prevent 
farther  struggling,  a  fore  leg  is  held 
firmly  in  ccmnexion  with  a  hind  one 
of  the  same  side.  The  effect  of  this 
arrangement  is  to  exhibit  the  scrotnm  to 
full  view,  as  represented  at  a,  in  fig.  22.5. 
The  shepherd  with  his  left  hand  tlien  causes 
the  testicles  to  make  the  point  of  the  scro- 
tum a  smooth;  and  cutting  through  the 
integuments  of  the  scn)tuni,  with  a  knife 
in  llie  right  hand,  first  to  one  testicle  and 
then  the  other,  he  pushes  out  both  testicles 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


699 


into  view  with  both  his  hands,  and  first 
seizes  one  with  his  teeth,  and  draws  out 
the  spermatic  cord  until  it  breaks,  and 
then  the  other  in  the  same  manner,  when 
the  operation  is  finished. 

Fig.  225. 


THE  MODE  OF  HOLDING  LAMBS  FOR  CASTRATION. 

2572.  The  old-fashioned  mode  of  cas- 
trating lambs,  was  to  cut  off  the  point  of  the 
scrotum,  andextract  both  testicles  tliroiigh 
the  large  opening  caused  by  the  amputa- 
tion ;  but  the  extensive  wound  thus  made 
took  a  considerable  time  to  heal,  whereas 
the  simple  incision  now  made  almost 
always  heals  by  the  first  intention. 

2573.  Advantage  is  taken  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  dock  the  tail,  which  is  left  from 
€,  fig.  225,  as  long  as  to  reach  the  meeting 
of  the  hams.  In  performing  docking,  the 
division  siiould  be  made  in  a  joint,  otlier- 
wise  the  portion  of  the  vertebra  which  has 
been  cut  through  will  have  to  be  sloughed 
off  before  the  wound  can  heal.  The  lamb, 
after  being  docked,  is  let  down  to  the 
ground  by  the  tail,  which  has  the  effect,  it 
is  said,  of  putting  the  parts  rigiit  after  the 
castration.  Ewe  lambs  are  also  docked 
at  this  time,  but  they  are  not  held  up  in 
tliis  manner  for  the  operation,  being  merely 
caught  and  held  by  the  shepherd  between 
his  legs  until  it  is  done.  In  England, 
docking  is  performed  at  the  third  joint, 
which  leaves  a  mere  stump  of  a  tail.  The 
object  of  docking  is  to  keep  the  sheep 
clean  behind  from  filth  and  vermin  ;  but  as 
the  tail  is  a  jjrotection  against  cold  in 
winter,  it  should  not  be  docked  so  short  in 
Scotland  as  is  done  in  England.      Tup- 


lambs  are  allowed  to  retain  their  full  tails 
until  a  year  old,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
back-bone. 

2574.  The  opportunity  is  taken  to  mark 
the  ears  of  lambs  ;  and  in  the  case  of  stock 
on  hill  farms,  where  it  is  not  easy  to  gather 
the  flock  frequently,  the  operation  is  very 
properly  performed  now ;  but  as  Leicester 
lambs  are  not  marked  in  the  ear  at  this 
time,  I  shall  defer  describing  that  operatiou 
until  its  proper  season  in  summer. 

2575.  The  scrotum  does  not  bleed  in 
castration,  but  the  tail  often  bleeds  in  dock- 
ing for  a  long  time  in  two  minute  and  for- 
cible streams,  though  usually  the  bleeding 
soon  stems.  Siiould  it  continue  as  long  as  to 
sicken  the  lamb,  a  small  cord  should  be 
tied  firmly  round  the  end  of  the  tail;  but 
this  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
above  24  Iiours,  as  the  point  of  the  tail 
Tvould  die  by  the  stoppage  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  and  slough  off. 

2576.  In  some  cases  inflammation  en- 
sues, and  the  scrotum  swells,  and  even 
suppurates,  when  the  wound  should  be 
carefully  examined,  the  matter  discharo-ed, 
and  the  wound  soon  heals.  The  advan- 
tage of  performing  the  operation  in  the 
morning  is,  that  the  several  cases  may 
be  observed  during  the  day;  an<l  should 
the  weather  have  changed  for  the  worse 
towards  the  afternoon,  the  ewes,  with 
the  lambs  that  have  just  been  cut,  should 
be  brought  under  shelter  all  night.  Be- 
sides the  state  of  the  weather,  one  cause 
of  inflammation  is  the  scratching  of  the 
wound  of  the  scrotum  by  the  points  of  the 
stubble  amongst  the  new  grass,  and  this 
irritation  is  most  likely  to  be  induced  when 
the  castration  has  been  performed  by  cut- 
ting off  the  point  of  the  scrotum.  To 
avoid  this  source  of  irritation,  the  new-cut 
lambs  should  be  put  into  a  field  of  new 
grass,  where  the  stubble  has  been  mown 
short,  or  into  a  field  of  old  grass,  for  a 
few  days.  The  practice  of  applying  tur- 
pentine to  the  incision  on  the  scrotum 
gives  unnecessary  pain,  and  serves  no  good 
2Jurpose. 

2577.  Sometimes  one  of  the  testicles 
does  not  descend  into  the  scrotum,  in 
which  case  the  lamb  becomes  what  is 
called  a  chaser,  that  is,  one  which  con- 


600 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


stantly  follows  the  females  of  the  flock, 
wheu  near  him,  from  insatiable  desire. 

2578.  Ewes  and  lambs  are  subject  to 
these  various  risks,  until  they  may  be 
said  to  be  beyond  danger ;  and  when 
tliey  have  passed  through  those  several 
triads  in  safety,  the  shepherd  may  cal- 
culate on  the  result  of  his  success, — he 
may  then  endeavour  to  ascertain  whether 
he  has  increased  the  breeding  part  of  his 
flock  in  the  pnjportion  it  should  have  in- 
creased. He  should  not  be  satisfied  with 
his  exertions,  unless  he  has  preserved  one- 
half  the  nuniberof  ewes  with  twin-lambs,nor 
should  he  Congratulate  himself  if  he  has 
lost  a  single  ewe  in  lambing.  I  am  aware 
these  results  cannot  always  be  commanded ; 
but  I  believe  an  attentive  and  skilful 
shepherd  will  not  be  satisfied  for  all  his 
toil,  night  and  day,  for  three  weeks,  if  he 
has  not  attained  those  results.  The  ewes 
may  have  lambed  twins  to  greater  number 
than  the  half,  and  yet  many  pairs  may 
have  been  broken  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
occasioned  by  the  deaths  of  single  lambs. 
The  death  of  single  lambs  is  a  vexatious 
matter  to  a  shepherd,  as  it  not  only  breaks 
the  pairs,  but  imposes  very  considerable 
trouble  on  him  in  viothcrivg  the  lambs  of 
broken  twins  upon  the  ewes  which  bore 
the  single  lambs;  and  yet  the  trouble 
must  be  undertaken,  to  retain  the  ewes  in 
milk  that  have  lost  their  lambs,  and  also  to 
maintain  them  in  a  breeding  state  for 
future  years. 

2.579.  In  fine  steady  weather,  the  shep- 
herd proceeds  with  his  labour  in  comj)ara- 
tive  ease  ;  but  when  stormy  or  wet 
weather  prevails,  or  comes  at  unexpected 
intervals,  the  number  of  lambings  are  not 
only  accelerated,  but  every  ewe  most 
probably  creates  some  trouble,  even  in  the 
day-time.  "  Daylight  has  many  eyes," 
and  permits  him  to  observe  casualties  in 
time  to  remedy  their  eflfects  ;  but  at  night, 
in  bad  weather,  with  glimmering  light, 
difficulties  increase  tenfuhl ;  and  so  sensibly 
have  I  witnessed  such  dirticulties  myself,  I 
am  convinced  every  farmer  of  a  large  flock 
would  find  it  repay  him  at  the  end  of  the 
lambing  season,  in  the  increased  number 
of  {)reserved  lambs  and  ewes,  to  afl'ord  the 
shepherd  assistance  at  night  in  the  most 
busy  period  of  the  lambing  season,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 


2.580.  In  regard  to  the  yield  of  lambs 
of  the  Cheviot  breed,  it  is  considered  a 
favourable  result  t«  rear  a  lamb  for  each 
ewe;  with  South-downs  a  little  more; 
and  with  Black-faced  ewes,  18  Iambs  out 
of  the  score  of  ewes  is  perlia]>s  one  as 
favourable.  Cheviots  yield  a  few  pairs. 
South-downs  a  few  more,  Black-faced 
very  few,  and  half  the  nuniberof  Leicester 
ewes  should  have  twin  lambs.  The  Che- 
viot and  South-down  ewe  sometimes 
requires  assistance  in  lambing,  the  Black- 
faced  seldom,  the  Leicester  always. 

2581.  The  state  of  the  new  grass-fields 
occupied  by  ewes  and  lambs  reijuires  con- 
sideration. Ewes  bite  very  close  to  the 
ground,  and  eat  constantly  as  long  as  the 
lambs  are  with  them ;  and  as  they  are 
put  on  the  new  grass  in  the  latter  end  of 
March,  before  vegetation  is  much  ad- 
vanced, they  soon  render  the  pasture  bare 
when  overstocked,  in  the  most  favourable 
circumstances,  and  especially  when  the 
weather  is  unfavourable  to  vegetation. 
In  cold  weather  in  8i)ring,  bitten  grass 
soon  becomes  brown.  Whenever  the  pas- 
ture is  seen  to  fail,  the  ewes  should  be 
removed  to  another  field  ;  for  if  the  plants 
are  allowed  to  be  bitten  into  the  heart  in 
the  early  part  of  the  year,  the  greater  part 
of  summer  will  pass  ere  they  will  recover 
from  the  treatment.  In  steady  growing 
weather  there  need  be  little  apprehension 
of  failure  in  the  pasture.  Of  the  sown 
pastures,  consisting  chiefly  of  red  clover 
and  rye-grass,  the  clover  is  always  accept- 
able to  sheep ;  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season  young  shoots  i>f  rye-grass  are 
much  relished  by  ewes.  On  removing  the 
ewes  from  the  first  to  the  second  field,  it 
is  better  to  eat  the  first  down  as  low  as  it 
safely  can  be  for  the  j>lants,  and  then 
hain  it — that  is,  leave  it  unstocked  for  at 
least  a  fortnight,  to  allow  the  young  plants 
to  spring  again,  which  they  will  do  with 
vigour,  and  with  a  much  closer  bottom — 
than  to  pasture  every  field  for  a  longer 
time  with  fewer  stock.  Such  a  field, 
eaten  down  to  the  end  of  May,  or  beginning 
of  June,  and  then  hained  and  allowed  to 
spring  afterwards  in  fine  growing  weather, 
will  yield  a  heavier  crop  of  hay  than  if  it 
had  not  been  pastured  in  spring  at  all.  Al- 
though the  wiiole  of  the  young  gra-^s  on  a 
farm,  pastured  lightly  with  ewes  and  lambs 
in  the  spring,  were  to  grow  as  the  season 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


601 


advances  more  rapidly  than  the  ewes  could 
keep  it  down,  it  will  never  produce  the 
fine  sweet  fresh  pasture  which  field  after 
field  will  yield  that  has  been  eaten  down 
in  succession,  and  then  hained  for  a 
time.  But  in  removing  ewes  and  lambs 
from  a  short  to  a  full  bite  of  grass,  consi- 
derable caution  is  requisite  in  choosing  the 
proper  time  for  the  removal.  It  should  be 
accomplished  in  dry  weather,  and  in  the 
afternoon ;  because,  continued  damjj  or 
rainy,  or  cold  wet  weather,  renders  new 
grass  so  succulent  and  fermentable  as 
almost  certain  to  produce  the  green  skit  in 
the  lambs,  although  that  sort  of  weather 
increases  the  milk  of  the  ewes.  In  the 
after  part  of  the  day  the  ewes  have  not 
time  to  eat  too  much  grass  before  night-fall. 

2582.  Carse  farms  have  neither  a  standing 
nor  a  flying  stock  of  ewes,  and  consequently 
have  no  lambing  season  ;  neither  have  farms  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns,  nor  dairy 
farms,  nor  pastoral  ones  for  the  breeding  of 
cattle  alone  ;  so  that  ewes  and  Iambs  are  only 
found  on  pastoral  farms  devoted  to  the  breeding 
of  lambs,  and  on  farms  of  mixed  husbandry. 

2583.  But  pastoral  farms  rear  breeds  of  sheep 
very  different  in  their  nature  from  the  breed 
whose  lambing  season  we  have  been  contemp- 
lating, —  a  portrait  of  a  ewe  and  lamb  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  Plate  Vll.  On  our  hills 
the  Cheviot  and  Black-faced,  or  Heath  sheep, 
were  long  the  only  inhabitants,  but  now  the 
valuable  South-down  is  added  to  the  list.  The 
Cheviot  and  South-down  thrive  in  semi-upland 
green  mountain  pastures,  such  as  the  Downs  and 
the  green  hills  of  Cheviot,  in  England,  and  the 
green  hills  of  Ochils,  Sidlaw,  and  Lammermnir 
in  Scotland  ;  while  the  Black- faced  are  found  on 
the  highest  mountains,  not  only  as  far  as  a  plant 
of  heath  can  grow,  but  even  beyond  it,  iu  the 
region  of  the  cryptogama. 

2584.  In  as  far  as  the  assistance  of  the  shep- 
herd is  required  to  be  given  to  ewes  in  lambing, 
the  observations  I  have  made  in  reference  to  the 
lambing  of  Leicester  ewes  will  apply  to  those 
of  the  Cheviot,  South-down,  and  Black-faced 
breeds  ;  but  the  ewes  of  these  breeds  do  not 
require  assistance  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as 
Leicester  ewes,  the  lambs  of  the  latter  being 
generally  larger  in  proportion  to  the  ewes,  and 
more  square-built  in  form.  Single  lambs  of  the 
other  breeds  are  usually  brought  forth  without 
much  assistance,  and  twin-lambs  are  so  few  that 
the  ewes  bearing  them  may  be  singled  out  for 
particular  attention.  A  Cheviot  single  lamb 
soon  gets  on  foot  after  being  lambed,  and  its 
acute  instinct  as  soon  directs  it  to  tlie  teat. 
The  Black-faced  lamb  is  fully  more  active  after 
being  dropped,  gaining  its  feet  in  a  few  minutes. 


and  its  rough  coat  of  wool  serves  to  protect  it  at 
once  from  the  weather. 

2585.  Placed  in  shelter  derived  from  one  of  the 
many  natural  inequalities  of  the  ground  com- 
mon in  a  pastoral  country,  both  these  breeds  may 
easily  be  tended  in  the  lambing  season  during  the 
day;  but  the  constant  attention  required  of  the 
shepherd  limits  his  ability  to  superintend,  at  this 
particular  period,  a  lambing  flock  beyond  a  cer- 
tain number  :  400  ewes  are  as  many  as  one 
shepherd  can  superintend  in  the  course  of  the 
day,  to  render  them  the  assistance  they  may 
stand  in  need  of ;  to  place  the  new-lambed  ewea 
and  lambs  in  shelter  until  they  have  both  per- 
fectly recovered,  and  are  able  to  take  to  the 
pasture  ;  and,  in  case  of  bad  weather,  to  supply 
them  with  turnips  and  hay,  to  enable  them  to 
support  their  lambs  until  the  weatlier  becomes 
favourable.  If  one  shepherd  fulfils  these  duties 
in  the  day,  he  does  quite  enough;  so  that  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  an  assistant  for  him  in  the 
night,  to  gather  the  ewes  into  shelter  at  night- 
fall, and  to  take  a  weakly  lamb,  or  all  the  lambs 
that  have  dropped  during  the  night,  into  sheds 
erected  on  purpose  as  a  protection  against  bad 
weather.  To  ascertain  the  state  of  his  flock,  he 
should  go  through  them  with  a  lantern,  at  least 
every  two  hours,  and  oftener  if  necessary.  Lord 
Napier  recommends  the  construction  of  a  "  lamb- 
ing  park,"  for  the  use  of  ewes,  and  gives  the  cost 
of  making  one  to  compreliend  25  acres  of  ground, 
which  shall  accommodate  200ewesfortwo  months, 
with  2  stells  and  2  stell-houses,  and  hay-racks,  at 
£.90,  which,  at  7  per  cent  interest,  with  repairs 
of  racks,  &c.,  will  incur  an  annual  cost  of 
£7,  5s.  8d.*  Such  a  placeof  shelter  and  of  enclo- 
sure would,  no  doubt,  be  useful  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, but  only  to  a  limited  extent ;  for  such  a  park 
can  only  be  formed  in  one  part  of  the  grazings, 
where  at  times  it  will  no  doubt  be  exposed  to 
the  weather,  and  as  25  acres  would  only  contain 
one-fifth  of  the  flock  at  a  time,  in  stormy  wea- 
tlier the  rest,  whether  already  lambed  or  yet  to 
lamb,  require  shelter  as  well  as  ewes  expected 
to  lamb  ;  and  the  dividing  of  the  flock  every 
day  to  get  the  200  ewes  with  their  lambs  out, 
and  other  200  driven  in,  would  make  a  serious 
commotion  amongst  the  ewes  at  a  very  cri- 
tical period.  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  a 
chosen  spot  selected  to  afford  shelter,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  weather,  to  all 
the  ewes  yet  to  lamb  within  a  given  time,  and 
where  they  could  be  partly  supported  on  arti- 
ficial food,  whilst  those  which  have  lambed  could 
occupy  at  night  a  sheltered  part  of  the  best  por- 
tion of  the  pastures,  would  disturb  lambing  ewes 
far  less  than  a  lambing  park  which  was  not  con- 
stantly occupied  by  all  the  ewes.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  hill  sheep  cannot  be  so  easily 
shifted  from  one  place  to  another  as  Leicester 
sheep,  and  especially  in  a  grazing  which  has  few 
or  no  enclosures. 

2586.  Small  pieces  of  English  blanketing,  to 
be  kept  dry  when  not  in  use,  to  wrap  round 
and  keep  warm  a  weakly  lamb  in  the  shed,  until 


•  Napier  On  Practical  Store  Farming,  p.  155. 


602 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


it  becomes  strong  by  the  effects  of  its  mother's 
milk,  or  of  warm  cow's  milk  admiuistered  by 
the  shepherd,  will  be  found  useful  articles  by 
every  shepherd,  and  may  be  the  means  of  pre- 
serving the  life  of  many  a  lamb.  Many  a  lamb 
I  have  seen  recruited  by  this  means,  when  it 
would  have  otherwise  perished  of  inanition. 

2587.  The  period  of  lambing,  in  hill  sheep,  ia 
longer  than  that  of  Leicesters,  because  the 
gimmers  are  not  tupped  in  the  autumn  until  a 
fortnight  after  the  ewes,  and,  of  course,  do  not 
begin  to  lamb  in  the  spring  until  a  fortnight 
later.  The  ewes  begin  to  lamb  about  the  20th 
April,  and  the  gimmers  a  fortnight  after. 

2588.  To  strengthen  the  gimmers,  and  to  bring 
a  flush  of  milk  upon  them,  they  are  separated 
from  the  ewes  about  a  month  before  their  lamb- 
ing time,  and  are  supplied  with  turnips  to  the 
amount  of  a  double  horse-load,  say  15  cwt.,  to 
every  100  or  120  gimmers.  About  a  fortnight  before 
the  ewes  lamb,  they  get  the  same  quantity  of 
turnips  for  every  160  ewes.  In  mountain  farms, 
where  there  are  no  turnips,  hay  should  be  sup- 
plied in  the  same  manner  to  the  gimmers  and 
ewes.  A  quantity  of  hay,  expended  at  this 
time,  will  be  more  than  repaid  in  the  safety  of 
the  lambs  and  the  vigour  of  the  ewes,  especially 
in  unfavourable  weather. 

2589.  A  few  observations  by  Mr  Little  oq 
the  qualifications  of  a  kill  shepherd,  are  worth 
your  perusal,  as  containing  much  good  prac- 
tical sense.  "  Much,"  he  says,  '*  of  the  suc- 
cess in  sheep-farming  depends  on  the  skill  and 
application  of  shepherds,  as  well  as  on  the 
judgment  of  farmers.  As  the  situation  of  a 
shepherd  is  one  of  considerable  trust,  he  ought 
to  be  honest,  active,  useful,  and  of  a  calm  tem- 
per ;  for  if  at  any  time  a  shepherd  gets  into  a 
passion  with  his  sheep,  it  is  attended  with  great 
disadvantage  in  herding,  or  in  working  among 
them.  I  have  known  a  hasty  passionate  man, 
with  a  rash  dog,  give  himself  double  the  trouble 
in  managing  a  hirsel  of  sheep,  besides  abusing 
the  sheep,  that  a  calm  good-tempered  man,  with 
a  sagacious  close-mouthed  dog,  would  have  had 
in  the  same  circumstances.  The  qualification 
required  in  taking  care  of  a  hirsel  of  sheep,  is, 
not  in  running,  hounding,  and  training  dogs,  nor 
in  performing  a  day's  work  of  any  other  kind; 
but  in  directing  them  according  to  the  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  situation  of  the  farm,  in  such  a  manner 
as  they  shall  obtain  the  greatest  quantity  of  food 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Their  health  and 
comfort  ^hould  be  carefully  looked  after  by  the 
shepherd  :  and  if  his  exertions  are  made  with 
judgment,  they  are  of  very  great  consequence  to 
the  farmer.  It  is  not  by  walking  much,  and 
doing  a  great  deal,  that  a  shepherd  is  a  good 
one  ;  but  it  is  knowing  tchere  to  walk,  so  as  to 
disturb  the  sheep  the  least,  and  by  doing  at  the 
time  whatever  is  necessary  to  be  done.  There 
is  not  an  experienced  shepherd,  who  has  been 
any  length  of  time  on  one  farm,  who  does  not, 
as  soon  as  he  rises  in  the  morning,  and  observing 
the  state  of  the  weather,  know  almost  to  a  cer- 
tainly where  to  find  every  sheep  on  the  hill,  and 


will  accordingly  take  his  course  to  the  places  where 
he  knows  his  presence  is  most  wanted.  The  object 
in  looking  over  a  hill  every  evening  and  morning, 
is  to  ascertain  if  there  be  no  trespassers  nor  dis- 
ease among  the  sheep  which  require  looking 
after.  If  any  of  your  own  or  neiglibour's  sheep 
have  trespassed,  it  is  very  fooli^h  to  dog  or  abuse 
them,  for  the  more  gently  you  can  turn  them 
back  the  better.  If  the  boundary  should  be  on 
the  top  of  a  height,  to  which  sheep  are  apt  to 
draw  at  night,  it  is  better  to  turn  your  own  a 
little  closer  to  the  boundary  in  the  afternoon, 
than  to  turn  back  your  neighbour's,  and  it  will 
answer  the  same  purpose  ;  and  if  the  two  flocks 
are  gently  divided  in  the  morning,  without  dogs, 
they  will  become  so  well  acquainted  wiih  their 
own  side,  that  at  the  very  sight  of  the  shepherd 
they  will  take  to  it  without  farther  trouble. 
Those  shepherds  who  dog,  force,  and  shed  much 
about  a  march,  I  consider  them  as  bad  herds  for 
their  masters  as  for  the  neighbouring  farmer.  If 
the  boundary  be  a  brook  or  low  ground,  where 
the  sheep  graze  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  if 
trespasses  are  likely  to  be  consideraLle,  the 
same  plan  of  turning  the  sheep  should  be  taken 
as  on  the  height,  except  that  they  are  to  be 
turned  down  in  the  morning,  and  set  out  in  the 
afternoon.  When  a  sheep  dies  on  the  hill,  or 
any  disease  appears  among  them,  the  dead  or 
diseased  sheep  should  be  removed  immediately, 
but  particularly  so  if  the  disease  is  of  an  infec- 
tious nature.  Looking  regularly  over  a  hill  is  of 
great  consequence,  also,  in  case  of  any  sheep 
falling  into  a  ditch,  or  lamb  losing  its  mother,  or 
when  they  are  annoyed  by  flies  or  maggots,  or  by 
foxes  or  dogs  worrying  them,  or  when  tliey  fall 
on  their  back  and  cannot  get  up  again.  All 
these  incidents  an  active  shepherd  with  a  good 
eye  will  soon  discover,  however  much  a  flock 
may  be  scattered  over  a  farm.  ...  In  good 
weather  tKe  shepherd  may  possibly  do  all  that 
can  be  done  among  the  ewes  in  the  lambing  sea- 
son; but  in  bad  weather  it  is  tlie  farmer's  inte- 
rest to  afford  every  necessary  assistance,  for  the 
want  of  which,  serious  losses  have  often  been 
incurred.  .  .  .  Knowing  sheep  by  head-mark 
often  saves  a  shepherd  much  trouble,  particularly 
in  the  lambing  season,  and  at  all  sortings  of  the 
slieep;  yet  there  are  many  good  shepherds  who 
do  not  know  sheep  by  head-marks,  and  there  are 
some  very  ordinary  ones  who  have  a  talent  in 
that  way.  Every  individual  may  be  kuown  by 
the  stock  mark.  To  possess  the  knack  of  count- 
tMij  sheep  readily  is  of  no  small  service  to  s 
shepherd,  for  he  ought  always  to  be  able  to  count 
his  flock  when  he  makes  his  rounds  on  the  hill. 
There  are  few  shepherds  who  accustom  them- 
selves to  count  sheep,  who  cannot,  wherever 
they  meet  with  them  on  a  hill,  count  100  going  at 
large,  or  even  200,  and  it  seldom  happens  that  a 
greater  number  than  200  will  be  found  together 
in  an  open  hirsel.  To  know  the  number  in  the 
different  lots  is  of  great  use  in  case  of  a  hasty 
blast,  as  you  can,  in  that  event,  know  alnio?t  to 
a  certainty  wlietliir  or  not  any  sheep  are  awant- 
ing,  and  from  what  part  of  the  farm.  A  shep- 
herd ought  likewise  to  be  able  tv  do  ant/  kind  of 
ttork  nbuiit  a  slie>p  t'nrni,  such  as  cutting  himbs, 
smearing,  slaughtering,  dressing  for  the  market. 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


603 


repairing  stone-dykes,  dlfeaning  out  drains,  mow- 
ing grass,  making  hay,  casting  and  winning 
peat-turf  for  fuel,  &c.;  but  he  ought  at  no  time 
to  neglect  the  sheep  for  such  work.  Shepherds 
are  generally  accounted  lazy;  but  those  who 
really  care  fur  their  sheep  will  not  be  so.  Much 
walking  unfits  a  man  for  hard  labour,  as  much 
as  hard  labour  unfits  a  man  for  much  walking; 
but  labourers  will  generally  be  found  more  lazy 
on  a  hill,  or  among  sheep,  than  shepherds  at 
field-work."* 

2590.  Slipping  of  the  lamb. —  Ewes  in  lamb 
are  liable  to  abortion,  or  slipping  of  the  lamb, 
as  it  is  termed,  as  well  as  the  cow,  but  not  so 
much,  nor  is  the  complaint  considered  epidemical 
in  the  sheep.  Various  causes  produce  it,  such  as 
severe  weather  in  winter,  having  to  endure  much 
fatigue  in  snow,  leaping  ditches,  being  frightened 
by  dogs,  over-driving.  It  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Youatt,  that  too  liberal  use  of  salt  will  produce 
abortion.  The  wool  is  apt  to  come  off  in  spring 
after  abortion.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  predi- 
cate abortion  in  sheep,  on  account  of  their  woolly 
covering,  but  its  immediate  effects  of  duluess  on 
the  ewe,  and  of  a  redness  under  the  tail,  will  be 
symptoms  notices!  by  an  observant  shepherd. 
"  The  treatment  after  abortion,"  observes  Mr 
Youatt,  "  will  depend  entirely  on  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  If  the  foetus  had  been  long 
dead,  proved  by  the  fetid  smell  of  it,  and  of  the 
vaginal  discharge,  the  parts  should  be  washed 
with  a  weak  solution  in  water  (1  to  16)  of  the 
chloride  of  lime,  some  of  which  may  also  be  in- 
jected into  the  uterus.  If  fever  should  super- 
vene, a  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  tiraeously  adminis- 
tered, will  remove  the  symptoms.  If  debility 
and  want  of  appetite  should  remain,  a  l.ttle 
gentian  and  ginger,  with  small  doses  of  Epsom 
salts,  will  speedily  restore  the  animal.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  food  shall  not  be  too 
nutritive  or  too  great  in  quantity." 

2591.  Labour  of  eices. — In  protracted  labour, 
when  the  ewe  is  becoming  weak,  she  will  be 
much  relieved  by  receiving  a  table-spoonful  of 
brandy  and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  in  equal  parts, 
•with  a  drinking-horn.  To  produce  pains  in  a 
ewe  when  she  becomes  apathetic  in  lambing, 
2  table-spoonfuls  of  a  strung  infusion  of  the  er- 
got of  rye,  repeated  in  a  second  dose  in  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour,  will  produce  pains  and  ease  the 
labour.  In  cases  where  it  is  impossible  to  ex- 
tract the  lamb,  and  the  life  of  both  lamb  and 
ewe  is  in  danger,  the  Coesarian  operation — that 
is,  extracting  the  lamb  from  the  womb  by  an 
incision  made  in  the  side  and  in  the  womb  of  the 
ewe — has  been  performed  with  su;;cess.  "  la 
some  lambs  that  are  born  apparently  dead,  the 
vital  principle  is  not  extinct,  but  it  would  soon 
be  so  if  the  little  animal  were  suffered  to  remain 
on  the  cold  damp  grass.  Every  lamb  that  is 
found  in  this  situation  should  be  carefully  exa- 
mined, and  if  there  is  the  slightest  degree  of 
warmth  remaining  about  it,  the  shepherd  should 
blow  into  its  mouth  in  order  to  inflate  the  lungs: 
many  a  little  one  has  tiius  been  saved.      The 


shepherd  need  trouble  himself  very  little  about 
the  expulsion  of  the  placenta  or  cleansing, 
although  a  day  or  two  may  pass  before  it  is 
detached.  A  couple  of  ounces  of  Epsom  salts, 
with  a  little  ginger,  may  be  given  if  there  should 
be  a  longer  delay,  or  if  symptoms  of  fever  should 
be  exhibited;  but  the  farmer  would  do  well  to 
avoid  the  rough  barley  or  the  misletoe,  or  ia 
fact  any  stimulant,  for  there  is  at  this  time  suf- 
ficient disposition  to  fever,  without  its  being 
artificially  set  up." 

2592.  Inflammation. — "  The  inflammation  of 
the  womb,  after  parturition,  usually  comes  on 
between  the  first  and  the  fourth  day,  and  es- 
pecially when  any  violence  has  been  used  in 
extracting  the  lamb.  It  is  a  most  fatal  disease, 
and  speedily  runs  its  course.  The  treatment 
should  be  bleedings  and  purgatives  of  Epsom 
salts.  Connected  with  this  disease  are  after- 
pains  or  heaving,  to  which  ewes  are  subject,  and 
which  are  frequently  severe  and  destructive. 
They  are  apparently  the  same  pains,  but  con- 
siderably stronger,  which  nature  uses  to  expel 
the  lamb.  It  is  evidently  produced  by  the  ewes 
being  too  well  kept  during  their  pregnancy.  It 
cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  that  it  is  a  fatal 
error  to  overfeed  the  ewes  at  this  period,  with 
the  view  of  giving  them  strength  to  support  their 
approaching  labour.  It  is  a  most  unscientific 
and  injurious  practice,  and  severely  does  the  far- 
mer suffer  for  it.  But  there  is  some  epidemic 
influence  at  work,  or  the  constitution  of  the 
sheep  is  at  that  time  irritable  almost  beyond  be- 
lief." 

2593.  Purging  in  lamhs.  —  Young  lambs,  as 
long  as  they  are  dependent  on  their  mother  for 
food,  are  subject  to  few  diseases.  A  change  to 
new  luxuriant  grass  in  damp  weather  may  bring 
on  the  skit  or  diarrhoea,  and  exposure  to  cold 
may  produce  the  same  efiect.  As  long  as  it  feeds 
and  plays,  there  is  little  danger;  but  should  it 
appear  dull,  its  eyes  watery  and  heavy,  and  its 
joints  somewhat  stiff",  remedial  means  should 
immediately  be  used.  "  A  gentle  aperient  is 
first  indicated  in  order  to  carry  off"  any  offensive 
matter  that  may  have  accumulated  in  and  dis- 
turbed the  bowels;  half  an  ounce  of  Epsom 
salts,  with  half  a  drachm  of  ginger,  will  consti- 
tute the  best  aperient  that  can  be  administered. 
To  that  must  be  added  a  table-spoonful  of  sheeps' 
cordial,  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  brandy  and 
sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  housing  and  nursing."  But 
there  is  a  species  of  apparent  purging,  which  is 
a  more  dangerous  disease  than  the  skit.  "  In 
the  natural  and  healthy  state  of  the  milk  and 
the  stomach,  curd  produced  by  the  gastric  juice 
gradually  dissolves  and  is  converted  into  chyme; 
but  when  the  one  takes  on  a  morbid  hardness, 
and  the  other  may  have  lost  a  portion  of  its 
energy,  the  stomach  is  literally  filled  with  curd, 
and  all  its  functions  suspended.  The  animal 
labours  under  seeming  purging,  from  the  quan- 
tity of  whey  discharged,  but  the  actual  disease 
is  constipation.  It  is  apt  to  occur  about  the 
time  when  the  lamb  begins  to  graze,  and  whea 


Little's  Practical  Observations  on  Mountain  Sheep,  p.^9-8(J. 


604 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  function  of  the  stomach  is  naturally  some- 
what deranged.  Chemistry  teaches  us,  that 
while  a  free  acid  produces  coagulation  of  the 
milk,  an  alkali  will  dissolve  that  coagulum. 
Magnesia,  therefore,  should  be  administered, 
suspended  in  thin  gruel,  or  ammonia  largely  di- 
luted with  water,  and  with  them  should  be  com- 
bined Epsom  salts  to  hurry  the  dissolved  mass 
along,  and  ginger  to  excite  the  stomach  to  more 
powerful  contraction.  Head's  stomach-pump 
will  be  found  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  here. 
A  perseverance  in  the  use  of  these  means  will 
sometimes  be  attended  with  success  ;  and,  the 
little  patient  being  somewhat  relieved,  the 
lamb  and  the  mother  should  be  moved  to  some- 
what better  pasture." 

2594.  Contiteneas  in  lambs.  —  Besides  loose- 
ness, lambs  are  at  times  subject  to  costiveness  in 
the  bowels.  In  the  first  few  days  of  its  exis- 
tence the  foeces  they  void  has  a  very  viscid 
consistence,  which,  when  it  falls  on  the  tail,  has 
the  effect  of  gluing  it  to  the  vent  and  of  stop- 
ping up  that  passage.  On  the  removal  of  the 
obstruction  by  scraping  with  a  knife,  the  symp- 
tom will  also  be  removed.  A  worse  species  of 
costiveness  is,  when  a  few  drops  of  liquid  fceces 
fall  occasionally  to  the  ground  accompanied  by 
straining,  as  it  is  generally  accompanied  with 
fever  that  may  be  dangerous.  Half-ounce  doses 
of  Epsom  salts  should  be  administered  every  6 
hours  until  the  bowels  are  evacuated,  after 
which  both  ewe  and  lamb  should  be  turned  into 
more  succulent  pasture,  as  the  cause  of  the  com- 
plaint is  to  be  found  in  bare  pasture  in  dry 
weather. 

2505.  Fnerin  lambs. — In  cases  of  fever,  which 
may  be  observed  from  the  duliiess  of  the  lamb 
and  its  quick  breathing,  the  administration  of 
tolerable  doses  of  Epsom  salts  will  generally 
avert  the  malady  at  its  commencement. 

2596.  Udder  -  clap. —  After  recovery  from 
lambing,  the  only  complaint  the  ewe  is  subject  to 
is  inflammation  in  the  udder,  or  udder-dap  or 
garget.  Of  this  complaint  Mr  Youatt  gives  a 
good  idea  of  its  origin  and  of  its  treatment  in 
these  words  : — "  The  f^hepherd,  and  especially  in 
the  early  period  of  suckling,  should  observe 
whether  any  of  the  ewes  are  restless  and  exhibit 
symptoms  of  pain  when  the  lambs  are  sucking, 
or  will  not  permit  them  to  suck  at  all.  The  ewe, 
like  the  cow,  or  oftener  than  that  animal,  is  sub- 
ject to  inflammation  of  the  udder  during  the 
time  of  suckling,  caused  either  by  the  hardness 
or  dryness  of  the  soil  on  which  she  lies;  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  its  too  great  moisture  and 
filth,  or  by  some  tendency  to  general  inflanima- 
tiun  and  determination  to  the  udder  by  the  bumps 
and  bruises,  sometimes  not  a  little  severe,  from 
the  head  of  the  lamb.  If  there  is  any  refusal 
on  the  part  of  the  ewe,  or  even  disinclination,  to 
permit  the  young  one  to  suck,  she  must  be  caught 
and  examined.  Tliere  will  generally  be  found 
redness  and  enlargement  and  tenderness  of  one 
or  both  of  the  teats,  or  sometimes  the  whole  of 


the  udder,  and  several  small  distinct  kernels  or 
tumours  on  different  parts  of  the  bag.  The 
udder  should  be  cleared  of  the  wool  which  sur- 
rounds it,  and  should  be  well  fomented  with 
warm  water,  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts  administered, 
and  then,  if  there  are  no  large  distinct  knots  er 
kernels,  she  should  be  returned  to  her  lamb, 
whose  sucking  and  knocking  about  of  the  udder 
will  contribute,  more  than  any  other  means,  to 
the  dispersion  of  the  tumour  and  the  regular  flow 
of  milk.  It  may  occasionally  be  necessary  to 
confine  her  in  a  pen  with  her  little  one,  in 
order  that  he  may  have  a  fair  chance  to  suck. 
A  day,  however,  having  passed,  and  she  not  per- 
mitting it  to  suck,  the  lamb  must  be  taken  away, 
the  fomentation  renewed,  and  an  ointment,  com- 
posed of  1  drachm  of  camphor  rubbed  down 
with  a  few  drops  of  spirit  of  wine,  1  drachm  of 
mercurial  ointment,  and  1  oz.  of  elder  ointment, 
well  incorporated  together,  must  be  rubbed  into 
the  affected  part,  or  the  whole  of  the  udder,  two 
or  three  times  a  day.  She  must  also  be  bled, 
and  the  physic  repeated.  If  the  udder  should 
continue  to  enlarge,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness 
should  increase,  and  the  knots  and  kernels  be- 
come more  numerous  and  of  greater  size,  and 
some  of  them  sliould  begin  to  soften  or  evidently 
to  contain  a  fluid,  no  time  must  be  lost,  for  this 
disease  is  abundantly  more  rapid  in  its  progress 
in  the  sheep  than  in  the  cow.  A  deep  incision 
must  be  made  into  that  part  of  the  udder  where 
the  swellings  are  ripest,  the  pus  or  other  matter 
squeezed  out,  and  the  part  well  fomented  again. 
To  this  should  succeed  a  weak  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  lime,  with  which  the  ulcer  should  be 
well  bathed  two  or  three  times  in  the  day.  When 
all  fetid  smell  ceases  and  the  wound  looks 
healthy,  the  friar's  balsam  may  be  substituted  for 
the  chloride  of  lime.  The  progress  of  disorgani- 
sation and  the  process  of  healing  are  almost 
incredibly  rapid  in  these  cases,  and  the  lamb 
may  sometimes  be  returned  to  the  mother  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days.  There  are  particular  sea- 
sons, especially  damp  and  warm  ones,  when  there 
is  a  superfluity  of  grass,  in  which  garget  is  pecu- 
liarly frequent  and  fatal.  Without  warning,  the 
udder  swells  universally  with  hardened  teats, 
which  sometimes  bring  on  great  inflammation, 
and  if  that  is  not  stopped  in  the  course  of  24 
hours,  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  udder  mor- 
tifies, and  the  mortification  rapidly  spreads,  and 
the  sheep  dies."* 

2597.  In  case  of  an  individual  ewe,  of  a  large 
flock  of  a  pastoral  farm,  straying  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  shed  erected  to  :ifford  shelter 
to  ewes,  or  has  suft'cred  in  hard  labour,  or  has  a 
weakly  lamb,  or  has  twins  which  are  apt  to  stray 
from  her  or  she  from  them,  or  has  been  over- 
taken by  a  rude  blast  immediately  after  lambing, 
a  contrivance  to  afford  such  ewes  temporary 
shelter,  especially  under  night,  having  been  used 
by  Mr  Nicholas  Burnett,  Blaik  Iledley,  near 
Gateshead,  with  success,  seems  to  deserve  atten- 
tion. It  consists  of  an  enclosure  of  boards,  or  a 
box,  as  seen  in  fig.  226,  whereof  a  is  the  front, 
which  removes  by  hooks  at  the  sides  to  admit  the 


Youatt  On  Sheep,  p.  497-515. 


LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


605 


ewe'and  her  lamb  within,  and  where  she  is  pro- 
vided with  a  manger  6  to  contain  sliced  turnips 
or  oil-cake,  and  a  rack  c  for  hay,  to  fill  both  of 
which  access  is  obtained  by  the  lid  d,  movable 
on  its  hinges.     I  have  been   assured  by  Mr  Bur- 

Fie.  '226. 


2599.  A  snojr-harrotr  and  a  snoir-plovqli  will  be 
found  useful  implements  for  the  purpose,  and 
those  recommended  by  Mr  Hepburn  of  Cul- 
qnhalzie  seem  to  possess  every  re<iuisite.  The  snow- 
harrow  is  represented  by  fig.  227.  It  consists  of 
a  single  bull   a  b,  45   inches  square,  and  6  feet 


THE  EWK-HOUSE. 

nett,  that  in  using  this  contrivance,  which,  being 
a  light  implement,  can  be  easily  carried  to  any 
spot,  he  has  had  the  satisfaction  of  using  it  as  a 
means  of  saving  the  lives  both  of  ewes  and 
lambs  which  would  have  otherwise  perished  from 
exposure.  The  size  of  the  ewehuusc,  as  it  is 
called,  may  be  made  to  suit  that  of  the  sheep 
bred  on  the  farm,  and  as  it  is  not  costly,  any 
number  can  be  made  to  be  used  at  a  time  ;  but  a 
useful  size  will  be  found  to  be  the  following  : — 
Length  5  feet  6  inches,  breadth  3  feet,  height  3 
feet,  breadth  of  the  covered  part  d,  2  feet  7 
inches,  and  rise  of  the  slope  at  d,  7  inches.  The 
fork  e  leaning  against  the  side  of  the  ewe-house 
may  be  used  to  grasp  a  ewe's  neck,  while  lying 
on  the  ground,  and  to  fasten  it  down,  while  the 
shepherd  is  lambing  her  without  other  assis- 
tance ;  but  the  method  of  holding  a  ewe  between 
the  heel  and  knee,  which  I  have  described  above, 
(2547,)  renders  such  an  instrument  of  little  use. 

2.'598.  One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss 
among  lambs  on  hill  farms  is  a  fall  of  snow  at 
the  lambing  season,  or  a  continuance  of  snow  to 
that  period,  Ground  rendered  wet  by  the  melt- 
ing of  new-fallen  snow  is  in  a  worse  state  for 
lambs  than  when  made  wet  by  rain,  as  in  the 
latter  case  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  higher, 
though  wet  ground  of  every  kind  is  inimical  to 
the  safety  of  new-dropped  lambs.  In  such  a 
case,  the  driest  part  of  the  farm,  combined  with 
shelter,  should  be  chosen  for  the  lambing  ground, 
though  it  may  be  inconvenient  in  some  other 
respects  ;  but  should  the  best  lambing  ground  be 
covered  with  old  snow,  especially  in  sheltered 
spots,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  be  gene- 
rally above  the  freezing  point,  could  the  snow  be 
stirred  by  any  means,  it  would  melt  much  faster 
than  it  would  of  itself. 


THE  MOUNTAIN  SNOW-HARROW. 

long;  and  in  the  middle  of  which,  on  the  under 
side,  apiece  of  li-inch  plank  c,  3  feet  long,  is 
s  ink  flush  transversely,  for  the  attachment  of 
the  draught-hook  c,  and  the  stilt  rf  to  steady  the 
motion  of  the  implement.  In  the  bull  are  fixed, 
by  screw-nuts  at  intervals  of  10  inches.  7  cutters 
e«,  &c.,  9  inches  long  and  1|  inch  bruad,  sabre 
shiped,  with  their  points  turned  backwards,  so 
as  to  be  less  liable  to  be  arrested  by  obstacles  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Between  these  cut- 
ters are  fixed  6  shorter  ones/,  &c.,  3  inches  long, 
having  their  points  turned  forwards.  This  im- 
plement, dragged  by  one  horse  ridden  by  a  boy, 
and  the  stilt  held  by  a  man,  cuts  the  frozen  snow 
into  stripes  of  5  or  6  inches  broad,  which  are 
easily  pulverised  by  the  feet  of  the  sheep,  or  di- 
vided by  the  snow-plough.  The  severe  snow- 
storm of  1823  lay  on  the  hills  from  February  to 
May  ;  and  the  protracted  snow-storms  of  1837-8, 
with  repeated  falls  and  alternatioas  of  frost  and 
thaw,  caused  the  death  of  many  a  sheep  before 
and  at  the  lambing  season.  The  snow  became 
so  compact  in  the  latter  year,  that  the  common 
snow-plough  was  unable  to  penetrate  it,  and  the 
common  harrow  to  break  its  glazed  surface. 

2600.  With  the  view  of  obviating  both  these 
inconveniences,  Mr  Hepburn  contrived  the  snow- 
harrow  described  above,  and  also  the  snow-plough, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  description  in  Mr 
Hepburn's  own  words:— "The  severity  of  the 
winter  of  1837-8  in  mountain  sheep-pasture,  led 
me  to  attempt  the  snow-plough,  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  the  snow-harrow,  for  being  applied  in 
such  situations.  To  enable  the  plough  to  clear 
tracks  for  the  sheep  along  the  hill  sides,  it  is 
necessary  it  should  be  made  to  throw  the  snow 
wholly  to  the  lower  side.  To  efi'ect  this  I  caused 
to  be  fitted  to  the  plough  a,  fig.  228— the  body 
of  which  forms  an  isoceles  triangle  whose  sides 
are  7^  feet,  and  its  base  6  feet  in  length,  the 
depth  of  the  sides  being  15  inches — a  shifting 
head  6  c  d,  with  unequal  sides;  one,  6  c,  being  18 
inches,  the  other,  b  d,  30  inches  long,  fixed  by 
iron  pins  passing  through  two  pairs  of  eyes  as 
seen  at  c,  attached  to  the  head  and  to  the  sides 
of  the  plough  respectively,  so  as  to  bring  the 
point  of  the  attached  head  of  the  plough  nearly 
into  the  line  of  its  upper  side,  or  next  the  bill. 


9M 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


The  Btilt  g  at  the  same  time  was  made  movable 
by  a  hinge-joint  at  its  anterior  extremity,  fixed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  head  from  the  post/,  so  as 
to  be  capable  of  being  fixed  to  the  cross-bar  or 
Fig.  228. 


THB  MOUNTAIN  TURN-WRIST  SNOW-PLOUGH. 

Btretcher  e,  either  in  the  line  bisecting  the 
angle,  as  at  e,  which  is  the  position  for  level 
ground,  or  in  the  line,  alternately,  of  either  of 
the  sides,  6  a  or  6  c,  when  to  be  used  on  a  decli- 
tity.  The  draught-chain  is  fixed,  not  to  the 
shifting  head,  but  to  the  upright  frame-post  /,  in 
the  nose  of  the  plough,  which  rises  10  or  12 
inches  above  the  mould-boards.  When  the 
plough  so  constructed  is  to  be  worked  along  a 
declivity,  with  the  left  hand  towards  the  hill,  the 
shorter  limb  of  the  shifting  head  is  fixed  on  the 
left  side  of  the  plough,  near  the  point,  and  the 
longer  limb  on  the  right  side,  towards  the  mid- 
dle ;  and  the  stilt  being  fixed  in  the  left  extre- 
mity of  the  cross-bar,  nearly  in  a  line  with  the 
temporary  point,  the  plough  is  necessarily  drawn 
in  the  direction  of  its  left  side,  so  as  to  throw 
the  snow  •■vbolly  to  the  right  down  the  hill. 
When  the  plough  is  to  return  across  the  declivity, 
with  its  right  side  to  the  hill,  the  movable  head 
is  detached  by  drawing  out  the  linch-pins,  is 
turned  upside  down,  and  fixed  in  the  reverse 
position  ;  the  shorter  limb  being  attached  to  the 
right  side,  and  the  longer  to  the  left  side  of  the 
plough,  while  the  stilt  is  brought  to  the  right 
extremity  of  the  cross-bar.  The  plough  is  then 
drawn  iu  the  direction  of  the  right  side,  and  the 
snow  is  thrown  wholly  to  the  left,  near  the  lower 
side.  Should  the  lower  side  of  the  plough  show 
a  tendency  to  rise,  it  may  either  be  held  down 
by  a  second  movable  stilt,  fixed  to  the  middle  « 
of  the  cross-bar,  or  a  block  of  wood,  or  other 
ballast  weight  may  be  placed  on  that  side  of  the 
plough.  The  plough  will  be  found  to  remove 
considerably  more  than  its  own  depth  of  snow. 
When  a  plough  of  1  foot  high  passes  through 
snow  18  inches  or  2  feet  deep,  very  little  of  the 
snow  falls  back  into  the  track,  and  what  does  so 
fall  is  easily  cleared  out  by  the  plough  iu  return- 
ing."* 

2601.  In  lowland  farms  the  snow  remains 
around  the  fences  long  after  the  middle  of  the 
fields  are  clear.  A  speedy  means  of  getting  rid 
of  the  snow  is  to  cut  it  with  the  common  plough 
repeatedly.  Had  I  not  adopted  this  expedient 
in  the  spring  of  1823,  the  oat-seed  would  not  have 
been  begun  for  a  fortnight  later  than  it  did. 

2602.  In  regard  to  the  treatment  of  sheep  on 


turnips  in  spring,  they  are  managed  in  the  same 
way  as  in  winter,  until  removed  to  grass,  which 
they  are  whenever  the  turnips  fail.and  are  kept  on 
for  a  short  time  until  the  weather  becomes  mild 
enough  to  have  them  shorn  of  their  wool,  and 
then  sold  to  the  butcher  ;  but  other  farmers  pre- 
fer selling  them  fat  in  the  rough  state  off  the  tur- 
nips, that  is,  before  the  wool  is  clipped  off  them. 
The  circumstances  which  regulate  these  different 
cases  will  be  explained  iu  Summer. 


ON  CROSS-PLOUGHING  LAND. 

2603.  Immediately  after  the  sowing  of 
the  oats  is  finished,  preparations  are  made 
for  sowing  such  of  the  turnip  land  with 
harley  as  has  been  made  bare  by  the 
direct  removal  of  the  turnips,  or  the 
eating  them  off  by  the  slieep,  after  the 
time  for  sowing  the  spring  wheat  has 
expired;  and  the  first  preparatiim  of  the 
soil  for  the  barley  seed  is  the  ploughing  it 
across,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  future 
ridges.  This  operation  I  shall  describe, 
not  merely  in  reference  to  the  preparation 
for  the  sowing  of  the  barley,  but  to  other 
operations. 

2604.  I  have  already  stated  in  (768,) 
that  the  object  of  cross-ploughing  is  to 
cut  the  furrow-slices  into  small  pieces,  so 
that  the  land  may  be  the  more  easily  pul- 
verised; and  I  have  alsoshown  that  the  land 
is  feered  and  the  horses  directed  for  cross- 
ploughing,  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
ploughing  two-out  and  two- in  ;  and  have 
indicated  thestate  in  which  the  land  is  left  by 
thatoperalion — a  state  in  which  it  wouhl  be 
very  improper  to  leave  it  all  winter  (2448.) 

2605.  The  surface  of  the  ground,  as  left 
by  the  sheep  on  eating  the  turnips  grow- 
ing on  it,  is  in  a  smooth  state,  presenting 
no  clods  of  earth  but  numbers  of  small 
round  stones,  when  the  soil  is  a  dry  grav- 
ally  loam.  The  larger  of  these  stones 
should  be  removed  with  carts  filled  by  the 
field-workers  before  the  cross-jiloughing  is 
even  begun  to  be  feered.  These  small 
stones  are  useful  in  filling  any  drain  that 
niav  be  near  at  hand,  or  they  may  be 
broken  in  a  convenient  place  for  metal  to 
rei)air  a  iarm  road.  A  plough  then  starts 
and  feers  the  ground  for  cross-ploughing, 
and  the  rest  of  the  ploughs  cross-plough 
the  land  as  described  in  (?68.) 


Prize  Efsays  of  the  Ilighland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiii.  p.  191. 


''^.■•■>*^ 


CROSS-PLOUGHING  LAND. 


607 


2606.  The  reason  that  the  land  is  cross- 
ploughed  for  barley,  and  not  for  spring 
wheat,  after  turnips  eaten  off  by  sheep,  is 
that  wheat  thrives  best  when  the  soil  is 
somewhat  firm,  and  not  too  much  pulver- 
ised— whereas  the  land  cannot  be  in  too 
pulverised  a  state  for  barley ;  and,  besides, 
if  the  turnip  land  were  not  cross-ploughed 
after  the  sheep  have  left  it,  their  manure 
would  not  be  sufficiently  mingled  with  the 
soil,  and  the  consequence  would  be  that 
the  barley  would  grow  irregularly  in 
small  stripes,  corresponding  to  the  drills 
that  had  been  manured  for  the  turnip  crop. 

2607.  During  the  time  the  land  is 
gradually  preparing  for  the  barley  seed, 
as  the  sheep  clear  the  ground  of  the 
turnips,  the  stubble  land,  which  had  been 
ploughed  early  in  winter,  and  which  is  to 
bear  the  green  crops  in  the  ensuing  season, 
should  now  be  cross-ploughed  as  oppor- 
tunity offers,  after  the  oat  seed  is  com- 
pletely finished  upon  ploughed  lea-land  ; 
for  iu  high  districts,  where  barley  is  not 
sown,  oats  are  sown  on  the  turnip  land 
after  sheep ;  and,  where  this  is  dune,  the 
oats  are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
barley.  The  portion  of  the  stubble  land 
first  to  be  cross-ploughed  is  for  the  cul- 
ture of  the  potato. 

2608.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in 
preparing  any  winter-ploughed  field  for 
cross -ploughing  is  to  render  its  surface  as 
free  of  large  clods  as  possible  ;  and  this  is 
effected  by  harroicivy.  The  winter's 
frost  may  have  softened  the  clods  of  the 
most  obdurate  clay-soil,  and  the  mould- 
board  of  the  plough  may  he  able  to  pulver- 
ise them  fine  enough,  and  the  lighter  soils 
may  have  no  clods  on  them  at  all ;  from 
all  which  circumstances,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  a  loss  of  time  to  harrow  the  ground 
before  cross-ploughing  it  in  spring,  and, 
for  these  reasons,  I  believe,  some  farmers 
do  not  then  practise  harrowing;  but  it 
appears  to  me  to  be  tiie  most  certain  plan 
of  pulverising  the  soil  to  harrow  it  before 
cross-ploughing  the  winter  furrow;  because 
you  cannot  be  sure  that,  even  in  the 
strongest  soil,  all  the  clods  have  been 
softened  to  the  heart  by  fiost ;  and  should 
any  liap[)en  to  be  buried  by  the  cross- 
furrow  while  still  hard,  they  will  not 
afterwards  be  so  easily  pulverised  as  when 
lying    exposed  upon    the   surface  of  the 


groundHo  the  action  of  the  harrow ;  and 
in  the  lightest  soils,  the  harrows  not  only 
make  a  smoother  surface,  but  assist  in 
intermixing  the  dry  frost-pulverised  soil 
of  the  surface  with  the  moister  and  firmer 
soil  below,  at  least  as  far  as  the  tines  of 
the  harrows  can  reach. 

2609.  There  is  not  much  time  lost  in 
harrowing  before  cross  ploughing ;  for 
although  the  harrowing  should  require  a 
double  tine,  to  pulverise  the  clods,  or 
equalise  the  texture  of  the  ground,  the 
harrowing  should  be  across  instead  of 
along  the  ridges,  that  the  open  furrows 
may  be  filled  up  with  soil  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, whether  the  land  had  been  ploughed 
with  gore-furrows,  fig.  23,  or  not.  The 
most  obdurate  state  of  ground  can  be  har- 
rowed in  a  short  time. 

2610.  Two  pairs  of  harrows  s])ould  be 
set  to  cross-harrow  together,  as  being  the 
best  method  of  harrowing  efl'ectually  in  all 
cases;  and,  when  unconfined  by  ridges 
in  cross-harrowing,  will  cover  at  least  16 
feet  in  breadth,  and  proceeding  at  the 
rate  of  2  miles  per  hour,  for  i)  working 
hours,  will  give  19  acres  of  ground  a 
double  tine,  without  interruptions ;  but, 
as  much  time  is  lost  in  turnings,  as  you 
have  already  seen  (721,)  and  as  time  for 
taking  breath  must  occasionally  be  given 
to  the  horses,  that  quantity  of  land  cannot 
be  cross-harrowed  a  double  tine  at  that 
rate  of  travelling;  but  say  that"  16  acres 
are  cross-liarrowed  in  the  course  of  a  day, 
a  half  day's  harrowing  will  make  room  for 
a  number  of  ploughs. 

2611.  If  time  presses,  the  feerings  for 
cross-ploughing  may  be  commenced  to  be 
formed  by  one  plough  almost  immediately 
after  the  harrows  have  started;  and  if  the 
harrows  cauTiot  get  away  before  the  plough, 
it  should  take  a  bout  or  two  in  the  first 
feering,  till  the  han-ows  have  reached  the 
next  feering,  or  the  harrows  may  pass  along 
the  line  of  each  feering,  preparing  each  line 
for  the  plough,  and  then  return  and  finish 
the  harrowing  of  the  ground  between  the 
lines  of  feerings.  Thus,  in  fig.  229,  after 
the  line  of  feering  <?/ across  the  ridges  has 
been  harrowed,  the  plough  can  either  take 
a  bout  or  two  around  ef,  till  the  harrows 
have  passed  the  next  line  of  feering  (;  h; 
or  the  harrows  can  fro  alonir  each  line  of 


608 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


feerintf,  first  ^ /,  tlien  ^  ^,  then  i  k,  and  return  and  liarrow  out  tlie  pround  between 
so  al<)ng  /  m  and  n  o,  in  succession,  to  e  and {f,  p  and  i,  i  and  I,  and  /and  rj.  In 
prepare  tlie  ground  for  feering,  and  then     this  way  the  harrowing,  aud  fcering,  and 

Fig.  ^-Jf). 

a 


A  FIELD  FEERED  FOR  BEING  CROSS-PLOUGHED. 

the  ploujrhins  of  the  different  feerinjrs,  it  is  cratifving  to  the  minds  of  labourers 
may  be  proceeded  with  at  the  san:e  time,  to  think  that,  as  their  work  proceeds, 
But  if  the  time  is  not  urgent,  the  systematic     they  approach  the  nearer  home;  wiiile  it 


mode  is  to  harrow  the  fiehl  across  in  a 
continuous  manner,  beginning  along  the 
fence  a  h  from  the  gate  at  i,  and  proceed- 
ing bv  breadths  of  the  harrows  across  the 
field  till  the  other  side  of  it  c  </  is  reached  ; 
or   another  equally  effective  mode  is  to 


conveys  to  others  the  idea  of  a  well-laid 
[ilan,  to  witness  the  operations  of  a  field 
which  have  commenced  at  its  farthest  end, 
and  are  finished  at  the  gate,  where  all  the 
implements  employed  meet,  ready  to  be 
conveyed  to   another  field.     The  irate  is 


step  off  feerings  from  a  b,  in  breadths  of     like  home,  and  in   most  cases  it  is  placed 


30  yards  in  succession,  across  the  field 
towards  c  d,  which  has  the  advantage  of 
giving  a  wider,  and  therefore  easier  turn- 
ing to  the  horses  at  the  landings. 

2G12.  Suppose,  then,  that  all  or  as 
much  of  the  field  to  be  cross-ploughed  has 
been  harrowed  as  will  give  room  to  a 
single  plough  to  niake  the  feerings  without 
interruption.  In  choi  sing  the  side  of  the 
field  at  which  the  feerings  should  com- 
mence, it  is  a  convenient  rule  to  begin  at 
the  side  farthest  from  the  gate,  and  ap- 
proach gradually  towards  it,  and  the  con 


on  tiiat  side  or  corner  of  the  field  nearest 
the  steading.  In  the  particular  case, 
however,  of  the  field  represented  in  fig. 
229,  all  these  conveniences  are  not  avail- 
able, owing  to  the  form  of  the  field,  which 
is  a  very  commfm  one;  and  peculiarities 
of  form  involve  considerations  in  regard  to 
conducting  field  operations  of  more  impor- 
tance than  mere  convenience;  and  one  of 
these  considerations  is  the  imj'ortant  one 
of  loss  of  time.  It  is  always  desirable  to 
commence  a  feering  at  a  s(ral«//it  side  of  a 
field,  whence  but  little  risk  of  error  can 
irise  in  striking  off  the  feerings  to  include 


venience  consists  in  not  having  to  pass  the     jtarallel  spaces  of  ground;  and  where  this 


ends  of  the  finished  feerings,  and  thus 
avoiding  the  trampling  of  the  ploughed 
land  to  get  at  the  unploughed.  The  con- 
venience of  this  rule  is  felt  not  only  in 
cross-ploughing,  but  in  prosecuting  every 
species  of  field-work  ;  and  besides  avoid- 
ing the  risk  of  damage  to  finished  work, 


particular  is  not  attended  to,  much  time  is 
needlessly  spent  in  ploughing  a  number  of 
irregular  pieces  of  ground.  It  is  better  to 
leave  all  irregularities  of  ploughing  to  the 
last  ;  an<l  as  an  irregularity  must  occur, 
at  all  events,  along  the  side  of  a  crooked 
fence,  it  is  a  saving  of  time  to  throw  the 


CROSS-PLOUGHING  LAND. 


609 


irregular  ploughing  to  that  side.  In  fig. 
220  it  so  happens  tliat  the  straighter  side 
of  the  field  is  nearest  the  gate  at  b^  and 
the  crooked  fence,  c  to  d,  farthest  from  it. 
In  pursuance  of  the  rule  propoun<led,  the 
feering  should  begin  along  the  side  of  the 
straight  fence  a  b,  and  terminate  in  an 
irregular  space  along  the  crooked  fence 
c  d.  A  straight  feering  could,  no  doubt, 
be  made  at  first  near  c  </,  leaving  irregu- 
larities between  it  and  the  fence ;  but  the 
setting  off  that  feering  exactly  parallel 
with  the  straight  fence  «  i,  to  avoid  mak- 
ing anotherirregularity  there,  would  impose 
considerable  trouble,  and  take  up  more 
time  than  the  advantage  would  compensate 
for  avoiding  the  inconvenience  of  having 
to  pass  the  ends  of  the  ploughed  ground 
along  the  side-ridge  from  d  to  b. 

2613.  Let  the  first  feering,  then,  be 
made  about  7  or  8  yards  from  the  fence 
a  b,  or  from  the  ditch-lij)  of  the  fence 
where  there  is  a  ditch.  Some  farmers 
neglect  the  head-ridge  in  the  cross-plough- 
ing, and  measure  the  feering  from  the 
open  furrow  between  it  and  the  ends  of 
the  ridges.  I  maintain  that  the  head- 
ridges  should  be  ploughed  at  this  time,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  the  field,  and  if  ne- 
glected now,  the  busy  seasons  of  spring  and 
of  early  summer  will  prevent  attention 
being  paid  to  them,  till,  what  with  the 
trampling  of  horses  in  working  the  land 
for  green  crop,  and  the  probable  drought 
of  the  weather,  they  will  become  so  very 
Lard,  as  to  be  found  inipractical)le  to  plough 
them  at  all,  and  they  will  then  be  deprived 
of  the  ameliorating  effects  of  the  sun  and 
air  in  the  best  part  of  the  year.  Let  them, 
therefore^  be  included  in  the  cross-plough- 
ing of  the  field,  though  they  cannot  be 
cro5s-ploughed  themselves. 

2614.  But  if  it  be  desired  to  plough 
them  with  the  side-ridges,  which  form  the 
head-ridges  in  the  cross-ploughing,  afcer 
the  cross-ploughing  of  the  field  has  been 
finished,  and  the  side-ridges  must  be 
ploughed  before  the  crop,  whatever  it  may 
be,  can  be  sown  upon  them,  the  first  feer- 
ing should  then  be  struck  at  7  or  8  yards 
down  the  ridges  from  the  side  of  the 
liead-ridge.  Suppose  that  this  line  of 
feering  isfe  ;  and  as  it  is  executed  in  the 
same  way  as  already  described  in  feering- 
ridges  in  fig.  19,  where  the  furrow-slices 

VOL.  I. 


m  n  are  shown  to  be  thrown  out  right  and 
left  from  the  lines  of  feering  k  /,  and  o  n, 
I  refer  you  to  (742.)  The  next  line  of 
feering  is  h  g,  fig.  229,  at  30  yards'  dis- 
tance from /(?,  and  so  on  a  feering  is  made 
at  every  30  yards'  distance,  to  the  last 
feering  o  n.  As  each  feering  is  formed  by 
the  ploughman  appointed  to  make  them, 
the  rest  of  the  ploughmen  begin  the  cross- 
ploughing  at  every  feering  in  succession  ; 
and  should  all  the  feerings  have  been 
finished  before  the  ploughs  have  entered 
the  field,  the  ploughs  can  commence  the 
ploughing  at  once. 

2615.  The  ploughing  of  the  ordinary 
feerings  is  all  plain  work  ;  but  a  difficulty 
occurs  at  the  last  or  irregular  feering  at 
0  n — not  that  any  intricacy  is  involved 
in  the  ploughing  of  irregular  pieces  of 
ground,  but  the  loss  of  time  incurred  ia 
considerable.  This  feering  is  ploughed 
like  the  rest,  till  the  nearest  point  to  the 
open-furrow  of  the iiead-ridge  is  attained; 
and  if  the  head-ridges  have  been  included 
in  tlie  feerings,  the  ploughing  proceeds  till 
the  ditch-lip  or  fence  is  reached  by  the 
plough ;  but  if  left  to  be  ploughed  with 
the  side-ridges,  the  last  feering  should  bg 
made  across  the  lowest  end  of  the  ridges  at 
the  head-ridge  open-furrow,  as  o  w,  and 
the  ground  included  between  the  open- 
furrow  and  the  feering  should  be  ploughed 
out  hj hieing  the  horses,  with  the  ordinary 
furrow  above,  o  n,  and  an  interrupted  one 
below  it,  the  plough  passing  along  the 
head-ridge  opposite  to  s,  and  leaving  it 
unploughed.  This  feering  will  take  longer 
time  to  plough  than  any  of  the  rest,  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  ground  turned 


2616.  Had  the  field  been  a  true  rect- 
angle, like  the  space  included  within  the 
dotted  lines  a  nt  b,  the  feering  might  have 
been  struck  from  either  fence,  and  there 
would  have  been  no  loss  of  time  in  plough- 
ing alternate  long  and  short  furrows. 
Scarcely  a  more  instructive  estimate  can 
be  made  of  the  loss  of  time  occasioned  in 
ploughing  land  of  the  same  extent  than  be- 
tween a  field  of  irregular  and  regular  form. 

2617.  The  distances  between  the  black 
and  dotted  lines  represent  the  single,  and 
those  between  the  black  and  between  the 
dotted  lines,  double  ridges. 

2Q 


610 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2G1S.  The  furrow  g:iven  at  cross-plough- 
ing is  always  deep,  deeper  than  the  one 
given  at  the  commencement  of  winter  ;  and 
this  is  easily  accomplished,  hy  the  land  not 
having  had  time  to  consolidate  by  the 
labour  bestowed  upon  it,  when  the  plough 
passes  easily  under  the  old  furrow,  and 
raises  a  portion  of  the  soil  below  it.  It  is 
requisite  to  go  deeper  to  keep  the  plough 
steady,  otherwise  the  winter  turned-over 
furrow  having  in  it  still  much  unrotted 
stubble,  would  affect  its  motion  and  i)re- 
vent  the  maintaining  of  an  equal  depth  of 
furrow.  Cross-jdoughing  the  first  furrow 
in  spring  is  always  an  unsteady  work,  the 
open-furrows  presenting  no  resistance  to 
the  plough  compared  with  the  land  in  the 
centre  of  the  ridge.  Perhaps  9  inches  may 
be  considered  a  good  average  depth  in 
cross  ploughing  with  a  pair  of  horses. 

2619.  But  means  are  frequently  used  at 
this  season  to  cross-plough  with  a  deeper 
furrow  than  can  be  done  by  a  pair  of  horses, 
by  employing  3  or  4  horses  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  third  horse  is  very  commonly 
yoked  in  front  of  the  furrow  horse  of  the 
plough,  and  harnessed  in  the  cart-traces, 
as  represented  in  the  trace-horse  of  the 
cart  in  Plate  III,  the  hooks  of  the  trace- 
chain  being  passed  into  a  link  of  the 
plough-chains,  behind  the  haims,  of  the 
rear  horse.  A  simpler  plan  is  adopted  by 
using  the  plough  harness,  and  lengthening 
the  plough-chains  by  short-ends,  which 
are  short  pieces  of  chain  hooked  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  trace-chains  just 
described.  Neither  of  these  methods, 
howeA'er,  will  bear  a  comparison,  in  point 
of  draught,  ^'ith  tl>e  yoking  of  3  horses,  as 
represented  in  fig.  8.  I  have  an  objec- 
tion, however,  to  this  mode  of  yoking, 
which  is  founded,  not  on  its  principle, 
•which  is  faultless,  but  on  account  of  the 
inconvenience  experienced  by  the  middle 
horse,  which  becomes  more  heated  in  the 
work  than  either  of  the  other  two.  The  in- 
convenience may  not  be  much  felt  in  early 
spring  work,  but  at  the  time  the  largest 
proportion  of  cross- ploughing  is  executed, 
or  in  summer,  the  middle  horse  must 
euflfcr  considerably  more  than  the  others, 
and  I  have  frequently  witnessed  this  in 
places  where  3  horses  are  still  yoked  a- 
breast  to  the  harrows.  Three  horses  will 
take  adepthof  furrowof  11  or  12  inches, ac- 
cording to  the  texture  and  depth  of  the  soil. 


2620.  A  still  greater  depth  may  be  at- 
tained, by  yoking  4  horses  to  a  plough,  2 
leading  and  2  following,  the  2  off  ones 
walking  in  the  furrow,  and  the  2  near 
ones  on  the  firm  land.  Two  convenient 
and  efficient  modes  of  yoking  4  horses 
may  be  seen  in  figs.  9  and  10.  Yoked  as 
in  fig.  9,  the  leading  horses  are  best  har- 
nessed, as  in  the  traces  of  the  cart,  Plate 
III  ;  but,  as  in  fig.  10,  they  are  in  their 
usual  plough  harness,  with  the  exception 
of  the  chains,  which  are  made  for  this 
particular  mode  of  yoking.  The  depth 
reached  by  a  4-horse  plough  is,  on  an 
average  of  soils,  14  inches.  I  have  used 
the  4-horse  pluugh  much,  and  stout,  well- 
matched  horses  have  never  reached  less 
than  14  inches  in  obdurate  subsoils  ;  while 
in  freer  soil  and  substratum,  the  plough 
went  to  16  inches  of  perpendicular  depth, 
and  the  work  was  most  satisfactory. 

2621.  An  ordinary  stout  plough  will 
answer  for  3  horses,  and  so  it  may  for 
4,  where  no  boulder  stones  are  in  the 
land ;  but  where  a  considerable  quantity 
of  4-horse  ploughing  is  desired  to  be  exe- 
cuted, it  is  better  to  have  a  plough  made 
for  the  purpose  a  little  stronger  than  the 
ordinary  2-horse  plough. 

2622.  In  a  3-horse  yoke,  one  man  may 
drive  all  the  horses  by  means  of  reins  or 
by  the  voice,  though  a  boy,  to  assist  the 
turning  of  the  leading  horse,  will  save  as 
much  time  as  will  compensate  for  his 
wages.  Where  3  horses  are  yoked  abreast, 
one  man  may  as  easily  manage  the  three  as 
two.  In  the  case  of  4  horses,  one  of  the 
ploughmen  drives  the  horses,  and  this  with 
the  whip  instead  of  the  reins,  though  the 
near  leader  should  have  reins,  and  the 
other  ploughman  holds  the  plough. 

2623.  Deep-ploughing  is  well  executed 
by  two  2-horse  ploughs  following  one 
another  in  the  same  furrow  ;  and  wiien  the 
substratum  is  free,  this  is  a  good  way  of  stir- 
ring up  the  soil  to  the  moderate  depth  of 
10  or  eveu  12  inches. 

2624.  The  3  and  4  horse  ploughs  should 
not  be  inconsiderately  employed  in  cross- 
ploughing  in  spring,  because  either  mode 
of  ploughing  occupying  a  considerably- 
longer  time  with  the  same  number  of 
ploughs,  and  employing  more  horses  than 


RIBBING  LAND. 


611 


ordinary  plougbing,  cannot  be  prudently 
employed  on  laud  which  is  immediately  to 
be  occupied  by  an  early  spring  crop,  such 
as  beans,  though  the  time  in  which  turnips 
and  fallow,  and  perhaps  potatoes,  when 
cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  are  respec- 
tively tiuished,  will  afford  sufficient  leisure 
to  have  the  land  for  them  deeply  cross- 
ploughed  in  the  best  manner. 

2625.  Deep  cross-ploughing  with  a  3  or 
4  horse  plough  should  not  be  confounded 
with  trench-ploughing,  which  only  deserves 
the  name  when  a  2-horse  plough  goes 
before  and  turns  over  a  furrow-slice,  and 
in  the  bottom  of  which  the  4  horse  plough 
follows  and   goes  as  deep  as  it  can.     In 


deep-ploughing  the  4  horse  plough  goes  as 
deep  as  it  can  of  itself;  and  it  is  rare  that 
it  meddles  with  the  subsoil,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  the  special  object  of  trench- 
ploughing  to  disturb  the  subsoil. 


ON  RIBBING  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED  FURROW. 

2626.  A  species  of  ploughing  executed 
with  the  small  plough,  in  the  same  manner 
as  drilling  in  the  single  method,  (2388) 
and  in  form  exactly  resembling  it  on  a 
diminished  scale,  is  named  ribbing. 

2627.  Fig.  230  is  a  view  in  perspective 
of  an  iron  small  plough,  which,as  isevident. 


Fig.  230, 


THE  SMALL,  OR  RIBBING  PLOUGH. 


is  exactly  similar  in  construction  to  the 
common  plough,  fig.  2,  but  in  such  smaller 
dimensions  and  liirhtness  as  a  single  horse 
can  work  it  with  ease.  A  single  swing-bar 
attached  to  the  bridle  is  all  the  means  of 
attachment  required  for  the  use  of  the  horse. 
To  afford  the  stilts  the  means  of  resisting 
any  cross-strain  upon  them,  an  iron  rod  is 
fixed  at  one  end  to  the  inside  of  the  land- 
side  of  the  plough,  and  on  being  brought 
diagonally  across  the  stills,  is  fastened  at 
the  other  end  to  the  right  hand  or 
little  stilt,  a  little  below  the  handle.  The 
other  parts  of  the  implement  require  no 
particular  description. 

2628.  Of  the  two  modes  of  making  single 
drills,  that  made  by  this  plough  is  neces- 
sarily restricted  to  the  one  which  lays  the 
furrow-slices  towards  the  unploughed 
ground,  (2388  ;)  because  the  ribs  being 
necessarily  narrow,  were  clods  and  stones 
to  fall  into  ihe  hollows,  which  the  other 
method  would  inevitably  cause,  the  purpose 
of  the  ribs  forming  a  kindly  seed-bed  would 
in  a  great  measure  be  frustrated.  The  ribs 
\?ith  great  pains  can  be  formed  as  narrow 


as  9  inches,  and  by  careless  ploughmen 
they  extend  as  wide  as  14  inches,  so  that 
1 2  inches  may  be  considered  a  good  me- 
dium width.  They  are  always  formed  on 
the  land  after  it  has  been  ridged,  being 
only  used  for  the  seed-furrowing.  The 
best  width  of  feering  for  making  tliem  ia 
2  ridges,  beginning  on  the  furrow-brow 
and  laying  the  farrow  slice  into  the  middle 
of  tlie  open  furrow  between  the  two  ridges, 
returning  by  the  same  furrow  to  the  head- 
ridge  whence  the  feering  was  begun  ;  and 
bv  hieing  the  horses  round  this  feering,  the 
furrow-slices  will  be  laid  towards  the  firm 
land.  By  laying  the  furrow-slice  into 
the  open  furrow,  the  seed  is  kept  out  of  it, 
and  retained  upon  the  best  parts  of  the 
ridges.  Kibs  are  thus  formed  on  the  entire 
length  of  the  ridges.  Supposing  the  ribs 
12  inches  asunder,  there  will  just  be  30 
ribs  in  every  feering  of  2  ridges  of  15  feet 
each. 

2629.  The  object  of  making  these  riba 
is  this;  when  heavy  rain  happens  to  fall 
between  the  ploughing  of  the  seed-furrow 
and  the  sowing  of  the  barley,  the  land  may 


612 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


be  60  much  wetted  as  to  have  become  too 
consolitlated  for  barley  seed;  and  were  it 
pluuirl'ed  again  in  tlie  ordinary  way,  a 
tongli  lieavy  clod  might  be  brought  np 
wliich  would  be  difficult  to  reduce  at  that 
season,  particidarly  if  drought  followed 
the  recent  ploughing  immediately.  In- 
stead of  disturbing  this  waxy  ground,  it  is 
better  to  rib  the  land  for  the  seed  with  the 
small  plough,  which,  only  stirring  the 
upper  surface  to  the  depth  of  3  inches  or 
so,  a  sufficient  mould  is  at  once  afforded 
to  bury  the  seed,  and  that  is  all  that  is 
wanted  at  the  lime,  the  land  having  been 
sufficiently  ploughed  before.  A  couple  of 
these  ploughs  will  soon  form  a  considerable 
extent  of  ground  with  ribs. 

2630.  As  the  small  plough  only  makes 
one  rib  at  a  landing,  and  as  only  two 
small  ploughs  are  to  be  found  on  most 
farms,  and  as  it  may  be  desirable,  in  some 
seasons,  to  rib  a  considerable  extent  of 
ground  in  a  short  time,  an  implement  that 
will  do  more  work  in  the  same  time,  and 
in  the  same  manner,  should  be  preferable 
to  the  small  plough.  Such  an  implement 
may  be  found  in  the  ribbing  coulters,  fig. 
231,  which  is  drawn  by  one  horse,  and 
Fig.  231. 


THB  RIBBING  COULTERS. 


makes  .5  drills  at  a  time,  of  a  sufficient 
depth  to  Cover  the  seed.  It  consi-^ts  of  a 
frame  a  a,  bearing  5  coulters  hb  c  c  c,  which 
operate  on  the  surface  soil  exactly  as  the 
double  mould-lx)ard  plough,  dividing  it 
with  small  mould-boards,  into  a  narrow 
furrow  of  mould  on  each  side.  Two  coulters 
b  b,  are  placed  in  the  foremost  part  of  the 
frame,  and  three  c  c  c^  in  the  hindmopt  part, 
at  intermediate  dijitances,  and  ff)rming  5 
drills,  embracing  four  spaces  of  12  inches 
each  in  width.  The  horse  is  attached 
by  the  hooks  of  the  plough  chains  to  the 
eyes  at  d  </,  in  the  bar  d  d,  which  is 
fastened  to  the  frame  a  a  by  the  chains 
e  e,  which  are  2  feet  long,  and,  by  their 
weight,  together  with  that  of  the  bar  d  d, 
give  steadiness  to  the  draught.  The  im- 
plement might  be  rentlered  more  important 
if  requisite,  by  attaching  two  horses  to  it 
by  a  shackle  at  /,  to  the  swing-trees  of 
the  common  harrows  ;  and  the  framing 
might  also  be  mounted  on  an  axle  and 
wheels. 


ON  THE  SOWING  OP  GRASS-SEEDS. 

2631.  Any  time  after  the  beginning  of 
March,  when  the  weather  is  dry,  and  is 
likely  to  continue  so,  grass-seeds  may  be 
sown. 

2632.  They  are  sown  in  company  with 
another  crop,  never  by  themselves,  except 
for  a  particular  purpose,  such  as  the  laying 
down  of  a  lawn  to  grass ;  and  the  crops  ihejr 
invariably  accompany  are  cereal  ones. 

2633.  The  grass-seeds  sown  among  one 
and  all  of  these  crops  are  the  same,  and 
they  are  few  in  number.  They  consi.st  of 
red  clover,  Trifoimm  pratcnse,  white 
clover,  Tri/olium  repens,  rye-graf^s^Lol i um 
percnne^  and  sometimes,  on  light  soils, 
the  yellow  clover,  Medicajo  lupulina. 

2634.  These,  in  common  parlance,  are 
called  the  at-tijicial  grasses,  because  they 
are  sown  every  year  like  any  other  crop 
of  the  farm,  whereas  the  other  grasses  occur 
in  a  state  of  nature,  and  are  jiermauent. 

263.5.  The  quantities  of  these  sown 
vary  but  little  over  the  country,  and  never 
vary  on  the  same  farm.  It  is  considered 
that  12  lbs.  per  acre  of  clover-seeds  are 


SOWIXG  GRASS- SEEDS. 


613 


sufficient.  The  seeds  are  proportioned 
according  as  the  grasses  are  to  remain  for 
one  year  or  longer.  AVhen  longer  than 
one  year,  the  j>r()portion  is  from  (i  Ihs.  to 
8  lbs.  of  red  clover,  4  lbs.  of  white  clover, 
and  2  lbs.  of  yellow  clover,  when  that  is 
sown,  per  acre.  One  bushel  of  rye-grass 
per  acre  is  sufficient  for  all  purposes. 
When  onlv  one  year,  the  proportion  is  10 
lbs.  of  red  clover  and  2  lbs.  of  wliite. 

2636.  The  plunts  possess  different  pro- 
perties. The  red  or  English  clover  has  a 
red  flower,  as  its  name  indicates,  the 
spikes  of  which  are  dense,  globular,  and 
slightly  elongated,  leaves  three  lobed — 
hence  its  generic  name — habit  of  growth 
upright  and  branching,  stem  and  leaves 
juicy,  and  root  subfusiforni.  The  plant 
flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  is  an  annual 
if  sown  by  itself,  but  wl)en  sown  with  a 
cereal  crop  it  is  biennial,  and  conies  into 
use  in  the  second  year  of  its  existence. 
The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  2  feet  or 
more,  affords  a  forage  much  relished  by  all 
sorts  of  stock  ;  is  generally  cut  twice,  and, 
in  favourable  seasons,  three  times,  and 
yields  a  heavy  crop  of  hay,  which  is 
highly  nourishing.  The  aftermath  of  the 
hay  forms  excellent  pasturage  in  autumn. 
The  j)lant  only  yields  a  crop  for  one  year, 
and  then  dies. 

2637-  The  white  or  Dutch  clover  is  a 
name  also  derived  from  the  colour  of  the 
flower,  which  is  white,  tinged  with  light 
pink.  The  flower  is  globular,  surmounting 
an  upright  stalk,  destitute  of  leaves.  The 
leaves  are  small  and  three  lobed,  growing  in 
creeping  stems  rooting  at  the  joints,  pro- 
ducing a  thick  close  covering  on  the 
ground.  The  plant  flowers  from  .June  to 
autumn.  It  makes  but  little  appearance 
in  the  same  year  as  the  red  clover, 
but  is  conspicuous  the  year  after,  makes 
a  valuable  pasture  grass,  and  is  peren- 
nial. 

2638.  The  flower  of  the  3'ellow  clover, 
as  its  name  also  imlicates,  is  yellow  and 
small,  and  very  prolific  of  seed,  which  is, 
consequently,  snld  much  cheaper  than  the 
seeds  of  the  plants  mentioned  above ;  and 
I  suspect  this  circumstance,  more  than  any 
other,  induces  farmers  to  cultivate  it;  for 
although  the  crop  is  rather  bulky,  its  stems 
are  so  hard  and  wiry  that  both  cattle  and 


sheep  are  not  fond  of  it,  either  in  a  green 
or  dry  state,  and  only  eat  it  when  mixed 
with  better  fare. 

2G39.  The  rye- grass  may  be  divided 
into  two  varieties,  which  are  chosen 
for  sowing  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  husbandry.  If  the  grass  is  to  re- 
main only  one  year  in  the  ground,  the 
common  variety  is  sown,  which  can  only 
be  depended  upon  to  exist  one  year  after 
the  cereal  crop  has  been  removed,  and 
thereby  becoming  a  biennial,  as  the  red 
clover  does.  When  the  grasses  remain 
for  a  longer  period  than  one  year,  the 
l^erennial  variety  is  chosen,  of  which  there 
are  many  sub- varieties.  The  seed  of  all 
the  varieties  of  rye-grasses  is  light  in  the 
hand,  because  it  is  coated  with  two-valved  ■ 
paie<F,  which  adhere  firmly  to  it  when 
ripe. 

26-40.  The  seed  of  the  red  clover,  when 
grown  in  England,  is  large,  full,  glossy, 
and  of  bold  purple  colour ;  weighs  64  lbs. 
per  bushel,  aflords  2000  grains  to  1  drachm 
weight,  and  sells  from  56s.  to  75s.  per 
cwt.  The  red  clover  seed  of  Holland  is 
large,  not  well  filled,  with  a  yellow  tinge 
along  with  the  purple,  indicative  of  humi- 
dity of  climate.  The  seeds  of  French 
red  clover  are  small,  plump,  and  highly 
purple. 

2641.  The  seeds  of  the  white  clover  are 
very  small,  and  of  a  rich  golden  yellow 
colour.  They  weigh  65  lbs.  a  bushel,  sell 
at  56s.  to  75s.  per  cwt.  and  afford  4000 
grains  to  1  drachm  weight. 

2642.  The  seeds  of  the  yellow  clover  are 
large,  and  of  dull  greenish  yellow  colour. 
They  weigh  64  lbs.  a  bushel,  sell  at  from 
1  Ss.  to  28s.  per  cwt,  and  afford  2600  grains 
to  1  drachm  weight. 

2643.  Of  the  seedof  the  rye-grasses,  that 
of  the  annual  weighs  30  lbs.  a  bushel,  sells 
for  20s.  to  2Ss.  a  quarter,  and  affor<ls  1712 
grains  to  the  drachm  weight.  The  per- 
ennial rye-grass  seed  weighs  1 8  lbs.  a  bushel, 
sells  from  24s.  to  28s.  a  quarter,  and  aflords 
2000  grains  to  the  drachm  weight. 

2644.  Other  seeds  have  been  recom- 
mended to  be  sown  alongst  with  these,  to 
suit   the   purposes   for  which  the   future 


6U 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


grass  is  intended.  Among  these  is  the 
Italian  rye-grasa,  Lolittm  Jtalicum, 
which,  possessing  the  valuable  properties 
of  celerity  of  growth  and  sweetness  of 
taste,  is  well  deserving  of  cultivation  ;  but 
its  remarkable  quickness  of  growth  ren- 
ders it  inconvenient  to  sow  amongst  grain. 
The  great  disparity  between  its  period  of 
gri)\vtli  and  that  of  the  grains,  as  also  that 
of  the  other  grass  seeds  usually  sown,  in- 
dicates that  it  should  be  cultivated  by 
itself,  although  its  growth  is  checked  when 
sown  with  grain.  It  places  itself  rather 
among  the  forage  plants,  such  as  tares  and 
rape,  tbau  the  hay  and  pasture  plants. 

2645.  In  the  case  of  grass  of  one  year's 
duration,  tliere  is  not  much  room  for  im- 
provement in  the  proportions  of  the  seeds 
given  above;  but  as  regards  pastures  of 
more  than  one  year's  standing,  a  greater 
variety  of  seeds  might  be  introduced  with 
advantage.  On  this  subject  Mr  Law- 
son  makes  these  suggestions.  "  For  3 
years'  pasture  on  good  soils,"  he  says, 
"  the  substitution  of  2  lbs.  of  Dactt/fis 
glomeratay  the  common  rough  cock's-foot, 
for  about  3  lbs.  of  the  perennial  rye-grass, 
will  be  found  advantageous;  while  in 
sheep  pastures  the  addition  of  1  lb.  per 
acre  of  parsley-seed,  Petroselinttm  sati- 
vu7n,  would  also  be  attendetl  with  good 
results ;  and  in  certain  upland  districts, 
established  practice  will  point  out  the  in- 
troduction of  2  lbs.  or  3  lbs.  of  rib-grass, 
Plantago  lanceolata.  In  proportion  to 
the  retentiveness  of  heavy  soils,  as  well  as 
for  those  of  a  peaty  nature,  Phleum  pra- 
tensc,  the  meadow  cat's  tail,  should  be 
added,  to  the  extent  of  2^  lbs.  to  3^  lbs. 
per  acre."  *  The  improvement  of  pasture 
of  2  or  3  years'  standing,  not  permanent 
pastures,  has  received  less  attention  from 
farmers  than  it  deserves.  Had  Italian 
rye-grass  been  a  perennial,  it  would  have 
formed  a  valuable  ingredient  in  all  such 
pastures,  both  for  sheep  and  cattle.  Sheep 
are  remarkably  fond  of  parsley,  and  will 
not  allow  it  to  run  to  seed,  but  I  suspect  it 
is  only  a  biennial. 

2fi46.  The  grass-seeds  when  sown 
amongst  the  cereal  grains  arc  notsownsepa- 
rately,  but  mixed  together.  Having  weighed 
the  respective  quantities  of  seed  required 


for  the  size  of  the  particular  field  to  be 
sown,  they  are  mixed  in  this  manner 
upon  the  floor  of  the  corn-barn.  The  rye- 
grass seed  is  laid  on  the  floor  in  a  heap, 
which  is  made  flat  on  the  top  to  receive  the 
clover  seeds  to  be  mixed  with  it.  The 
red  clover,  being  the  larger  sized  seed,  is 
put  on  first,  and  spread  over  the  top  of 
the  rye-grass;  and  the  white  clover  is 
poured  over  the  red.  The  entire  heaj)  is 
then  turned  over  in  the  manner  described 
for  pickling  wheat  (2309,)  with  2  barn- 
shovels,  fig.  160.  The  turning  is  repeated 
until  the  seeds,  on  being  examined,  appear 
well  mixed.  Although  the  clover-seeds 
are  much  heavier  than  the  rye-grass,  they  do 
not  fall  through  it  to  the  bottom  of  the 
heap,  on  account  of  their  smallne-ss,  which 
enables  them  to  lie  between  the  two  valves 
of  the  palcce  of  the  ryje-grass  seed.  The 
mixture  is  put  into  sacks,  and  taken  to,  and 
set  down  upon  one  of  the  head-ridges  of  the 
field  to  be  sown. 

2647.  Grass-seeds  are  sown  by  hand 
and  with  machines.  The  hand  sowing  is 
now  confined  to  small  farms,  while  on  the 
larger  ones  thegrass-seetl  sowing-machine 
is  universally  used.  The  sowing  of  grass- 
seeds  by  the  hand  is  a  simple  process, 
although  it  requires  activity  to  do  it  well. 
The  sower  is  equipped,  as  represented 
in  fig.  202,  and  a  carrier  of  the  seed 
provided  with  a  rusky,  fig.  201,  ac- 
companies him,  and  hejiroceeds  to  sow,  by 
grasping  the  mixed  seeds  between  the  fore 
and  middle  fingers  and  the  thumb,  instead 
of  the  whole  hand,  and  makes  the  cast  and 
steps  exactly  in  the  manner  dest^ribed  for 
sowing  corn  in  (2319.)  Clover  and  rye- 
grass seeds  being  so  very  different  in  form 
and  weight,  it  is  not  possible  to  cast  them 
from  the  hand  as  that  both  shall  alight  on 
the  same  spot.  The  sower  has  little  con- 
trol over  the  rye-grass  seed,the  least  breath 
of  wind  taking  it  wherever  it  ma}',  and 
the  heavy  clover  leaves  it  to  its  fate;  and 
this  istheca.se  even  in  the  calmest  state  of 
the  air.  His  object  is  to  cast  the  heavy 
clover  seed  equally  over  the  surface,  and, 
as  its  smallness  prevents  it  being  seen  to 
alight  on  the  ground,  it  is  the  more  neces- 
sary for  the  sower  to  preserve  the  strictest 
regularity  in  his  motions.  In  windy 
weather,  the  clover  maybe  cast  with  pretty 


•  Lawson  On  the  Cultivated  Grasses,  p.  53. 


SOWING  GRASS -SEEDS. 


615 


tolerable  precision,  and  even  more  so  than 
corn,  but  the  rye-grass  must  just  alight 
where  it  may.  Most  sowers  attempt  to 
sow  a  ridge  with  2  casts,  taking  a  larger 
grasp  of  the  seeds ;  but  the  surer  plan, 
for  their  equal  distribution,  is  to  take  the 
smaller  quantity  between  the  two  fingers 
and  thumb,  and  give  the  ridge  3  casts,  one 
along  each  furrow-brow,  and  the  third 
along  the  crown.  It  is  pleasant  work  to 
sow  grass-seeds  by  the  hand.  The  load 
is  comparatively  light,  and  the  ground 
having  been  harrowed  fine,  and  perhaps 
rolled  smooth,  the  walking  is  easy  ;  and 
although  it  may  be  tiresome  to  walk  over 
the  same  ridge  three  times,  the  quick  step 
in  which  the  sowing  is  performed  sustains 
the  spirits ;  and  particularly  when  3  sowers 
are  engaged  together  and  arrange  the 
work,  so  that  two  make  the  two  casts 
along  the  furrow-brows  of  their  respective 
ridges,  while  the  third  follows  each  alter- 
nately along  the  crown  of  every  ridge. 
On  making  one  of  a  party  of  3,  we  sowed, 
in  one  day,  72  acres,  24  acres  each,  witli 
3  easts  to  every  ridge  of  15  feet  in  width. 
This  was  in  Berwickshire  in  1817,  before 
the  grass-seed  sowing-machine  was  in  use; 
and  the  work  caused  each  of  us  to  walk 
about  40  miles  in  11  hours. 

2648.  But  such  feats  cannot  now  be 
performed,  as  the  grass-seed  sowing-ma- 
chine suyjersedes  the  necessity  of  doing  it 
on  large  farms,  where  alone  they  could  be 
done.  This  is  a  most  perfect  instrument 
for  the  sowing  of  grass-seeds,  distributing 
the  seeds  with  the  utmost  precision,  and  to 
any  amount,  and  so  near  the  ground  that 
the  wind  affects  them  but  little.  The  ma- 
chine is  represented  in  fig.  204.  Its 
management  is  easy,  when  the  ground  is 
ploughed  in  individual  ridges.  The  horse 
v,-hich  draws  it  starts  from  one  head-ridge 
and  walks  in  the  open  furrow,  as  in  d,  fig. 
210,  when  the  machine  sows  to  the  crown 
of  the  ridge  on  each  side,  to  a  and  b,  the 
driver  walking  in  the  furrow  behind  the 
macliine,  using  double  reins.  On  reach- 
ing the  other  liPad-ridge,  the  gearing  is  put 
out  of  acti<:n  till  the  horse,  on  being  hied, 
enters  the  next  open  furrow  from  the  head- 
ridge,  when  the  gear  is  again  put  on,  and 
the  half  of  the  former  ridge  is  sown,  com- 
pleting the  sowing  of  that  ridge  and  the 
half  of  a  new  one,  by  the  time  the  horse 
agaia  reaches  the   head-ridge  he  started 


from.  And  thus  2  half-ridges  after  2  half- 
ridges  are  sown  until  the  field  is  all  sown. 
The  seed  is  supplied  from  one  of  the  head- 
ridges,  upon  which  the  sacks  containing 
it  were  set  down  when  brought  from  the 
corn-barn.  The  head-ridges  are  sown  by 
themselves.  But  the  half  of  the  ridge  next 
the  fence,  on  each  side  of  the  field,  cannot 
be  reached  by  the  machine,  and  must  be 
sown  by  hand. 

2649.  When  ridges  are  coupled  together, 
fig.  22,  the  horse  walks  along  the  middle 
between  the  crown  and  the  open  furrow, 
the  furrow-brow  being  the  guide  of  the 
line  for  the  end  of  the  machine  to  keep, 
and  2  ridges  are  thus  sown  at  every  bout. 

2650.  Where  ridges  are  ploughed  in 
breaks  of  4  ridges,  as  on  two-out-and-two- 
in,  fig.  25,  the  furrow-brow  is  the  guide 
in  going  and  the  crown  in  returning, 
while  sowing  2  of  the  ridges;  and  the 
crown  in  going  and  the  furrow-brow  in 
returning  while  sowing  the  other  two 
ridges. 

2651.  Were  this  machine  to  proceed 
onwards,  sowing  without  interruption  for 
10  hours,  at  the  rate  of  2|  miles  per  hour, 
it  would  sow  45  acres  of  ground;  but  the 
turnings  at  the  landings,  and  the  time 
spent  in  filling  the  seed-box  with  seed, 
cause  a  large  deduction  from  that  quantity, 
perhaps  nearly  two-fifths. 

2652.  After  the  grass-seeds  are  sown, 
the  ground  is  harrowed  to  cover  them  in ; 
for  which  purpose  lighter  harrows  are  used 
than  for  ordinary  harrowing,  which  would 
bury  the  clover  seeds  too  deep  in  the 
ground ;  and  being  light,  are  provided 
with  wings,  to  cover  a  whole  ridge  at  a 
time,  so  that  the  sowing  process  may  be 
quickly  finished.  Fig.  232  is  a  plan  of 
grass-seed  harrows,  with  wings,  covering 
a  ridire  of  15  feet  wide  at  one  stretch,  and 
difi"ering  only  from  fig.  208  in  lightness. 
The  harrows  are  represented  with  a  com- 
plete set  of  iron  swing- trees,  as  fig.  7, 
attached.  Some  dexterity  is  required  to 
drive  the  winged  grass-seed  harrows.  It 
is  not  convenient  to  move  them  from  one 
ridge  to  the  other  immediately  adjoining, 
as  a  part  of  the  implement  would  then 
have  to  turn  upon  a  pivot,  which  would 
injure  them.     Besides,  it  is  inconvenient  to 


616 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


ht^  the  horses  with  these  harrows.      The 
way  to  avuid  the  inconvenience  is  to  hie 


the  horses  at  the  end  of  the  landings,  round 
an  intermediate  unharrowed  ridge. 


Fig.  232. 


THB  GRASS-SXED  IRON  BARROWS,  WITH  WINGS  AND  SWING-TREKS. 


2653.  The  iron-tceb  harrow  is  a  late 
invention  of  the  ingenious  and  indefati- 
gable Mr  Smith  of  Deanston,  for  the 
same  purpose.  It  is  formed  of  an  assem- 
blage of  annular  discs  of  cast-iron,  of 
the  shape  of  the  common  playing  quoit, 
which  are  interweaved  with  iron  wire  in 
a  certain  regular  form,  until  the  whole 
forms  a  flexible  web,  in  which  the  discs 
have  liberty  to  play  and  roll  about  within 
small  limits.  The  web  may  be  2  yards  in 
length  by  1  in  breadth,  and  is  simjily 
dragged  over  the  ground,  when  it  is  said 
to  give  the  surface  a  finish  superior  to  any 
thing  hitherto  introduced. 

2654.  The  land  may  be  rolled  or  not, 
according  to  circumstances,  before  the 
grass-seeds  are  sown.  If  it  is  dry,  even 
strong  land  would  be  the  better  at  this 
season  to  be  rolled,  to  reduce  the  clods 
before  they  become  very  hard,  and  to  form 
a  kindlier  bed  for  the  small  seeds.  On 
this  account  the  rolling  should  be  perform- 
ed before  the  sowing,  an<l,  of  course,  before 
the  harrowing  of  the  grass-seeds ;  because, 
were  the  laud  left  with  a  smooth  rolled 
surface  after  the  harrowing,  and  rain  to  fol- 
low, succeeded  by  drought,  which  is  a  com- 
mon state  of  the  weather  at  this  season, 
the  smooth  ground  would  soon  become  so 
battered  and  hardened,  as  to  retard  the 


growth  of  the  germ  of  the  new-sown  crop ; 
whereas,  were  it  rolled  before  it  was  sown, 
the  smoothed  ground  would  offer  a  fine 
surface  for  the  small  grass- seeds  to  spread 
themselves  upon,  and  when  harrowed, 
a  small  round  clod  would  be  raised  upon  it, 
which  would  prevent  tlie  encnisting  of  the 
ground  by  the  rain.  On  light  hazel  loams 
and  turnip  soils,  it  is  better  not  to  roll 
until  the  land  has  been  sown  and  harrowed, 
because  rain  cannot  encrust  their  smooth 
rolled  surface,  while  the  rolling  assists  in 
repelling  the  drought  for  a  considerable 
time.  When  strong  land  is  in  a  waxy 
state,  between  wet  and  dry,  the  rolling 
had  better  be  deferred,  while  the  sow- 
ing of  the  grass-seeds  may  proceed,  if  the 
season,  or  the  state  of  the  croj),  amongst 
which  the  grass-seeds  are  to  be  sown,  is 
already  sufficiently  far  advanced. 

2G55.  The  cereal  crops,  amongst  which 
the  grass- seeds  are  sown,  are  winter  wheat, 
spring  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  when  the 
last  are  sown  in  lieu  of  barley. 

2656.  The  wheat,  when  raise<l  on  bare 
fallow,  grows  generally  so  strong  as  to 
smother  the  yoim;r  plants  of  the  grasses  aa 
tiiey  come  up  before  the  wheat  is  reaped. 
Hence,  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie.  wheat  is 
seldom  or  never  sown  down   with   "jrass- 


SOWING  GRASS-SEEDS. 


617 


seeds ;  but  in  other  parts  of  the  country, 
where  it  does  not  grow  so  strong,  grass- 
seeds  are  sown  amongst  it. 

2657.  There  is  little  danger  of  spring 
wheat  attaining  to  so  mucli  rankness  of 
growth  as  to  injure  the  grasses  growing 
amongst  it.  Spring  wheat,  therefore,  is 
invariably  sown  down  with  grass-seeds, 
and  these  succeed  very  well. 

2658.  Barley  is  always  the  chosen  and 
safest  vehicle  by  which  to  introduce  the 
grass-seeds  to  the  ground.  Remaining 
but  a  short  time  in  the  ground,  it  permits 
the  young  grass  plants  to  grow  to  consi- 
derable strength  before  the  approach  of 
winter,  and  they  are  then  the  better  able 
to  withstand  the  vicissitudes  of  that  season. 
Barley,  liowever,  does  sometimes  grow  so 
rank  aud  thick  as  to  endanger  the  exis- 
tence of  tlie  grasses,  when  they  sometimes 
perish  under  the  oppressive  load  of  a  heavy 
crop. 

2659.  Oats,  when  treated  as  barley,  re- 
ceive the  grass-seeds  in  the  same  way ;  but, 
for  some  reason  or  another,  the  grasses  do 
not  thrive  so  well  when  sown  with  oats  as 
with  barley,  or  even  with  wheat. 

2660.  We  shall  now  take  a  survey  of 
the  state  of  these  respective  cereal  crops, 
at  the  time  the  grass-seeds  are  sown 
amongst  them ;  and  first,  as  to  winter 
wheat.  The  state  of  tliis  depends  entirely 
on  tlie  sort  of  weather  it  had  to  encounter 
in  winter  and  early  spring.  If  the  winter 
has  been  open  and  mild,  the  autumn  wheat 
plant  will  have  grown  luxuriantly,  and 
have  even  become  proud — that  is,  in  a 
precocious  state  of  forwardness  for  the 
season.  When  in  this  state  in  spring — 
which  is  rarely  the  case  in  Scotland, 
though  not  unfrequent  in  England — should 
a  heavy  fall  of  late  snow  happen  to  lie 
upon  it  for  some  weeks,  it  will  rot  a  great 
many  of  tlie  plants  ;  and  the  rest  will  have 
become  blanched  at  the  roots,  pressed  flat 
to  the  ground,  and  will  probably  die. 
Blanks,  in  consequence,  are  formed  after 
such  a  catastrophe ;  but  unless  these  are 
of  large  extent,  or  the  season  be  too  far 
advanced,  the  plants  tiller  out  new  run- 
ners from  the  roots,  and  fill  up  the  blank 
spaces.  When  snow  falls  upon  wheat  in 
the  eai'ly  part  uf  winter,  aud  covers  it  for 


a  considerable  time,  it  protects  the  plants 
from  atmospheric  injury,  and  prevents  the 
earth  around  them  from  cooling  below  40° 
Fahr.  In  this  state  the  young  plants  re- 
tain their  healthy  green  colour,  though  they 
do  not  grow  much  ;  and  whenever  relieved 
from  the  snow,  grow  rapidly,  unless  en- 
countered by  black  frost,  which  changes 
the  green  into  brown,  and  kills  many  of 
the  plants ;  but  should  no  black  frost  en- 
sue, the  young  wheat  plant  tillers  closely, 
and  afterwards  grows  equally,  to  a  full 
crop.  The  most  trying  time  for  winter 
wheat  is  in  March,  when  sharp  frosts  fre- 
quently occur  at  night,  and  bright  sun- 
shine in  the  day.  The  frost  draws  the 
moisture  of  the  ground  to  the  surface,  and 
there  freezes  it ;  w^ien  the  sun  shines,  the 
ice  melts  very  rapidly,  and  the  consequent 
evaporation  produces  such  an  intense  de- 
gree of  cold  as  to  kill  the  plants  suddenly  ; 
and  if  they  escape  this  destruction,  the 
damp  ground,  raised  up  by  means  of  the 
expanded  ice,  suddenly  contracts  by  the 
ice  melting  in  the  sun,  and  leaves  the 
plants,  with  their  roots  half  drawn  out  of 
the  earth,  ready  to  perish  in  the  frost  of 
the  succeeding  night.  It  must  be  owned, 
however,  that  this  particular  effect  is  pro- 
duced on  loamy  soils,  which  rest  on  a  wet 
impervious  clay  subsoil,  and  never  on  a 
dry  subsoil,  so  that  draining  is  the  efl"ec- 
tual  remedy  for  this  injury.  Continued 
rains  upon  winter  wheat  make  it  change 
its  colour  to  a  bluish  hue;  and  if  the  air 
is  cold,  the  plant  sets  up  with  red-pointed 
leaves,  as  if  determined  to  grow  no  more. 
Continued  drought  in  spring  gives  to  win- 
ter wheat  a  vivid  green  colour  in  fresh 
weather ;  but  should  an  E.  wind  frost  ac- 
company the  drought,  and  the  sun  also 
shine,  the  points  of  the  leaves  will  become 
brown.  Drought  aud  heat  combined, 
always  promote  rapid  vegetation  in  the 
wheat  plant. 

2661.  The  April  wheat  forms  a  valu- 
able assistant  in  filling  the  blanks  occa- 
sioned in  winter  wheat  by  the  snow  and 
frost  in  spring.  When  sown  as  late  as 
April,  it  will  become  ripe  at  the  samatime 
as  the  winter  wheat.  It  may  be  harrowed 
in  when  the  blanks  are  extensive ;  but, 
if  practicable,  an  iron  hand  garden- rake 
may  answer  the  purpose  to  cover  it. 

2662.  In  whatever  state  of  forwardness 


618 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


the  winter  wheat  is  found  in  the  latter 
part  of  March,  the  grass-seeds  should  be 
sown  amongst  it — that  is  to  say,  if  the 
ground  is  not  actually  covered  with  snow  ; 
and  if  the  plant  is  strong,  the  common 
harrows,  fig.  207,  should  be  used  in  giving 
the  grass-seeds  a  hold  of  the  ground.  If 
the  plant  is  small  and  weak,  and  the 
ground  tender,  tlie  grass-seed  harrows, 
fig.  232,  may  suffice.  Winter  wheat  will 
not  be  the  worse,  but  all  the  better  for  a 
good  harrowing  in  spring,  even  though 
some  of  the  plants  should  be  torn  up  by 
the  tines,  as  the  harrowing  loosens  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  compressed  by  the  rains 
of  winter,  and  admits  tlie  air  nearer  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  After  such  a  harrowing, 
rolling  will  press  the  weak  plants  into  fresh 
earth,  and  induce  an  immediate  tillering 
from  the  roots.  When  the  plants  have 
grown  very  rank  before  the  grass-seeds 
have  been  sown,  the  harrowing  should 
be  given  with  the  common  harrow,  hut 
the  rolling  should  be  dispensed  with,  in 
case  of  breaking  the  stems  of  the  plants. 
The  difference  in  the  effects  produced  by 
rolling,  in  breaking  and  bending  the  stems 
of  plants,  should  be  discriminated.  Inde- 
pendently of  other  considerations,  a  cereal 
crop,  on  a  rolled  surface,  affords  great  fa- 
cility for  being  reaped  at  harvest. 

2663.  Many  farmers  used  to  sow  grass- 
eeeds  without  harrowing,  trusting  to  the 
small  seeds  finding  their  way  into  the  soil 
amongst  the  clods,  and  of  being  covered  by 
their  mouldering — and  the  omission,  I  be- 
lieve, is  still  persevered  in  ;  but  the  safer 
and  more  correct  practice  is  to  cover  every 
kind  of  seed,  when  it  is  sown. 

26G4.  Although  double  harrowing 
across  prepares  the  land  on  which  spring 
wheat  has  been  sown  for  the  gra>s-seeds, 
it  should  not  be  imagined  these  are  sown 
whenever  the  wheat  is  sown,  because  the 
latter  may  be  sown  at  any  time  during 
winter  or  early  spring  when  the  state  of  the 
weather  and  soil  will  allow ;  but  when 
sown  at  the  latest  period  of  the  season,  the 
grass-seeds  should  not  only  be  sown,  but 
also  amongst  the  spring  wheat  previously 
sown  ; '  as  also  amongst  the  winter  wheat, 
should  there  be  any  in  the  same  field. 
It  is  worthy  of  consideration,  in  fields  in 
which  wheat  has  been  sown  at  different 
times,  that  the  latest  sown  should  first  be 


sown  with  grass-seeds,  tben  the  next  latest, 
on  to  the  winter  wheat;  because  it  is  de- 
sirable first  to  finish  the  land  which  has  been 
most  recently  worked,  in  case  the  weather 
should  change,  and  prevent  the  finishing 
of  the  grass-seeds  over  the  whole  field. 

2665.  Frost  injures  clover  seeds,  and 
will  even  kill  them  when  exposed  to  it,  so 
they  cannot  safely  be  sown  very  early  in 
spring;  but  they  run  little  risk  of  frost 
being  so  powerful  in  March  as  to  injure 
them  when  harrowed  in. 

2666.  After  harley,  or  oats  when  taken 
in  lieu  of  barley,  has  been  harrowed  a 
double  tine  across,  the  ground  is  ready  to 
be  sown  with  the  grass-seeds,  and  these 
are  then  best  harrowed  in  with  the  grass- 
seed  harrows,  fig.  232.  The  ridges  are 
then  water-furrowed,  fig.  209,  and  the 
laud  rolled  across,  fig.  222,  when  the  bar- 
ley-seed sowing  is  finished.  If  the  land 
is  rather  strong,  the  water-furrowing  had 
better  be  done  after  the  rolling,  if  the  roll- 
ing has  been  executed  ;  but  on  light  soils, 
the  water-furrowing  before  the  rolling 
always  makes  the  most  beautiful  finish. 
If  rolling  cannot  be  executed  when  the 
grass-seeds  have  been  sown  amongst  the 
barley,  on  account  of  the  raw  state  of 
the  land,  it  should  be  executed  as  soon, 
thereafter,  as  the  state  of  the  ground  will 
allow, — it  being  of  vast  importance  to  have 
a  smooth  surface  in  reaping  the  crop. 

2667.  Should  barley  have  still  to  be 
sown  on  the  same  field,  it  will  be  better 
to  defer  the  sowing  of  the  grass-seeds  upon 
the  %\  heat  until  the  whole  field  is  sown; 
and  the  new-sown  spring  wheat  should  be 
water-furrowed,  and  put  past  danger.  If 
the  winter-wheat  in  the  same  field  is  far 
advanced,  it  and  the  spring  wheat  should 
be  sovvn  with  the  grass-seeds  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  barley-land  sown  by  itself, 
when  the  barley-seed  is  finishing. 

266S.  When  the  land,  being  strong,  is 
suspected  of  being  waxy  when  ploughed,  it 
is  better  for  the  barley-seed,  as  al;^)  for 
the  spring  wheat-.«eed,  that  it  be  ribbed 
with  the  small  plough,  fig.  230,  than 
I)loughed  with  the  common  plough  ;  and 
after  the  barley  has  been  sown  on  the 
ribbed  ground,  a  double  tine  along  the 
ridges  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  seed,  in 


SOWING  GRASS-SEEDS. 


619 


the  ribs ;  for  cross-harrowing  would  de- 
range the  grains  deposited  in  the  drills 
into  broadcast,  and  bring  up  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  seed  to  the  surface. 

2669.  The  clovers  belong  to  the  class  and  order 
Diadtlphia  Decandria  of  Linnreus  ;  to  the  family 
oi  Leguminosce  of  Jussieu  ;  and  to  the  sub-class 
\\\.,  PerigynoHS  Exogens  ;  alliance  42,  Rosales ; 
order  209,  Fabiacece ;  tribe  2,  Lotece,  sub-tribe 
3,  TrifoUce,  genus  Trifotium,  of  the  natural  sys- 
tem of  Lindley.  The  generic  name  is  evidently 
derived  from  the  triple  leaves  of  the  plants. 

2670.  This  tribe  includes  the  most  valuable 
herbage  plants  adapted  to  European  agriculture, 
the  white  and  red  clovers.  Notwithstanding 
what  has  been  said  of  the  superiority  of  lucerne, 
and  of  the  excellence  of  saiiifuin  in  forage  and 
hay,  the  red  clover  for  mowing,  and  the  white 
for  pasturage,  excel,  and  probably  ever  will,  all 
other  plants.  The  yellow  clover,  and  the  cow 
or  meadow  clover,  are  inferior  to  the  white  and 
red  clover. 

2671.  The  soil  best  adapted  for  red  clover 
is  deep  sandy  loam,  which  is  favourable  to  its 
long  tap-roots  ;  but  it  will  grow  in  any  soil  pro- 
vided it  be  dry.  Marl,  lime,  or  chalk,  promotes 
the  growth  of  clover.  The  climate  most  con- 
genial to  it  is  one  neither  hot,  dry,  nor  cold. 
Clover  will  be  found  to  produce  most  seed  in  a 
dry  soil  and  warm  temperature  ;  but  as  the  pro- 
duction of  seed  is  oidy  in  some  situations  an  ob- 
ject of  the  farmer's  attention,  a  season  rather 
moist,  provided  it  be  warm,  always  affords  the 
most  bulky  crop  of  herbage.  Red  clover-seed  is 
imported  into  Britain  from  France  and  Holland, 
where  it  is  raised  as  an  article  of  commerce. 
What  has  been  obtained  from  those  countries  has 
been  found  to  die  out  in  the  season  it  has  been 
cut  or  pastured,  while  the  English  seed  produces 
plants  which  stand  over  the  second,  and  many  of 
them  the  third  year  ;  thus  remaining,  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  4  years  in  the  ground  from  the  time  of 
sowing.*  Some  prepare  clover-seed  for  s-owing 
by  steeping  it  in  water  or  in  oil,  as  in  Switzer- 
land, and  then  mixing  it  with  powdered  gypsum, 
as  a  preventive  to  the  attacks  of  insects. 

2672.  Trifolium  prateme  perenne,  perennial 
red.  This  variety  bears  a  great  resemblance  to 
the  biennial  sort  in  its  general  habits  and  appear- 
ance, and  diifers  from  it  only  in  having  rather 
more  woolly  leaves,  in  being  mure  durable,  and 
in  coming  later  into  flower.  The  seed  is  more 
costly  than  that  of  the  red  clover,  and  it  is  ques- 
tionable that  its  permanency  should  counter- 
balance the  greater  cost  of  seed. 

2673.  Trifvlium  medium,  meadow  trefoil,  or 
cow-clover.  I  suspect  that  this  true  cow-clover 
has  been  confounded  with  the  perennial  variety 
of  red  clover  above,  otherwise  so  worthless  a  weed 


would  never  have  been  recommended  as  a  valu- 
able constituent  for  our  permanent  pastures  on 
light  soils,  where  it  never  fails,  by  its  obtrusive 
character,  to  destroy  the  more  valuable  pasture 
plants  around  it.  Indeed,  Mr  Sinclair  owns,  that 
"the  Trifolium  medium  is  inadmissable  in  alter- 
nate husbandry,  on  account  of  its  creeping  roots, 
constituting  what,  in  arable  land,  is  termed 
twitch;"  and  the  twitch  is  most  abundant,  and 
therefore  most  troublesome,  in  light  suils,  not  only 
in  arable  fields,  but  in  pasture,  where  it  usurps 
the  place  of  better  plants  ;  and  yet  Mr  Sinclair 
says,  that  "  for  soils  of  drier  nature  and  lighter 
texture,  the  Trifolium  medium  offers  great  ad- 
vantages."+ 

2674.  Trifolium  repens, creeping  trefoil,  Dutch 
white,  or  sheep's  clover,  is  the  white  clover  cul- 
tivated in  this  country.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
is  plentiful  in  Britain,  and  is  now  cultivated  in 
Jamaica.  Mr  Curtis  affirms  that  a  single  seed- 
ling covered  more  than  a  square  yard  of  ground 
in  one  summer.  White  trefoil  is  generally  called 
Shamrock,  but  the  Oxalis  acetogella  is  supposed 
to  be  the  true  Irish  shamrock. 

2675.  Trifolium  ht/hridum,  hybrid  trefoil,  Al- 
sike  clover,  is  a  species  possessing  the  properties 
of  the  red  and  white  clovers,  and  on  that  account 
was  considered  by  Linnseus  a  hybrid  between 
them.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  ; 
but  has  been  introduced  into  the  agriculture  of 
Germany  and  of  Sweden,  and,  in  the  latter  country, 
it  is  cultivated  to  considerable  extent  in  the 
district  of  Alsike.  The  late  Mr  George  Stephens, 
after  seeing  the  success  of  Mr  Lawsou  in  raising 
some  plants  in  1834  and  1835,:}:  procured  about 
2  bushels  of  it  in  Sweden  the  year  following, 
which  were  somehow  lust  on  the  voyage.  Far- 
ther experiments  were  thus  checked  in  Scotland 
with  this  promising  clover,  which,  from  its  dis- 
similarity to  the  red  clover,  by  itsi£brous  roots 
and  perennial  existence,  may  very  likely  be  found 
to  thrive  in  such  soils  as  are  termed  clover-sick; 
and  if  so,  it  would  be  a  most  valuable  acquisi- 
tion. 

2676.  Trifolium  incarnatum,  flesh-coloured- 
flowered  trefoil,  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  is  not  yet  naturalised  to  the  climate  of  Scot- 
land. It  may  make  good  food  for  cattle,  as  Mr 
Miller  thinks,  but,  being  an  annual  plant,  it  will 
only  suit  as  a  forage  one. 

2677.  Trifolium  Alexandrinum.,  Alexandrian 
trefoil.  Flowers  pule  yellow.  Furksall  says 
that  this  trefoil  is  universally  cultivated  in 
Eirypt,  being  the  best,  and  indeed  the  principal 
fodder  for  cattle  in  that  country.  It  is  sown 
only  in  the  recess  of  the  Nile,  and,  where  the 
fields  are  too  high  to  be  inundated  by  that  river, 
they  are  watered  by  means  of  hydraulic  engines, 
the  seeds  being  committed  to  the  earth  while  it 
is  wet.  The  produce  is  three  separate  crops, 
the  plants  growing  each  time  about  half  an  ell 


*  Sinclair's  General  Report  of  the  Agriculture  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  537. 
t  Sinclair's  ifor««s  Gramimus  Woburnensis,p.  222,  edition  of  1824. 
J  La.wson^s  Agriculturist's  Manual,  f.  153. 


620 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


in  hcicht.  After  the  last  crop,  the  plant  dies. 
When  this  trefoil  is  wanted  for  seed,  it  is  sown 
along  with  the  wheat.  Both  are  gathered  at 
once  by  the  hand,  not  reaped  or  mown,  and  are 
thrashed  out  together,  the  trefoil  seed  being 
aftervvanls  separated  by  a  sieve.  This  species 
of  clover  being  so  important  in  its  own  country, 
may  be  worth  the  notice  of  British  agriculturists, 
and  may,  perhaps,  be  naturalised  in  this  country. 

2678.  Tnfollum  procumbent,  procumbant  tre- 
foil, yellow  clover,  or  hop  trefoil.  This  species 
of  clover  seems  to  be  confounded  with  the  pro- 
cumbent lucerne,  Medicagu  lupuliiia.  Its  flowers 
are  yellow.  Its  name  of /io;'-trefoil  is  bestowed 
on  it  with  much  propriety,  the  heads  being  larger 
and  more  resembling  the  hop  than  any  of  the 
best  of  the  species.  It  is  common  on  the  borders 
of  fields  in  dry  gravelly  soils.  In  .some  meadows  it 
forms  a  considerable  part  of  the  crop,  and  makes 
excellent  fodder;  and  it  is  now  very  generally 
Used  for  pasture,  with  or  without  white  clover. 

2679.  These  are  all  the  species  of  clover  that 
seem  to  deserve  special  notice,  out  of  166  de- 
scribed by  botanists.* 

2680.  "  Some  years  ago,"  says  Mr  Babbage, 
"a  mode  of  preparing  old  clover  and  trefoil  seeds, 
by  a  process  called  '  doctorinij,'  became  so  preva- 
lent as  to  excite  the  attention  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  It  appeared  in  evidence  before  a 
committee,  that  the  old  seed  of  the  white  clover 
was  doctored  by  first  wetting  it  slightly,  and  then 
drying  it  in  the  fumes  of  burning  sulpliur  ;  and 
that  the  red  clover-seed  had  its  colour  improved 
by  shaking  it  in  a  sack  with  a  small  quantity  of 
indigo  ;  but  this  being  detected  after  a  time,  the 
doctors  then  used  a  preparation  of  logwood,  fixed 
by  a  little  copperas,  and  sometimes  of  verdigris  ; 
thus  at  once  improving  the  appearance  of  tlie  old 
seed,  and  diminishing,  if  not  destroying,  its  vege- 
tative power  already  enfeebled  by  age.  Suppos- 
ing no  injury  had  resulted  to  good  seed  so  pre- 
pared, it  was  proved,  from  the  improved  appear- 
ance, its  market-price  would  be  enhanced  by 
this  process  from  5s.  to  2os.  per  cwt.  But  the 
greatest  evil  aro>e  from  the  circumstance  of  these 
processes  rendering  old  and  worthless  seed  in 
appearance  equal  to  the  best.  One  witness  tried 
some  doctored  seed,  and  found  that  not  above  I 
in  100  grains  grew,  and  that  those  which  did 
Tegetate  died  away  afterwards  ;  whilst  about  80 
or  90  per  cent  of  good  seed  usually  grows.  The 
seed  so  treated  was  sold  to  retail  dealers  in  the 
country,  who,  of  course,  endeavoured  to  purrhase 
at  the  cheapest  rate,  and  from  them  it  got  into 
the  hands  of  the  farmers  ;  neitherof  these  classes 
being  at  all  capable  of  distingni>hing  the  frau- 
dulent from  the  genuine  seed.  Many  cultivators, 
in  consequence,  diminished  their  consumption  of 
the  article  ;  and  others  were  olili;^ed  to  pay  a 
higher  price  to  those  who  had  skill  to  distinguish 
the  mixed  seed,  and  who  had  integrity  and  cliar- 
Acter  to  prevent  them  from  dealing  in  it."  t 


2681.  Clover  seeds  are  not  imported  into  this 
country  from  France  and  Holland  to  any  great 
extent.  "  The  entries  of  foreign  clover-seed  for 
home  consumption,  at  an  avera:;e  of  the  three 
years  ending  1831,"  says  M'Culloch,  "were 
99,046  cwt.  a-year.  But  for  the  high  duty  of  203. 
a  cwt.  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  impor- 
tation would  be  much  more  considerable."  J 

2G82.  Since  then  the  duty  has  been  much 
lowere>l.  By  the  customs  tarifi"  of  1847,  Vic- 
toria 9th  and  10th,  cap.  2.*^,  the  duty  on  clover- 
seed  imported  from  foreign  countries  was  fixed 
at  5s.  the  cwt,  and  from  a  British  possession,  2s. 
6d.  a  cwt. 

2683.  As  regards  clover  in  the  agriculture  of 
Germany,  Von  Thaer  observes  that,  "  this  plant 
is  usually  sown  amongst  corn  ;  formerly  it  was 
always  mixed  with  the  spring  grain,  but  at 
present  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  the  autumn 
grain,  and  in  most  cases  witli  equal  success,  pro- 
vided the  sowing  be  performed  with  proper 
attention.  Clover  is  not  sown  at  the  same  time 
as  the  autumn  grain,  but  at  i-uch  a  time  that  it 
may  germinate  after  the  winter  season.  It  is 
sometimes  sown  amongst  pease,  and  certainly 
shoots  forth  with  great  vigour  among  the  stubble 
of  those  plants.  But  if  the  pease  are  soon  laid, 
and  do  not  ripen  quickly,  the  clover  may  be  com- 
pletely choked  by  them  ;  its  growth  will  then  be 
very  unequal,  presenting  large  vacant  spaces 
liere  and  there.  We  are,  however,  acquainted 
with  two  plants  which  are  altogether  favourable 
to  clover  sown  among  them — these  are  flax  and 
buck-wheat.  These  plants  favour  the  germina- 
tion and  early  growth  of  the  clover,  and  allow 
it,  much  better  than  corn,  to  thicken  and  esta- 
blish itself  uniformly  on  the  lan<i.  Fh-.x  is  no 
longer  sown,  except  in  rich  and  well-prepared 
soils  ;  it  is  cleared  of  weeds,  an  operation  which 
is  productive  ot  benefit  to  the  clover.  The  latter 
is  not  injured  by  the  pulHng  of  the  flax,  if  this 
operation  be  performed  with  proper  care.  But 
amongst  buck-wheat,  1  have  seen  cluver  growing 
thickly  even  on  a  soil  which  was  not  well  suited 
to  it.  Close  by  its  side,  and  on  a  somewhat 
better  soil,  there  was  a  crop  of  oats  growing, 
mixed  with  clover;  and  thus  1  had  an  oi)ponu- 
nity  of  convincing  myself,  in  the  most  positive 
manner,  of  the  great  difi'erence  between  the  two 
crops  of  clover,  and  the  superiority  <.f  that 
whieh  grew  amongst  the  buck-wheat.  This  su- 
periority was  maintained  during  the  whole  of 
the  following  year.  I  would,  therefore,  recom- 
mend the  cultivator  who  wishes  to  li.-ive  a  thick 
crop  of  clover,  and  does  not  think  his  hmd  very 
well  adapted  to  it,  to  sow  his  clover  among  the 
buck-wheat.  It  appears  to  be  indiflerent  whether 
the  buek-wheat  be  allowed  to  rijien,  or  mown  to 
be  con.sunied  as  green  meat.  Clover  also  thrives 
well  among  colza." 

2684.  "  Harrowing  in  spring,"  observes  Von 
Thaer,  "  when  the  clover  begins  to  shout  forth,  is 


*  Don's  General  Smtftn  of  Gardeninp  and  Botany,  vol.  ii. — Lc'pnninoscB. 
+  Babbage  On  the  Economy  of  Mach'nury  and  Manufactures,^.  102. 
X  M'Culluch's  L'ommercial  Dictionary — art.  Clocer. 


SOWING  BARLEY. 


621 


a  very  useful  operation,  and  well  repays  the  ex- 
pense wliich  it  occasions.  The  more  forcibly  this 
harrowing  is  performed,  the  greater  is  the  benefit 
wliich  it  confer.''  on  the  clover."*  Here  it  would 
seem  that  the  clover-seed  had  remained  in  a  qui- 
escent state  in  the  ground  all  winter. 


ON  THE  SOWING  OF  BARLEY. 

2685.  The  ordinary  sorts  of  spring 
wheat  n)ay  be  sown  as  late  as  the  middle 
of  March  in  ordinary  seasons,  and  tlie 
new  sort  of  spring  wheat,  named  April 
or  fern-wheat,  may  be  sown  until  the  first 
week  of  April ;  but  after  that  it  will  be 
safer  to  sow  barley. 

2686.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom, 
that  land  which  has  borne  turnips  that 
have  been  eaten  off  by  sheep,  should  re- 
ceive two  ploughings  of  some  sort  before  it 
is  sown  with  barley.  I  have  seen  the  ex- 
periment tried  of  sowing  barley  on  a  single 
furrow  on  land  rangingfrom  clay  to  gravelly, 
and  the  result  was  a  manifest  deficiency  of 
crop  compared  to  what  had  received  two 
furrows ;  and  such  a  result  is  not  surpris- 
ing, as  barley  requires  a  deep,  well  pul- 
verised soil  to  grow  to  perfection  ;  it  is 
impossible  to  make  any  soil  that  has  been 
trampled  firm  by  sheep,  after  bearing  a 
heavy  crop  of  turnips,  so  with  a  single 
furrow.  Strong  land,  with  a  single  furrow, 
turns  over  with  a  tough  waxy  clod,  un- 
genial  to  the  growth  of  barley;  and  light 
turnip  land,  with  a  single  furrow,  exhibits 
the  barley  growing  in  drills  corresponding 
with  the  drills  in  which  the  turnips  had 
been  manured.  The  least  difierence  in  the 
crop  after  one  and  two  furrows  is  observed 
on  fine  hazel  loam  ;  still  the  superiority  ac- 
companies the  two  furrows.  Let  it  there- 
fore be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  turnip 
land  for  barley  shall  receive  two  furrows; 
and  the  only  question  is,  in  what  form  these 
should  be  ploughed,  bearing  in  mind  that 
the  land  must  be  deep  ploughed  and  well 
pulverised. 

2687.  On  clay  loam  in  good  heart,  it  is 
not  improbable  that  some  of  the  turnip 
land  that. had  been  ploughed  for  spring 
wheat,  had  been,  by  the  bad  state  of  the 
weather,  prevented  from  being  sown  with 
that  grain,  and,  of  course,  it  must  now  be 


sown  with  barley.  Whether  the  land  had 
been  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  fig.  20,  or 
cast  together,  fig.  22,  it  should  be  seed- 
furrowed  in  the  same  manner,  for  the  bar- 
ley to  retain  the  ridging  of  the  whole  field 
uniform  ;  because  the  ploughing  for  the 
spring  wheat  being  the  seed  furrow,  and 
the  ridges  having  been  formed  with  a  view  to 
permanency,  it  would  be  impossil)le  to  re- 
plough  them  with  one  furrow  only  of  the 
common  plough,  without  disturbing  their 
complete  form  in  relation  to  the  field,  by 
making  the  two  side-ridjres  only  half  the 
w^iilth  of  the  rest.  Such  ridges,  then,  must 
either  be  ploughed  ticice  with  tlie  common 
plough,  to  bring  them  back  to  their  ex- 
isting form,  for  which  there  may  not  be 
suHicient  time,  or  they  may  be  stirred 
with  the  grubber,  fig.  215,  or  ribbed  with 
the  small  plough,  fig.  230,  and  retain  their 
form. 

2688.  A  choice  from  these  various  modes 
may  be  made  according  to  circumstances. 
If  the  ridges  have  consolidated  in  conse-  j 
quence  of  being  long  ploughed,  or  of  much 
rain  having  fallen  upon  them,aud  if  the  soil 
itself  be  naturally  firm,  two  furrows  with 
the  common  plough  will  put  the  land  in 
the  best  state  for  receiving  barley.  If  the 
ridges  are  somewhat  soft,Vitli  perhaps  too 
much  moisture  below,  though  capable  of 
affording  a  fine  surface  with  the  harrows, 
the  grubber  is  the  most  proper  implement 
for  making  a  deep  bed  for  the  barley-seed, 
and  keeping  the  dry  surface  uppermost. 
If  the  soil  is  dry  and  loose  on  the  surface, 
and  tilly  below,  the  surface  would  be  best 
preserved  by  being  ribbed  with  the  small 
plough. 

2689.  Putting  such  particular  ridges 
thus  into  the  best  state  for  the  barley-seed, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  plouiihino- 
the  rest  of  the  bailey  land.  The  firs^t  fui^ 
row,  and  in  the  best  direction,  should  be 
to  cross-furrow  the  barley  land,  as  feered 
in  fig.  229.  Although  the  land  may  not 
all  be  so  cleared  of  turnips  as  to  allow  the 
cro.ss-ploughiiig  to  extend  from  side  to 
sule  of  the  field,  any  porticm  should  be 
ploughed  and  sown  wliile  the  other  is  being 
cleared,  and  may  be  cleared  by  the  time 
the  sowing  of  the  first  part  is  completed. 
After  the  passage  of  the  harrows  a  double 


Thaer's  Principles  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  623.— Shaw  and  Johnson's  translation. 


«22 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


tine  along  the  cross-ploughed  land,  the 
land  shoulil  be  feered  and  ploughed  into 
rid"es,  and  the  usual  form  of  the  seed-fur- 
row is  eitlier  gathering-up  from  the  flat, 
fig.  20,  or  yoking  togetlier,  fig.  22.  Every 
plough  should  be  employed  in  ridging  up 
the  "seed-furrow,  and  both  the  cross- 
pKuigliing  and  the  ridging  should  be  deep 
ploughed.  The  cross-ploughing  should  be 
turned  up  with  a  broad,  stout  furrow-slice, 
but  the  ridging  should  be  ploughed  with  a 
deep  narrow  furrow  slice,  in  order  to  sub- 
divide the  former  furrow,  to  pulverise  the 
soil  as  much  as  possible,  and  to  make  the 
crests  of  the  furrow-slices  numerous  and 
narrow,  so  as  to  disseminate  the  seed  among 
them  equally,  whether  sown  by  the  hand 
or  with  the  machine. 

2690.  The  sowing  of  barley  on  a  fine 
pulverised  surface  requires  strict  attention, 
inasmuch  as  on  whatever  spot  every  seed 
falls,  there  it  lies,  the  soft  earth  having  no 
elasticity  like  the  firm  furrow-slice  of  lea, 
to  cause  the  seed  to  rebound  and  settle  it- 
self on  another  spot  than  what  it  first 
struck.  Hence,  of  all  the  sorts  of  grain, 
barley  is  the  most  likely  to  be  happergawed 
in  sowing  by  the  hand,  and  on  that  ac- 
count every  handful  should  be  cast  with 
greater  force,  and  more  completely  spread 
from  the  hand,  than  other  sorts  of  grain. 
The  walking  on  soft  ground  in  sowing  bar- 
ley is  attended  with  considerable  fatigue, 
and  as  short  steps  are  best  suited  for  walk- 
ing on  soft  ground,  so  by  small  handfuls  you 
are  best  enabled  to  grasp  plump  slippery 
barley.  The  broadcast  machine,  fig.  204, 
is  used  for  sowing  barley  as  well  as  oats. 
The  grain  drills,  figs.  20.>  and  20(),  are  used 
to  sow  barley  in  drills,  and  this  is  best 
effected  by  sowing  across  the  ridges  after 
the  surface  has  been  harrowed. 

2691.  When  the  surface  ha-s  been  grub- 
bed for  the  seed-furrow,  the  seed  is  best 
sown  with  one  of  tlie  drill  machines,  as 
they  afford  the  seed  a  hold  of  the  ground, 
independent  of  ploughing. 

2692.  When  the  surface  is  ribbed  with 
the  small  plough,  the  seed  is  best  sown  by 
the  hand,  or  with  the  broadcast  sowing- 
machine,  and,  on  reaching  the  ground,  it 
falls  into  the  hollows  of  the  ribs,  out  of 
which    the    young    plants  arise    in    drills 

'  Brown  On  Rural 


almost  as  regnlal-  in  line  as  if  the  seed  had 
been  sown  with  a  drill  machine,  provided 
they  have  not  been  disturVied  in  the  ribs; 
and  the  surest  way  of  not  disturbing  them, 
is  to  harrow  the  ground  a  double  tine  only 
along  the  ribs,  and  not  at  all  across  them. 

2693.  Barley  may  be  sown  any  time 
proper  for  spring  wheat,  and  a^  late  as  the 
end  of  May;  but  the  earlier  it  is  sown  the 
crop  will  be  better  in  quality  and  more 
uniform,  though  the  straw  will  be  shorter. 

2694.  The  average  quantityof  seed  sown 
broadcast  is  three  bushels  to  the  acre; 
when  sown  early  less  will  suflice,  and  when 
late,  more  is  required  ;  because  there  is 
then  less  time  for  so  quick  a  growing  grain 
as  barley  to  tiller  and  cover  the  ground. 
When  sown  with  the  drill,  two  bushels  suf- 
fice. Mr  Brown  makes  some  sensible 
remarks  on  this  subject : — "  Amongst  the 
farmers,"  he  says,  "  it  seems  a  disputed 
point,  whether  the  practice  of  giving  so 
small  a  quantity  of  seed  (three  bushels  per 
acre)  to  the  best  lands,  is  advantageous. 
That  there  is  a  saving  of  grain,  there  can 
be  no  doubt ;  and  that  the  bulk  may  be 
as  great  as  if  more  seed  had  been  sown, 
there  can  be  as  little  question.  Little 
.argument,  however,  is  necessary  to  prove 
that  thin  sowing  of  barley  must  be  at- 
tended with  considerable  disadvantage; 
for,  if  the  early  part  of  the  season  be  dry, 
the  ]>lants  will  not  only  be  stinted  in  their 
growth,  but  will  not  send  out  offsets ;  and  if 
rain  afterwards  falls,  an  occurrence  that 
must  take  place  some  time  during  the  sum- 
mer, often  at  a  late  jieriod  of  it,  the  plants 
then  begin  to  stool,  and  send  out  a  number 
of  young  shoots.  These  yt>ung  shoots, 
unless  under  very  favourable  circum- 
stances, cannot  be  expected  to  arrive  at 
maturity  ;  or  if  their  ripening  is  waited 
for,  there  will  be  groat  risk  of  losing  the 
early  part  of  tiie  crop, — a  circumstance 
that  frequently  happens.  In  almost  every 
instance  an  unequal  sample  is  produced, 
and  the  grain  is  for  the  most  part  of  inferior 
quality.  By  good  judges,  it  is  thought 
preferable  to  sow  a  quantity  of  seed  suHi- 
cient  to  insure  a  full  crop  witlu)Ut  depend- 
ing on  its  sending  out  offsets.  Indeed, 
when  that  is  done,  few  offsets  are  jiro- 
duced,  the  crop  grows  and  ripens  equally, 
and  the  grain  is  uniformly  good."* 

Affa'xTi,  vol.  ii.  p.  45. 


SOWING  BARLEY. 


623 


2695.  No  grain  is  so  easily  affected  by 
weatlier  at  seed-time  as  barley :  a  dash 
of  rain  on  strong  land  will  cause  the 
crop  to  be  thin,  many  of  the  seeds  not 
germinating  at  all,  whilst  others  burst  and 
cannot  germinate;  and  in  moist,  warm 
weather,  the  germination  is  certain  and 
very  rapid.  Indeed  it  has  been  observed, 
that  unless  barley  germinate  quickly,  the 
crop  will  always  be  thin.  I  have  seen 
the  germ  of  barley  pierce  the  ground  only 
36  hours  after  I  had  sown  it  myself,  when 
the  ground  was  smoking  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  moisture,  caused  by  a  hot  sun  in  a 
close  atmosphere.  I  have  also  traced  the 
germ  of  barley  to  its  root  to  the  depth  of 
9  inclies  below  the  surface  ;  and  this  shows 
that  land  may  be  ploughed  deep  for 
barley. 

2696.  The  harrowing  which  barley  land 
receives  after  the  seed  has  been  sown 
broadcast  is  less  than  oat  land,  a  double 
tine  being  given  in  breaking-in  the  seed, 
and  a  double  tine  across  immediately  after. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  with  the  drill 
machine,  the  land  is  harrowed  a  double 
tine  along,  and  another  double  tine  across 
the  ridges,  before  the  seed  is  sown.  When 
the  seed  is  sown  on  ribbed  land,  the  only 
harrowing  given  is  a  double  tine  along  the 
ribs,  just  to  cover  the  seed,  as  the  ribs 
afford  a  sufficient  hold  of  the  ground. 

2697.  The  grass  seeds  are  then  sown 
with  the  grass-seed  sowing-machine,  fig. 
204;  the  land  harrowed  a  single  tine  with 
the  light  grass-seed  harrows,  fig.  232; 
water-furrowed,  fig.  209  ;  and  finished  by 
immediate  rolling,  fig.  222.  On  strong 
soil,  apt  to  be  encrusted  on  the  surface  by 
drouglit  after  rain,  the  rolling /^/YaW^js  the 
sowing  of  the  grass-seeds^  and  tlie  work  is 
finished  with  the  grass-seed  harrows:  but 
on  all  kindly  soils,  the  other  plan  is  best 
for  keeping  out  drought,  and  giving  a 
smooth  surface  for  harvest- work. 

2698.  The  head-ridges  are  ploughed 
and  sown  by  themselves. 

2690.  Barley  is  sown  after  potatoes 
and  beans  in  the  spring,  but  never  when 
the  weather  will  permit  the  sowing  of 
wheat  in  the  autumn.  When  intended  for 
barley,  the  land  is  gathered  up  for  the 
winter,  water-furrowed,  and  gaw-cut,  to 


prevent  water  standing  upon  it;  and  in 
spring  it  is  cross-ploughed  and  ridged  up 
for  the  seed-furrow. 

2700.  Barley  is  sown  also  at  times  after 
wheat  or  oats,  and  the  sample  in  such  a 
case  is  always  fine  coloured;  but  the  prac- 
tice is  bad  farming,  and  should  never  be 
pursued.  It  is  practised  in  the  Carse  of 
Gowrie,  because,  as  is  alleged,  the  wheat 
grows  too  strong  for  the  grass  to  be  raised 
amongst  it,  and  the  succeeding  barley  is 
made  to  receive  the  grass-seeds.  Such 
expedients  are  an  excuse,  but  no  justifica- 
tion of  the  practice. 

2701.  Barley  is  never  sown  in  Scotland 
after  lea,  but  might  be  after  the  land  had 
received  a  partial  fallowing  in  spring. 

2702.  When  sown  in  autumn,  barley 
does  not  stand  the  winter  well  in  Scotland, 
though  it  does  on  the  warm  calcareous  soils 
of  tlie  south  of  England.  Winter  barley 
is  always  early  ripe,  but  is  seldom  a  pro- 
lific crop;  and  when  it  tillers  late  in  spring 
to  cover  the  ground,  the  produce  exhibits 
an  unequal  sample,  and  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  light  grain. 

2703.  As  an  instance  of  'sowing  very 
late  barley,  I  may  relate  what  has  fallen 
under  my  own  observation.  The  late  Mr 
Guthrie  of  Craigie,  near  Dundee,  one 
season  had  early  ploughed  the  greater  part 
of  a  field  of  strong  soil  after  tnniijjs,  and 
much  rain  had  afterwards  consolidated  it. 
Being  desirous  of  giving  the  land  another 
furrow  before  sowing  it  with  barley,  he 
found  the  plough  bring  up  large  waxy 
clods,  unfit  to  form  a  seed-bed  for  that 
grain.  lie  consulted  me,  and  I  advised 
him  to  rib  the  land  that  had  just  been 
ploughed  with  the  small  plough,  fig.  230, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  field,  about 
two  acres,  the  old  ploughed  land,  were 
I^louglied  in  tiie  ordinary  way.  His  men 
never  having  seen  hind  ribbed,  I  showed 
them  the  way,  and  saw  the  ground  sown 
and  harrowed  with  one  double  tine  along. 
The  sowing  took  jilace  as  late  as  the 
26th  May,  in  1819,  and  the  ribbed  land 
produced  10  bushels  the  acre  more 
barley  than  that  plougiied  with  the  com- 
mon plough, — so  essential  it  is  to  have 
mellowed  soil  fur  the  reception  of  the  bar- 
ley seed. 


624 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2704.  The  spring  treatment  of  barley  in  Ger- 
many is  thus  de.--cribe(i  by  Thaer  : — "  All  species 
of  barley  require  a  li!;ht,  rich,  loamy  soil,  which 
retains  nii>i.stiire,  without,  liuwever,  suffering 
from  damp — a  soil  which  contains  from  50  to  G5 
parts  in  a  hundred  of  sand,  and  the  rest  chiefly 
clay.  If,  having  the  former  of  these  proportions, 
it  is  situated  in  a  dry  position,  and  having  the 
latter,  in  a  moist  one,  it  will  be  rendered  still 
more  adapted  for  the  production  of  barley. 
This  kind  of  grain,  however,  thrives  wonderfully 
well  on  more  clayey  or  stiffer  soils,  where  there 
is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  humus  to  prevent  the 
land  from  being  too  tenacious  ;  in  short,  in  land 
which  may  be  classed  among  good  wheat  lands. 
If  the  clayey  soil  contains  a  certain  quantity  of 
lime,  and  the  proportion  of  clay  in  it  is  suffi- 
ciently diminished  to  render  it  light,  without 
ceasing  to  be  consistent,  it  will  then  be  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  barley  ;  and  the  more  so,  from 
the  lime  jmrging  the  soil  of  its  acidity,  which 
latter  qii:ility  militates  against  the  success  of 
barley.  On  the  other  hand,  in  moist  summers, 
barley  will  be  found  to  succeed  very  well  on  land 
in  which  sand  is  the  predominating  ingredient, 
and  where  it  is  found  in  the  proportion  of  from 
70  to  75  piirts  in  a  hundred  ;  provided,  however, 
that  the  soil  is  in  tolerably  good  condition.  But 
during  dry  snmmers,  the  crops  of  barley  would 
fail  on  such  lands  ;  consequently  its  produce  can 
never  be  depended  on.  A  poor,  tenacious,  moist, 
cold,  acid  soil,  is  by  no  means  proper  for  barley, 
nor  will  that  grain  often  succeed  when  sown 
upon  it. 

2705.  "  Land  in  which  barley  is  to  be  sown 
must  be  thoroughly  loosened  and  pulverised. 
When,  as  usually  happens,  it  is  sown  on  the 
stubble  of  autumnal  grain,  the  laud  must  be 
ploughed  at  least  three  times  for  its  reception  ; 
but  where  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly  loosened 
during  the  preceding  year  by  weeded  crops,  one 
ploughing  will  be  quite  sufiicient. 

2706.  "  If  those  crops  by  which  the  barley 
was  preceded  have  not  left  a  sufficient,  or,  indeed, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  nutriment  behind,  an 
ameliorative  compound  of  manure,  which  has 
undergone  fermentation,  must  be  bestowed  upon 
the  soil.  The  tender  nature  of  the  grain  renders 
it  necessary  that  the  nutrition  intended  for  it 
should  be  easy  of  digestion,  and  properly  pre- 
pared for  and  adapted  to  its  organs. 

2707.  "  All  those  kinds  of  barley  which  are 
usually  sown  in  the  spring,  support  and  require  a 
tolerably  thick  covering  of  earth  ;  they  may  be 
buried  by  a  shallow  ploughing  of  three  or  four 
inches  deep  ;  and,  in  fact,  wlien  sown  on  a  very 
light  soil,  must  be  placed  at  this  depth  beneath 
its  surface.  The  land,  however,  must  always 
first  be  allowed  to  get  thoroughly  dry,  as 
nothing  is  more  conducive  to  the  success  of  this 
grain  than  a  period  of  dry  weather  succeeding  to 
the  sowing. 


2708.  "  Perfect  ripe  seeds,  which  haye  not  be- 
come heated  in  the  granary,  will  always  produce 
healthy  plants  ;  they  must,  liowever.  be  care- 
fully sifted  and  washed,  to  separate  them  from 
those  seeds  of  we»'ds  which  usujIIv  grow  so  fast 
among  barley.  When  this  has  been  done,  and 
the  seed  sown  early,  12  or  14  metzen  per  acre 
[1  metzen  =  3^  lbs.'  or  141  of  a  bushel]  will 
answer  as  well  as  20  or  22  would  otherwise  do, 
especially  when  large  barley  is  sown. 

2709.  "  Barley  becomes  very  thick  and  bushy 
where  it  has  sufficient  space,  but  when  crowded 
the  plants  are  weakly.  Small  barley  may  be 
sown  much  more  thickly,  as  the  plants  are  u«ver 
so  full  and  bushy  as  those  of  large  barley. 

2710.  "Should  heavy  rains,  which  harden  the 
ground,  come  on  after  the  seed  has  been  sown, 
a  harrow  must  be  passed  over  the  soil  as  soon  as 
it  becomes  dry,  and  before  the  barley  begins  to 
spring  up,  in  order  to  break  the  crust,  which 
otherwise  often  impedes  the  growth  of  the  plants, 
being  too  hard  to  admit  of  their  piercing  their 
way  through. 

2711.  "  After  the  barley  has  begun  to  appear 
above  ground,  it  is  often  very  dangerous  to 
make  use  of  the  harrow,  as  the  plants  are  as 
brittle  as  glass.  This  operation,  if  performed  at 
all,  must  be  very  carefully  managed,  a  light 
wooden  harrow  used,  and  the  latter  part  of  the 
day  or  the  evening  chosen  for  the  purpose."*  It 
would  be  better  not  to  use  the  harrow  at  all  in 
such  circumstances. 


ON  THE  TURNING  OF  DUNGHILLS. 

2712.  Tlie  ordinary  treatment  of  dung- 
hills of  farm-yard  manure  is  very  simple, 
— the  principle  upon  which  it  is  fountled 
is  quite  consonant  to  reason, — and  the 
results  of  the  application  of  their  contents 
are  quite  satisfactory  in  the  crops  pro- 
duced. The  treatment  is,  to  sprea<l  every 
kind  of  straw  used  in  litter,  and  every 
kind  of  dung  derived  from  the  various 
sorts  of  animals  domiciled  in  the  steading,', 
uniformly  in  layers,  as  supplied,  o\or  tlie 
area  of  the  respective  courts ;  to  take  tliis 
C()mj)ound  of  straw  and  dung  from  the 
courts  at  a  proper  j)eriod,  and  form  it  into 
large  iieaps  in  the  fields  where  tiiey  shall 
be  needed  ;  to  prevent  fermentation  of  the 
heaps  by  compression  until  the  manure  is 
wanted;  and  to  turn  tlie  heaps  over  in 
such  a  way,  and  at  such  a  time,  as  the 
manure  they  contain  shall  he  ready  as  a 
uniform  compound,  to  be  applied  to  the 


Th&er's  Principles  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  425-7.— Shaw  and  Johnson's  translation. 


TURNING  DUNGHtLLS. 


625 


soil  when  wanted.  The  result  is,  when 
the  manure  so  treated  is  applied  to  the 
soil,  that  it  is  the  most  valuable  of  any 
known  manure  for  every  purpose  of  the 
farm. 

2713  You  have  been  told  how  the  courts 
should  be  littered,  and  how  it  is  best  done 
in  (1086)  and  (2005.)  You  have  seen  how 
those  courts  are  emptied  of  their  contents, 
and  the  proper  time  for  emptyiug  them 
(2006.)  And  you  have  witnessed  how 
those  contents  are  disposed  of  in  heaps  in 
the  fields  in  which  they  shall  be  required, 
(2009,)  and  the  reasons  why  they  are 
formed  in  the  manner  recommended, 
(2010.)  My  purpose  now  is  to  inform  you 
how  those  heaps  should  be  turned  to  bring 
on  them  that  degree  of  fermentation  best 
suited  for  making  them  into  good  manure. 

2714.  Potatoes,  as  a  crop,  require  a 
large  quantity  of  farm  dung.  It  is  the 
practice  of  some  farmers  to  drive  the  dung 
for  potatoes  direct  out  of  the  court,  in  its 
compressed  state,  and  before  it  ferments 
at  all.  On  strong  soils,  naturally  unsuited 
to  the  growth  of  this  plant,  by  reason  of 
their  heavy  and  tenacious  character,  long 
dung  may  be  used,  as  it  assists  to  relieve 
the  pressure  of  the  soil  upon  the  young 
plant.  Indeed,  on  such  soil,  I  have  seen 
a  drill  of  potatoes  manured  with  the  dry 
twisted  straw- ropes  of  the  coverings  of 
the  stacks,  and  produce  as  good  potatoes 
as  good  dung.  So,  also,  potatoes  may  be 
raised  on  soils  of  that  character  with  horse- 
dung  in  a  state  iA fire-fang.  In  all  other 
sorts  of  soils  the  use  of  hmg  dung  incurs 
imminent  risk  of  a  deficiency  of  crop,  and 
therefore  dung  should  be  fermented  for 
potatoes  to  be  raised  on  true  potato  soils. 

271 5.  There  is  one  objection  to  unfer- 
mented  dung  for  potatoes,  which  seems  to 
me  insuperable;  and  that  is — it  is  impos- 
sible to  have  the  straw  thrashed  by  the  mill 
absolutely  so  clean  as  that  not  a  grain  of 
corn  shall  be  found  in  it,  or  the  seeds  of 
weeds  which  have  been  sifted  from  the 
corn  when  winnowed,  and  thrown  upon 
the  litter  in  the  courts ;  and  as  it  is  impos- 
sible to  destroy  the  vitality  of  those  seeds 
without  fermentation,  it  is  as  impossible  to 
prevent  them  springing  up  with  the  crop 
when  carried  there  among  unfermented 
dung.     They  will  spring  up  amongst  the 

VOL.  I. 


potatoes,  not  in  the  intervals  between  the 
drills,  where  they  might  easily  be  removed 
by  the  horse-hoe,  but  actually  amongst 
the  potato-plants,  growing  with  them,  and 
deriving  as  much  nourishment  from  the 
dung  as  the  potatoes  themselves.  I  have 
frequently  seen  such  an  intermixture  of 
potato-plants  and  weeds  at  various  places, 
and  very  dirty  and  slovenly  farming  it 
makes.  Having  a  piece  of  ground  trenched 
from  an  old  plantation,  and  being  com- 
paratively clean,  I  was  desirous  of  raising 
potatoes  upon  it  for  the  first  crop  ;  and 
having  no  dung  ready  prepared  for  this 
extra  space  of  ground,  what  it  required 
was  taken  from  the  court  in  which  the  corn- 
barn  was  situated,  and  the  result  was  that 
a  considerable  number  of  stalks  of  corn 
grew  amongst  the  potatoes.  No  doubt, 
the  weeds  that  thus  spring  up  amongst  the 
potatoes  may  be  removed  by  the  field- 
workers  w«th  thedraw-lioe  ;  but  the  labour 
of  removing  large  plants,  and  especially 
when  forced  in  growth  by  powerful  man- 
ure, is  considerable,  and  the  weeding  can- 
not be  accomplished  without  removing  a 
considerable  part  of  the  useful  soil  around 
the  young  potato  plants.  It  is  certainly 
much  better  farming  to  have  no  plants  to 
remove  from  such  a  position,  than  to  have 
them  to  remove. 

27 16.  A  dunghill  which  has  been  placed 
on  the  field  as  formerly  described  (2009,) 
and  which  is  intended  to  be  applied  to  the 
potato  crop,  should  be  turned  about  a 
fortnight  before  it  is  to  be  used;  and, 
before  commencing  to  turn  it,  it  should  be 
considered  from  which  end  it  will  be  most 
convenient  to  take  the  dung  and  lay  it  on 
the  land.  On  the  supposition  that  that 
end  is  nearest  the  headridge,  and  that  the 
dung  for  potatoes  requires  only  one  turn- 
ing, it  should  be  begun  to  be  turned  at  the 
end  farthest  from  the  headridge.  The 
unturned  dung-heap  slopes  a  little  at  both 
ends,  but  the  turned  dunghill  should  be 
made  of  the  same  height  throughout.  A 
dunghill  is  turned  over, in  a  succession  of 
breadths  or  daces  as  they  are  called. 
The  usual  width  marked  off  on  the  dung- 
heap  for  the  breadth  of  the  dace  to  be 
turned  is  3  feet,  which  affords  sufficient 
room  for  people  to  work  in  ;  but  the  first 
few  spaces  upon  which  the  first  daces  of 
the  heap  are  laid,  should  be  made  nar- 
rower than  S  feet,  until  the  desired  height 

2r 


626 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


of  the  turned  dunghill  is  attained  at  the 
end.  which  is  done  by  throwing  up  the 
turned  dung  to  a  greater  height  than  that 
oftlieend  of  the  dunghill.  Tlieeffect  of  this 
arrangement  is,  as  the  turning  approaches 
the  middle  of  the  dung-heap,  where  it 
is  of  the  greatest  height,  the  space  upon 
which  the  dung  is  turned  upon  will  be 
more  than  3  feet  in  width,  and  the  addi- 
tional width  will  be  required  at  the  middle, 
and  on  both  sides  of  it,  that  the  extra 
height  of  the  dung-heap  there  may  be 
reduced  to  the  level  of  the  new  ends.  After 
the  middle  has  been  passed,  the  spaces 
turned  upon  should  be  gradually  lessened 
in  width  towards  the  end  at  which  the 
turning  is  finished,  where,  as  at  the  com- 
mencement, the  turned  dung  will  have  to 
be  thrown  to  a  greater  height  than  the 
dung-heap,  to  attain  the  medium  height  of 
the  turned  dunghill.  There  is  more  of  good 
management  in  attending  to  these  particu- 
lars of  turning  a  dunghill  than  at  first  sight 
may  seem  necessary,  because  the  turned 
dunghill  will  not  ferment  equally  through- 
put, when  it  is  of  different  heights.  'The 
greatest  heat  will  be  at  the  highest  part, 
where  the  dung  will  become  comparatively 
short  and  compact,  whilst  at  the  shallowest 
parts  it  will  continue  crude  and  unpre- 
pared :  and  those  different  states  of  man- 
ure will  have  of  course  very  different 
effects  upon  the  soil.  In  ordinary  practice, 
miscalculations  are  continually  niade  as  to 
what  will  be  the  uniform  height  of  the 
dunghills,  and  the  consequence  is,  thev 
are  always  lower  at  the  ends  than  in  tlie 
middle  ;  and  if  an  endeavour  is  afterwards 
made  to  equalise  the  height,  it  is  done  by 
throwing  the  dung  off  the  middle  towards 
the  ends — the  effect  of  which  expedient  is, 
that  no  union  takes  place  between  the 
dung  which  was  turned  over  in  the  regular 
manner  with  what  is  thus  afterwards 
thrown  upon  it ;  they  remain  in  different 
states,  and  rise  differently  to  the  graip 
when  removed  into  the  cart;  and  the 
miadle  j)art  having  been  trampled  upon 
■when  the  dung  from  it  was  placed  on  the 
ends,  it  becomes  much  harder  than  the 
ends,  and  consequently  presents  a  differt-nt 
degree  of  fermentation. 

27 1 7.  Laying  down  these  rules  by  which 
dunghills  should  be  turned,  the  mechanical 
part  of  the  operation  is  executed  in  the 
following  manner  : — The  people  required 


to  do  this  work  are  a  man  and  a  few  field- 
workers,  according  to  the  size  of  the  dung- 
hills; and  of  this  latter  clai«,  women  are 
by  far  the  best  hands  at  turning  dung- 
hills, because,  each  taking  a  smaller  quan- 
tity of  dung  at  a  time  upon  a  smaller  graip 
than  the  onlinary  one  fig.  82,  the  dung  is 
more  intimately  mixed  together  than  when 
men  are  employed  at  this  work,  who  take 
large  graipfuls,  and  merely  lift  them  from 
one  side  of  the  trench  they  are  working  in 
to  the  other,  without  shaking  each  graip- 
ful  to  pieces. 

2718.  Turning  dung  is  not  a  cleanly 
work  for  women,  their  petticoats  being 
apt  to  be  much  soiled  in  the  trench  by  the 
dung  on  both  sides ;  but  the  plan  which 
the  Berwickshire  women  adopt  of  keeping 
this  part  of  their  dress  clean,  is  to  tie  the 
bottom  of  the  petticoat  with  the  garters 
just  below  the  knee. 

2719.  The  man's  duty  is  to  cut  the  dung- 
heap  into  daces  of  3  feet  in  width,  across 
the  breadth  of  the  heap,  with  the  dung- 
spade,  fig.  191,  in  the  manner  described 
in  (2012.) 

2720.  The  drier  portions  of  the  dung 
are  put  into  the  interior  of  the  dunghill, 
and,  when  different  sorts  of  dung  are  met 
with,  they  are  intermingled  in  small  graip- 
fuls as  intimately  as  possible.  Each  dace 
of  the  dung-heap  is  cut  off,  and  turned 
over  from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  When 
the  bottom  of  the  dace  is  reached,  the 
scattered  straws,  and  the  earth  which  has 
been  damped  by  the  exudation  from  the 
dung-heap,  are  shovelled  up  with  the 
square-mouthed  shovel,  fig.  83,  or  the  fry- 
ing-pan shovel,  fig.  233,  and  thrown  into 
the  interior.  When  straw-ropes  are  met 
with,  they  should  be  cut  into  small  i)ieces, 
and  scattered  amongst  the  dampest  parts 
of  the  dung-heap.  Though  the  dung-heap 
is  cut  into  parallel  trenches,  the  dung  from 
the  top  of  one  trench  is  not  thrown  upon 
the  botion)  of  the  former  one,  but  upon  the 
breast  of  the  turned  dung,  so  that  the 
turned  dung  slopes  away  from  the  work- 
people. The  utility  of  this  mode  of  turn- 
ing is,  that  when  the  dung  is  carting  away, 
it  not  only  rises  freely  with  the  giaip,  but 
the  dung  is  intimately  mixed,  and  not  in 
separate  loose  trenches.  When  a  dung- heap 
is  thus  turned  over,  and  its  form  preserved 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS. 


627 


Fig.  233. 


as  it  should  be,  it  constitutes  a  parallelo- 
pipedon,  and  is  agood-looking  piece  of  work. 

2721.  Fig.  233  represents  the  frying- 
pan  shovel,  which  is 
so  named  by  its  simi- 
larity to  that  culinary 
utensil.  It  is  also 
called  the  lime  shovel, 
as  being  well  adapted 
for  the  spreading  of 
lime,  upon  the  land ; 
the  raided  back  pro- 
tects the  hand  from  the 
lime  while  the  sharp 
point  passes  easily 
under  the  lime,  mak- 
ing way  for  the  sole 
to  slip  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cart.  The 
use  of  this  shovel  is 
chiefly  confined  to 
the  Border  counties. 
When  mounted  with 
a  helve,  and  of  the 
medium  size,  it  costs 
3s.  lOd. 


THK  FRYING-PAN  OR 
LIME  SHOVEL. 


2722.  Unless  much  rain  has  fallen 
from  the  time  the  dung  was  led  out 
of  the  court  until  the  heap  is  turned, 
the  dung  will  not  be  very  moist,  and 
not  at  all  wet,  thou'gh  in  a  free  work- 
able state,  with  a  slight  degree  of  heat  in 
it,  and  evaporation  would  be  observable 
from  it,  were  the  air  cold  at  the  time  of 
turning.  Very  little  moisture  will  have 
come  from  the  heap.  After  this  turn- 
ing over,  shaking  up,  and  mixing  to- 
gether, which  should  be  finished  in  the 
same  heap  as  quickly  as  possible,  that  the 
whole  mass  may  have  the  same  time  to 
ferment,  a  considerable  degree  of  heat 
may  be  expecte<l  to  show  itself  in  the 
dung  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  There 
is  no  danger  of  this  first  fermentation  pro- 
ducing a  great  degree  of  heat,  as  the  air 
is  still  cool  at  night,  and  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  the  heaps  consists  of  the  dung 
of  cattle,  which  is  slow  of  fermentation  at 
all  times,  and  particularly  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season.  Tiie  first  external 
symptom  of  fermentation  is  the  subsidence 
in  the  bulk  of  the  heap,  which,  in  the  course 
of  a  fiirtnight,  at  this  season,  may  contract 
1  foot  of  height.  Aperceptible  smell  will 
then  arise  from  the  dung,  accompanied  with 


a  flickering  of  the  air  over  it,  which  is 
occasioned  by  the  escape  of  vapour  and  of 
gases.  By  inserting  a  few  sticks  into  the 
heap  here  and  there,  a  heat  considerably 
above  that  of  the  hand  will  be  felt  on 
them,  the  relative  heat  of  diiferent  parts 
ascertained,  and  the  greatest  heat  may  be 
expected  at  the  side  opposite  from  whence 
the  wind  comes.  The  substance  of 
the  dunghill  becomes  more  consolidated 
in  consequence  of  the  fermentation,  and 
also  more  uniform  ;  and  a  black-coloured 
liquid  will  ooze  from  its  sides,  at  the 
ground.  If  the  soil  upon  which  the  dung- 
hill stands  was  soft  when  the  dunghill  was 
formed,  the  oozing  will  be  absorbed  by  it, 
and  exhibit  but  little  wetness  at  the  sur- 
face ;  but  if  the  soil  was  firm,  the  moisture 
will  remain  on  the  surface,  and  form  small 
pools  in  the  ruts  of  the  cart-wheels  or  in 
the  open  furrows.  All  the  leakage,  if 
collected  in  even  one  pool,  would  afford 
but  a  trifling  quantity;  indeed  much  mois- 
ture cannot  exude  from  a  dung-heap 
derived  from  courts  in  which  the  cattle 
are  supplied  with  as  much  litter  as  will 
keep  them  both  dry  and  warm. 

2723.  The  turnip  dunghill  receives  a 
somewhat  different  treatment,  but  still 
conformable  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
destined.  It  is  turned  twice,  and  on  this 
account  is  begun  to  be  turned  at  the 
oi)posite  end  to  that  for  potatoes,  or  at  the 
end  nearest  the  headridge  ;  but  the  same 
mode  is  practised  in  turning  it,  as  that 
just  described  for  the  potato  dunghill. 
After  the  turning,  it  is  allowed  to  ferment 
for  about  a  fortnight.  At  the  second 
turning,  which  is  given  about  a  fortnight 
or  ten  days  before  the  dung  is  used,  the 
operation  is  commenced  at  the  end  at 
which  the  former  turning  terminated,  and 
is  more  easily  performed  than  the  first, 
inasmuch  as  the  substance  is  more  easily 
cut  with  the  dung-spade,  more  easily  separ- 
rated  and  shaken  with  the  graip,  and  less 
care  is  required  to  retain  the  rectangular 
figure  formerly  given  to  the  dunghill. 

2724.  The  weather  at  the  second  turn- 
ing will  be  warm,  and  the  fermentation, 
of  course,  rajjid  ;  so  that  apprehension  may 
be  excited  that  it  will  proceed  to  a  degree 
injurious  to  tlie  materials  composing  the 
dunghill.  A  spitful  of  earth  thrown 
upon    the    top     of    the     dunghill,    will 


628 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


check  rapid  fermentation  to  a  certain 
degree.  Fur  raising  turnips,  however, 
there  is  little  dread  of  the  fermentation 
pntceediug  too  far,  aa  it  is  matter  of  ex- 
perience that  the  more  effectually  the 
fermentation  has  run  its  course,  the  dung 
becomes  the  more  valuable  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  turnip  plant,  as  is  well  known 
to  every  turnip  farmer.  When  in  this 
valuable  state,  heat  has  almost  entirely  left 
it,  it  has  become  like  soft  soap,  and  rises 
in  lumps  wiih  the  graip,  and  would  almost 
cut  iuto  pieces  with  the  shovel.  It  is 
sappv,  cohesive,  greasy,  heavy,  and  of  a 
dark  brownish-black  colour.  The  larger 
the  mass  in  this  state,  the  more  valuable  it 
is  for  turnips. 

2725,  It  is  supposed  by  many  farmers 
who  grow  Swedish  turnips  largely,that  dung 
cannot  be  made  into  this  state  in  time  fur 
Swedish  turnips,  which  ought  to  be  sown 
before  the  middle  of  May  ;  and,  in  ordinary 
seasons  in  Scotland,  the  observation,  I  dare- 
say, is  correct.  To  obviate  the  want  of  so 
valuable  an  ingredient  as  old  muck,  it  is 
the  practice  of  some  farmers  to  keep  dung 
on  purpose  over  the  year.  This  would  be 
impracticable  on  farms  which  depend  en- 
tirely on  their  own  produce  for  the  manure 
applied  on  them  ;  but  let  a  sacrifice  be 
made  for  one  year,  of  collecting  farm-yard 
dung  from  external  sources,  and  forming 
it  into  a  dunghill  for  the  succeeding  year, 
or  of  purchasing  other  manure  to  a  large 
extent  for  one  year,  to  raise  the  crop  of 
turnips,  and  reserve  the  farm-yard  dung 
for  the  Swedish  turnips  of  the  next  year, 
and  the  object  is  gained.  I  have  known 
farmers  attain  this  object  to  a  partial 
extent,  but  no  one  whom  I  have  observed 
practised  it  to  so  great  an  extent  as  Mr 
Smith,  when  he  was  at  Grindon  in  North 
Durham,  where  he  possessed  a  fine  stock 
of  short-horns.  The  dung  of  the  year  was 
made  fit  for  white  turnips,  which  were  not 
sown  for  a  month  or  so  after  the  swedes, 
and  then  heat  and  time  combined  to  bring 
it  to  a  proper  state  for  use. 

2726.  This  mode  of  preparing  farm-j-ard 
manure  is  now  decried  as  being  wasteful 
of  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  manure. 
No  doubt  some  waste  of  the  dung-heap 
takes  place  ere  the  dung  is  converted  to 
the  state  just  described  ;  and,  were  means 
available  to  prevent  the  least  waste,  while 


the  object  of  procuring  the  manure  in  the 
best  state  was  secured,  those  means  would 
be  a  desiralde  attainment.  But  the  same 
necessity  for  having  the  dung  in  that  state 
does  not  exist  now  as  it  did  then.  One 
infallible  means  has  been  pot  into  the 
power  of  farmers  to  raise  a  good  crop  of 
turnips,  and  this  is  the  sole  object  wliich 
the  old  plan  had  in  view.  It  is  now  fuund 
that  the  use  of  a  little  guano  secures  the 
health  and  growth  of  the  turnip  plant  at 
the  early  stage  of  its  existence;  and  the 
farm-yard  dung  having  been  relieved  from 
this  necessary  and  essential  care,  and  most 
onerous  part  of  its  duty,  it  may  safely  be 
consigned  to  the  ground  before  reaching 
the  state  described  above,  and  there,  instead 
of  in  the  fermenting  dung-heap,  become 
prepared  for  supporting  the  turnip  plant  at 
a  more  advanced  period  of  its  existence. 
This  happy  change  serves  to  preserve 
some  of  the  bulk  of  the  farm-yard  manure, 
and  to  extend  it  over  a  larger  space  of 
ground. 

2727.  This  being  the  case,  let  ns  attend 
to  the  dung-heap,  as  proposed  to  be  treated 
in  the  new  or  improved  mode,  and  which 
is  represented  in  fig.  \92.  In  pursuance 
of  the  amended  plan,  the  dung  intended 
to  be  used  for  the  potato  crop  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  court,  until  about 
a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  before  it  is  to 
be  used,  when  it  should  be  taken  out  to 
be  fermented — for  fermented  it  ought  to  be 
before  it  is  used — and  the  place  it  should 
be  taken  to  be  fermented  is  the  dung-pit 
in  the  field,  fig.  192,  into  which  it  should 
be  carefully  shaken  with  the  graips  by  the 
field  workers ;  and  as  the  above  mode  is 
the  most  convenient  for  a  dung-heap  to  be 
thrown  by  the  graip  into  the  cart  when  it  is 
wanted  fur  the  field,  so  the  dung,  as  it  is 
brought  from  the  court,  in  the  carts,  to 
the  dung-pit,  should  be  turned  and  shaken 
into  regular  daces,  one  after  the  other,  in 
the  dung-pit,  beginning  at  a  given  point, 
and  throwing  up  the  dung  upon  the  face 
of  the  dace  with  a  sloi>e,  until  the  height 
is  reached  which  the  turned  dung-heap 
should  have  in  the  dung-pit. 

2728.  The  dung,  which  has  been  kept 
in  an  uncompressed  state  in  a  particular 
court  at  the  steading,  as  formerly  noticed 
in  (2013,)  becomes  sufficiently  fermented 
for  potatoes,  where  it  is,  and  may  be  driven 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


629 


directly  to  the  potato-field  when  wanted, 
without  further  fermentation. 

2729.  The  dung  for  the  turnips  was 
led  out  to  the  field  at  the  proper  season, 
(2019)  and  placed  in  heap  in  fig.  192  to 
await  its  further  treatment,  and  that  time 
will  have  arrived  whenever  the  dung-pit 
has  been  cleared  of  the  dung  for  the 
potato  crop,  on  the  supposition  that  tlie 
potatoes  and  the  turnips  are  to  be  raised 
in  the  same  field.  In  case  the  potato- 
planting  should  be  delayed  from  some 
cause,  it  will  be  well  to  arrange  to  take 
the  white  turnips  in  the  same  Held  with 
the  potatoes,  when  the  dung  for  them  will 
have  plenty  of  time  to  be  prepared ;  but 
the  dung-pit  for  the  dung  intended  for 
swedes,  should  be  occupied  by  the  be- 
ginning of  May  at  latest. 

2730.  The  turnip  dung-heap,  occupy- 
ing its  site  d,  in  fig.  192,  receives  this 
treatment  in  preparation  for  the  sweiles : 
The  dung-heap  is  begun  at  one  end  to 
be  wheeled  on  barrows,  fig.  87,  into  the 
dung-pit,  where  it  should  be  thrown  up 
with  the  graips  by  the  field-workers  in  a 
regular  manner,  dace  after  dace,  beginning 
at  one  end  of  the  dung-pit  and  progressing 
backwards  towards  the  other  end.  If  the 
height  of  the  turned  heap  is  above  the 
reach  of  the  throw  the  field- workers  can 
easily  make,  two  or  three  planks  should 
be  laid  down  parallel  to  the  dace  they 
are  working  at,  the  dung  wheeled  upon 
them  from  the  dung-heap,  and  they  will 
afford  a  footing  to  tliose  turning  the  dung, 
and  from  tliem  the  dung  can  be  thrown 
to  the  requisite  height.  Tlie  dry  straw 
around  the  ends,  and  sides,  and  top  of  the 
dung-heap  should  be  carefully  scattered  in 
the  dung-pit  among  the  sappiest  portions 
of  the  dung,  and  covered  up  by  tlie  same. 
In  this  way  the  entire  dung-heap  may  be 
transformed  from  tlie  stance  in  the  outside 
to  the  inside  of  the  dung-pit.  The  field- 
workers  will  wheel  the  barrows  as  well  as 
men,  one  man  only  being  required  to  cut 
the  dung-heap  into  small  pieces  with  the 
dung  spade.  The  ground  on  which  the 
dung-heap  stood  should  be  carefully  shov- 
elled clean  as  the  dung  is  wheeled  away, 
and  the  shovelling  should  be  performed 
by  the  man,  alternately  with  the  cutting  of 
the  dung.  After  the  entire  dung-heap  has 
been  turned  in  the  dung-pit,  the  shutters 


should  be  put  on  the  open  spaces  serving 
in  the  meantime  as  doors,  and  the  dung  left 
to  ferment  until  it  is  wanted. 

2731.  Long  sticks  should  be  stuck  in 
all  dung-heaps  undergoing  fermentation, 
that  a  knowledge  may  be  gained  of  what 
is  going  on  in  the  interior.  The  degrees 
of  heat,  and  the  consistency  of  the  manure 
heap,  will  indicate  whether  the  former  is 
proceeding  to  too  high  a  degree  for  safety 
to  the  heap,  and  the  latter  will  exhibit 
unequal  sinkings  in  its  mass  in  those  places 
which  had  been  either  insufficiently 
loosened,  or  its  component  parts  irregu- 
larly mixed.  On  this  account  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  exercise  a  constant  superin- 
tendence over  the  turning  of  dung-heaps. 


ON  THE  PLANTING  OF  POTATOES. 

2732.  The  potato  crop  is  cultivated  on 
what  is  called  the  fallow  division  of  the 
farm,  being  considered  an  ameliorating 
crop  for  the  soil.  Following  a  crop  of 
grain,  whose  stubble  is  bare  in  autumn,  the 
land  for  the  potato  crop  is  ploughed  early, 
that  it  may  receive  all  the  treatment 
which  winter  can  exercise,  to  make  it  ten- 
der ;  and  as  potatoes  affect  a  dry  and  light 
soil,  the  land  for  them  may  be  ploughed 
early  in  spring,  and  even  then  partially 
cleaned.  The  time  for  cleaning  land  is 
very  limited  in  spring,  and  ought  not  to 
be  depended  on — so  the  cleanest  portion  of 
the  fallow -break  should  be  chosen  for  the 
potatoes  to  occupy. 

2733.  The  stubble  land  will  either  have 
been  cast,  fig.  22,  in  autumn,  or  cloven 
down  without  a  gore-furrow,  fig.  27,  ac- 
cording as  the  soil  is  strong  or  light;  and 
having  been  particularly  provided  with 
gaw-cuts,  to  keep  it  as  dry  as  possible  all 
winter,  it  may  probably  be  in  a  state  to 
be  cross-ploughed,  fig.  229,  soon  after  the 
spring  wheat  and  beans  have  been  sown, 
if  either  of  these  crops  is  cultivated  on 
the  farm  ;  and  if  not,  the  cross-])loughing 
for  potatoes  constitutes  the  earliest  work 
in  spring  after  the  ploughing  of  the  lea. 

2734.  After  the  cross-ploughing,  the 
land  is  thoroughly  harrowed  a  double  tine 
along  the  line  of  the  furrow,  an.fJ  a  double 
tine  across  it ;  and  any  weeds  and  stones. 


€30 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


that  may  have  been  brought  to  the  surface 
by  the  harrowing,  are  gathered  off. 

2735.  If  the  land  is  clean,  it  will  be 
ready  for  drilling,  if  not,  it  should  receive 
another  ploughing  in  the  line  of  the  ridges, 
across  the  cross-furrow,  and  ridged  up  by 
casting,  fig.  22,  and  then  again  harrowed 
a  double  tine  along  and  also  across,  and 
the  weeds  again  gathered  off.  Should  the 
surface  be  dry  on  harrowing  after  cross- 
ploughing,  and  the  weather  appear  not 
likely  to  continue  dry,  the  grubber,  fig. 
21.5,  will  be  a  better  implement  for  stir- 
ring the  soil,  under  tlie  circumstances,  than 
the  plough,  as  it  will  still  retain  the  dry 
surface  uppermost,  and  bring  to  the  sur- 
face the  weeds  that  will  entangle  them- 
selves about  the  tines.  The  time  occupied 
in  doing  all  this,  as  the  weather  may  per- 
mit, may  be  about  a  month,  fnmi  the 
middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April, 
when  the  potato  should  be  planted.  As 
the  land  cannot  receive  more  ploughing  in 
early  spring  than  it  should,  to  make  it  still 
more  tender,  the  drills  for  the  manure 
should  be  set  up  in  the  double  mode, 
(2307.) 

2736.  "While  the  land  is  preparing  for 
the  potato  crop — and  it  will  not  be  pos- 
sible to  prepare  it  continuously,  as  the  oat- 
seed,  and  the  early  part  of  the  barley-seed 
will  have  to  be  attended  to — the  potato-seed 
should  be  prepared,  which  is  the  special 
duty  of  the  field-workers.  The  potato-pit  is 
opened  by  removing  the  thatch  and  earth, 
and  the  potatoes  are  taken  into  a  barn. 

2737.  The  state  of  the  potatoes,  when 
taken  out  of  the  pit,  will  depend  on  the 
temperature  of  the  weather  in  spring,  and 
also  on  the  state  they  were  pitted  in  au- 
tumn. In  cold  weather,  they  will  not  be 
much  sprouted  in  the  pit  by  the  time  they 
should  be  planted  ;  but  should  they  have 
at  all  heated,  in  consequence  of  the  wet 
state  they  were  pitted,  or  the  unripe  state 
they  were  taken  up,  they  will  inevitably 
Laveheatedaiidsprouted.  Whenthesprouts 
are  long,  they  shouhl  be  removed,  as  it 
will  be  impossible  to  preserve  them  entire ; 
but  if  the  quickening  of  the  tubers  is  evi- 
denced only  by  mere  buds,  these  should 
be  preserved,  as  they  will  push  above 
ground  several  days  sooner  than  the  sets 
which  had  not  sprouted  at  all.     It  should 


be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  sets  with 
long  sprouts,  and  sprouted  sets  that  have 
been  long  kept  after  being  taken  out  of 
the  pit  until  planted  in  the  field,  are  apt  to 
set  up  puny  plants.  In  selecting  tubers, 
therefore,  to  cut  into  sets,  the  middle-sized, 
that  have  not  sprouted  at  all,  or  have 
merely  pushed  out  buds,  will  be  found  the 
soundest ;  and  wherever  the  least  softness 
or  rottenness  is  felt,  or  any  suspicious- 
looking  mark  as  regards  colour,  or  any 
other  peculiarity  is  observed,  the  tuber 
should  be  entirely  rejected,  and  even  its 
firm  portion  should  not  be  used  for  seed. 
The  small  potatoes  should  be  picked  out 
and  put  aside  to  boil  for  poultry,  and  pigs. 

2738.  Potatoes  are  either  planted  whole, 
or  cut  in  parts  into  sets.  Large  whole 
potatoes  create  waste  of  seed,  and  small 
sets  give  rise  to  puny  plants. 

2739.  Small  whole  potatoes  make  good 
seed.  One  season,  happening  to  have 
fewer  sets  cut  than  would  plant  the  ground 
tlie  dunghill  allotted  to  the  potato-land 
manured,  some  of  the  small  potatoes,  which 
bad  been  picked  out  for  the  pigs  when  the 
sets  were  cut,  were  planted  to  finish  the 
land  with  potatoes,  and  they  actually 
yieltled  a  better  crop  than  the  rest  of  the 
■field. 

2740.  The  usual  practice  is  to  cut  a 
middle-:^ized  potato  into  2  or  3  sets,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  eyes  it  may  con- 
tain, and  unless  two  eyes  are  left  in  every 
set,  the  chance  of  having  a  plant  will  not 
be  great,  as  one  of  them  may  have  lost  its 
vitality.  The  sets  should  be  cut  with  a 
sharp  knife,  be  pretty  large  in  size,  and 
taken  from  the  rose  or  crown  end  of  the 

tubers  ;  the 
other  heel,  or 
root    end,  may 

^ ^ be  kept  for  the 

pigs  or  poultry, 
b  AVhen  fres'ii,  the 
tubers  cut  cri.-p, 
and  exude  a 
good  deal  of 
moisture,  which 
soon  evapo- 
rates, and  leaves 
the  incised  parts 
dry.  Fig.  234 
represents  a  po- 


HOW   A  POTATO  MAT  BX  CUT 
INTO  SKTS. 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


631 


tato  divided  into  sets,  having  each  at  least 
two  eyes  :  what  is  above  the  line  a  a  is 
the  crown,  and  what  helovv  the  line  dd 
is  the  root  end,  and  should  be  rejected 
for  seed.  A  potato  may  be  cut  in  this 
manner,  and  in  many  parts,  as  through  b  b 
and  c  c,  if  large  enough  ;  and  it  may  be 
cut  through  the  middle  between  b  and  c 
horizontally  or  perpendicularly,  provided 
always  that  at  least  two  eyes  arc  preserved. 

2741.  A  very  common  practice  prevailed 
to  heap  the  cut  sets  in  acorner  of  the  barn 
until  they  were  planted ;  and  had  they  been 
prepared  or  exposed  to  drought  prior  to 
this  treatment,  they  might  have  remained 
there  uninjured,  but  if  heaped  up  immedi- 
ately after  being  cut,  and  while  quite  moist, 
the  probability  was  that  those  in  the  heart, 
and  near  the  bottom  of  the  heap  fermented, 
evolved  a  considerable  degree  of  heat, 
and  never  vegetated.  I  believe  much  of 
the  injudicious  treatment  which  the  sets 
of  potatoes  have  received,  arose  from 
inconvenience  of  accommodation  in  the 
apartment  in  which  they  were  prepared. 
The  potato  sets  were  locked  up  there.  The 
straw-barn  cannot  be  appropriated  to  them, 
as  the  cattle-man  and  ploughman  must 
have  daily  access  to  it.  The  corn-baru 
is  occupied  at  this  particular  period  with 
a  part  of  the  barley-seed  which  had  been 
thrashed  in  quantity.  The  implement- 
bouse  is  but  a  small  apartment,  and  affords 
but  little  room — besides  the  many  small 
articles  which  it  contains.  The  only 
alternative  is  to  heap  tlreni  in  a  corner 
of  the  corn-barn.  Hence  the  utility  of 
sucli  an  outhouse  as^',  Plate  II.,  in  every 
steading.  The  sets  required  to  plant  an 
acre  of  land  will  fill  24  bushels ;  so,  to 
plant  only  from  5  to  10  acres  of  land,  a 
large  bulk  of  sets  are  required,  and  to  give 
them  room,  by  spreading  them  thin,  would 
occupy  a  large  floor;  and  all  tiie  sets 
should  be  prepared  before  the  planting 
couimences,  there  being  no  time  for  the 
tedious  process  of  cutting  them  when  the 
planting  is  in  progress:  extra  hands  would 
require  to  be  engaged  for  the  purpose,  at 
a  season  when  they  would  be  obtained  with 
difficulty. 

2742.  To  insure  the  vitality  of  the  sets 
in  the  ground,  even  when  planted  under 


adverse  circumstances,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  dust  them  with  slaked  lime 
with  a  riddle,  immediately  the  potatoes 
are  cut,  and  the  sap,  on  exuding  from  the 
incised  part,  will  be  immediately  absorbed 
by  the  lime,  which,  on  forming  a  paste, 
encrusts  itself  on  the  incised  surface.* 
Others  recommend  to  dip  the  sets  in  a 
thick  mixture  of  lime  and  water,  which, 
on  drying,  envelops  them  in  a  coating  of 
plaster.  This  latter  plan  'would  be  at- 
tended with  some  trouble,  and  seems  to 
offer  no  advantage  over  the  former,  which  - 
is  easily  done,  and  can  do  no  harm.  It  W> 
has  also  been  recommended  to  sprout  the 
sets  prior  to  planting  them,  in  order  to 
test  their  vitality,  by  spreading  them  on 
the  ground  2  or  3  inches  thick,  covering 
them  with  a  thin  coating  of  earth,  and 
watering  the  earth  frequently  until  they 
are  all  sprouted ;  but  the  potatoes  which 
have  sprouted  in  the  pit,  if  cut  into  sets 
and  planted  immediately^  should  be  in  as 
favourable  a  state  to  grow  in  the  drill  as 
when  subjected  to  this  process;  and 
however  easily  it  may  be  conducted  on  a 
small  scale,  I  consider  the  suggestion  as 
unfit  to  be  practised  on  a  large  one  on  a 
farm ;  and  especially  when  dry  sets  are 
planted,  they  are  found  to  vegetate  more 
equally,  provided  they  have  retained 
their  vitality.  It  has  also  been  recom- 
mended to  dip  the  sets  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid. 

2743.  Since  the  prevalence  of  the  dis- 
ease among  the  potatoes  in  all  soils  and 
all  situations,  numerous  expedients  havo 
been  devised  to  prepare  the  seed,  with  the 
view  of  warding  off  another  attack  of  the 
disease;  but  hitherto  all  expedients  have 
proved  unavailing.  So  the  treatment  of 
the  seed,  as  given  above,  is  perhaps  just  as 
likely  to  be  good  as  any  that  has  yet  been 
devised. 

2744.  The  potatoes  not  required  for 
seed,  firm  and  of  good  size,  whether  in- 
tended for  sale  or  for  use  in  the  farm-house, 
should  be  placed  in  an  outhouse,  until  dis- 
posed of  or  used,  the  apartment  having  an 
earthen  floor,  kept  in  the  dark,  with  access 
to  the  air,  and  water  thrown  upon  them 
occasionally,  to  keep  them  crisp,  but  not 
to  make  them  moist,  and  they  should  be 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.  p.  144. 


632 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


carefully  examined  as  to  soundness  when 
tlie  sprouts  are  taken  off. 

274.5.  Having  drilled  up  as  much  land 
as  will  allow  the  planting  to  proceed  with- 
out interruption  ;  having  tnmed  the  dung- 
hill in  time  to  ferment  the  dung  into  a 
proper  state  for  the  crop ;  and  having 
prepared  the  sets  ready  for  planting,  let 
OS  now  proceed  to  the  field,  and  see  how 
operations  should  be  conducted  there,  and 
in  what  manner  they  are  best  brought  to 
a  termination.  Tiie  sets  are  shovelled 
either  iuUj  sacks  like  corn,  or  into  the 
body  of  close  carts,  and  placed  on  a 
headridge  or  headridges  or  middle  of  the 
field,  at  convenient  distances,  according  to 
the  length  of  the  ridges.  When  the  drills 
are  short,  the  most  convenient  way  to  get 
the  sets  in  the  field  is  from  a  cart;  but 
J  when  the  drills  are  long,  sacks  are  best 
^  suited  for  setting  down  here  and  there 
along  the  middle  of  the  land. 

2746.  A    small  round    willow  basket, 


Fig.  -235. 


A  POTATO  HAND-BASKET. 


with  a  bow- 
bandie,  as 
fig.  235, 
should  be 
provided  for 
every  per- 
son who  is 
to  plant  the 
'  sets  ;  and  as 
a  consider- 
ablenumber 
of  hands  are 
required  for 
the  operation,  boys  and  girls  mayfind  em- 
ployment at  it,  over  and  above  the  ordi- 
nary field-workers. 

2747.  The  frying-pan  shovel,  fig.  233, 
with  its  sharp  p)int,  is  a  convenient  in- 
strument for  taking  the  sets  out  of  the 
cart  into  the  baskets.  Single-horse  carts 
take  the  dung  from  the  dunghill  to  the 
drills.  Graips,  fig.  82,  are  required  to 
fill  the  carts  with  dung  ;  small  dung- 
graips,  three-pronged,  fig.  218,  are  most 
conveuieut  for  spreading  the  dung  in  the 
drills,  and  a  small  common  graip  to  di- 
vide the  dung  into  each  of  the  three  drills, 
as  it  falls  into  the  middle  drill  from  the 
cart.  The  dung-hawk,  fig.  217,  is  used 
by  the  steward  for  pulling  the  dung  out 
of  the  carts.     Boys,  girls,  or  women,  are 


required  to  lead  tbe  horses  in  each  cart  to 

and  from  the  dunghill  to  the  part  of  the 
field  which  is  receiving  the  dung.  The 
ploughmen,  whose  horses  are  employed  in 
carting  the  dung,  remain  at  the  dunjrhill, 
and,  assisted  by  a  woman  or  two,  fill  the 
carts  with  dung  as  they  return  einjity. 
The  steward  drags  the  dung  out  of  the 
carts,  and  gives  the  land  dung  iu  such 
quantity  as  is  determined  on  beforehand 
by  the  farmer.  Three  women  spread  the 
dung  equally  in  the  drills  with  the  small 
dung-graips,  while  a  fourth  goes  before 
and  divides  it  with  the  common  small 
graip  into  each  drill  as  it  falls  in  heaps 
from  the  carts.  Women  plant  the  sets  of 
the  potato  out  of  the  basket  upon  the 
dung.  Ploughs  follow,  and  split  in  the 
drills  and  cover  in  the  dung  and  sct.s  as 
fast  as  the  planting  is  done,  and  they 
finish  the  operation  of  potatc)  planting. 
It  willbe  observed  from  this  enunieratiim 
that  potato  planting  requires  a  lar^'e 
number  of  people  and  implements  to 
accomplish  it  effectually. 

2748.  If  the  drills  have  not  all  been  set 
up  previous  to  starting  the  subsequent 
work,  a  plough  continues  working  them  up 
in  the  double  method,  until  as  much 
land  has  been  drilled  as  is  desired  U> 
I)lant  with  potatf>es.  After  he  has  finished 
drilling,  he  assists  the  other  ploughmeo 
in  splitting  in. 

2749.  The  preparations  for  planting 
being  thus  ready,  the  first  thing  done  is  to 
back  a  cart  to  the  dunghill  /,  fig.  236,  to 
be  filled  with  dung;  and  it  is  usually  not 
quite  filled,  the  dung  being  heaped  as  near 
the  back-end  of  the  cart  as  is  convenient 
for  the  draught  of  the  horse,  that  the  man 
who  drags  it  out  may  have  the  less  labour. 
The  carts  are  filled,  and  the  bottom  of  the 
dunghill  shovelled  clean  by  the  ploughmen 
whose  horses  are  employed  in  carting  the 
dung  ;  the  men  are  usually  a.ssisted  by  a 
field-worker  or  two,  to  detain  the  carts 
the  shorter  time  at  the  dunghill.  When- 
ever the  load  is  ready,  the  driver  f  starts 
with  the  horse  and  cart  ^7,  and  walks  them 
along  the  headridge  until  they  arrive  at 
the  undunged  drills,  down  which  they  go 
until  they  come  to  the  steward,  who  places 
the  horse  and  cart  into  their  proper  place 
in  the  drills,  removes  the  back-l)oard  of 
the  cart,  places  it  upon  its  edge  on  the  nave 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


633 


between  the  body  of  the  cart  and  the  near  the  dung  easily.  When  the  carts  are 
wheel,as  explained  in  (2433), and  then  tilts  tckole-hod'ied,  the  steward  proceeds,  after 
the  body  of  the  cart  as  far  up  as  to  get  at     the  back-board  is  removed,   to  drag  out 

Fig.  236. 


POTATO  PLANTING. 


the  dung.  The  wheels  of  the  cart  and  the 
horse  occupy  3  drills,  as  at  j,  the  horse 
being  in  the  middle  drill  between  two. 
The  steward  k,  with  the  drag  in  both 
hands,  pulls  out  a  heap  of  dung  i  upon  the 
ground,  and  it  invariably  falls  into  the 
middle  drill.  The  horse  is  then  made  to 
step  forward  a  few  paces  and  to  halt  again, 
by  the  voice  of  the  steward,  who  then 
pulls  out  another  heap  of  dung.  An 
active  man,  accustomed  to  this  sort  of 
work,  does  not  allow  the  horse  to  stand 
still  at  all,  but  to  walk  slowly  on  whilst 
he  pulls  out  the  dung.  When  the  cart  is 
emptied,  the  steward  fastens  down  the 
body  of  the  cart,  if  it  is  a  coup  one,  puts 
on  the  back-board,  and  the  cart  again 
proceeds  by  its  driver  to  the  dungliill. 
When  the  distance  to  the  dunghill  is  short, 
the  carts  are  as  slightly  filled  as  to  dis- 
pense with  the  back-board  altogether ; 
and  when  it  can  be  wanted,  the  work  is 
considerably  expedited. 

2750.  After  the  cart  has  proceeded  a 
few  paces,  and  deposited  a  few  heaps  of 
dung,  the  foremost  of  the  band  of  4  women 
k,  who  spread  the  dung,  divides  the 
heaps,  as  at  m,  with  her  small  common 


graip  into  other  two  heaps,  I  and  n,  one 
in  each  of  the  drills  beside  her;  and  from 
7?i  she  goes  to  the  next  heap  i,  and  divides 
it  into  other  two  heaps,  and  so  on  with 
every  heap  of  dung.  The  3  field-workers, 
71  op,  bavins  each  a  small  dung-graip,  fig. 
218,  then  takes  each  1  of  the  3  drills 
occupied  by  the  horse  and  cart-wheels,  and 
all  spread  the  dung  before  them  equally 
along  the  bottom  of  the  drills  I  m  n,  each 
taking  care  to  remain  in  her  own  drill 
from  the  one  end  of  the  field  to  the  other, 
shaking  to  pieces  every  lump  of  dung,  and 
teazing  out  any  that  may  happen  to  be 
ranker  than  the  rest,  trampling  upon  the 
spread  dung  as  she  walks  along  and  keep- 
ing it  within  the  limits  of  the  bottom  of 
the  drill.  The  spreading  should  always 
be  kept  close  to  the  cart. 

2751.  Immediately  that  a  part  of  3 
drills  are  dunged  and  the  dung  spread,  the 
potato  planters,  after  having  plenished 
their  baskets  with  sets  from  the  cart  t 
up(m  the  headridge,  proceed  to  deposit 
tiie  sets  upon  the  dung  along  the  drills,  at 
from  9  to  1  2  inches  apart,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  sets.  Some  women  prefer  to 
carry  the  sets  in  coarse  aprons  instead  of 


6S4 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


baskets,  because  tliey  deem  tliem  more 
convenient.  As  setting  requires  longer 
time  tlian  dung  spreading,  tliere  should 
be  two  bands  of  planters,  as  at  r  and  *,  to 
one  of  s|)readers,  wliicli  makes  G  planters 
to  4  spreaders.  One  band  of  planters,  as  *, 
go  in  advance  of  the  other  r,  till  the  latter 
comes  up  to  the  place  where  the  former 
began,  and  then  the  band  r  goes  in  ad- 
vance, and  so  one  band  after  another 
goes  in  advance  alternately,  each  filling 
their  baskets  and  aprons  as  they  become 
empty,  but  all  confining  their  labour  to  3 
drills  at  a  time.  This  plan  gives  the 
advantage  of  planting  the  3  drills  quicker, 
thereby  giving  less  time  to  the  dung  to 
become  dry,  and  preparing  the  ground  also 
more  quickly  to  be  split  down  by  the 
ploughs. 

2752.  Whenever  3  drills  are  thus 
planted,  the  ploughman  u  commences  to 
split  the  first,  and  cover  in  the  dung  and 
sets  in  the  double  way.  The  drills  are 
split  in  the  same  way  as  they  were  set  up; 
that  is,  as  the  ploughman  a  turns  over  the 
first  furrow  of  each  drill  upon  the  firm 
ground,  stretching  from  a  to  c,  so  the 
ploughman  m,  in  splitting  the  drills,  turns 
over  the  first  furrow  upon  the  dung  towards 
the  planters  r  and  s;  because  the  first 
furrow  being  the  largest,  it  should  have 
complete  freedom  to  cover  the  dung  and 
potato-sets. 

2753.  The  ploughman  u  should  '  not 
leave  a  single  drill  uncovered  in  the  even- 
ing when  he  gives  up  work.  If  he  cannot 
split  all  the  drills  in  the  double  way,  he 
should  cover  up  the  dung  and  sets  of  the 
few  last  drills  in  the  single  way ;  and  he 
should  receive  assistance  from  tlie  plough- 
man a,  who  is  making  up  new  drills, 
to  split  them  completely,  if  the  weather 
exhibits  symptoms  of  rain  or  of  frost. 
And,  even  at  loosening  from  t'.ij  fore- 
noon yoking,  every  drill  should  be  covered 
in,  although  the  ploughman  shmild  work 
a  little  longer  than  the  rest  of  the 
•work-people ;  and  for  this  he  may  be  as 
long  of  yi/king  after  them  in  the  afternoon 
yoking.  In  dry  hot  weather  he  should 
make  it  a  point  to  cover  in  the  drills  at 
the  end  of  tJie  forenoon  yoking  in  a  com- 
plete manner,  as  dung  soon  becomes 
scorched  by  the  mid-day  sun  ;  and  in  such 
a  state  it  is  not  so  useful ;  not  so  much 


on  account  of  the  evaporation  of  any  valu- 
able material  from  it,  that  being  chiefly 
water,  but  because  dry  dung  does  not  in- 
corporate with  the  soil  for  a  long  time,  nor 
so  well  as  moist;  and  when  soil  and  dung 
together  are  rendered  hot  and  dry  by  ex- 
posure, their  incorporation  becomes  very 
difficult.  If  all  the  ploughs  cannot  cover 
in  the  drills  within  a  reasonable  time  after 
the  hour  of  loosening  has  arrived,  especially 
at  night,  much  rather  give  up  the  dunging 
of  the  land  and  the  planting  of  the  sets  a 
little  sooner  than  usual,  than  run  the  risk 
of  leaving  any  dung  and  sets  uncovered. 

2754.  Potatoes  always  receive  a  large 
quantity  of  dung,  being  a  fallow  crop,  when 
the  ground  ought  to  be  dunged,  and  they 
are  considered  to  take  more  nourishment 
out  of  the  soil  than  to  return  materials  to  it 
— yielding  no  straw  but  a  few  dry  haulms, 
and  the  largest  proportion  of  the  crop 
being  sold  off  the  farm.  A  large  dunging 
to  potatoes  always  seems  great,  as  time  is 
wanting  to  make  the  dung  short,  and " 
reduce  its  bulk.  About  20  single-horse 
loads,  or  15  tons  the  acre,  of  farm-yard 
dung,  is  as  small  a  dunging  as  potatoes 
receive.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  towns, 
street-manure,  to  the  extent  of  30  tons 
and  upwards,  is  given  ;  but  there  the  crop 
is  forced  for  an  early  market,  antl  the 
street-manure  has  not  the  strength  of  farm- 
yard dung,  and  is  not  so  well  suited  for 
them  as  for  turnips. 

2755.  This  is  identically  the  same  pro- 
cess of  applying  the  dung  as  was  explained 
in  dunging  the  land  for  beans  (2433;)  and 
I  liave  resumed  the  subject  more  parti- 
cularly here,  in  order  to  show,  by  the 
graphic  fig.  236,  all  the  parts  of  the  opera- 
tion, which  should  be  well  understood, 
as  reference  will  again  be  made  to  them 
when  dunging  the  land  for  turnips  as  well 
as  for  bare  fallow. 

2756.  You  will  obsx^rve  that  the  process, 
as  represented  in  fig.  236,  is  composed  of 
a  variety  of  actions,  which,  taken  individu- 
ally, are  ecjually  important,  and  none  of 
which  can  be  carried  on  without  the  assis- 
tance of  the  others,  and  all  of  wliich,  if 
not  proportioned  to  one  another,  would 
produce  confu;-ion.  Thus,  the  plou;,'hing 
of  the  drills,  the  dunging  of  the  land,  the 
spreading    of  the  dung,    the   planting   of 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


635 


the  sets,  and  the  splitting  of  the  drills,  are 
all  equally  important  operations  in  potato- 
culture.  Not  one  of  them  would  be  of  any 
use  without  the  others.  There  would  be 
no  use  of  making  drills  unless  they  were 
to  be  dunged,  nor  would  the  planting  of 
the  sets  avail  unless  the  dung  were  spread ; 
nor  would  the  planted  sets  be  safe,  even  on 
the  spread  dung,  unless  the  drills  were 
split  to  cover  the  whole  from  the  weather. 
But  if  these  separate  operations  are  not 
proportioned  to  one  another,  the  whole  pro- 
cess goes  into  confusion.  Suppose  the 
ploughman  «,  while  making  double  drills, 
cannot  move  on  as  fast  as  the  party  who 
is  spreading  the  dung,  it  is  evident  that, 
besides  themselves,  every  party  behind 
them  would  be  detained  by  his  tardiness, 
and  made  to  lose  time.  Instead  of  the 
delay  continuing,  a  remedy  should  be 
devised  to  remove  it.  The  remedy 
obviously  is,  that  the  ploughman  should 
have  as  many  double  drills  made  before  the 
dunging  commences,  as  never  to  be  over- 
taken, or  he  should  make  single  drills ;  or 
another  ploughman  should  be  sent  to  assist 
him  to  make  double  drills.  The  first  is 
the  best  remedy,  because  the  same  man  is 
kept  at  the  same  work  until  it  is  finished, 
and  the  second  is  the  worst,  because  it 
does  not  sufficiently  plough  the  land. 
Suppose,  again,  that  more  dung  is  con- 
veyed from  the  dunghill  than  the  steward 
h  can  possibly  drag  out,  or  the  4  women 
k  n  0  p  possibly  spread — the  result  would 
be,  that  the  steward  and  women  would 
be  overworked,  while  the  horses  in  the 
carts,  and  the  people  at  the  dunghill,  would 
be  comparatively  idle,  and  throw  away 
time.  The  remedy  is  either  to  diminish 
the  number  of  carts,  or  that  of  hands  who 
fill  the  carts  at  the  dunghill.  Suppose 
there  are  fewer  planters  at  r  and  s  than 
can  keep  out  before  the  ploughman  w, 
time  would  not  only  be  lost  in  covering 
up  as  many  drills  as  might  have  been 
covered,  but  the  dung  spread  would  lie 
exposed  to  the  desiccating  action  of  the 
sun  and  air  between  the  planters  of 
the  sets  and  the  spreaders  of  the  dung. 
Were  the  planters  of  sets  too  many  for 
the  spreaders  of  the  dung  to  move  on 
before  them,  the  planters  would  be  compara- 
tively idle,  and  so  would  the  ploughmen 
behind  them.  The  remedy  is,  to  increase  or 
diminish  the  number  of  the  planters  of  sets, 
for  the  number  of  the  hands  who  spread  the 


dung,  cannot  be  altered.  Suppose,  lastly, 
that  the  ploughman  u  cannot  keep  up 
with  the  planters,  who,  nevertheless,  do 
not  go  faster  than  the  dung  is  spread, 
the  effect  is,  that  the  spread  and  planted 
dung  becomes  dry  before  it  can  be  covered 
up.  The  remedy  is,  either  to  employ 
another  ploughman  to  split  in  drills,  or  to 
make  the  foremost  ploughman  cover  the 
dung  with  one  furrow,  and  let  the  others 
behind  him  finish  the  drills. 

2757.  I  have  dwelt  the  more  fully  on 
these  particulars,  because  the  dunging  of 
land  in  this  manner  is  one  of  those  great 
operations  which  is  made  up  of  a  variety  of 
cimstituent  labours  that  must  all  be  per- 
formed simultaneously,  and  when  so  done, 
the  result  is  obtained  in  the  quickest  and 
most  complete  manner,  and  with  the  great- 
est harmony.  Wherever  this  harmony  of 
parts  is  seen  to  exist,  it  is  satisfactory 
proof  that  the  person  who  has  so  arranged 
the  working  coustitueuts  possesses  the 
talentof  combining  varieties  of  field- labour, 
and  displays  knowledge  of  his  profession 
of  a  superior  order. 

2758.  A  very  common  mode  of  dung- 
ing potato-land,  is  to  drag  the  dung  from 
the  cart  for  5  drills  instead  of  3,  and 
have  three,  or  even  fewer,  women  to 
spread  it  over  them.  In  doing  this,  each 
woman's  attention  is  not  confined  to  a  sin- 
gle drill,  but  extends  over  the  whole  5,  when 
she  spreads  the  dung  from  the  large  heap 
she  takes  possession  of;  and  it  stands  to 
reason  that  she  cannot  possibly  spread 
dung  so  equally,  nor  50  well,  over  5  drills 
as  along  1  ;  and  the  work  would  not  be 
done  better,  though  faster,  although  all  the 
3  women  were  employed  to  sj)read  from 
the  same  heap,  as  each  would  still  have  the 
5drdls  to  attend  to.  Besides,  when  dung 
is  dragged  from  the  cart  for  5  drills,  it  is 
laid  in  large  heaps  at  considerable  dis- 
tances of  from  5  to  10  paces  apart,  thereby 
increasing  the  difficulty  of  spreading.  A 
larger  space,  too,  is  thus  manured  before 
the  few  women  can  spread  the  dung;  and 
by  the  time  it  is  spread,  and  the  sets  plant- 
ed, the  dung  becomes  dry.  This  plan  is 
inexcusable  on  even  a  small  farm,  where 
labourers  are  few;  because  no  advantage  is 
gained  bv  spreading  the  dung  over  5  drills 
instead  of  3, and  itmiist  be  a  verysmall  con- 
cern that  cannot  afford  to  employ  3  spread- 


636 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


era;  but  even  2  women  will  spread  dnntj 
over  3  drills  better  than  3  women  over 
5.  On  a  large  farm,  tiie  plan  indicates 
slovenliness,  encourages  carelessness  in 
work,  and  evinces  a  confusion  of  ideas 
in  making  so  loose  an  arrangement.  It 
removes  the  responsibility  for  bad  work 
when  3  women  have  to  spread  the  dung 
over  5  drills,  whereas  every  woman  is 
responsible  for  the  drill  she  manures  when 
confined  to  it. 

2759.  It  is  no  uncommon  sight,  even  on 
large  farms,  to  see  the  dung  carted  out  and 
spread  in  one  yoking,  and  the  sets  planted 
and  the  dung  covered  in  another,  by  the 
same  people  and  horses — doing,  no  doubt, 
a  great  extent  of  work  in  each  yoking 
and  during  the  day  ;  but  the  result  would 
be  far  more  satisfactory  were  the  work 
finished  as  it  proceeded. 

2760.  A  large  number  of  dunge<l  drills 
are  usually  begun  to  be  planted  with  sets 
at  the  same  time,  instea<l  of  confining  the 
planters  to  setting  a  few  drills  at  a  time, 
and  have  theui  covered  as  soon  as  possible 
with  the  plough.  In  short,  there  is  no 
end  to  the  many  ways  in  which  field-work 
is  actually  done  in  a  slovenly  manner  ;  but 
there  is  only  one  best  way  of  doing  it. 

27fil.  Drills  of  potatoes  are  recom- 
mended to  be  made  at  30  inches  apart, 
instead  of  27  inches,  which  is  the  usual 
width  for  turnips,  because  the  large  stems 
of  the  potato-jtlant  growing  vigorously 
require  plenty  of  air.  Even  3  feet  apart 
is  recommended  by  some  cultivators,  and 
in  deep  rich  soils  this  width  may  not  be 
too  great;  but  I  observe  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  large  towns,  where  the  great- 
est extent  of  ground  is  occupied  by  pota- 
toes, that  the  drills  seldom  exceed  24 
inches,  owing  partly  to  the  great  value  of 
land,  and  partly  because  the  early  varieties 
of  potatoes  having  small  stems,  and  being 
most  profitable,  are  cultivated  in  that  loca- 
lity. The  drills  for  potatoes  are  not  set 
up  with  the  same  exactness  in  widtii  as 
for  turnips,  potato  sets  not  being  planted 
with  a  machine. 

2762.  As  to  the  varieties  of  the  potato 


whi'^h  I  would  recommend  to  be  culti- 
vated, it  wo  aid  seem  that  different  varieties 
affect  different  soils  and  situations  ;  and  it 
seems  also  not  improbable,  that  the  multi- 
plication of  varieties  has  arisen,  in  some 
measure,  from  the  influence  of  soil  and 
situation  on  the  living  plant,  independently 
of  the  means  purposely  used  for  obtaining 
new  varieties,  such  as  the  importation  of 
tubers  from  other  countries,  or  the  raising 
of  tubers  from  the  seed.  From  whatever 
causes  the  varieties  of  the  potato  have  in- 
creased, they  are  now  extremely  numerous; 
upwards  of  100  varieties  of  field- potatoes 
alune  having  been  described  by  Mr  Law- 
son,*  and  as  many  experimented  on  by 
Mr  Howden,  Lawhead,  Ea-st  Lothian. f 
All  I  can  do  in  regard  to  noticing  any  of 
the  varieties  in  particular,  is  lo  mention 
those  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Edinburgh,  and  elsewhere. 

2763.  The  most  common  varieties  cul- 
tivated in  the  fields  are  the  Dons,  very 
plentiful  in  the  Edinburgh  market.  It  is 
round,  and  an  early  variety ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  stems  decay  by  the  time  the 
tubers  are  fit  for  use.  It  produces  about 
16-fold  of  the  seed,  and  yields  576  grains 
Troy  of  starch  from  1  ib.  of  tubers.  The 
Dons  are  useable  whenever  taken  out  of 
the  ground. 

2764.  The  Buff  is  a  mealy  and  superior 
flavoured  jiotato,  yielding  about  15-fold, 
aiul  466  grains  Troy  of  starch  from  1  lb. 
of  tubers.  The  Buffs  are  best  to  use  in 
spring. 

2765.  The  Perthshire  Red,  an  oblong 
flat  potato,  is  largely  cultivated  for  the 
London  market.  It  yields  about  15-fold, 
and  affords  as  much  as  777  grains  Troy  of 
starch  from  1  Ib.  of  tubers.  This  variety 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Perth,  whence  there  used  to  be 
shipped  for  London  uot  fewer  than  300 
cargoes  every  year. 

2766.  Of  the  late  varieties,  the  foliage 
of  which,  in  ordinary  seasons,  does  not 
decay  until  destroyed  by  frost,  and  wlK)se 
tubers  require  to  be  kept  for  bonie  time 
before  being  used,   the   Staffald  Hall,  or 


Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual,  p.  21()-2-l,  and  Svpplfment,  p.  52-5. 
+  I'rize  Essat/s  of  the  Highland  and  Agricuitural  iiucifltf,  vol.  xi.  p.  85  and  95. 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


637 


Wellington,  as  It  is  sometimes  callerl,  is  to 
be  preferred.  It  is  rejjresented  to  yield 
22-fold,  and  affords  813  grains  Troy  of 
starch  from  1  lb.  of  tubers. 

27G7.  The  Scotch  Black  potato  has 
long  been  cultivated  in  Scotland ;  and  it 
seems  to  suit  strong  soil  better  than  light, 
where  it  yields  as  high  as  16-fold  of  in- 
crease, and  affords  522  grains  Troy  of 
starch  from  1  lb.  of  tubers.  This  variety 
has  long  been,  and  is  still,  cultivated  in  the 
Border  counties,  where  it  is  used  in  spring. 
In  those  counties  potatoes  are  not  raised 
for  the  market. 

2768.  Of  the  late  varieties  for  field-cul- 
ture suited  for  cattle,  the  Irish  Lumpers 
and  Cups  are  prolific.  The  Lumper  is  a 
white  oblong  potato  of  very  inferior 
flavour,  but  yields  421  bushels,  and  3118 
lbs.  of  starch  per  acre ;  and  the  Cups  are 
an  oblong  light  red,  coarse  potato,  yield- 
ing 47y  bushels,  and  3539  lbs.  of  starch  per 
acre. 

2769.  The  small  American  white  potato 
was  extensively  cultivated  in  the  midland 
districts  of  Scotland  more  than  2U  years 
ago,  but  has  yielded  to  more  prolific 
varieties.  For  the  table,  however,  when 
raised  in  hazel  loam — the  true  potato  soil 
— there  are  few  varieties  cultivated  su- 
perior to  it  in  flavour,  richness,  and  beauty 
as  a  dish.  It  is  still  raised  in  the 
garden. 

2770.  The  finest  flavoured  and  most 
beautiful  potato  I  ever  saw  on  the  table 
was  a  light  red,  small,  round  variety, 
raised  a  few  years  ago  in  the  sandy  soil  of 
the  parish  of  Monifieth  in  Forfarshire.  It 
had  quite  the  nutty  flavour  of  a  fresh 
Spanish  chestnut — a  state  of  that  fine 
fruit  unknown  in  this  country. 

2771.  A  remark  of  Thiier's  that  "some 
potatoes  put  out  long  filaments  into  the 
soil;  others  press  their  tubers  so  closely 
together,  that  they  show  themselves  above 
ground,"  suggests  a  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  the  variety  of  the  potato,  for  the 
particular  soil  in  which  it  is  desired  to  be 
raised,  which  I  suspect  is  never  attended  to 
by  farmers  when  in  search  of  seed  potatoes. 
On  selecting  seed,  the  tuber  alone  is  regard- 
ed, without  reference  to  the  habits  of  the 


growth  of  the  plant;  and  those  who  pro- 
fess to  describe  thi,se  habits,  seem  to  direct 
their  attention  solely  to  the  characters  of 
the  plants  exhibited  above  ground,  in  their 
stems,  foliage,  and  flowers,  while  their 
habits  under  ground,  in  their  roots  and 
tubers,  are  deemed  unworthy  of  notice, 
and  are  entirely  neglected.  Now,  when 
it  has  been  established  that  one  variety 
"puts  out  long  filaments  into  the  soil," 
surely  it  would  be  improper  to  plant  that 
variety  in  strong  soils,  which  necessarily 
oppose  the  penetration  of  tender  filaments 
through  them,  when  a  light  soil  would  at 
once  encourage  that  peculiarity  of  growth. 
The  impropriety  of  the  want  of  discrimi- 
nation in  this  matter  would  be  the  more 
evident,  when  varieties  exist  which  "press 
their  tubers  closely  together," — thereby 
indicating  that  they  possess  a  property 
which  renders  them  the  most  proper  to  be 
selected  for  planting  in  strong  soil.  It  is 
therefore  desirable  that  observers  would 
take  the  trouble  of  investigating  experi- 
mentally the  nature  of  the  growth  under 
ground,  of  the  several  varieties  of  the 
potato  plant  which  are  most  generally 
cultivated,  since  their  entire  value  depends 
upon  tlieir  enlarged  increase  under  ground. 

2772.  There  are  other  ways  of  culti- 
vating the  potato  in  the  field  besides  the 
one  I  have  described.  When  light  soil,  in 
which  the  potato  thrives,  is  clean  and  in 
good  heart,  it  is  frequently  dunged  on  the 
stubble  in  autumn,  and  ploughed  with  a 
deep  square  furrow  by  casting  wi  th  or  with- 
out a  gore-furrow,  figs.  22  and  iJ3.  Abun- 
dance of  gaw-cuts  are  made  to  let  off  the 
superfluous  surface-water  in  winter.  It 
is  then  cross-ploughed  in  spring,  har- 
rowed a  double  tine,  when  it  is  ready  to 
be  drilled  up  in  the  single  form,  the  sets 
planted,  and  the  drills  split  in  the  double 
form,  to  complete  the  operation.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  towns  this  is  an  expe- 
ditious mode  of  planting  a  large  breadth 
of  potatoes  in  spring  on  light  soil,  but  it 
requires  the  land  to  hsLW^long  heen  in  eery 
good  heart.  I  have  tried  it  at  a  distance 
from  a  town,  on  good  potato  land  in 
middling  condition,  but  could  not  succeed 
in  raising  much  more  than  half  the  crop 
on  dunging  the  same  land  in  spring  with 
the  same  quantity  of  dung. 

2773.  A  modification  of  this  plan  may 


638 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


be  practised  in  very  light  soil,  by  cross- 
ploughing  and  harrowing  in  spring,  and 
then  ridging  by  casting  without  gore-fur- 
rows in  the  opposite  way  it  was  cast  in 
autumn  when  the  dung  was  ploughed  in  ; 
and  at  this  ploughing  two  women  f»jllow 
tiie  plough,  and  plant  the  sets  in  the  bot- 
tom of  every  third  furrow.  If  the  furrows 
are  9  inches  broad,  the  distance  between 
the  rows  of  potatoes  will  be  27  inches  ;  and 
if  10  inches,  the  rows  will  of  course  be 
30  inches  apart;  so  that  this  plan  admits 
of  the  rows  being  made  wide  enough. 

2774.  A  sub-modification  of  this  method 
is  to  spread  the  dung  over  the  smooth  har- 
rowed ground  after  the  land  has  been  cast 
into  ridges  in  spring,  instead  of  applying 
it  on  the  stubble  in  autumn.  The  dung  is 
raked  in  and  spread  evenly  along  the  bot- 
tom of  every  third  furrow  by  a  woman 
with  the  small  dung  graip,  fig.  218,  fol- 
lowing the  plough,  and  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  planters,  and  another  plough 
follows  the  planters  and  covers  up  the  sets. 
In  both  these  modes  the  potato  plants  come 
up  in  ro?cs  upon  the  Jlat  ground  at  the 
eame  distance  as  in  drills,  and  after  the 
stems  are  grown  up  in  summer,  the  earth 
is  either  ploughed  up  towards  them,  which 
converts  the  flat  ground  into  a  drilled  sur- 
face, or  allowed  to  remain  flat. 

2775.  Another  mode  of  the  field-culture 
of  the  potato  is  in  lazi/-heds,  which  is  more 
generally  practised  in  Ireland  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  system 
on  arable  lantl  is  becoming  less  general, 
though  on  lea-gronnd  and  undrained  bogs 
there  cannot  ]ierhaps  be  a  better  one  pur- 
sued. "  In  bogs  and  mountains,"  says 
Martin  Doyle,  "  where  the  plough  cannot 
penetrate  through  strong  soil,  heds  are  the 
most  convenient  for  the  petty  farmer,  who 
digs  the  sod  with  his  long  narrow  spade, 
and  either  lays  the  sets  on  the  inverted 
sod — the  manure  being  previously  spread 
— covering  them  from  the  furrows  by  the 
shovel ;  or,  as  in  parts  of  C<mnaught  and 
Munster,  he  stabs  the  ground  with  his 
lot/ — a  long  narrow  spade  peculiar  to  the 
labourers  of  Connaught — ^jerks  a  cut  set 
into  the  fissure  when  he  draws  out  the 
tool,  and  afterwards  closes  the  set  with  the 
back  of  the  same  instrument,  covering  the 


surface,  as  in  the  case  of  lazy-beds,  from 
the  furrows.  The  general  Irish  mode  of 
culture  on  old  rich  arable  lea  (a  practice 
very  common  in  the  county  of  Clare,  and 
elsewhere  among  the  peasantry  who  pay 
dearly  for  old  grass  land,)  is  to  plough  the 
fields  in  ridges,  to  level  them  perfectly  with 
the  spade,  then  to  \vLy  the  potato  sets  upon 
the  surface,  and  to  cover  them  with  or 
without  manure  by  the  inverted  sods  from 
the  furrows.  The  potatoes  are  afterwards 
earthed  once  or  twice  with  whatever 
mould  can  be  obtained  from  the  furrows 
by  means  of  spade  and  shovel.  And  after 
these  earthings,  the  furrows  becoming  deep 
trenches,  form  easy  means  for  water  to 
flow  away,  and  leave  the  planted  ground 
on  each  side  of  them  comparatively 
dry."  "  The  practice  in  the  south  of  Ire- 
land is  to  grow  potatoes  on  grass  land  from 
1  to  3  years  old,  and  turnips  afterwards, 
manuring  each  time  moderately,  as  the 
best  preparation  for  corn,  and  as  a  preven- 
tion of  the  disease  called  fingers  and  toes 
in  turnips.  In  wet  bog-land,  ridges  and 
furrows  are  the  safest,  as  the  furrow  acts 
as  a  complete  drain  for  surface  water  ;  but 
wherever  drilling  is  practicable  it  is  de- 
cidedly preferable,  the  produce  being 
greater  in  drills  than  in  what  may  be 
termed,  comparatively,  a  broad -cast 
method."* 

277G.  The  spade-culture  of  potatoes  is 
appropriate  fur  small  farmers  and  cottars, 
but  is  far  too  expensive  on  a  farm  where 
horse-labour  is  employed. 

2777.  The  potato  plant  is  subject  to  a 
disease  at  a  very  early  period  of  its  exis- 
tence, not  only  after  it  has  developed  its 
stem  and  leaves,  but  even  before  th'  germ 
has  risen  from  the  set.  This  disease  is 
called  the  curl,  from  the  curled  or  crumpled 
appearance  which  the  leaves  assume.  The 
puny  stem  and  stinted  leaves  indicate 
weakness  in  the  constitution  of  the  plant, 
and,  like  weak  animals  affected  with  con- 
stitutional disease,  the  small  tubers  pro- 
duced by  curled  potatoes,  when  planted, 
propagate  the  disease  to  the  future  crop. 
The  experiments  of  Mr  T.  Dickson  show, 
that  the  disease  arises  from  the  vegetal)le 
powers  of  the  sets  planted  having  been 
exhausted  by  over-ripening;  so   that  seta 


Doyle's  Cydopoedia  of  Practical  Husbandry — art.  Potato. 


PLANTING     OrATOES. 


639 


from  the  waxy  end  of  the  potato  produced 
healthy  plants,  whereas  those  from  the  best 
ripened  end  did  not  vegetate  at  all,  or  pro- 
duced curled  plants.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
Mr  Crichton,  "  tbat  the  curl  in  the  potato 
may  often  be  occasioned  by  the  way  tlie 
potatoes  which  are  intended  for  seed  are 
treated.  I  have  observed,"  he  says, 
"  wiierever  the  seed-stock  is  carefully 
pitted,  and  not  exposed  to  the  air,  in  the 
spring  the  crop  has  seldom  any  curl ; 
but  where  the  seed-stock  is  put  into 
barns  and  outhouses  for  months  together, 
such  crop  seldom  escapes  turning  out  in  a 
great  measure  curled;  and  if  but  few  curl 
the  first  year,  if  they  are  planted  again,  it 
is  more  than  probable  tlie  half  of  tliem  will 
curl  next  season."  *  The  curl  is  so  well 
known  by  its  appearance,  and  the  curled 
plant  so  generally  shunned  as  seed,  that  the 
disease  is  never  willingly  propagated  by 
the  cultivator. 

2778.  But,  of  late  years,  a  disease  has 
affected  the  potato  with  so  much  virulence 
as  almost  to  destroy  the  entire  crop,  and 
"with  so  much  subtlety  as  to  baffle  the  in- 
genuity of  the  philosopher  as  well  as  of 
the  farmer,  to  discover  even  its  nature. 
It  was  first  called  the  taint,  then  tlie 
failure,  then  the  murrain,  as  its  viru- 
lence increased  ;  and  now  it  is  simply  the 
potato  disease,  because  no  one  can  now 
venture  to  define  its  characteristics  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy.  Its  ultimate 
effect  is  to  reduce  the  tuber  to  a  complete 
state  of  putrefaction,  and  this  is  effected  as 
well  in  the  ground  as  in  the  pit.  Its 
earliest  appearance  in  the  tuber  is  indi- 
cated by  discoloured  blotches  in  the  sub- 
stance on  the  removal  of  the  skin  ;  and  so 
loathsome  is  the  feeling  attending  the 
discovery  of  this  state  of  the  tuber, 
that  hunger  itself  cannot  tempt  a  human 
being  to  eat  the  tainted  part  of  a  potato. 

2779.  Conjectures  have  been  formed  as 
to  its  ca\ise,  and  many  remedies  proposed 
for  modifying  the  mode  of  cultivating 
the  tuber.  The  former  are  accepted 
or  rejected  according  to  the  predilec- 
tions of  the  individual ;  the  latter  have 
been  adopted  in  innumerable  ways;  and 
while  one  may  have  succeeded  in  one  plan 
it  has  failed  in  another,  and  has  failed  in 


the  same  place  in  the  succeeding  season. 
Cut  sets,  large  and  small — whole  potatoes, 
large  and  small — moist  weather  and  dry 
weather — early  planting  and  late  planting 
— strong  soil  and  light  soil — high  situation 
and  low  situation — northern  exposure  and 
southern  exposure — shelter  under  trees  and 
by  hedges,  and  exposure  in  open  fields — 
with  manure  and  without  manure — ma- 
nure applied  directly  to  the  sets  and  in- 
directly to  the  sets — one  kind  of  manure 
and  another  kind  of  manure — cutting  and 
pulling  off  the  stems,  and  letting  the  stems 
remain — picking  off  the  blossoms,  and  en- 
couraging their  growth — pulling  off  the 
seed  apples,  and  encouraging  them  to  ripen 
— weeding  the  ground  clean,  aud  encou- 
raging the  growth  of  weeds  around  the 
potato  plants — earthing  up  the  rows,  and 
allowing  them  to  remain  flat  —  ripening 
the  tubers  in  the  ground,  and  taking  them 
up  before  they  are  ripe — taking  them  out 
of  the  ground,  and  allowing  them  to  remain 
in  the  ground  all  winter — trying  one  va- 
riety and  anotlier  variety — a  late  variety 
and  an  early  variety — old  varieties  and 
new  varieties,  just  raised  from  seed  — 
smearing,  dusting,  and  steeping  the  sets 
in  various  mixtures  and  ingredients,  and 
potatoes  brought  from  South  America,  the 
land  of  their  origin  :  one  and  all  of  these 
expedients  have  been  industriously  and 
anxiously  tried,  not  only  in  the  British 
isles,  but  on  the  continents  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  the  greatest  attention  be- 
stowed in  applying  them  with  the  utmost 
care,and  in  the  best  way  that  ingenuity  and 
skill  could  devise  ;  and  all  have  failed  to 
produce  a  single  conviction  that  we  are 
acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  disease 
better  now  than  we  were  at  its  first  outbreak. 
Perplexity  has  i  reased  every  year;  hope 
has  urged  the  culture,  year  after  year, 
until  every  expedient  should  be  exhaust- 
ed. A  respite  from  disease  in  1847  inspired 
a  ccmsiderable  degree  of  returning  confi- 
dence; but  the  serious  failure  in  1848  has 
decided  the  fate  of  the  potato  culture. 

2780.  I  <lo  not  say  that  the  culture  of 
the  potato  will  be  abandoned  for  the  future, 
for  that  will  never  be ;  but  the  crop  will 
not  again  be  so  extensively  cultivated, 
nor  confidence  reposed  in  it,  until  there  be 
entire  immunity  from  disease  for  several 


Memoirs  of  the  Caledonian  IlorticuUural  Society,  vol.  i.  p.  55  and  440. 


MO 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


years  in  succession.  Whether  such  expe- 
rience awaits  it  I  cannot  foretell,  but  1  ilo 
not  expect  it;  for  I  take  this  disease  to 
be  somewhat  analogous  to  every  severe 
epidemic  which  overtakes  the  human  frame 
for  the  first  time  in  a  country,  that,  after 
it  has  once  run  its  course  through  the 
human  constittition,  it  never  fails  to  leave 
a  testimony  of  its  existence,  more  or  less 
evident,  ever  after. 

2781.  One  of  the  expedients  resorted 
to  for  avoiding  this  direful  disease  in  the 
potato  is  the  raising  of  new  varieties  from 
the  seed  contained  in  the  potato  apple; 
and  although  the  new  produce  has  by 
no  means  escaped  the  disease,  it  may 
be  worth  while  to  describe  a  mode  of 
raising  new  potatoes  directly  from  the 
seed  of  a  size  fit  to  be  u.<ed  at  table. 
I  wish  to  retnark,  that  the  new  varie- 
ties of  potatoes,  which  have  not  been  ex- 
empted from  the  disease,  may  have  been 
produced  from  the  seed  of  diseased  plants. 
We  have  no  evidence  that  the  potato 
apples  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
new  plants  had  been  the  produce  of  sound 
plants.  The  plants  may  not  have  exhibited 
symptoms  of  disease,  nor  the  tubers  from 
the  same  plants  have  indicated  any  disease, 
and  yet  the  embiyo  of  disease  may  have 
been  in  them,  ready  to  be  developed  under 
favourable  circumstances.  'We  have  no 
security  now  that  we  can  select  a  single 
plant  of  the  potato  free  of  the  germs  of 
the  disease;  and  if  the  probability  is  that 
it  contains  disease,  whatever  be  the  result 
of  the  exfKjriment  it  can  conduct  to  no 
safe  practice. 

2782.  A  successful  mode  of  obtaining 
good- sized  potatoes  from  seed  seems  to 
have  been  followed  by  Mr  John  D.  Peters, 
Gastron.  He  says,  —  "I  have  divided 
my  manner  of  proceeding  into  two  parts:  — 
l.Tlie  manner  of  obtaining  the  seed  2.  The 
manner  of  treating  the  sowing  and  plant- 
ing. The  seed  apples  must  be  carefully 
collected  when  the  potatoes  are  dry,  be- 
cause those  apples  which  fall  oS  of  their 
own  accord  produce  the  best  seeds.  The 
apples  are  then  suffered  to  remain  until 
they  begin  to  rot.  Then  they  must  be 
pressed,  andagainallowed  to  remain  in  their 
jelly  or  slime,  until  the  latter,  by  decom- 


position, be  changed  Into  water.  And  now 
the  seeds,  as  in  the  case  of  cucumber  seeds, 
may  be  washed  out  clean,  but  previous  to 
this  not  a  drop  of  water  must  be  added. 

2783.  "  From  the  middle  to  the  end  of 
March,  according  to  the  favourable  state 
of  the  weather,  a  bed  is  to  be  prepared  in 
the  following  manner,  —  Let  a  space  be 
levelled,  about  12  feet  long  and  4  feet 
broad — sufficient  plants  can  bereare<l  upon 
this  sjtace  to  plant  out  80  square  rods  ;  put 
horse-dung  upon  it  to  the  depth  of  i)  inchefl; 
then  cover  this  dung  with  about  6  or  8 
inches  of  mould,  previously  run  through  a 
sieve.  The  space  is  to  be  enclosed  by 
common  frames,  with  suitable  glazed  cover- 
ing. After  the  mould  has  been  thus  laid 
over  the  dung,  make  it  smooth  and  even, 
and  then  draw  cross-furrows,  of  about  half 
an  inch  in  depth,  with  a  fine  rake,  and 
sow  the  seed  therein  ;  after  which,  with 
the  back  of  the  rake,  again  smooth  the 
small  furrows,  but  without  raking  the 
ground  again.  The  earth  or  mould  is  to  be 
watered  by  means  of  a  small  watering- 
pot,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  bed  mould  always  of  e»pial  moisture. 
The  slides  may  only  be  moved  to  admit  air 
when  the  plants  shall  have  made  their  ap- 
pearance, which  occurs  after  the  space  of  10 
or  12  days.  Care  must  likewise  be  taken 
not  to  let  the  plants  be  choked  by  weeds. 

2784.  "  After  the  plants  have  attained 
a  length  of  6  inches,  they  are  then  to  be 
planted  out  at  the  same  distance  that  po- 
tatoes are  usually  planted.  The  plants 
must  be  put  into  the  ground  at  such  a  depth 
that  two-thirds  of  the  plant  be  covered. 
They  are  then  watered  a  little.  The  future 
treatment  of  the  plant  may  now  be  con- 
ducted exactly  in  the  manner  of  potatoes 
which  have  been  planted  out. 

2785.  "  If  this  process  be  strictly  at- 
tended to,  the  first  year's  crop  will  yield 
potatoes  of  the  size  of  a  hen  s  egg,  and 
a  much  richer  harvest  may  be  expected 
than  any  crop  from  cuttings  could  yield. 
I  have  actually  had  plants  which  iiave 
yielded  upwards  of  100  potatoes,  some  of 
the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  many  as  large  as 
walnuts,  and  all  the  others  sufficiently 
large  for  planting. "  * 


*  Hatnburg  Corrapondenten  of  Norember  30,  1846. 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


641 


2786.  M.  Zander,  gardener  to  Coniit 
Arnini  at  Boitzeiiburg,  near  Berlin,  raises 
potatoes  from  seed  in  a  similar  manner  to 
that  of  Mr  Peters,  and  with  equally  good 
euccess 

2787.  A  good  potato  is  neither  large 
nor  small,  but  of  medium  size;  of  round 
shape,  or  elongated  splieroid ;  the  skin  of 
fine  texture,  and  homogeneous  ;  and  the 
eyes  neither  numerous  nor  deep-seated. 
The  habit  of  growth  of  its  stem  is  strong 
and  slightly  spreading,  and  colour  ligiitish 
green.  I  believe  that  the  intensity  of  the 
coh)ur  of  the  flower  is  in  some  degree  an 
indication  of  the  depth  of  the  colour  of  the 
tuber;  and  I  believe  also,  that  white 
potatoes  are  generally  fit  to  be  eaten  when 
taken  out  of  the  ground,  but  that  red  ones 
are  the  better  for  being  out  of  the  ground 
for  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  according  to 
the  fineness  of  their  texture,  before  being 
used. 

2788.  The  intrinsic  value  of  a  potato, 
as  an  article  of  commerce,  is  estimated  by 
the  quantity  of  starch  it  yields  on  analysis; 
but,  as  an  article  of  domestic  consumption, 
the  Jiavoiir  of  the  starchy  matter  is  of 
greater  importance  than  its  quantity.  Al- 
most every  person  prefers  a  mealy  potato 
to  a  waxy  one,  and  the  more  mealy  it  is 
usually  the  better  flavoured.  The  meali- 
ness consists  of  a  layer  of  mucilage  imme- 
diately under  the  skin,  covering  the  starch 
or  farina,  which  is  held  togetlier  by  fibres. 
Light  soil  raises  a  potato  more  mealy  than 
a  strong  ;  and  I  suppose  every  one  is  aware, 
that  a  light  soil  produces  a  potato  of  the  same 
variety  of  better  flavour  tlian  a  clay  soil. 
Thus  soil  has  an  influence  on  the  flavour, 
and  so  has  culture  ;  as  potatoes,  whatever 
may  be  the  variety,  raised  from  soil  which 
has  been  dunged  for  some  time,  are  higher 
flavoured  than  those  grown  in  immediate 
contact  with  dung. 

2789.  Mr  ITowden,  Lawhead,  discovered 
a  curious  effect  which  moist  and  dry  soil 
comparatively  had  upon  the  sprouting  of 
the  potato,  and  on  the  constitution  of  the 
sets.  He  says:  "On  the  28th  June  I 
selected  from  a  store  which  had  been  re- 
peatedly turned  ajid  kept  5"or  family  use, 
70  potatoes  of  the  old  rough  black  variety. 
I  divided  this  number  into  5  lots,  sizing 
them,  so  as  each  lot  of  14  potatoes  weighed 

TOL.  I. 


exactly  4  lb.  I  made  on  that  day  one  lot 
of  14  into  starch,  and  obtained  9  oz.  On 
the  same  day  I  put  14  potatoes  whole,  and 
14  cut  into  5G  sets,  into  a  deep  box  filled 
with  dty  mould.  The  remaining  14  whole 
and  14  cut  I  put  into  another  box  filled 
with  moist  earth,  and  whicii  was  watered 
from  time  to  time.  At  the  end  of  three 
weeks,  with  the  exception  of  five  sets,  all 
the  plants  made  their  appearance.  All 
this  time  the  dry  box  had  been  kept  from 
moisture.  On  the  21st  July,  however,  I 
allowed  it  to  be  moistened  with  heavy  rain, 
and  on  the  28th  July,  I  took  up  and  ex- 
tracted starch  from  the  wdiole.  Before 
doing  so,  however,  I  weighed  the  several 
lots:  and  what  seemed  to  me  curious  was, 
that  each  lot  of  the  trhole  potatoes  had 
gained  8  oz. ;  while  each  lot  of  the  cut 
ones  had  lost  6  oz.  of  its  weight,  and  of 
their  number  ten  did  not  vegetate.  The 
sprouts  from  the  ichole  potatoes  weighed 
4  oz.,  and  those  from  the  cut  only  2  oz., 
yet  the  starch  from  the  28  cut  potatoes 
was  only  2  oz.,  and  that  from  the  28  tchole 
potatoes  9  oz.,  being  exactly  the  produce 
in  starch  of  half  that  number,  namely,  14, 
which  was  made  into  starch  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  experiment." 

2700.  I  mentioned  the  effect  which  the 
unequal  formation  of  tiie  double-drill  had 
in  causing  tiie  plants  of  beans  (2443,) 
germinating  within  it  to  grow  out  of  the 
side  instead  of  the  top  of  the  drill,  and 
the  drill  has  the  same  effect  on  potato 
plants.  To  evade  the  injury  that  would 
accrue  to  the  jilant  from  tliis  cause,  the  drill 
is  harrowed  down  flatter  in  eight  or  ten 
days  after  the  potatoes  have  been  planted, 
and  tiie  harrowing  is  best  eflected  by  the 
drill-harrow,  fig.  220.  Of  the  two  forms 
of  drill-harrows,  the  rectangular  and  tri- 
angular, tiie  triangular  is  safest  in  its 
action  after  the  germ  of  the  potato  has 
])ierced  throngli  the  ground,  as  its  outmost 
tines  work  between  the  tops  of  the  drills 
across  thei  r  hollow,  whereas  the  rectangular 
harrow  rides  upon  the  tops  of  the  drills. 

2791.  The  common  harrows  are  passed 
either  along  or  across  the  drills,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Strong  soil  bears 
the  harrows  along  tiie  drills ;  and  in  verj 
hard  land,  particularly  in  dry  seasons,  they 
may  be  pased  along  a  double  tine,  but 
otherwise  a  single  tine  will  suflSce.     Har- 

2s 


642 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


rowing  across,  with  well-worn  tines,  will     ing  between  Belladonna  and  Conium  ;  according 
have  the  least  chance  of  disturbinc:  long     *f  ^^^  V^^""'  '^  '=*  particularly  servioeable  in 
1  1    r        1         •  *   .   -.„       chronic  rheuraatisra.aud  painful  affeitioiis  of  the 

rnaiM.re  when  used  for  .lunging  p-.tatoes,  stomach  and  uterus.  ...  .  The  common 
a8  tiie  coming  drill  which  first  receives  potato  in  a  state  of  putrefaction  is  said  to  give 
the  fore  part  of  the  harrow  supports  it  and  out  a  most  vivid  light,  suffiiient  to  read  by.  This 
prevents  the  tines  penetratini;  too  deep;  was  particularly  remarked  by  an  officer  on  guard 
but  the  walking  across  <lrills^  is  irksome      V-  Strasburg,  who  thought  the  barracks  were  on 

nre,  in  consequence  oi  the   light  thus   emitted 
from  a  cellar  full  of  potatoes."* 


but  the  walking 

botii  to  man  and  beast,  so  that  the  liarrow- 
iDg  is  most  easily  performed  along  the 
drill.  The  common  harrows  are  however 
a  harsh  imjilement  for  harrowing  drill.--, 
compared  to  either  of  the  drill  harrows. 

2792.  A  wooden  roller  of  a  form  to 
embrace  two  drills,  is  recommended  to 
be  used  to  crush  the  clods,  often  found 
on  strong  land  in  dry  weather  after  wet, 
upon  the  tops  of  the  drills,  or  to  push 
them  down  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of 
the  drills. 

2793.  The  potato  belongs  to  the  class  and  or- 
der Pentandria  3Iono<jynia  of  Linnaeus  ;  the 
family  Solanece  of  Jussieu  ;  and  to  class  iii. 
Periqynovs  Exogens;  alliance  46  Sotaiiales;  ortier 
2.''8,  Sulanaceie ;  tribe  2,  Currewhurce ;  genus 
Solatium,  of  the  natural  system  of  Lindley. 

2794.  On  this  remarkable  family  of  plants  Dr 
Lindley  observes  that  they  are  "  natives  of  most 
parts  of  the  world  without  the  arctic  and  antarc- 
tic circles,  especially  within  the  tropics,  in  which 
the  mass  of  the  order  exists  in  the  form  of  tlie 
genera  Solaniim  and  Physa/is.  The  number  of 
species  of  the  former  genus  is  very  great  in  tro- 
pical America.  At  first  sight  this  order  seems 
to  offer  an  exception  to  that  general  correspon- 
dence in  structure  and  sensible  qualities  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  well  defined  natural  orders, 
containing  as  it  does  the  deadly  nightshade  and 

.henbane,  and  the  wholesome  potato  and  tomato  ; 
but  a  little  inquiry  will  explain  this  apparent 
anomaly.  The  leaves  and  berries  of  the  potato 
are  narcotic  ;  it  is  only  its  tubers  that  are  whole- 
Bome  when  cooked.  This  is  the  case  with  other 
suclulent  underground  stems  in  equally  dangerous 
families,  as  the  cassava  among  siturgeworts  ;  be- 
sides which,  as  De  Candolle  justly  observes  : — 
'  II  ne  faut  pas  perdre  de  vue  que  tons  nos  ali- 
mens  renferraent  un  petite  dose  d'un  principe 
excitant,  qui,  s'il  y  etait  en  grande  phis  quantitc 
pourrait  6tre  nuisible,  mais  qui  y  est  necessaire 
pour  leur  servir  de  condiment  nature!.'  The 
leaves  of  all  are,  in  fact,  narcotic  and  exciting, 
but  in  different  degrees,  from  Atropa  Belladonna, 
which  causes  vertigo,  convulsions,  and  vuniiting, 
tobacco,  which  will  frequently  produce  the  first 
and  last  of  these  symptoms,  henbane  and  stra- 
monium, down  to  some  Solanunis,  the  leaves  of 
which  are  used  as  kitchen  heibs.  .  .  .  An 
extract  of  the  leaves  of  the  common  potato, 
Solatium  tuberosum,  is  a  powerful  narcotic,  rank- 


2795.  "  The  name  is  given  by  Pliny,  but  the 
derivation  is  uncertain  ;  some  derive  it  from 
Sol,  the  sun  ;  others  say  it  is  l^ulanum,  from 
Sus,  being  serviceable  in  the  disorders  of  swine; 
and  others  from  Sotor,  to  comfort,  from  its  sooth- 
ing narcotic  effects.  All  these  conjectures  are, 
however,  improbable.  Solatium  tuherofuin,  the 
common  potato,  has  roots  bearing  tubers  ;  stems 
herbaceous  ;  leaves  unequally  pinnate  ;  leaflets 
entire  ;  pedicel  articulated.  It  is  a  native  of 
South  America,  on  the  west  coast  every where.'"t 

2796.  The  Solanaceoe  or  Nightshades,  comprise 
900  species,  of  which  we  have  only  five  in  Bri- 
tain. The  genus  Solanum  has  only  two  British 
representatives,  Solatiutn  didcnmam,  a  pretty 
climbing  shrub,  found  occasionally  in  hedges,  and 
iSolanum  nii/nini,  with  an  herbaceous  stem.  Both 
these  plants,  like  the  rest  of  the  tribe,  are  strongly 
narcotic.  The  .*(//flKM»n  t/M/camara,  bitter-sweet, 
or  woody  nichtshade,  has  a  purple  flower  and 
bears  red  berries;  the  Su!  an  urn  tiiijrum,  or  garden 
nightshade,  bears  white  flowers  and  black 
berries.  These  plants  can  only  be  identified 
botanically  by  an  examination  of  the  leaves  and 
berries.  The  active  principle  in  both  is  an  alka- 
loid, So/ania,  which  is  itself  a  poison,  although 
not  very  energetic.  Two  grains  of  the  sulphate 
killed  a  rabbit  in  a  few  hours.  According  to 
Liebig,  this  poisonous  alkaloid  is  formed  in  and 
around  the  shoot  of  the  common  potato,  when 
it  germinates  in  darkness ;  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  the  potatoes  are  thereby  rendered 
injurious.  Their  noxious  qualities  are  probably 
due  to  other  causes. 

2797.  Having  been  so  long  familiar  with  the 
potato  in  a  cultivated  state,  it  is  interesting  to 
be  acquainted  with  its  appearance  in  its  native 
localities  and  unaltered  condition,  the  more  es- 
pecially as  recent  events  have  given  us  some 
reason  to  fear  that  we  may  have  again  to  re- 
cruit our.  present  varieties  by  having  recourse  to 
the  original  stock.  "  The  wild  potato,"  says 
Mr  Darwin,  "grows  on  these  islands,  the  Chou'is 
Archipelago,  in  great  abundance  in  the  .*an<Iy, 
shelly  soil  near  the  sea  be:ich.  The  tallest  pKint 
was  four  feet  in  height.  The  tubers  were  gene- 
rally small,  but  I  found  one,  of  an  ovnl  shape, 
two  inches  in  diameter  ;  they  resembled  in  every 
respect,  and  had  the  same  smell.  a«  F^nt'li'-h 
potatoes  ;  but  when  boiled  they  shrai.k  much, 
and  were  watery  and  insipid,  without  any  bitter 
taste.  They  are  undoubtedly  here  incligenous  ; 
they  grow  as  far  south,  according  to  Mr  Low,  aa 


•  Lindley's  VeijdalJe  K'mijdom.  p.  6\9-2]. 
+  Don's  Oeneral  Syttetn  of  Botany  and  Gardening,  yoL  iv.  p.  iQQ—  Solanacece, 


• 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


6i3 


l»t  50®,  and  are  called  Aquinas  by  the  wild 
Indians  of  that  part  :  the  Chilotan  Indians  have 
a  different  name  for  them."  "  Professor  Henslow, 
wlio  has  examined  the  dried  specimens  which  I 
brought  home,  says  that  they  are  the  same  aa 
those  described  by  Mr  Sabine  from  Valparaiso, 
but  that  they  form  a  variety  which  by  some 
botunist^  has  been  considered  as  specifically  dis- 
tinct. It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  plant 
should  be  found  on  the  sterile  mountains  of  Cen- 
tral Cliili,  where  a  drop  of  rain  does  not  fall  for 
mure  than  six  months,  and  within  the  damp 
forests  of  these  southern  islands."* 

2798.  "  The  potato  CSofanum  tuberosum)  was 
generally  cultivated  in  America  at  the  time  of 
its  discovery;  but  it  is  only  a  few  years  since  its 
native  country  has  been  ascertained  with  cer- 
tainty. Humboldt  sought  for  it  in  vain  in  the 
mountains  of  Peru  and  New  Granada,  where 
it  is  cultivate<l  in  common  with  ChenopodiuMi 
Quiiwa.  Before  his  time  the  Spanish  botanists 
Ruiz  and  Pasou  were  said  to  have  discovered  it 
in  a  wil.j  state  at  Chancay  on  the  coast  of  Peru. 
This  fact  was  doubted  after  the  journey  of  Hum- 
boldt and  Bonpland,  but  it  was  re-assened  by 
Caldcleugh,  who  sent  spontaneous  plants  from 
Chili  to  tiie  Horticultural  Society  of  London  ; 
and  latterly  Mr  Cruikshanks  confirmed  it  in  a 
letter  to  Sir  William  Hooker,  in  which  he  says, 
'  This  wild  potato  is  very  common  at  Valparaiso; 
it  grows  chiefly  on  the  hills  near  the  sea.  It  is 
often  found  in  mountainous  districts  far  from 
habitations,  and  never  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  fields  and  gardens.'  There  is  little  doubt, 
therefore,  that  Chili  is  the  native  country  of  the 
potato  ;  but  Meyer  affirms  that  he  found  it  in  a 
wild  state,  not  only  in  the  mountains  of  Chili, 
but  also  in  the  Cordillera  of  Peru. 

2799.  "  It  is  asserted  that  Sir  Francis  Drake 
introduced  the  potato  into  Europe  in  1573  ;  but 
this  is  very  doubtful,  since  it  has  also  been 
ascribed  to  Sir  John  Hawkins  in  1.^63  ;  it  is, 
however,  certain  that  Raleigh  brought  it  from 
Virginia  to  Eu>iland  in  1586  ;  and  it  appears  pro- 
bable, from  the  learned  researches  of  AI.  Dunal, 
that  the  Spaniards  had  established  its  cultivation 
in  Europe  before  this  time.  It  was  first  culti- 
vated extensively  in  Belgium  in  1590,  in  Ireland 
in  1610,  and  in  Lancashire  in  1684.  It  is  not 
much  more  tlian  a  century  since  it  was  known  in 
Germany.  Between  1714  and  1724  it  was  in- 
troduced into  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate; 
in  1717  it  was  brought  to  Saxony  ;  it  was  first 
cultivated  in  Scotland  m  1728  ;  in  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Berne  in  1730  ;  it  reached  Prus- 
sia in  1738,  and  Tuscany  in  1767.  It  spread 
slowly  in  France  till  Parmentier,  in  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  gave  it  so  great  an  impulse 
that  it  was  contemplated  to  give  his  name  to  the 
plant  ;  the  famine  in  1793  did  still  more  to  ex- 
tend its  cultivation. 


tion  from  9,800  to  13,000  feet  ;  which  is  nearly 
the  same  elevation  to  which  barley  attain',  and 
about  9,800  feet  higher  than  wheat.  ,  ,i  the 
Swiss  Alps  of  the  canton  of  Benie,  the  potato 
reaches,  according  to  Kastoffer,  an  elevation  of 
4,800  feet. 

2801.  "Towards  the  north  of  Europe,  the 
potato  extends  beyond  the  limits  of  b-  ley,  and 
consequently  that  of  all  the  cereals  ;  thus  an 
early  variety  has  been  introduced  into  Iceland, 
where  barley  will  not  grow.  The  potato  degene- 
rates rapidly  in  warm  countries  ;  yet  the  Eng- 
lish ha  succeeded  in  cultivating  it  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  India  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
will  ever  succeed  in  the  intertropical  plains  of 
Africa  and  America,  where  the  temperature 
varies  less  than  in  Bengal.  An  elevation  of  at 
least  4,000  feet  seems  to  be  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  the  potato  in  tropical  regions."+ 

2802.  Phillips  says  that  Gerarde  in  his  Her- 
bal, which  was  published  in  1597,  describes  the 
true  potato  under  the  name  of  "  Batatta  Vir- 
g'mi'ina  sive  Virginiarum  et  Pappus,  potatoes 
of  Virginia."  After  an  accurate  description  of 
the  plant  and  flower,  he  adds,  "  The  roote  is 
thicke,  fat,  and  tuborous  ;  not  much  differing 
either  in  shape,  colour,  or  taste,  from  the  com- 
mon potatoes,"  meaning  the  sweet  potato,  which 
was  common  in  his  time,  "  saving  that  the  rootes 
hereof  are  not  so  great  nor  long,  some  of  them 
round  as  a  ball,  some  ovall  or  egge  fashion,  some 
longer,  others  shorter."  "  This  palladium  against 
famine,"  continues  Phillips,  who,  when  he  used 
this  phrase,  little  thought  that  the  object  of  his 
eulogy  would  itself  be  the  cause  of  famine  and 
consternation,  "  was  not  cultivated  in  Scotland 
until  1683,  and  was  then  confined  to  the  gar- 
dens. In  1728,  Thomas  Prentice,  a  day-labourer, 
first  planted  potatoes  in  open  fields  at  Kilsyth, 
and  the  success  was  such  that  every  farmer  and 
cottager  followed  his  example.  Potatoes  were 
scarcely  known  in  the  East  Indies  30  years  ago, 
but  they  are  now  produced  in  such  abundance 
that  the  natives  in  some  places  make  considerable 
use  of  them.  Bombay  is  chiefly  supplied  with  this 
excellent  root  from  Guzerat.  And  though  the  cul- 
tivation of  this  root  is  much  increased  in  France 
within  these  last  few  years,  the  poor  of  that  coun- 
try cannot  yet  be  prevailed  on  to  eat  it."+ 

2803.  It  may  prove  interesting  to  those  who 
possess  farms  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  large 
town,  to  know  the  reasons  why  the  street-manure 
of  towns  is  not  so  suitable  for  raising  potatoes  as 
stable  or  byre  dung.  A  paper  on  the  subject  by 
Dr  Madden  gives  the  explanation;  but  to  enable 
you  to  judge  of  the  nature  of  street-manure, 
the  table  below  will  show  the  chemical  diffe- 
rence between  it  and  hurse  and  cow  dung.  The 
sum  of  the  chcmic^il  nature  of  the  three  sub- 
stances used  in  raising  potatoes  is,  that  sP'bl^ 
daiuj  is  the  most  heating,  but  not  so  durable — 
that  6i/'"«-dung  is  cooler,  and  much  more  lasting 
— and  tliat  s^r^rf-manure  is  very  inferior  to  both 


2800.  "  According  to  Humboldt,  the  potato  is 
generally  cultivated  in  the  Andes,  at  an    eleva- 

*  Voyaije  of  JI.]\[.S.  Beagh  round  the  World,  ^.  285. 

+  Jt)iniston's  Physical  Atlas, — Phytology,  map  No.  2. 

J  Phillips'  History  of  Cxdtitated  Veg^tableSf  vol.  ii.  p.  81-104 


644 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


in  CTery  respect,  and, in  fact,  would  be  little  better 
than  soil,  were  it  nut  for  the  highly  azotised 
nature  of  its  organic  matter,  and  probably 
alsso  for  the  presence  of  a  considerable  quantity 
of  lime : — 


Water,  &c.. 
Organic  iMatter — 

Soluble  iu  Water,     . 

Soluble  in  Potassa,   . 

Destroyed  by  Heat,  . 
Saline  Matter,    .         . 

MANURKS. 

Stable. 

Byre. 

Street. 

136 

11-5 
15-9 
1333 
45-77 

45-7 

90 
12-6 
21-8 
10-9 

26-4 

1-4 

1-0 

11-2 

60  0 

10000 

100-0 

100-0 

2804.  The  effect  of  applying  this  street- 
manure  to  the  soil  is  :  "  When  any  quantity 
of  it  is  ploughed  into  good  soil,  the  following 
changes  take  place, — The  ordure  and  carbonate 
of  lime,  which  are  evidently  the  most  powerful 
ingredients  of  this  manure,  will  react  upon  the 
less  decomposable  organic  matter,  both  of  the 
soil  and  of  the  manure  itself,  and  thus  bring  the 
whole  into  a  state  of  fermentation,  the  extent 
and  intensity  of  which  will  be  regulated  by  the 
quality  of  these  active  ingredients,  especially  the 
ordure.  This  action  depends  upon  the  fact  that, 
when  any  organic  substance  in  a  state  of  fermen- 
tation is  brought  into  contact,  or  mingled  with 
any  organic  matter  capable  of  fermenting,  but 
not  at  present  in  that  condition,  the  whole  mass, 
after  a  time,  undergoes  the  same  series  of 
changes,  which  are  always  accompanied  with  the 
escape  of  various  gases,  and  the  formation  of 
certain  soluble  compounds,  which  latter  consti- 
tute the  chief  food  of  plants.  Moreover,  it  has 
long  ago  been  proved,  that  substances  rich  in 
azote  are  always  the  most  prone  to  decompo- 
sition, and  likewise  are  capable  of  exciting  fer- 
mentation to  a  far  greater  extent  in  others  of  a 
less  putrescible  nature.  Again,  it  is  well  known 
to  farmers  that  chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime 
possesses  the  power  of  increasing  the  putrescent 
tendency  of  many  vegetable  substances,  so  that, 
when  applied  to  soils,  it  renders  them  richer. 
But  what  is  curious  enough,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  causes  the  production  of  soluble  matter 
by  promoting  putrefaction,  it  renders  less  soluble 
those  portions  already  in  a  state  of  solution,  by 
entering  into  chemical  combination  with  them. 
On  these  accounts,  therefore,  and  especially  from 
the  ordure  being  a  very  highly  azotised  substance, 
street-mauure  will  be  capable  of  exciting  putre- 
faction to  a  greater  extent,  considering  the  small 
quantity  of  organic  matter  which  it  contains, 
than  one  at  first  sight  would  be  led  to  suppose. 
It  must,  however,  be  remembered,  that  as  the 
putrescent  effect  will  only  be  produced  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  active  ingredi- 
ents themselves,  and  as,  moreover,  these  are 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  other  compara- 
tively inert  matters,  their  action  is  very  liable  to 
be  confined  to  certain  spots.  Owing,  likewise, 
to  the  presence  of  cinders,  a  certain  portion  of 
the  soluble  organic  matter  will  be  absorbed  by 


them,  and  thns,  for  a  time  at  least,  removed 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  plants.  Bit,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  will  be  ubser«ed,  thai,  t'loni  the 
highly  azotised  nature  of  its  organic  r  ntenti, 
the  fermentation  will  be  rny'id  nt  the  fift,  ;iiid, 
consequently,  the  manure  will  be  hot  in  pr. (por- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  real  manure  whicli  it 
contains." 

2805.  As  to  the  actual  effect  of  this  manure  in 
raising  potatoes  being  one-third  inferiur  to  stable 
and  byre  dung,  the  following  explanation  of  its 
inferiority  is  offered  by  Dr  Madden.  "*  In  the 
account  of  the  culture  of  the  potato,  ^iven  iu 
Professor  Low's  excellent  Elements  of  i'ractical 
Agriculture,  we  find  the  following  expressions, 
— "  Dung  will  in  all  cases  act  most  quickly  upon 
young  plants  when  it  is  well  prepared,  but  ex- 
treme preparation  of  the  dung  is  tiot  requind  in 
the  case  of  the  potato.  It  is  enough  that  it 
should  be  in  such  a  ttate  of  fcrmfntaUon  at  that 
it  titiiy  be  readily  covered  by  the  pUmjh,'' — thus 
proving  that  this  plant  does  not  require  an  in- 
stant supply  of  a  considerable  part  of  soluble 
matter.  And,  moreover,  it  is  clear  that,  as  the 
useful  part  of  this  plant  is  produced  during  the 
later  periods  of  the  growth  of  ihe  crop,  the 
greatest  supply  of  food  will  be  necessary  at  that 
time.  But  we  have  already  shown  that  street- 
manure,  from  the  nature  of  its  constituents,  fer- 
ments very  rafidly  at  frgf,  and,  consequently, 
its  ijreatest  effecis  will  be  iu  the  very  early  periods 
of  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The  next  sentence  in 
Professor  Low's  work  comiueiices  thns, — 'The 
potato  requires  a  lariK  fufifily  of  manure.'  But 
we  have  already  shown  that  street-manure  does 
not  contain  one-third  as  much  real  manure  as 
either  that  derived  from  dairies  or  stables.  And 
a  little  below  the  above  quotation  occurs  the  fol- 
lowing sentence, — 'Lime  does  not  appear  to  act 
in  a  beneficial  manner,  and  is  rarely  applied 
directly  to  this  crop.'  But  our  analysis  ha« 
proved  that  lime  exists  in  considerable  quantities 
in  the  street-manure  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  as  it 
Las  been  exposed  to  jireat  heat—  for  it  is  evi- 
dently derived  from  the  ashes — it  will,  of  course, 
be  in  the  same  state  as  tnild  lime  when  it  is 
applied,  and  will,  most  probably  therefore,  have 
the  same  effect,  which,  according  to  Professor 
Low,  is  '  not  beneficial.'  The  potato  possesses  a 
spreading  root,  and,  consequently,  must  require 
a  uniform  manure,  in  order  that  all  its  parts  may 
be  equally  supplied  with  soluble  organic  matter. 
But  we  have  before  shown  that  street-manure  is 
yarlial.  The  potato  requires  the  greatest 
quantity  of  azote  at  the  later  p,  riod$  of  its  growth, 
because  the  tubers  contain  considerably  more  of 
that  substance  than  the  leaves.  But  street- 
manure,  from  the  nature  of  its  organic  constitu- 
ents, will  ferment  rapidly,  and  allow  most  of  its 
azote  to  escape  during  the  early  periods  of  the 
cultivation  of  the  crop." 

2086.  As  a  general  rule  for  the  application  of 
manure  to  potatoes,  "  We  may  hence  argue,"  aa 
Dr  .Madden  remarks.  "  that  a  manure,  to  suit 
well  for  the  potato-crop,  should  possess  the  fol- 
lowing qualities, —  It  must  be  spread  equally 
through   the   soil,  so  that  the  spungioles,  at  the 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


645 


termination  of  all  the  spreading  fibres  of  its  roots, 
may  be  supplied  with  nourishment."  And  surely 
there  is  no  way  of  spreading  dun"  so  equally  as 
along  only  three  drills  at  a  time,  and  by  spreaders 
keeping  to  their  own  drills.  "  It  must  yield  azote 
during  the  whoie  period  of  the  growth  of  the 
plants  ;  in  fact,  rather  more  is  required  during 
the  later  periods  than  prior  to  the  development 
of  the  tubers  ;  for,  from  M.  Boussingault's  an- 
alysis, it  appears  that  they  contain  ygg  per  cent 
more  of  this  substance  than  the  leaves.  In  an 
economical  point  of  view,  therefore,  the  best 
manure  for  potatoes  would  be  one  which  con- 
tained plenty  of  azote,  but  still  did  not  decom- 
pose very  rapidly, — cow-dung,  for  example."  * 

2807.  What  inorganic  substances  ought  a 
potato  manure  to  contain,  and  in  what  propor- 
tions *  is  a  question  which  "  it  will  not  be  very 
difficult  to  answer,"  observes  Dr  Fromberg;  "  for, 
knowing  the  average  composition  of  the  ash  of 
sound  potatoes,  (1257,)  and  proceeding  upon  the 
principle  that,  in  manuring  a  crop,  we  do  nothing 
more  than  mix  up  with  the  different  proportions 
of  those  substances  of  wliich  the  crop  itself  con- 
sists, we  need  only  to  recalculate  the  table  pre- 
senting this  composition  in  a  hundred  parts. 
In  how  fur  the  excess  of  one  ingredient  will  do 
harm,  when  all  the  others  are  present  in  sufficient 
quantity,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  say,  although 
it  cannot  certainly  be  great  ;  but  when  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  any  ingredient — potash  for  instance, 
and  an  excess  of  another,  such  as  lime — then  it 
is  likely  that  the  plant  will  assimilate  the  latter 
instead  of  the  former,  or  rather,  the  acids  that 
are  in  the  plant  requiring  to  be  neutralised,  will 
combine  with  lime  in  such  proportion  as  there  is 
a  want  of  potash.  It  may  be  that  the  quantities 
of  those  inorganic  ingredients  appear  trifling, 
considering  that  of  them  altogether  there  is  only 
about  one  per  cent  present  in  potatoes,  and  there- 
fore of  little  consequence  ;  yet  there  are  reasons 
to  think  that  these  small  quantities,  and  their 
exact  proportions,  within  certain  limits,  are  of 
essential  importance  for  the  proper  performance 
of  the   functions  of  tlie  several    organs   of  the 

plants The  substances   that  ought 

to  be  in  a  potato  manure  are  the  following, 
arranged  according  to  ih&'ir  several  pro  fwrtions  iti 
tons : — 

/Potash,  .  .  1180  lbs. 

T,  J  Magnesia,         .  .  87  ... 

liases.  <  g^^,^   ^  _  _  ^j- 

VLime,                .  .  .50  ... 

I^  Sulphuric  acid,  .  416  ... 

Acids.  <  Phosphoric  acid,  .  23.5  ... 

(Chlorine,           .  .  195  ... 

Oxide  of  iron  and  silica  are  present  in  every  soil, 
and  the  organic  acids  are  produced  within  the 
plant  itoelf."+ 

2803.  Thaer  mentions  a  few  particulars  n  the 
cultivation  of  the  potato  in  Germany  which  seem 
to  us  peculiarities,  and,  I  must  add,  are  no  im- 
provement on  our  own  mode.      He  says,  "  As 


early  as  possible  in  autumn,  I  break  up  the  soil 
to  the  depth  of  two  inches  lower  than  before, 
and  then  pass  the  harrow  over  it.  In  winter  the 
dung  is  carted  and  uniformly  spread.  At  the 
beginning  of  spring,  this  dung  is  buried  by  a  light 
ploughing  ;  and  the  harrow  passed  over  before 
the  seed-time  ploughing.  I  like  to  have  a  portion 
of  the  manure  brought  up  to  the  surface  by  this 
operation,  because  a  greater  quantity  is  then  col- 
lected around  the  roots  of  the  potatoes.  .  .  . 
The  potatoes  are  set  in  furrows  as  follows  :— by 
means  of  the  markinij  plough,  lines  or  small  fur- 
rows are  traced  at  right  angles  or  obliquely 
to  the  direction  which  the  plough  is  to  take. 
Four  persons  are  then  stationed  at  equal  dis- 
tances on  the  line  of  the  plough,  each  having 
assigned  to  him  the  space  which  he  is  to  plant. 
One  plough  traces  the  first  furrow,  which  is  im- 
mediately set  with  potatoes.  Two  other  ploughs 
then  follow,  and  the  potatoes  are  set  in  the  fur- 
row traced  by  the  third.  It  will  be  understood 
that  the  persons  who  set  them  have  to  go  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  each  one  keeping  within 
his  allotted  space.  Each  potato  is  set  at  the 
point  of  intersection  of  the  line  traced  by  the 
marker,  with  the  furrow  formed  by  the  plough. 
It  is  of  importance  that  the  potatoes  be  set  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  perpendicular  side  of  the 
furrow,  and  not  on  that  where  the  slice  has  been 
turned  over  ;  for,  in  the  former  position,  the 
potato  is  most  likely  to  remain  in  its  place,  and 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  horses'  feet.  The  best 
ploughmen  must  be  employed  to  trace  the  furrow 
in  which  the  potatoes  are  set  :  first,  to  insure 
that  the  furrow  may  be  of  a  proper  and  uniform 
depth,  three  inches  in  a  heavy,  and  four  or  five 
in  a  sandy  soil  ;  secondly,  to  enable  him  to  cor- 
rect any  errors  which  the  others  may  have  made 
in  the  width  of  their  furrows.  The  first  plough- 
man always  traces  the  first  furrow  in  commen- 
cing a  new  bed.  The  width  of  the  beds  must  be 
measured  at  the  two  extremities,  and  poles  set 
up  there,  in  order  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible 
the  parallelism  of  the  beds.  If  the  labourers  are 
well  practiced,  three  ploughs  and  five  planters 
will  finish  eight  acres  per  day,  or  six  at  the  least. 
Each  planter  must  have  his  sack  of  potatoes 
within  his  reach.  A  week  after  the  setting  the 
ground  is  harrowed,  an  operation  by  which  a  few 
weeds  are  destroyed.  Great  numbers  of  them 
afterwards  spring  up.  Nothing  more  is,  how- 
ever, done  to  get  rid  of  them  till  the  potatoes  are 
about  to  spring  up,  and  some  of  them  just  begin- 
ning to  show  their  leaves  above  ground,"  J 

2S09.  Rooks  are  very  destructive  to  the  potato- 
crop  just  as  the  germs  of  the  plants  are  penetrat- 
ing the  ground,  and  they  seem  to  possess  an 
exquisite  sense  of  smelling  to  find  out  those  sets 
which  are  most  palatable  to  their  taste.  They 
steal  very  quietly  into  potato-fields,  and  are  there 
pretty  well  hidden  amongst  the  drills  ;  and  in 
this  respect  their  tactics  differ  from  what  they 
pursue  when  in  search  of  grubs  in  lea,  when  it  is 
being  ploughed,  which  they  do  openly  ;  or  even 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Uighland  and  j4griciiltural  Society,  vol.  xiii.  p.  359-70. 

+  Transactions  of  the  Highhuid  and  Agricultural  Society  for  March,    1847,  p.  685. 

J  Timer's  Principles  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  577-8. — Shaw  and  Johnston's  translation. 


646 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


when  iligliting  amongst  growing  com,  which 
they  do  in  large  numbers.  Nothing  but  gunpowder 
will  deter  tlrem  from  a  potato-field  ;  they  soon 
find  out  the  innocuous  character  of  a  scarecrow — 
that  sorry  semblance  of  humanity,  a  tattie-dtxJie, 
being  despised  by  them.  One  cannot  always  be  fir- 
ing amongst  crows  with  the  gun,  but  an  occasional 
sh^>t  does  good,  aided  by  that  effectual  check  to 
their  visitation  of  any  field — the  burning  of  gun- 
powder matches  here  and  there,  and  now  and  then, 
alunu  the  windward  side  of  the  field,  the  fumes 
of  which  sweeping  across  the  face  uf  the  ground 
being  smelt  by  them,  put  them  in  constant  tre- 
pidation, and  at  length  to  flight.  Some  people 
will  tell  you  that  the  rooks  are  doing  no  harm  in 
the  potato-field,  as  they  are  in  quest  of  insects, 
and  these  they  will  remove  from  among  the 
potato  sets.  This  may  be  true;  still  if  they  in- 
jure a  single  sound  set,  while  in  quest  of  insects 
feeding  on  unsound  ones,  they  do  harm.  At  all 
events,  the  devouring  of  an  unsound  set — one  that 
will  not  grow — by  insects  can  do  no  harm  to  the 
farmer;  but  how  happeus  it  that  crows  dig  a  hole 
by  the  side  of  the  strongest  germs  to  get  at  the 
sets  I  This  act  evidently  proves  that  the  carrying 
off  one  set  which  has  sent  up  a  shoot  to  the  day 
destroys  the  existence  of  one  entire  young  plant. 

2810.  Dr  Fromberg  analysed  the  sprouts  or 
shoots  of  one  kind  of  potato,  a  white  variety  from 
East  Lothian,  at  four  different  periods  of  its 
growth  from  the  26lh  April  to  the  20th  June,  to 
ascertain  the  amoant  of  protein  compounds  afford- 
ed by  that  part  of  the  plant ;  and  as  the  results  were 
irregular,  1  only  give  the  mean  of  the  four  kinds. 

Nitrogen  per  cent,      .             .             .  O-.'^Jl 

calcnlated  dry,        .             .  .3-21.5 

£qaal  to  protein  compounds  per  cent,  3-20.3 

...       calcnlated  dry,         .             .  20-223 

"  The  increase  in  the  protein  compounds  is  here 
not  regular,"  observes  Dr  Fromberg, "  which  may 
partly  be  attributable  to  the  shoots  having  been 
taken  from  various  specimens,  although  of  ihf 
same  variety.  But  the  large  quantity  of  these 
compounds  in  potato  shoots,  compared  with  that 
in  the  tubers  themselves,  appears  to  be  one  cause 
why  the  vital  powers  of  the  latter  are  so  much 
weakened  by  sprouting.  This  fact  will  cease  to 
appear  strange,  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  the 
shoots  derive  both  their  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  constituents  from  the  tuber;  and 
that,  when  they  take  a  smaller  proportion  of  the 
latter,  the  former  must  predominate  in  them."* 

2811.  "Vegetable  matter,"  says  Dr  Taylor, 
**  when  eaten  in  a  state  of  decay,  is  capable  of 
exciting  pain,  vomiting,  purging,  and  other 
symptoms  of  poisoning.  Potatoes,  carrots,  tur- 
nips, and  other  esculent  vegetables,  in  a  state 
of  decomposition,  may  thus  excite  serious  symp- 
toms, which  might  be  referred  tomineral  poisons." 
Amongst  other  cases  of  poisoning  from  decayed 
vegetables  having  been  eaten,  which  he  quotes,  I 
shall  only  select  one  :  "  In  a  series  of  cases  re- 
corded  by  Dr  Peddie,  where  a  family  had  snb- 


the  surface  of  fields,  the  symptoms  were  sercre, 
and  in  two  instances  death  en>ued.  Tlie  pota- 
toes were  of  a  green,  and  of  a  deep  purple 
colour,  and  had  an  exceedingly  bitt»-r  and  dis- 
agreeable taste;  so  much  so  that  no  mode  of  pre- 
paration rendered  them  p^ilatableto  the  destitute 
family  which  suffered  from  their  effects.  In  a  very 
few  days  after  using  them,  the  whole  family  were 
seized  with  severe  griping  pains  in  the  bowels,  fol- 
lowed by  diarrhoea  of  a  green  watery  kind.  These 
symptoms  continued,  with  short  intermissions, 
during  the  whole  of  the  time  that  the  potatoes 
were  used  for  food.     Two  of  the  children  died. 

2812.  "  It  has  been  supposed  that  Salamine 
exists  in  potatoes,  and  confers  on  them  poisonous 
properties,  but  tht- re  is  no  direct  proof  that  this 
is  the  case.  According  to  Liebig,  sab  mine  13 
generated  in  the  shoot  of  the  potato  when  it  is 
allowed  to  germinate  in  the  dark."+ 


ON  PARING  AND    BURNING  TUE  SURFACE. 

2813.  As  the  term  implies,  paring  is  a 
removal  of  the  surface  of  the  grduntl,  with 
what  mav  he  growing  upon  it  at  the  time  ; 
and  burning  i.<  the  leductiun  by  6re  to  a 
state  of  powder,  of  what  ha.-;  been  pared  off. 

2814.  The  object  of  the  process  is  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  soil  pared  for 
arable  purposes,  sooner  than  could  b6 
obtained  bv  common  ploughing  and  har- 
rowing ;  and  paring  and  burning  will 
certainlv  in.sure  a  crop  in  advance  for  one 
season  at  least. 

2815.  The  reason  that  common  jdongh- 
ing  and  harrowing  cannot  make  tlie  s<iil 
available  at  once,  is,  that  the  rough  herb- 
age antl  small  ligneous  plants  which  grow 
npun  the  surface,  are  of  too  obdurate  a 
nature  to  be  reduced  into  friable  mould  in 
the  course  of  a  short  time,  and  these  ojiera- 
tions  alone  would  neveraffect  their  reduc- 
tion, which  would  require  to  be  greatly 
assi.-tetl  by  the  agency  of  the  atmosjdiere 
through  seasons  of  alternate  rain,  frost, 
thaw,  and  drought. 

2816.  There  would  be  no  n.«e  of  em- 
ploying e.xtraordinary  means  of  changing 
the  state  of  the  surface,  could  it  bp  done  by 
the  common  plough ;  and  when  the  comiiion 
plough  cannot  do  it,  the  extraordinary 
means  are  chiefly  manual  labour,  though 
horses  may  be  employed  to  assist  in  many 
such  cases. 


sisted  six  weeks  on  refuse  potatoes,  picked  up  on 

TrautaetiomM  cftht  Hujkland  and  Aorictihuritl  .Sx-iV/y  for  March,  1847,  p.  667. 
t  Taylor,  On  'PoitoM,  p.  S31-X 


PARING  AND  BURNING. 


647 


2817.  The  common  No.  5  garden  spade, 
fig.  237,  with  a  sharp  edge  and  its  cor- 
Fig.  237.  ners  a  little  worn  by  work, 
removes  the  roiio-h  herbage  of 
the  snrface  very  well,  and 
the  soil  can  be  set  up  at  the 
same  time  by  the  workmen 
to  be  dried  ;  but  the  labour  of 
paring  and  burning  in  this 
manner  would  be  expensive, 
and  is  therefore  seldom  in- 
curred, though  the  spade 
might  be  usefully  employed 
in  some  cases  in  assisting  the 
other  means,  and  its  work 
would  then  be  economical. 

2818.  A  more  efficient  and 

expeditious     implement     for 

this  purpose  is  a  spade  of  a 

different  form,  fig.   238 ;  the 

THE  COMMON  ^^^^  ^^  wliich  is  angular  and 

SPADE.       sharp,    the    blade    9    inches 

broad  and  15  inches  long  ;  the  right-hand 

and  straight  side  of  which  is  turned  up  3 

Fig.  238. 


THE  FLAUCHTER-SPADE  AT  WORK. 

inches  with  a  cutting  edge  in  front ;  the 
helve  is  5  feet  long  and  flat,  provided  vvith 
a  flat  cross-handle  2  feet  long,  with  its 
plane  at  right  angle  to  that  of  the  helve. 
The  blade  of  the  spade  is  set  at  such  an 
angle  witli  the  handle,  as  to  permit  the 
latter  to  be  elevated  to  the  height  of  a 
man's  haunches,  vvlien  the  blade  rests  on 
its  sole,  when  at  work,  flat  upon  the  ground. 

28 1 9.  The  mode  of  using  this  instrument 
is  this:  As  its  use  is  attended  with  con- 
siderable labour,  the  workman  is  provided 
■with  a  sort  of  leather  api-ou  containing  two 
pieces  of  board  fastened  into  it,  which  are 
placed  iu  front  of  the  groin,  and  the  apron 


is  buckled  round  the  waist  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  thighs.  The  blade  of  the  in- 
strument is  laid  flat  on  its  sole,  and  ita 
point  is  made  to  enter  the  ground  by  a 
push  of  the  body  upon  the  handle  placed 
against  the  boards  in  front  of  the  groins, 
and  there  held  by  both  the  hands.  The 
body  gives  successive  pushes,  longer  or 
shorter,  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  ad- 
mits ;  and  the  point  is  made  to  dip  deeper, 
keep  level,  or  move  upwards,  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  hands,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  surface  to  be  removed.  At  each 
push  the  point  cuts  in  front,  while  the 
cutting  edge  severs  the  removing  turf 
from  the  solid  surface,  and  after  a  turf 
has  been  cut  of  a  foot  or  two  in  length, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  surface, 
but  never  exceeding  three  feet  in  any 
case,  it  is  turned  upon  its  back  or  side 
as  the  case  may  happen,  by  a  sudden  jerk 
of  the  handle,  given  by  both  hands,  upon 
the  pared  surface  on  the  left  hand  of  the 
worker.  The  edge  of  the  spade  is  kept 
sharp  with  a  scythe-stone. 

2820.  This  instrument  is  called  in  Scot- 
land the  flauchter-spade,  from  the  Teutonic 
verb  to  flauch  or  take  off  the  skin ;  and 
the  mode  of  using  it  will  at  once  show 
the  impropriety  of  the  English  term  of 
the  breast-plough,  the  breast  of  the  worker 
never  touching  it. 

2821 .  The  thickness  of  the  turf  removed 
with  this  spade  depends  much  on  the 
strength  and  skill  of  the  workman,  but  it 
seldom  exceeds  2  inches,  even  in  the  soft- 
est parts  of  the  ground,  and  more  often  1^ 
inch  on  ordinary  surfaces. 

2822.  It  will  take  a  man  a  week  to  turn 
over  one  acre  of  ground,  and  he  will  require 
2s.  6(1.  or  3s.  a-day  for  such  hard  work,  or 
15s.  to  iSs.  an  acre. 

2823.  A  more  expeditious  mode  still  of 
removing  the  surface  is  with  the  horse  and 
plough.  The  share  of  the  common  plough 
cuts  a  furrow-slice  at  most  10  inches 
broad,  and  its  depth  is  4  or  5  inches  in 
lea.  As  the  turf  in  paring  requires  to  be 
no  thicker  than  will  remove  the  herbage, 
it  need  never  exceed  3  inches  in  thickness, 
and  the  plough  will  scarcely  be  held  steady 
at  less  depth  ;  and  as  that  depth  would  be 
easy  work  for  the  horses,  agreater  breadth 


*m^ 


648 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


of  slice  may  be  turned  over  than  tlie 
share  of  the  ordinary  form  can  do.  The 
only  mode  of  causing  the  share  to  do  more 
work  is  by  extending  tlie  feather  out- 
wards to  12  or  15  inches,  as  desired  for 
the  breadth  of  the  turf.  Fig.  239  repre- 
eents   the  share  of  the  common   plough, 


Fig.  239. 


where  at  a 
the  breadth 
of  the  com- 
mon fea- 
ther is  10 
inches,  but 
on  welding 
a  wing  3 
THE  PARING  SOCK.  inchcs       in 

breadth,  and  having  a  sharp  edge  upon 
the  outer  point  a  of  the  feather,  the  paring 
face  may  be  increased  to  1.5  inches  in 
breadth,  from  c  to  the  land  side  of  the 
share.  When  the  paring  has  been  accom- 
plished the  wing  c  can  be  cut  off,  and 
the  share  is  again  fit  for  ordinary  use. 

2824.  The  mould  board  will  not  lay 
over  so  broad  a  furrow-slice  in  the  same 
regular  manner  as  it  does  an  ordinary  one 
in  lea;  the  slice  will  be  partly  rolled  over 
upon  itself,  which  will  be  in  its  favour  for 
drying.  The  most  land  that  a  plough  is 
expected  to  turn  over  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances is  an  acre,  but  in  work  of  this 
nature,  when  many  interruptions  may 
occur  from  thaws  and  frosts,  and  irregula- 
rities of  the  groimd,  perhaps  half  that  extent 
is  as  much  as  may  be  turned  over  even 
with  the  facility  afforded  by  the  broader 
share  for  going  over  a  greater  extent  of 
ground.  Even  at  half  an  acre  a-day  for 
each  plough,  its  use  is  less  than  half  as 
costly  as  the  flauchter-spade. 

Fig, 


2S25.  When  the  ground  is  even,  this 
share  may  be  able  to  turn  over  the  entire 
surface,but  when  uneven  and  much  iiroken, 
and  where  stones  abound,  it  cannot  be 
used,  and  the  (lauchter-sj)ade  should  bo 
employed  on  sucii  places  ;  while  the  com- 
mon spade  may  be  used  in  small  deep 
hollows,  or  among  thick  masses  of  herbage. 
Thus  all  these  implements  may  co-oper- 
atively complete  what  one  alone  could  not 
accomplish  so  well. 

2826.  When  the  turf  is  laid  over  by  the 
sjjade,  the  workmen  might  slip  them  off 
and  set  them  up  one  against  the  other, 
though  not  so  effectually  as  by  the  hand. 
The  flauchter-spade  taking  up  a  long 
thin  turf,  cannot  get  quit  of  it  without 
either  laying  it  flat  or  setting  it  partly  on 
edge.  The  broad  continued  turf  laid  over 
by  the  share  of  the  plough  must  fall  flat 
upon  the  ground,  and  be  set  up  by  the 
hand  to  be  dried. 

2827.  The  paring-plough  used  in  parts 
of  England  in  the  fens,  pares  the  turf  by 
means  of  two  angular  shares  with  the 
wings  facing  each  other,  and  just  cross- 
ing the  centre  line,  one  being  a  little  before 
the  other,  and  they  are  attached  to  shanks, 
placed  in  front  of  the  mould  board,  upon 
which  the  turf  is  raised  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  furrow-slice  in  ordinary  ploughing, 
and  is  set  on  its  edge  upon  the  jjared 
ground,  ready  to  be  dried,  as  neatly  as  if 
done  by  the  hand. 

2828.  A  better  paring-plough  fig.  240, 
has  recently  been  manufactured  by  Mr 
Thomas  Johnson,  engineer,  Leicester.  Its 
peculiar  parts  consist  of  a  small  wheel  a, 

240. 


TlIK  l.KlCliNTER  I'AKINO    I'LOUGH. 

attached  to  near  the  heel,  to  support  the  wheel   c   moves   upon  the  pared  surface, 

sole  along  the  pared  ground.     The  near  By  the    adjustment  of    these    two    large 

wheel  b  moves  in  front  of  the  coulter  rf,  wheels,    the  thickness  of  the   turf  to    be 

apoQ  the  unpared  surface,  while  the  off  pared  is  determined.     The  coulter  d  cuts 


PARING  AND  BURNING. 


649 


the  turf,  and  the  mould-board  e  sets  it 
upon  its  edge,  curled  up  to  be  dried.  It 
cuts  the  turf  14  inches  in  breadth,  and  from 
1  to  2  inches  in  thickness.  On  good  lea 
a  man  and  a  boj,  and  a  pair  of  horses, 
will  pare,  it  is  said,  2^  acres  a-day.  The 
cost  of  the  impleiueut  at  the  work  is 
£o,  10s 

2S29.  Paring  may  be  executed  any 
time  during  the  winter  and  spring,  but 
perhaps  it  is  best  and  most  easily  done  from 
February  to  April.  It  is  difficult  to  do 
when  the  ground  becomes  dry  and  hard, 
while  in  boggy  land  it  is  best  executed  in 
dry  weather.  While  the  land  is  very  wet, 
it  cannot  be  done  in  boggy  ground,  as  the 
fooling  would  be  insecure,  and  the  soil 
is  then  soaked  in  water  ;  nor  in  clay  land, 
as  the  upper  surface  would  soon  become 
poached. 

28r50.  The  sods  are  set  up  on  edge  or 
against  one  another  in  the  best  way,  to 
expose  the  largest  surface  to  the  air,  to  be 
dried  in  the  quickest  time  for  the  next 
process  they  have  to  undergo,  which  is  the 
burning.  The  long  continuous  turfs  turned 
over  by  the  ploughs,  before  being  dried, 
will  require  to  be  cut  in  convenient  lengths 
with  the  spade.  In  dry  weather  they 
may  be  ready  to  be  burned  in  about  a  fort- 
night. 

2831.  In  burning,  the  fires  must  first  be 
begun  with  some  combustible  materials, 
as  wood,  chips,  shavings ;  and  at  first 
they  must  be  well  attended  to,  in  order  to 
have  the  first  turfs  well  dried,  and  after 
these  have  begun  to  burn,  to  surround  them 
■^ith  fresh  sods,  so  as  to  keep  the  fire  in  a 
smouldering  state,  and  never  to  get  into 
flame  or  to  burn  fiercely.  A  number  of 
fires  should  be  lighted  one  after  the  other, 
and  then  the  field-workers  could  be  em- 
ployed in  carrying  the  turf  a  short  distance, 
and  supplying  the  fires  with  fresh  sods,  plac- 
ing them  thickest  on  the  side  the  wind 
blows  against,  to  keep  down  the  force  of 
the  fire.  This  being  the  object,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  turfs  should  not  be  too  dry 
before  tiie  burning  begins.  The  heaps 
should  be  suj)plied  with  turfs  until  they 
attain  a  large  size,  capable  of  containing 
from  10  to  15  cart-loads  of  ashes,  and  the 
larger  the  heap  is  the  less  will  the  air 
afiect  its   interior  to  consume   the  ashes. 


The  dried  and  burning  turfs  of  one  heap 
will  supply  fire  to  begin  the  burning  of 
other  heaps.  In  case  of  the  fire  bursting 
into  combustion  through  the  night  by 
reason  of  the  wind,  the  heaps  should  be  well 
covered  with  fresh  sods  in  the  evening,  part 
of  which  may  be  removed  in  tiie  morning. 
If  the  fire  is  dull,  a  hole  opened  in  the 
windy  side,  or  even  a  few  holes  punched 
into  the  heap  with  a  stake,  will  set  itagoing. 
In  a  large  heap  there  is  no  fear  of  tlie  fire 
going  out,  or  that  it  is  out,  although  the 
heap  show  but  little  symptoms  of  activity 
on  the  outside.  A  heavy  rain  will  not  put 
out  the  fire  of  a  large  heap.  When  a  heap 
has  attained  a  sufficient  size,  and  it  is  in- 
convenient to  carry  the  sods  to  it  beyond 
a  reasonable  distance,  it  should  get  leave 
to  smoulder  and  cool,  and  the  unburnt  sods 
on  the  outside  should  be  carried  to  the 
heap  nearest  at  hand. 

2832.  To  obtain  good  results,  the  burn- 
ing of  the  heaps  should  not  be  conducted 
in  a  thoughtless  manner ;  but  ought  to  be 
done  according  to  a  plan  previously  fixed 
upon.  A  good  plan  is  to  begin  to  burn 
one  row  of  heaps  after  another,  and  to 
begin  the  first  row  at  that  side  of  the  field 
on  which  it  will  be  most  convenient  to 
plough  the  ground ;  and  having  gathered 
the  turfs  on  both  sides  of  the  line  of  each 
heap  as  will  serve  their  purpose,  a  con- 
siderable space  of  ground  will  thereby  be 
cleared  of  turf;  and  as  one  line  of  heaps  is 
constructed,  let  another  be  begun  from  the 
end  the  former  one  was  finished  at,  and 
thus  proceed  until  the  field  has  all  been 
heaped.  In  proceeding  thus,  the  charred 
turfs  of  the  previously  formed  heaps  will 
be  easily  carried  across  the  ground  to  those 
about  to  be  formed.  The  time  taken  until 
the  burnt  heaps  will  be  cold,  will  depend 
on  the  state  of  the  weather,  but  it  will 
take  a  considerable  time  if  they  are  al- 
lowed to  cool  of  themselves.  The  ashes 
may  be  spread  abroad  to  cool,  if  they  are 
required  soon  ;  but  should  wind  arise  after 
the  heaps  have  been  broken,  the  ashes 
will  be  scattered  about  in  all  directions, 
and  those  from  the  outside  of  the  heaps 
may  be  blown  oft'  the  groimd  altogether. 
Caution  is  thus  requisite  in  conducting  this 
operation. 

2833.  When  a  thick  turf  has  been  laid 
over  by  the  plough,  it  will  afford  moi-e 


(550 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


aslies  tlian  the  ground  will  require,  or 
should  rcicive  at  one  time.  To  avoid  such 
an  occurrence,  some  jjcrdons,  when  they 
determine  on  paring  with  the  jdough,  pare 
as  much  turf  in  stripes  as  will  just  supply 
the  nuautity  of  ashes  wanted.  To  efl'ect 
this,  the  ear  of  the  feather  of  the  share 
will  require  to  be  turned  up  with  a  cutting 
edge.  But  when  the  herbage  is  rough, 
the  part  thus  left  on  is  as  difficult  to 
reduce  as  it  would  have  been  without  the 
burning  of  any  proportion  of  it.  What 
I  think  a  better  plan  is,  to  pare  and 
burn  all  the  surface,  and  carry  off  the 
portion  of  the  ashes  not  required  to 
another  field,  which  is  to  bear  green  crops; 
and  as  the  carrying  away  of  ashes  implies 
robbery  of  the  land  which  has  supplied  it, 
a  substitute  for  them  should  be  provided  in 
the  shape  of  farm-yard  or  other  manure. 

2834.  The  burning  the  heaps  of  ashes 
in  line  clears  a  large  proportion  of  the  soil 
for  the  plough,  which  may  be  employed 
between  the  heaps,  to  plough  the  land  in 
any  form  of  ridge  desired  ;  and,  as  the 
lan<l  is  ploughed,  the  ashes  should  be  spread 
upon  it  in  the  quantity  determined  upon, 
the  breadth  of  space  occupied  by  the  heaps 
receiving  the  ashes  before  being  ploughed. 
This  is  the  simplest  mode  of  applying  the 
ashes ;  for  if  they  are  not  applied  until  after 
the  dung  for  the  turnips  has  been  laid 
on,  as  some  writers  recommend,  the  ashes 
will  have  first  to  be  carried  entirely  off 
the  field,  and  then  brought  on  again  when 
wanted. 

2835.  The  ashes  need  not  be  immediately 
harrowed  in,  as  exjiosure  to  the  air  will  do 
them  no  harm,  but  the  contrary.  "There 
are  two  methods,  one  tospreail  and  plough 
in  immediately,  the  other  to  spread  imme- 
diately, but  to  have  them  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  some  months  before  turning  in. 
Mr  Wedge,  on  the  thin  sautl  soil  on  a  chalk 
bottom  of  Xewmarket-heath,  had  in  one  a 
treble  experiment ;  part  was  jtared  and 
burnt  in  the  spring,  and  the  ashes  spread 
and  exposed  till  ploughing  in  tlic  autumn 
for  wheat;  part  pared  and  burnt  late,  the 
aslies  left  in  heaps,  and  spread  just  before 
plouirhing  the  wheat ;  the  thinl  pared  and 
not  burnt  at  all,  by  reason  of  bail  weather. 
The  first  was  by  far  the  best,  the  second 


the  next,  and  the  third  beyond  all  com- 
parison inferior."  ■'^ 

283G.  The  land  can  thus  be  prepared 
for  any  future  crop,  and  its  cost  has  beea 
estimated  to  amount  in  some  cases  to  £2 
per  acre.  We  have  seen  that  the  cost  of 
removing  by  the  flauchter-spade  is  18s., 
and  the  burning  has  been  estimated  at 
from  10s.  to  15s.  the  acre,  but  in  eoine 
cases  the  removal  of  the  turf  has  cost  25s. 
the  acre.  Notwithstanding  such  a  cost, 
paring  and  burning  thin  chalk  soil  in  Kent, 
on  chalk  rock,  worth  Is.  an  acre  of  reul, 
has  realised  good  returns. 

2837.  I  would  prefer  turnips  to  any 
other  crop  after  paring  and  burning  ;  and 
there  is  plenty  of  time  to  have  the  land 
prepared  for  them  at  the  latter  end  of  May 
or  in  June,  if  the  paring  begin  as  early  in 
S{)ring  as  it  could.  On  strong  land,  which 
must  be  thoroughly  drained  before  the 
paring  and  burning,  swedes  may  be  raised 
with  dung  along  with  the  ashes.  On  light 
land,  turnips  of  any  kind  will  succeed,  and 
especially  the  white  varieties,  to  be  eaten 
off  by  sheep.  On  heathy  and  boggy  land, 
I  woultl  prefer  rape  to  turnips,  to  he  eaten 
on  the  ground  by  sheep;  and  the  rape  allows 
rather  longer  time  for  the  jireparation  of 
the  land,  which  the  boggy  land,  though 
drained,  may  require  the  first  season. 

2838.  ^luch  diversity  of  opinion  exists 
as  to  the  propriety  of  paring  and  burning 
land  at  all.  No  doubt,  benefit  has  been 
derived  from  it  in  many  instances,  as  in 
chalk  soils  and  deep  and  rather  damp 
alluvial  soils,  where  slugs  and  insects 
aliound  in  the  older  pastures.  I  think  it 
may  be  beneficially  practised  under  two 
circumstances, —  in  the  case  of  drained 
bog,  and  of  heathy  moorish  soil  on  a  clay 
subsoil;  because  the  coarse  and  rough  vege- 
tation covering  both  these  sorts  of  ground, 
is  difficult  to  reduce  by  ordinary  decom- 
posing exposure  to  the  air;  and  to  think 
of  reducing  the  whole  of  it  in  cnm]>osts, 
mixed  with  fermentary  ingreilient.s,  would 
involve  such  an  amount  of  both  m.inual 
anil  horse  lai)our,  and  occupy  8uch  a  length 
of  time,  as  would  exhaust  the  patience  of 
any  man.  If  paring  and  burning,  there- 
fore, would  get    rid  of  such  troublesome 


*  PotVa  BrU'ush  Farmers'  Cyclopedia — art.  Variiuj  and  Burning. 


PARING  AND  BUJRNING. 


651 


surfaces,  and  at  the  same  time  bestow  the 
means  of  raising  a  crop  of  turnips  in  the 
^  same  season,  a  great  object  will  certainly 
be  gained. 

2839.  The  other  case  I  would  try  paring 
and  burning  in,  is  that  of  coarse,  rough, 
luxuriant  old  herbage,  growing  upon 
swampy  clayey  ground.  After  such  land 
has  beeu  drained,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
break  up  with  the  plough,  whether  with 
two  or  four  horses,  and  much  time  is  lost 
in  waiting  for  such  herbage  to  rot  in  the 
furrow,  as  I  know  from  experience.  To 
attempt  to  rot  the  sod  with  a  crop  of  oats 
•would  be  merely  to  throw  away  the  seed, 
beside  the  risk  of  breaking  tlie  horses'  legs 
between  the  furrow-slices  in  the  harrowing 
of  it.  Now,  since  this  herbage  can  be  gut 
rid  of  by  paring  and  burning,  and  the  land 
under  it  made  arable  the  first  year  in  such 
a  state  as  to  raise  a  crop  of  turnips,  or 
even  to  have  it  for  bare-fallow,  is  an 
advantage  worth  purchasing  at  some  cost. 

2840.  Beyond  these  two  cases,  which 
can  only  happen  in  particular  places,  I 
would  not  sanction  paring  and  burning  ; 
and  in  tliese  cases  only  once,  for  as  to 
treating  land  which  is  already  in  an  arable 
state  in  that  manner,  I  quite  agree  with 
Professor  Low, — "  when  any  kind  of  land 
is  for  the  first  time  made  arable,  a  reason 
may  perhaps  exist  for  this  method  of 
rendering  it  as  soon  as  possible  productive. 
But  after  land  has  been  brouglit  into  a 
state  of  regular  culture,  it  is  ditficult  to 
believe,  notwithstanding  the  authority  of 
so  many  farmers  in  England,  that  paring 
and  burning  are  good  as  a  regular  system. 
Great  crops  are  doubtless  raised  in  the 
fens,  and  other  parts,  where  this  system 
prevails;  but  greater  crops  still  are  raised 
in  tlie  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland, 
on  inferior  soils,  and  with  a  less  favourable 
climate,  where  the  system  of  paring  and 
burning  is  unknosvn.''* 

2841.  As  to  the  rationale  of  paring  and 
burning,  the  best  account  of  its  probable  effects 
upon  the  soil  I  have  seen,  is  that  given  by  the 
late  Rev.  W.  L.  Rham.  "  In  burning  vegetable 
matter  in  an  open  fire,"  he  observe.-,  "  the  whole 
of  the  carbon  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid, 
and  flies  off,  leaving  only  some  light  ashes  con- 
taining the  earthy  matter  and  the  salts  which 
the  fire  could  not  dissipate.  These  are,  uo  doubt. 


very  powerful  agents  in  promoting  vegetation, 
when  they  are  added  to  any  soil  ;  but  they  are 
obtained  at  a  very  great  expense  of  vegetable 
matter,  which,  by  its  decomposition  in  the  earth, 
might  also  have  afforded  food  for  vegetation.  If 
the  earth  which  is  burnt  with  the  sods  is  of  a 
cold,  clayey  nature,  the  fire  will  change  it  into  a 
kind  of  sand  or  brick-dust,  which  is  insoluble  in 
water,  and  corrects  the  too  great  tenacity  of 
clays  by  converting  them  more  or  less  into  loams. 
This  is  so  well  known  that  clay  is  often  dug  out 
of  the  subsoil  to  be  partially  burnt.  On  stiff 
clay  soils,  therefore,  there  is  a  double  advantage 
of  paring  and  burning — that  of  the  vegetable 
ashes,  and  of  the  burnt  clay.  When  the  fire  ia 
so  managed  that  the  vegetable  matter  is  only 
partially  burnt,  the  oily  and  inflammable  por- 
tions being  converted  into  vapour  by  the  fire 
without  being  destroyed,  and  absorbed  by  the 
earth,  the  effect  produced  is  only  to  impregnate 
the  earth  with  minute  particles  of  matter  nearly 
converted  into  the  constituent  parts  of  vegeta- 
bles. Tiie  earth  is  the  mere  recipient  of  these 
particles,  which  are  held  in  its  pores,  as  water  in 
a  sponge,  ready  to  be  let  loose  to  any  substance 
which  has  the  power  of  attracting  them.  The 
moisture  which  the  dry  earth  will  also  absorb 
from  the  atmosphere,  if  no  rain  should  fall,  is 
retained  and  increased  by  the  effects  of  the  salts 
with  which  it  is  impregnated.  It  is  uniformly 
observed  that  turnip  seed,  which  in  most  soils 
will  not  vegetate  without  heavy  dews  or  rains, 
if  sown  in  dry  weather,  scarcely  ever  fails  to 
spring  up  in  the  ashes  of  a  soil  that  has  been 
pared  and  burnt.  May  not  this  be  ascribed  to 
those  particles  which  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  earth  in  the  operation  of  slow  combustion, 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  and  giving  it 
out  to  the  seed  which  has  been  sown  1  It  does 
this  better  than  a  heavy  shower  would  :  a  heavy 
shower  soaks  the  ground  for  a  short  time,  and 
swells  the  seed  ;  but  if  it  is  succeeded  by  a  hot 
sun,  the  water  evaporates  so  rapidly  that  the 
seed  loses  its  moisture,  and  vegetation  stops.  The 
earth  which  attracts  moisture  from  the  air  keeps 
it,  its  absorbent  nature  preventing  the  evapora- 
tion ;  and  it  furnishes  it  gradually  to  the  seed  as 
it  is  required.  The  wonderful  effect  of  peat  ashes 
on  young  clover  may  be  explained  on  the  same 
principle,  and  probably  also  that  of  gypsum. 
Tiiere  can  be  no  doubt,  then,  that  considerable 
advantages  may  result  from  the  paring  and 
burning  the  surface  of  clays.  But  what  is  lost 
and  destroyed  in  the  operation  1  All  that  escapes 
in  the  shape  of  gas  or  vapour.  The  gas  will 
probably  be  carbonic  acid  ;  for  this  is  formed  by 
the  combustion  of  charcoal.  We  know  that  hot 
lime  has  a  very  strong  attraction  for  this  sub- 
stance, which  it  fixes  in  a  solid  state,  forming 
a  carbonate  of  lime  ;  and  we  have  no  reason  to 
think  that  it  parts  with  it  to  the  roots  of  plauts. 
But  either  earths  may  absorb  carbonic  acid,  with- 
out having  so  great  an  attraction  for  it,  and  let 
it  loose  to  water,  which  is  known  to  con- 
tain it  in  certain  proportions,  and  to  be  thus  car- 
ried into  the  vessels  of  growing  plants  by  the 
attraction  of  the  roots.     If  this  should  prove  to 


Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  p.  181. 


662 


PRACTICE— SPRIXO. 


be  the  case,  we  may  account  for  the  great  effect 
of  burnt  souH  in  promoting  vegetation. 

28-1  "2.  "  It  is  very  easy  to  ascertain  whether  any 
soil  will  he  improved  or  not  by  paring  and  burn- 
ing. A  few  sods  may  be  taken  and  exported  to 
heat  in  an  iron  pot  closely  covered  over,  or  in  a 
large  crucible  :  the  heat  should  not  be  so  great 
as  to  produce  light,  but  should  be  kept  up  for  a 
considerable  time,  till  the  sods  are  consumed.  If 
the  a>lies  are  red,  and  the  whole  is  a  fine  powder, 
witli  particles  of  charcoal  in  it,  the  soil  from 
which  it  was  taken  may  be  safely  pared  and 
burnt,  especially  if  it  forms  a  mud  with  water, 
and  the  earth  is  not  rapidly  deposited.  But  if  it 
feel  gritty,  lets  the  water  readily  through,  and  is 
soon  deposited  when  mixed  with  it,  burning  will 
be  <iisadvautageous.  This  is  the  evident  results 
of  the  principles  laid  down  before."* 


ON  THE  FARROWING  OF  SOWS. 

2843.  It  should  be  so  managed,  where 
there  are  more  than  one  brood-sow  on  a 
farm,  to  have  one  to  bring  forth  pigs  early 
in  spring;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  young  pigs  are  very  susceptible  of 
cold  ;  and  when  exposed  to  it,  though  thev 
may  not  die,  their  growth  will  be  so  stinted 
as  to  prevent  them  attaining  to  a  large 
size,  however  fat  they  may  become.  Even 
the  most  comfortable  housing  will  not  pro- 
tect them  from  the  influence  of  the  exter- 
nal air,  any  more  than  it  does  certain  con- 
stitutional temperaments  in  spring,  when 
the  E.  wind  blows.  From  March  to 
September  may  be  regarded  as  the  period 
of  the  year  when  young  pigs  thrive  best. 

2844.  Whenever  a  brood-sow  shows 
symptoms  of  approaching  parturition — 
that  is,  when  tlie  vulva  is  observed  to  be 
enlarged  and  red — it  is  time  to  prepare  the 
sty  for  her  reception,  for  she  will  keep 
her  reckoning  not  only  to  a  day,  but  to 
an  hour.  The  period  for  gestation  of  a 
BOW  is  112  days,  or  16  weeks, 

2845.  The  sties  for  the  brood-sows  in 
the  steading  are  at  h'  b\  Plate  II.  They 
consist  of  an  outer-court  18  feet  long  by  8 
feet  broad,  enclosed  by  a  tloor,  as  in  fig. 
12.5,  and  an  inner  apartment  8  feet  by  fi, 
roofed  in.  The  courts  are  provided  with 
li4uid  manure  gratings  .r,  and  troughs  for 
food.  This  is  the  usual  form  of  a  sty  for 
BowSjbut  another  more  convenient  for  over- 


looking the  state  of  the  sow  and  her  pigs 
is,  when  a  numV»er  of  single  apartuients 
are  placed  togetlier,  in  a  roofed  house, 
shut  in  by  a  door,  and  built  by  itself,  or 
constitutes  one  of  the  out-hou.-cs  of  the 
steading.  Such  an  apartment,  divided 
into  sties,  is  represented  by  fig.  241,  where 
abed  are  four  apartments,  two  of  which, 
Fig.  241. 


STIES  FOR  BROOD  SOWS  UNDER  COVSR. 

a  and  i,  are  7^  feet  by  1 2,  and  two,  c  and  rf, 
74  feet  by  8,  divided  from  each  other  by 
wooden  partitions  e,Z  feet  in  heiglit.  The 
doors  of  the  sties  are  all  near  /"/";  the  feed- 
ing troughs  are  represented  bv  g  //,  the 
area  from  which  all  the  pigs  can  be  over- 
looked and  fed  is  h,  the  outer  door  is  k, 
and  window  /.  Drains  may  jirocecd  from 
all  the  sties  to  the  nearest  lifpiid-manure 
drain;  and  such  an  a])artment  maybe  ren- 
dered perfectly  comfortahle  by  having  the 
ceiling  and  walls  jdastered,  a  ventilator, 
such  as  fig.  81,  placed  on  the  roof  in  con- 
nexion with  the  ceiling,  and  the  entire 
floor  made  of  pavement. 

2846  The  litter  allowed  the  brood-sow 
should  be  scanty  and  short,  such  as  cut 
straw,  or  dried  leaves  of  trees — young  pigs 
being  apt  at  first  to  creep  among  long 
straw,  and  get  smothered  or  s<|ueezed  in  it 
by  the  sow.  When  a  sow  has  liberty  be- 
fore she  is  about  to  pig,  she  will  carry 
straw  in  her  mouth,  and  collect  it  in  a 
heap  in  some  retired  corner  of  a  shed,  and 
bury  herself  amongst  it  before  littering, 
and  the  chance  will  be,  that  some  of  the 
pigs  will  be  smothered  in  it  by  herself;  but 
when  seen  by  her,  she  will  carefully  push 
them  aside  with  her  snout  liefore  lying 
down.  Some  sows  have  a  habit  of  wan- 
dering away  to  litter  in  aquiet  place,  such 
as  in  a  field   of  corn,    in    a    plantation 


•  Rham's  Dictionary  of  the  Fam},~art.  Paring  and  Burning. 


FARROWING  OF.  SOWS. 


653 


amongst  underwood,  or  in  a  dry  ditch  at 
the  root  of  an  old  hedge  or  tree.  I  re- 
meinher  of  a  sow  being  missing  for  up- 
wards of  a  fortniglit,  not  a  person  having 
seen  her  go  away,  or  been  able  to  discover 
her  retreat.  At  length  she  reappeared  one 
day  craving  for  food  at  the  kitchen-dour, 
bearing  evident  signs  of  iiaving  littered 
and  suckled  pigs.  iSiie  vvas  tracked  to  her 
hiding  place,  though  jealous  of  being  dis- 
covered, which  was  in  a  secluded  part  of  a 
dry  ditch,  at  the  root  of  an  old  thorn-hedge, 
about  300  yards  from  the  steading,  where 
she  had  formed  a  lair  with  the  straw 
gathered  from  the  adjoining  field  of  wheat. 
She  had  subsisted  some  days  upon  the 
corn,  but  hunger  at  length  drove  her  to 
the  house  in  search  of  food.  Had  she  been 
allowed,  she  would  no  doubt  have  come 
to  the  house  every  day  for  food ;  but 
means  were  used  to  have  the  pigs  conveyed 
to  the  steading — and  this  was  a  work  of 
some  difficulty,  as  the  sow  herself  was  per- 
fectly savage  when  any  one  approached 
her  young  ones;  and  these  were  so  wild 
in  their  habits  that  they  eluded  capture 
for  a  long  time  among  the  standing  corn. 
At  length,  by  the  assistance  of  the  shep- 
herd's dog,  which  seemed  to  enjoy  the  affair 
as  a  sport,  they  were  all  caught, a  fine  litter; 
and,  on  being  put  into  a  large  basket,  the 
sow  followed  her  young  ones  to  the  steading. 
I  remember  of  another  sow  taking  up  her 
abode  in  the  bottom  of  a  pea-stack, 
in  which  she  left  a  small  hole  for  an  en- 
trance, and  had  formed  a  large  chamber  in 
the  interior.  It  was  impracticable  to  dis- 
lodge her  from  her  stronghold,  she  keeping 
every  man,  and  even  the  shepherd's  dog,  at 
bay,  and  he  was  too  knowing  to  fight  with 
her ;  so  she  was  let  alone,  and  produced 
her  young  there,  and  kept  them  until  they 
were  able  to  run  about,  food  having  been 
set  down  for  her.  I  mention  these  in- 
stances of  the  peculiar  habits  of  some  do- 
mesticated sows,  merely  to  show  you  the 
propriety  of  securing  the  brood-sow  that 
is  about  to  farrow,  in  a  proper  sty,  some 
time  before  the  period  of  her  reckoning, 
and  particularly  those  which  are  given  to 
wander  abroad  in  quest  of  a  lair. 

2847.  Knowing  the  day  of  her  reckon- 
ing, she  should  be  attended  to  in  her  sty 
pretty  frequently  ;  not  that  she  will  pro- 
bably reqjjire  assistance  in  the  act  of  par- 
turition, like  a  cow  or  a  ewe,  but  to  observe 


that  all  the  pigs  are  safe,  and  to  remove 
every  one  immediately  that  may  be  dead 
when  farrowed,  or  may  have  died  in  the 
farrowing.  I  have  known  the  case  of  a 
sow  in  high  condition  which  died  because 
the  second  pig,  on  coming  by  the  breech 
presentation,  had  a  hind-leg  folded  back, 
which  could  not  be  put  right  by  the  sow 
herself  in  straining,  ami,  having  been  ne- 
glected, her  parts  swelled  very  much. 
Her  life  was  attempted  to  be  saved  by  the 
Caesarian  operation,  and  the  pig  was  ex- 
tracted and  lived  ;  but  the  others  in  her 
womb  were  dead,  and  she  herself  did  not 
survive  above  an  hour,  having  been  com- 
pletely exhausted  before  the  operation  was 
attempted.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  ia 
generally  the  case,  but  I  have  frequently 
noticed  pigs  born  by  the  head  and  breech 
presentation  alternately,  not  uniformly  so, 
but  most  frequently. 

2848.  The  first-born  pigs  are  the 
strongest,  and  the  last  the  smallest  and 
weakest,  in  a  large  litter,  though  the  dif- 
ference is  scarcely  observable  in  small 
litters  of  6  or  8.  The  small  weak  pigs 
are  nicknamed  tcri(/s  or  pock-shaklngs, 
and  are  scarcely  worth  bringing  up;  still, 
if  there  are  spare  teats  for  them,  they 
should  not  be  destroyed. 

2849.  Sometimes  more  pigs  are  littered 
than  the  sow  has  teats.  I  have  seen  as 
many  as  19  pigs  when  there  were  only 
1 2  teats ;  and  I  remember  of  a  sow  that 
never  littered  fewer  than  17,  though  she 
had  only  14  teats,  which  are  two  more 
than  the  usual  number.  Such  a  number 
of  extra  pigs  may  be  brought  up  by  hand 
on  cow's  milk,  but,  being  very  weak,  they 
ijenerally  die  off  in  the  course  of  a  day  or 
two  to  the  number  of  teats.  Should  there 
be  only  one  pig  more  than  there  are  teats, 
it  must  take  its  chance  of  obtaining  a  teat 
after  the  others  are  satisfied. 

2850.  A  young  pig  soon  gets  to  its  feet 
after  birth,  and  as  soon  finds  its  way  to 
the  teat;  but  it  can  find  no  sustenance 
from  it  until  the  sow  pleases;  so  that  until 
the  parturition  is  accomplished,  and  the 
sow  entirely  recovered  from  it,  there  is  no 
chance  of  the  pigs  getting  a  suck. 

2851.  Many  sows  are  very  sick  during 
parturition,  and  for  some  time  after;  so 


654 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


much  so  tliat  the  skin  of  their  mouth  be- 
comes bleacl)ed  and  |)arche(l,  iind  the 
breathing  ijiiick.  To  those  unaccustomed 
to  see  a  sow  in  that  state,  it  would  seem 
tiiat  siie  must  die;  but  a  little  rest  re- 
covers her,  and  she  then  betakes  herself 
fondly  to  her  young. 

28.52.  It  is  necessary,  as  I  have  said, 
to  remove  the  pigs  as  they  die,  when  any 
die,  as  some  sows  have  the  abominable 
propensity  of  eating  their  own  pigs  when 
dead,  whether  the  death  takes  place  at  the 
birth  or  immediately  after,  or  whether  it 
happens  by  smothering  or  squeezing  the 
pigs  by  the  sow  herself.  Mr  Youatt  advises 
the  pigs  to  be  removed  as  they  are  pigged, 
and  to  be  returned  after  she  has  recovered; 
but  there  is  no  necessity  for  their  removal 
if  the  sty  is  large  enough,  and  the  sow  is 
attended  to  as  long  as  she  is  a-pigging. 
I  remember  of  a  sow  that  was  never  sick 
at  farrowing;  and  such  was  her  propensity 
to  eat  every  pig  that  dietl,  or  was  smothered, 
that  even  during  parturition  she  would 
get  up  as  every  pig  was  born,  to  ascertain 
whether  it  was  dead  or  alive,  and,  if  dead, 
would  have  eaten  it  instantly,  had  she  been 
allowed. 

2853.  The  afterbirth  should  be  removed 
whenever  it  comes  away,  which  it  will  do 
in  a  few  minutes  after  parturition. 

2854.  A  peculiarity  is  exhibited  by 
young  pigs,  ditt'erent  from  the  young  of 
other  domesticated  animals,  in  each  always 
using  the  same  teat  in  sucking. 

2855.  It  is  generally  observeil  that  the 
pigs  supported  at  the  foremost  teats  be- 
come the  strongest. 

2856.  Sows  require  coaxing  before  they 
will  give  their  milk.  The  pigs  make  loud 
entreaties,  and  rub  the  uthler  with  their 
noses  to  induce  her  to  lie  down,  which, 
when  she  does,  every  pig  takes  its  own 
place,  and  nuzzles  at  the  udder  with  the 
teat  hehl  in  the  mouth.  After  a  good 
w'hile  of  this  sort  of  preparation,  the  milk 
begins  to  flow  on  the  sow  emitting  a  fond 
sleepy  sound,  during  which  the  milk  is 
drawn  steadily  and  qnieily  till  the  pigs 
are  all  satisfied,  and  they  then  not  unfre- 
quently  fall  asleep  with  the  teat  in  the 
mouth. 


2857.  Young  pigs  are  lively  happy 
creatures,  and  fond  of  play  as  long  as  they 
are  awake,  but  are  great  sleepers.  When 
a  week  old,  their  skins  are  clean,  hair  soft 
and  silky,  and  with  plumi*  bodies  and 
bright  eyes,  there  are  few  more  beautiful 
young  animals  to  be  seen  in  the  farm-yard. 
Those  of  a  white  colour  seem  the  most 
delicate  and  fine. 

2858.  The  food  given  to  the  sow  after 
she  has  recovered  from  parturition,  which 
will  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  her 
constitutional  temperament,  is  a  warm 
drink,  consisting  of  thinnish  gruel  of  oat- 
meal and  luke-warm  water,  which  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  meat  and  drink.  If 
she  is  thirsty,  which  she  is  likely  to  be  on 
recovery  from  sickness,  the  gruel  may  be 
again  offered  in  a  thinner  state  in  an  hour 
or  two  afterwards.  The  ordinary  food 
may  consist  of  boiled  potatoes,  with  a 
mixtureof  barleymeal  and  oatmeal  amongst 
water,  administered  at  a  stated  hour  at 
morning,  noon,  and  night,  with  such  re- 
fuse as  may  be  found  in  the  farm-house. 
This  food  supports  her  well  while  nursing; 
and  it  shonhl  be  borne  in  miinl  that,  as 
long  as  she  is  nursing,  she  should  receive 
abundance  of  food  if  it  is  desired  she  should 
rear  </oo({  pigs.  Should  the  weather  be 
frosty,  or  otherwise  cold,  the  water  may 
be  given  a  little  warmed  ;  but  in  fresh 
weather,  or  in  summer,  cold  water  is  most 
acceptable  to  her.  The  mess  should  not 
be  made  so  tfiin  as  to  be  sloppy,  and  take 
a  Ions  time  to  drink  nji ;  or  so  thick  as  to 
be  cloggy  in  the  mouth  ;  but  in  a  state  of 
gruel — meat  and  drink  at  the  same  time. 
Wliaiever  food  is  given  to  her  shonhl  he 
cooked^  and  not  in  a  raw  state:  the  vege- 
tables should  be  l/oi/ed,  and  the  meal 
should  first  be  made  into  brose  with  hot 
water,  and  then  mixed  with  the  vegetables, 
au'l  the  whole  mess  made  thin  as  gruel  with 
cold  water.  The  trough  out  of  which  she 
receives  her  food  should  be  washed  every 
two  or  three  days  in  cold,  and  every  day 
in  warm  weather.  I  believe  it  is  the  com- 
mon practice  never  to  give  pigs  salt 
amongst  their  food,  because  it  is  said  to 
encourage  the  soib.  A  large  quantity  of 
salt  may  have  this  efl'ect,  but  1  never  saw 
a  little  salt  prodtice  any  harm.  When 
a  sow  leaves  food  in  the  trough,  it  should 
not  be  j)resentcd  to  /ter  again,  but  given 
to  the  older  young  pigs.     Bean   meal  is 


FARROWING  OF  SOWS.  J[||k                        655 

stated  to  bring  a  great  flush  of  milk  upon  should  not  be  easily  upset,  as  there  will 

sows.  inevitably  be  a  struggle  which  to  get  first 

at  the  milk,  and  one  or  more  will  be  sure 

2859.  Both  male  and  female  pigs  are  to  jump  into  the  dish.  This  practice 
gelded,  tlie  few  that  are  kept  for  breeding  should  be  checked. 

forming  but   a    small    excejjtion.       They 

should  be  gelded  on  the  milk  at  from  2861.  Pigs  are  very  commonly  wean- 
10  to  14  days  old.  The  males  are  cas-  ed  at  6  weeks  old,  but  it  is  better  to  keep 
trated  on  being  held  between  the  knees,  them  on  the  sow  for  2  months;  though, 
and  the  scrotum  cut  through  to  each  tes-  in  the  latter  case,  she  will  require  to  be 
tide,  which  is  removed  by  tlie  pressure  the  better  fed.  Mr  Youatt  gives  these 
of  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  the  sper-  instructions  for  weaning  pigs:  —  '•'They 
matic  chord  separated  by  the  knife.  The  should  not  be  taken  from  the  sow  at  once, 
she-pigs  are  treated  in  a  difl'erent  manner,  but  gradually  weaned.  At  first,  they 
Being  laid  on -a  chair  bottom  or  table,  on  should  be  removed  from  her  for  a  few 
its  far  side,  the  pig  is  there  held  by  an  hours  each  day,  and  accustomed  to  be 
assistant ;  the  operator  cuts  an  upright  driven  by  hunger  to  eat  from  the  trough  ; 
inci.sion  into  the  flank,  of  about  2  inciies  in  then  they  may  be  turned  out  for  an  hour 
length,  and  introducing  a  linger,  brings  out  without  her,  and  afterwards  shut  up,  while 
the  ovary  of  the  womb,  and  separates  she  is  also  turned  out  by  herself.  Subse- 
it  by  the  knife.  He  then  closes  the  quently,  they  must  only  be  allowed  to 
incision  by  a  stitch  or  two  with  a  needle  suck  so  often  in  the  twentj'-fours — per- 
and  thread,  and  the  operation  is  finished,  haps  six  times  at  first,  then  four,  then 
■There  is  very  little  danger  attending  the  twice,  and  at  last  only  once;  and,  mean- 
operation  to  either  sex.  In  the  case  of  while,  they  must  be  proportionally  better 
rupture  or  hernia  in  the  male — and  some  and  more  plentifully  fed,  and  the  mother's 
breeds  of  pigs  are  very  liable  to  this  disease  diet  in  like  manner  diminished  :  thus  will 
when  young —  it  is  necessary  to  stitch  up  the  weaning  be  accomplished  without  dan- 
the  incision  of  the  scrotum,  and  the  tes-  ger  or  evil  consequences  to  either.  Some 
tide  at  castration  should,  in  such  a  case,  persons  have  advised  that  the  whole  litter 
be  removed  with  care,  in  case  of  produc-  should  not  be  weaned  at  once  ;  we  do  not, 
ing  inflammation  in  the  intestines.  The  however,  agree  with  them,  unless  it  should 
incisions  in  both  the  male  and  female  happen  that  one  or  two  of  the  young  ones 
generally  heal  by  the  first  intention.  The  are  much  weaker  and  smaller  than  the 
gelder  should  use  the  precaution  of  clean-  others.  In  such  case,  if  the  sow  remains 
ing  his  knife  before  every  operation.  The  in  tolerable  condition,  they  might  be 
usual  charge  for  gelding  pigs  is  2s.  6d.  the  allowed  to  suck  for  a  week  longer;  but 
litter,  whatever  number  it  may  contain,  such  a  mode  of  proceeding  should  he  an 
Young  pigs  are  not  gelded  when  intended  exception,  not  a  general  rule.  But  let  it 
to  be  killed  while  on  the  milk.  be  understood  that,  while  we  would  en- 
force  the   necessity    of  good   and  ample 

2860.  It  is  seldom  that  any  complaint  feeding,  we  highly  deprecate  all  excess, 
overtakes  the  sow  on  littering,  though  she  and  all  stimulating,  heating  diet,  such 
maybe  carried  off  by  puerjieral  fever,  and  I  tending  to  vitiate  the  animal  powers,  often 
susjject  there  is  no  remedy  for  this  disease  to  lay  the  foundation  of  disease,  and  never 
in  her  case.  The  j  igs  which  she  leaves  to  produce  good,  sound,  well-flavoured 
may  be  very  well  brought  up  by  hand  on  flesh.  A  little  sulphur  mixed  wiih  the 
cow's  milk,  as  they  will  soon  learn  to  drink  food,  or  a  small  quantity  of  Ejtsoui  or 
out  of  a  dis;h,  in  which  the  milk  should  be  Glauber  salts,  dinsDlved  in  water,  will  fre- 
given  to  them  warm  frou)  the  cow,  and  as  quently  prove  beneficial."  * 

often,  and  even  oftener,  than  the  cows  are 

milked.       It    is   surprising    how  small    a  2862.  A  sow  is  not  allowed  to  take  the 

quantity  of  milk  a  pig  will  drink  at  a  time,  boar  until  after  the  pigs  are  weaned,  hut  as 

and  on  this  account  tliey  should  get  it  fre-  soon  after  as  pojssihle — in  a  week  or  two; 

quently;  and  the  dish  in  which  it  is  served  and,  to  bring  her  into  season  the  sooner,  she 

*  Youatt  On  the  Pig,  p.  121. 


656 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


»houI<l  l>c  fed  with  oats  or  oat-meal  until 
elie  take  the  boar.  The  syinpt<nis  of  sea- 
son in  a  sow  are  a  rednes-s  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  vulva,  which,  when  observed, 
the  boar  should  have  access  to  her;  and 
ehould  there  be  a  boar  on  the  spot,  the 
meeting  will  be  easily  accomplished,  and 
one  embrace,  wliich  is  usually  a  protracted 
one,  is  quite  sufficient  for  securini:  a  litter 
of  pi<^s.  Wiien  there  is  no  boar  on  the 
farm,  the  sow  is  sent  to  him  in  a  cart, 
not  driven  on  foot,  and  she  remains  a  few 
days  with  him  to  secure  her  impregnation. 

2863.  A  sow  that  can  bring  up  10  pigs, 
and  has  5  such  litters  in  the  course  of  2 
years,  is  a  profitable  animal,  and  deserves 
to  be  well  maiutained  and  taken  care  of. 
Even  at  10s.  a-piece,  which  is  the  lowest 
sum  a  farmer  should  take  for  a  pig — for  he 
should  keep  it  until  it  is  worth  that  sura 
rather  than  part  with  it  at  a  lower  price — 
such  a  sow  will  return  £25  in  the  course 
of  2  years. 

2864.  As  it  is  considered  by  fanners  inconve- 
nient to  keep  beyond  a  certain  number  of  pigs 
in  the  farin-itead,  it  is  necessary  to  determine 
what  that  number  should  be  ;  and  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  fix  its  amount  for  every  particular  case, 
a  few  hints  on  different  modes  of  managing 
litters,  after  they  are  weaned,  may  prove  useful. 
Before  investigating  this  point,  a  few  particulars 
may  be  stated  which  you  may  regard  in  the 
light  of  majcitns  on  this  subject.  A  sow  should 
always  be  either  with  young  or  giving  suck,  for 
{fallowed  to  run  about  in  season  — that  is.  seeking 
the  boar — she  will  loose  flesh  instead  of  gaining 
it.  A  sow  should  always  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition, whether  with  young  or  supporting  young, 
because  a  lean  sow  never  brings  forth  or  can 
nourish  string  pigs.  Every  breeder  and  feeder 
of  pigs  will  find  it  his  advantage  never  to  allow 
them  to  go  to  bed  with  a  hungry  belly.  A  sow 
that  brings  forth  the  largest  number  of  pigs  of 
the  be^t  quality,  proves  the  best  nurse,  and  is 
most  careful  of  her  young,  should  always  be 
preferred  as  a  brood-sow.  When  a  sow  gets  old, 
she  is  apt  to  become  careless  of  her  pigs,  so  that 
after  3  or  4  years  may  be  a  proper  time  to  feed 
off  a  brood-sow.  Pigs,  though  on  grass  during 
the  day  in  summer,  should  nevertheless  receive 
a  drink  of  water,  and  meal  or  potatoes,  or  of 
whey,  every  morning  and  evening. 

2865.  There  are  just  two  ways  of  rearing  pigs 
on  a  farm  :  one  is  to  have  a  large  number  of  sows, 
and  sell  the  pigs  as  they  are  weaned,  at  6  or  8 
weeks  old;  the  other  is,  to  have  fewer  sows,  and 
rear  the  pigs  until  they  are  fit  for  the  pork- 
curers — and  the  adoption  of  either  plan  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  market  in  the  locality.  If 
there  is  a  demand  for  young  pigs  just  weaned, 
the  larger  number  of  sows  will  be  the  most  pro- 


fitable, because  the  pigs  will  not  have  to  be 
maintained  on  food  independently  of  their 
mothers;  but  it  is  one  att»'nded  with  much 
trouble,  inasmuch  as  a  large  quantity  of  food 
will  have  tA>  be  daily  cooked  for  the  sows  while 
supporting  their  young,  and  the  market  for  piga 
will  be  confined  to  those  of  one  age. 

2866.  In  the  other  plan,  the  sows  are  only  sup- 
ported on  special  food  as  lJ>ig  as  they  suckle  the 
pigs,  and  tliere  is  choice  not  only  of  the  market 
for  weaned  pigs,  but  for  those  of  various  ages, 
suited  to  the  tastes  of  pork-curers.  Suppose, 
then,  that  2  sows  are  maintained,  in  pursuance 
of  the  latter  plan,  and  that  they  bring  forth  20 
pigs  twice  a  year.  Retaining  4  of  these  for  ham, 
and  other  2  for  pickled  pork,  for  the  use  of  the 
farm-house,  there  will  be  34  pjgs  to  dispose  of 
every  year  ;  and  as  these  meet  with  a  ready 
market  when  4  or  5  stones  each,  at  6s.  a-stone, 
will  make  them  worth  each  from  24s.  to  30s.,  or 
from  L.40  to  L.50  a-year  for  pigs.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  these  34  pigs,  when  running 
about  the  courts  in  winter,  eating  a  few  turnips 
or  potatoes,  or  grazing  in  the  grass-field  in  sum- 
mer, do  not  cost  much  to  rear  them  to  the  weight 
most  desiderated  by  the  curers  of  pork,  and  in 
their  ordinary  state  they  should  be  fat  enough 
for  the  purpose,  and  will  make  wholesome  meat 

2C67.  On  a  farm  of  500  acres,  2  brood-sows 
could  thus  be  easily  maintained ;  on  a  larger  farm 
3  might  be  kept,  and  on  a  smaller  I  may  suffice  : 
but  circumstances  must  regulate  the  proper 
number.  Where  dairy -husbandry  is  practised, 
more  sows  may  easily  be  kept.  A  remark  of 
Mr  Henderson's  on  this  subject  is  worthy  of  at- 
tention, in  regard  to  the  timing  of  sows  in  bear- 
ing their  litters  of  pigs.  "  Whenever,"  he  says, 
"  farmers  have  an  opportunity  of  selling  pork  at 
all  seasons,  they  do  not  think  it  necessary  to 
make  the  sows  bring  their  litters  at  a  particular 
season,  as  they  wish  to  have  a  lot  of  a  certain 
age  to  go  off  regularly  at  least  every  month,'  in 
autuiun,  winter,  and  spring.  "  They  make  them 
ready  f^r  the  market,  with  little  expense,  only 
giving  them  close  feeding  2  or  3  weeks  previous 
to  their  being  sold."  Pigs  intended  for  pukled 
pork  merely  do  not  require  even  this  feeding, 
though  those  sold  for  making  hams  are  the  b.-tter 
for  a  little  extra  and  hardening  feeding.  "  They 
have  very  little  trouble  in  selling  them," conrUnles 
Mr  Heniiersoii,  "  as  there  are  jobbers  contiinialiy 
travelling  through  the  country,  purchasing  swine 
of  all  descriptions,  who  receive  them  and  pay 
the  money  at  the  farms." 

2868.  The  omnivorous  disposition  of  swine 
is  well  known,  and  it  is  this  property  which 
makes  them  so  easily  maintained,  and  service- 
able on  a  farm.  ''Swine,  though  exceedingly 
voracious,"  observes  Mr  Henderson,  "  will  feed 
almost  on  anything.  In  miry  and  marshy  ground 
they  devour  worms,  frogs,  fern,  rush,  and  hedge- 
roots.  In  drier  and  woody  countries  they  feed 
on  haws,  sloes,  crabs,  mast,  chestnuts,  acorns, 
&c.,  and  on  this  food  they  will  grow  fleshy  and 
fat.  They  are  a  kind  of  natural  scavengers ; 
will  thrive  on  the  trash  of  an  orchard,  the  oat- 


FARROWING  OF  SOWS. 


657 


casts  of  the  kitchfin,  the  sweepings  of  barns  and 
granaries,  tlie  offals  of  a  market,  and  most  riclily 
on  the  refuse  of  a  dairy.  If  near  the  sea,  they 
will  search  the  shores  for  shell-fisli,  in  the  fields 
they  eat  grass,  and  in  great  towns  they  are  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  grains.  It  is  evident  that  tlie 
facility  of  feeding  them  everywliere  at  a  small 
expense  is  a  material  benefit,  more  especially  in 
a  country  where  people  are  accustomed  to  eat 
flesh  daily,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  is 
60  ready  a  market  for  bacon  and  pork  as  we 
have.  It  is  no  less  observable  that,  notwith- 
standing the  facility  of  feeding,  and  the  multi- 
tude of  swine  maintained,  they  seldom  fail  of 
coming  to  a  good  UKirket.  Swine  ought  to  have 
hard  feeding  two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  their 
being  killed,  to  give  firmness  to  the  flesh.  This 
practice  ought  to  be  particularly  attended  to  by 
those  who  feed  at  distilleries  on  burnt  ale  and 
grains,  as  the  fat  of  pigs  thus  fed  raelts  almost 
wholly  away  in  boiliug  or  roasting  ;  peas  and 
beans  are  excellent  for  the  purpose,  and  acorns 
are  still  better.  Where  oak  plantations  are 
near,  they  will  resort  to  them  in  autumn,  and 
there  remain  until  this  their  favourite  food  is  ex- 
hausted. The  late  Sir  James  Colqnhoun  of  Luss, 
I  have  been  lold,  was  in  the  habit  of  sending  his 
pigs  to  one  of  the  islands  of  Loch  Lomond,  where 
there  is  an  oak  plantation,  that  they  might  pick  up 
the  acorns,  whicdi  issaid  to  have  given  a  surprising 
degree  of  delicacy  to  the  flesh.  Those  who  have 
woods  of  this  kind,  and  orchards,  ought  to  allow 
their  pigs  liberty  to  rauge  among  the  trees,  to  pick 
up  shaken  tVnit  and  seeds."*  The  hogs  of  Ger- 
many enjoy  the  droppings  of  the  oak  and  chestnut 
forests,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  is  this  species  of 
food  that  imparts  ihe  very  superior  flavour  which 
the  hams  of  Westphalia  are  known  to  possess. 
That  all  the  hams  sold  in  this  country  for  West- 
phalian  are  genuine,  I  have  doubts,  after  having 
become  acquainted  with  their  true  flavour  in  their 
owu  country.  I  remember  of  passing  through  a 
forest  of  sweet  chestnuts  of  about  3  miles  in 
length,  near  Bellinzona,in  the  canton  of  Ticino, 
in  Switzerland,  in  autumn,  when  the  fruit  was 
dropping  from  the  trees  ;  and  into  this  forest  the 
peasantry,  I  was  informed,  turned  the  pigs  every 
year  at  that  season  to  get  fattened.  Pigs  are  re- 
markably fond  of  the  earth  nut  and  the  roots  of 
the  common  and  garden  mint. 

2869.  liirnjin^.— Swine  should  not  be  allowed 
to  enter  a  field  of  any  kind  without  a  ring  in 
the  nose.  Their  propensity  to  dig  for  worms 
and  roots  makes  them  turn  up  the  soil  with  their 
noses,  and  when  a  grass-field  is  thus  treated,  it 
presents  a  scene  of  havoc.  The  best  material 
for  making  the  nose-jewels  of  swine  is  horse- 
shoe nails,  they  being  both  durable  and  ductile. 
As  the  heads  of  the  nails  are  of  no  use,  they  are 
Kanimered  into  a  point  The  nail  is  inserted  into 
a  hole,  formed  by  an  awl  or  other  sharp-pointed 
instrument,  through  the  supplemental  or  snout 
bone  aiid  the  proper  nasal,  and  its  points  are 
twi.-ted  firmly  together.  A  new  hole  can  be 
made  and  another  nail  substituted,  when  tlie  old 
hole  and  nail  have  become  worn.  Mr  Youatt 
Bays  that  it  is  a  far  better  mode  of  proceeding, 

*  Henderson's  Treatise  on  the 
VOL.  I. 


when  the  pig  is  young,  to  cut  through  the  car- 
tilaginous and  ligamentous  prolongations  by 
which  the  supplementary  bone  is  separated  from 
the  proper  nasals.  The  divided  edges  of  the  car- 
tilage will  never  unite  again,  and  the  snout  always 
remains  powerless. 

2870.  Fvhe.—The  beating  of  the  heart  of  a 
pig  may  be  felt  on  the  left  side,  whence  also  the 
pulse  may  be  taken  ;  or  from  the  femoral  artery, 
which  crosses  the  inside  of  the  thigh  in  an  ob- 
lique direction.  In  swine  in  good  health,  the 
pulsations  are  from  70  to  80  in  a  minute. 

2871.  Bleeding. —  "The  common  and  vulgar 
mode  of  getting  blood  from  the  pig,"  observes 
Mr  Youatt,  "  is  by  cutting  off  a  portion  of  the 
ears  or  tail ;  but  these  modes  of  proceeding  should 
only  be  had  recourse  to  when  local  and  instant 
blood-letting  is  requisite.  The  jugular  veins  of 
swine  lie  too  deep,  and  are  too  much  embedded 
in  fat,  to  admit  of  their  being  raised  by  any 
ligature  about  the  neck  ;  it  is  therefore  useless 
to  attempt  to  puncture  them — we  would  only 
be  striking  at  random.  Those  veins,  however, 
which  run  over  the  interior  surface  of  the  ear, 
and  especially  towards  its  outer  edge,  may  be 
opened  without  much  difficulty  :  if  the  ear  is 
turned  back  on  to  the  poll,  one  or  more  of  them 
may  easily  be  made  sufficiently  prominent  to  ad- 
rait  of  its  being  punctured  by  pressing  the 
fingers  on  the  base  of  the  ear  near  to  the  conch. 
When  the  necessary  quantity  of  blood  has  been 
obtained,  the  finger  may  be  raised,  and  it  will 
cease  to  flow.  The  palate  veins,  which  run  on 
either  side  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  are  also 
easily  opened  by  making  two  incisions,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  palate,  about  half-way  between 
the  centre  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the 
teeth.  The  flow  of  blood  may  be  easily  stopped 
by  means  of  a  pledget  of  tow  and  a  string,  as  in 
the  horse."  Tlie  plate  vein,  in  the  inside  of  the 
fore-leg,  may  be  raised  by  a  ligature  tied  firmly 
round  the  leg,  just  below  the  shoulder. 

2872.  Cntcltirifj  or  holding. — Hurtel  d'Arbo- 
val  reconvmends  the  following  means  of  getting 
hold  of  jiigs  :  "  Fasten  a  double  cord  to  the  end 
of  a  stick,  and  beneath  the  stick  let  there  be  a 
running  nooze  in  this  cord  ;  tie  a  piece  of  bread 
to  the  cord  and  present  it  to  the  animal,  and 
when  he  opens  his  mouth  to  seize  the  bait,  catch 
the  upper  jaw  in  the  noose,  run  it  tight,  and  the 
animal  is  fast."  Throw  a  sack  or  cloth  over  the 
head  of  the  pig,  and  in  his  endeavours  to  get 
rid  of  it,  seize  him  by  the  hijid-leg.  Mr  Youatt 
says  that,  in  the  violent  efforts  usually  employed 
to  catch  swine,  their  struggles  to  escape  will 
often  do  them  more  mischief  than  the  disease 
we  seek  to  investigate  or  remedy  would  effect. 
Pigsin  these  struggles  will  rupture  blood-vessels, 
which  may  cause  instant  death,  or  bring  on  ia- 
flammatiou  and  subsequent  death. 

2873.  Drenchivg. — Whenever  practicable,  the 
medicine  to  be  given  to  pigs  should  be  mingled 
with  a  portion  of  their  food,  and  thus  cheat  or 
coax  them  into  taking  it ;  but  where  this  cannot 
Breeding  of  Swine,  p.  41-5. 

2t 


668 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


be  done,  the  following  is  the  best  method  of  ad- 
ministering a  drink  :— "  Let  a  man  get  the  head 
of  the  animal  firmly  between  his  knees — without, 
however,  pinching  it — while  another  secures  the 
hinder  parts.  Then  let  the  first  take  hold  of  the 
pig's  head  from  below,  raise  it  a  little,  and  in- 
cline it  slightly  towards  the  right— at  the  same 
time  separating  the  lips  on  the  left  side,  so  as  to 
form  a  hole  into  which  the  fluid  may  be  gradu- 
ally poured,  not  more  being  introduced  into  the 
mouth  at  a  time  than  can  be  swallowed  at  once. 
Should  the  pig  snort  or  choke,  the  head  must  be 
released  for  a  few  minutes,  as  he  will  be  iu  dan- 
ger of  being  strangled." 

2874.  Diarrhoea. — "  It  consists  in  a  freqnent 
discharge  of  the  ftccal  matter  in  a  thin  or  slimy 
state,  but  not  actually  altered,  and  arises  from 
inflammation  or  congestion  of  the  mucus  lining 
of  the  intestine.  What  we  conceive  to  be  an 
attack  of  diarrhoea  is  often  only  an  effect  of 
nature  to  throw  ofi"  some  offensive  matters,  and 
will  close  of  itself  in  the  course  of  twenty-four 
hours  ;  but  where  it  goes  on  for  any  length  c( 
time,  it  must  be  taken  seriously  in  hand,  as  it 
will  otherwise  weaken  the  animal,  and  impair  its 
Talue.  The  best  remedy  for  it  is  the  compound 
commonly  called  calves'  cordial,  tIz., — 

Prepared  chalk,  .  .  1  oz. 

Powdered  catechu,  .  ,  i 

Powdered  ginger,  .  .  2  drachms. 

Powdered  opium,  .  .  A 

mixed  and  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of  peppermint 
water.  From  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  this 
mixture,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
should  be  given  twice  in  the  day  ;  and  strict 
attention  paid  to  the  diet,  which  should  consist 
as  much  as  possible  of  dry  farinaceous  food." 

2875.  Mr  Youatt  mentions  in  a  note  that  "  our 
friend  and  fellow-practitioner,  Mr  Hursefield  of 
Wentworth,  informs  us  that  sucking  pigs  kept  in 
piggeries  having  stone  pavements  are  apt  to 
have  the  white  flux,  a  bowel  complaint  very  pre- 
judicial to  their  growth.  To  prevent  or  ease 
them  of  this  malady,  let  there  be  plenty  of  fresh 
earth  strewn  for  them  in  the  inner  piggery,  which 
they  will  eat  with  avidity,  and  thus  be  kept  clean 
and  in  good  condition."  There  must  be  something 
else  than  the  stone  pavement  connected  with  the 
production  of  this  disease,  for  my  brood-sows 
brought  up  tlieir  young  ones  in  sties  of  no  other 
construction,  and  I  never  saw  a  single  instance 
of  the  disease  referred  tofor  all  the  years  Ifarmed. 

2876.  Fecundity  of  Swine. — "  In  one  year  two 
sows  will  breed  ten  each,  of  which  we  shall  as- 
sume that  one  half  are  females,  and  so  proceed 
on  that  assumed  equality  : — 


The  first  year  there  will  be  males  and 

females, 

From  which  take  the  males,        . 

And  we  have  the  result  as  breeders,     . 

At  the  second  year  then,  we  may  fairly 

take  the  same  ratio  of  time  to  each, 


20 
10 


10 
10 


Leaving  consequently  for  the 
Third  year  breeders, 


Fourth  year  breeden, 


Fifth  year  breeders, 


Sixth  year  breeders, 


Seventh  year  breeders, 


Eighth  year  breeders. 


Ninth  year  breeders, 


Tenth  year  breeders. 


50 
10 

2)500 

250 
10 

2)2,500 

1,250 
10 


2)12,500 


,       6,250 
10 

2)62,500 


.     31,250 
10 

2)312,500 


.    156,250 
10 

2)1,562,500 


.    781,250 
10 

2)7,812,500 

3,906,250 
10 


And  it  gives  a  hundred  males  and  females,  2)100 


Tenth  year  males  and  females,         39,062,500 

I  hope  my  friend  has  brought  his  pigs  to  a  good 
market  ;  but  to  equalise  the  supply,  1  shall  for 
the  present  purpose  take  only  the  male  half  of  the 
pig  population  for  food,  leavin'j  the  breeders  to 
go  on.  In  this  way  we  can  kill  and  eat  10  the 
first  year — no  bad  increase  from  two  sows  recol- 
lect ;  the  second  year  50  ;  the  third  year  250  ; 
the  fourth  year  1250;  the  fifth  year  6,250  ;  the 
sixth  year  .'51,250,  pork  in  abundance  now  ;  the 
seventh  year  1. 56,250 — still  more  abundant  ;  the 
eighth  year  781,250  ;  the  ninth  year  3,90,6,J50  ; 
and  the  tenth  year,  also  decided  in  like  manner, 
the  enormous  number  of  11*,531,C50  for  food, 
without  interfering  with  the  breeders. 
I  shall  close  this  paper  with  the  sensible  practi- 
cal observations  of  my  friend  in  reference  to  this 
subject,  as,  after  all,  it  is  in  practice  only  that 
the  benefits  open  to  all  are  to  be  received  by 
any.  In  the  county  of  Kent  he  informs  us  there 
are  31,000  agricultural  families  or  farmers.  It 
is  a  very  easy  matter  for  each  to  keep  two 
breeding  sows,  which  in  three  years  wuuld  pro- 
duce, in  round  numbers,  15,000,000  of  pig-*.  In 
the  52  counties  of  England,  he  al^o  adds,  the 
number  of  agricultural  families  is  760,000  ;  -o 
that,  by  the  same  mode  of  calculation  aa  fiT  Kent, 
of  every  farmer  keeping  two  sows,  the  produce 
would  be  in  the  like  period,  380,000,000  pigs. 
One  good  breeding  sow  to  each  would  conse- 
quently produce  15,000,000.  As  1  hare  said, 
and  say  again,  is  this  all  true!  for  if  so,  what 
prevents  the  immediate  use  of  the  same  bene- 


HATCHING  OF  FQWLS. 


659 


ficial  proceeding  to  every  one,  not  even  omitting 

the  allotment  tenant."* 

2877.  "  The  breeding  of  swine,"  says  Arthur 
Young,  "  being  one  of  the  most  profitable  articles 
in  the  whole  business  of  a  farm,  the  husbandman 
cannot  pay  too  much  attention  to  it.  I  shall,  in 
as  few  words  as  the  subject  will  admit,  give  an 
account  of  the  best  system  to  be  pursued  in  this 
branch  of  his  business.  The  farmer  who  could 
make  a  considerable  profit  by  hogs  must  deter- 
mine to  keep  a  proper  number  of  sows,  in  order 
to  breed  many  pigs  ;  but  this  resolution  ought 
to  be  preceded  by  the  most  careful  determination 
to  prepare  crops  proper  for  supporting  this  stock. 
The  proper  oues  for  that  purpose  are  barley, 
buck-wlieat,  beans,  pease,  clover,  potatoes,  or 
carrots.  In  the  common  management,  a  farmer 
keeps  only  a  sow  or  two,  because  his  dairy  will 
do  no  more  ;  but  in  the  system  of  planting  crops 
properly  for  swine,  a  different  conduct  must 
necessarily  be  pursued.  Potatoes,  carrots,  Swed- 
ish turnips,  and  cabbages  must  be  provided  for 
the  sows  and  stores  from  October  until  the  end 
of  May,  by  which  time  clover,  chicory,  or  lucerne 
should  be  ready  to  receive  them,  which  will  carry 
them  till  the  stubbles  are  cleared;  so  that  the 
whole  year  is  filled  up  with  these  plants,  and 
the  common  offal  of  the  barn-door  and  of  the 
corn-fields.  When  the  sows  pig,  meal  must  be 
provided  to  make  a  wash,  by  the  mixing  it  with 
water.  This  iu  summer  will  be  go,od  enough  for 
their  support  ;  and  in  winter  it  must  be  mixed 
with  boiled  roots,  oats,  and  pea-soup  for  the 
young  pigs.  If  cows  are  kept,  then  the  dairy 
wash  is  to  be  used  in  the  above  mixtures.  Upon 
this  system  a  farmer  may  apportion  his  swine  to 
his  crops,  or  his  crops  to  his  swine  ;  and  he  will 
find  that,  for  the  whole  year,  he  should  have 
about  an  equal  quantity  of  roots  and  grass,  and 
half  as  much  corn  as  potatoes.  For  carrying  the 
profit  to  the  highest  advantage,  the  sows  should 
pigbut  twice a-year — that  is  in  April  and  August, 
by  which  means  there  will  never  be  a  long  and 
expensive  season  for  rearing  pigs  before  they 
are  put  to  the  staple  food  of  clover  or  potatoes, 
&c.  :  but  this  circumstance  is  much  removed  by 
the  provision  of  crops  raised  expressly  for  the 
swine.  Upon  this  plan  the  annual  sale  of  lean 
hogs  should  be  in  October,  the  litters  of  April 
sold  then  as  stores,  and  those  of  August  kept 
till  October  twelvemonth  to  sell  for  breeders,  if 
the  farmer  feeds  them  himself.  Tiie  stock  upon 
hand  this  month  will  therefore  be  the  sows  and 
the  pigs  littered  in  the  priceding  August,  all 
which  should  have  roots  from  the  store,  and  even 
at  the  same  time  in  the  farm-yard,  for  shacking 
the  straw  at  the  barn-doors.  In  proportion  to 
what  they  find  in  thi.s,  you  must  supply  them  with 
roots,  giving  enough  to  keep  them  in  growth."t 


ON  THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 

2878.  Spring  is  the  busy  season  of  the 
feathered  inhabitants  of  the  farm.     I  shall 


endeavour,  in  as  few  words  as  the  clear 
elucidation  of  the  subject  will  admit,  to 
describe  the  mode  of  hatching  and  rearing 
every  sort  of  fowl  usually  domesticated  on 
a  farm,  to  show  you  that  it  is  not  so  dif- 
ficult or  troublesome  an  affair  as  the  prac- 
tice which  generally  prevails  would  seem 
to  indicate.  This  I  am  enabled  to  do  by 
observing  and  assisting  in  a  system  which 
was  invariably  attended  with  success,  and 
which  only  observation  of  the  habits  of 
domesticated  birds,  and  punctual  atten- 
tion to  their  wants,  will  enable  any  one 
to  follow,  and  to  produce  and  rear  plenty 
of  excellent  poultry  on  a  farm. 

2879.  In  my  observations  on  the  man- 
agement of  hens  in  winter,  I  mentioned 
that  the  early-hatched  chickens  of  the 
former  spring  were  the  best  to  treat  as 
laying  hens  during  winter  (1708.)  These 
same  young  hens,  being  in  fine  condition 
in  spring,  will  prove  good  layers  through 
the  ensuing  sunmier,  and  should  therefore 
be  kindly  treated  for  that  purpose,  and 
discouraged  from  becoming  sitters  on  eggs, 
which  they  will  do,  if  allowed  to  wander 
in  search  of  food,  and  find  out  nests  of  their 
own  to  lay  in.  I  also  mentioned,  there 
was  no  difficulty  of  bringing  up  chickens 
in  winter,  if  it  were  thought  expedient  to 
do  so ;  and  should  any  have  been  nursed  in 
winter  (1616,)  they  will  now  in  spring  be 
in  good  condition,  and  be  valuable  birds,  fit 
to  make  a  handsome  dish  of  roast  or  boil. 

2880.  ff ens.— As  soon  as  the  grass 
begins  to  grow  in  spring,  so  early  will 
cared-for  hens  delight  to  wander  into 
sheltered  portions  of  pasture,  in  the  sun- 
shine, in  the  warm  side  of  a  thorn-hedge, 
and  pick  the  tender  blades,  and  devour 
the  worms,  which  the  genial  air  may  have 
warmed  into  life  and  activity.  With 
such  morsels  of  spring  food,  and  in  plea- 
sant temperature,  their  combs  will  begin 
to  redden,  and  their  feathers  assume  a 
glossy  hue;  and  even  by  February  they 
will  begin  to  chant — and  this  is  a  sur© 
harbinger  of  the  commencement  of  the 
laying  season. 

2881.  By  March,  a  disposition  to  sit 
will  be  evinced  by  the  early  laying  hens; 
but  every  hen  should  not  be  allowed  to 


Youatt  On  the  Pig,  p.  83-124. 


+  Young's  Farmers'  Calendar,  p.  20. 


660 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


fiit ;  nor  can  any  lien  eit  at  her  own  dis- 
cretion, wliere  the  practice  is,  as  gliould  be, 
to  ^tlier  the  Qggf  every  day  as  they  are 
laid.  It  is  in  your  option,  then,  to  select 
the  hens  vou  wish  to  sit  to  bring  out 
chickens.  Those  selected,  if  young, 
should  be  of  a  quiet  social  disposition, 
not  easily  fri^'htened,  nor  dJsj>osed  to 
wander  afar ;  and  they  should  be  large 
and  full  feathered,  to  be  able  to  cover 
their  eggs  well,  and  brood  their  young 
completely.  Those  which  have  proved 
themselves  good  sitters  and  brooders, 
neither  carelesss,  nor  too  solicitous  of  their 
broods,  should  be  chosen  in  preference  to 
others ;  but  it  is  proper  to  make  one 
young  beu  or  so,  every  season,  sit  for  the 
first  time. 

2852.  The  e/jQS  intended  to  be  set 
should  be  carefully  selected.  Every  esg 
proposed  to  be  hatched  should  have  the 
date  of  its  being  laid  written  npon  it. 
If  thfise  of  a  jorticular  hen  are  desired  to 
be  hatched,  they  should,  of  course,  be  kept 
by  themselves,  well  preserved,  and  set 
after  her  laying  time  is  finished.  In 
selecting  eggs,  they  should  be  quite  fresh 
— that  is,  laid  within  a  few  days — large, 
well-shaped,  truly  ovoidal,  sinjrie,  not 
seeming  as  if  two  small  ones  were  joined 
together;  neither  too  thin  nor  too  thick, 
but  smfK»th  in  the  shell  :  their  substance 
should  almost  entirely  fill  the  shell,  and  be 
uniform  and  translucent  when  looked 
through  at  a  candle,  which  is  the  best 
light  for  their  examination. 

2853.  It  is  said  that  the  position  of 
the  cell  that  contains  the  air  in  an  eg? 
deteriiiiiies  the  sex  of  the  chick  that  will 
spring  from  that  egg — that  is,  if  the  cell 
occupies  the  exact  apex  of  the  end.  which 
is  always  the  large  end,  the  chick  will 
be  a  m:ile,  and  if  <m  one  side  of  the  apex, 
it  will  l)e  a  female.  I  believe  there  is 
truth  in  this  ob!^ervation,  but  to  what  ex- 
tent, and  what  experitnents  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  point,  I  have  not 
leametl  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  this, 
that  the  lont'er  an  egg  has  been  kept  with 
access  to  the  air,  until  it  becomes  addled 
or  dead,  this  cell  increases  in  size,  by  the 
absoryuion  of  air  through  the  shell,  and, 
of  cour^e,  by  absorption  also  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  egg,  which  makes  room 
for  the  air.      I  have  heard  it  remarked 


that  this  air  cell  is  a  positive  indication 
that  the  hen  which  lays  an  egi:  with  one 
must  have  been  with  the  cock.  This 
I  do  not  believe,  for  I  am  sure  I  have 
seen  such  cells  in  eggs  from  hens  that 
could  not  possibly  have  even  seen  a  cock. 
The  matter  of  tlie  sex  of  the  egg  is  of 
no  importance  on  a  farm,  as  a  good  chicken 
of  one  sex  is  as  valuable,  as  an  article  of 
food,  as  a  good  one  of  the  other. 

2884.  Either  11  or  13  eggs  are  placed 
under  a  hen;  the  former  number,  11,  is 
more  likely  to  be  successful  in  being  en- 
tirely hatched  than  the  latter,  as  few  hens 
can  cover  as  many  as  13  large  eggs  suf- 
ficiently. A  notion  prevails  even  at  the 
present  day,  of  the  propriety  of  setting  an 
odd  number  of  eggs  under  a  hen.  This 
may  have  arisen  from  the  ideathat,  allowing 

I  egg  to  be  rotten,  an  even  number,  or  so 
many  couples  of  chickens,  will  still  l^  ob- 
tained in  the  hatching ;  and,  accordingly, 
it  is  considered  a  good  hatching  if  10 
chickens  are  brought  out  of  a  setting  of 

I I  eggs,  or  a  dozen  of  one  of  1 3  eggs. 

2885.  As  essential  a  matter  as  select- 
ing the  hens  and  eggs,  is  the  Tnakinfr  a 
proper  nest  for  the  sitting  hen.  This 
should  consist  of  a  circular  hassock  of 
soft  straw-ropes,  or  it  may  be  a  box,  or  a 
basket.  Tiie  object  of  tliis  foundation  is 
to  raise  the  nest  sufficiently  off  the  gnmnd 
to  keep  it  diy,  and  to  give  it  such  a 
hollow  as  none  of  the  eggs  shall  roll  out 
by  any  mischance.  A  box  or  bai-ket  is 
a  convenient  receptacle  for  a  nest,  but 
in  using  either  it  will  be  requisite  to 
stuff  the  corners,  as  well  as  the  bottom, 
firmly  with  straw,  that  the  eggs  may  not 
drop  into  the  comers,  or  the  young  chicks, 
as  they  are  hatched,  fall  into  them.  The 
nest  iti^lf  should  be  of  soft  short  oat  straw. 
It  should  be  ma<Ie  as  large  as  to  afford 
the  hen  ample  room,  not  only  for  her  body, 
but  also  iier  tail.  If  the  tail  is  bent  while 
sitting,  the  hen  will  always  feel  uncom- 
fortable. The  nests  are  commonly  made 
too  small.  The  hollow  directly  occupied 
by  the  body  of  the  bird  should  not  be 
larger  than  she  can  fill ;  but  the  sides  and 
base  of  the  nest  should  spread  out  to  give 
room  around  the  hen,  and  elevation  above 
the  floor. 

2886.  Places  should  be  cbosen  for  the 


HATCHING  OF  FQWLS. 


661 


sitting  hens,  for  the  hen-house,  as  G,  Plate 
II.,  coniniun  to  all  the  laying  liens,  will 
not  answer,  the  perpetual  commotion  in 
it  disturhing  the  sitting  hens.  Hatching- 
houses,  such  as  c'  d!  e'  f\  Plate  TI.,  should 
contain  one  hen  at  a  time ;  but  as  many 
may  he  accommodated  in  it  as  there  are 
partitions  to  separate  one  hen  completely 
from  another,  as  hens  are  jealous  of  each 
other — and  especially  so  when  sitting,  when 
she  will  sometimes  endeavour  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  nest  and  eggs  of  the  other 
laying  ones,  or  drive  them  away  from  their 
eggs.  Other  places  may  he  selected  for 
sitting  in — such  as  an  out-house,  a  loft,  a 
spare  room  in  the  farm-house,  or  even  the 
back-kitclien,  when  warmth  is  required  for 
an  early  brood. 

2887.  The  hen  selected  for  sitting  having 
been  accustomed  to  lay  in  the  hen-house, 
or  elsewhere,  will  feel  annoyed  at  first  on 
being  transferred  to  her  new  quarters ; 
she  will  have  to  be  coaxed  to  it,  and  even 
after  all  may  prove  obstreperous,  thongh 
exhibiting  strong  symptoms  of  clucking, 
in  which  case  she  must  be  dismissed  and 
another  chosen,  ratiier  than  run  the  risk 
of  spoiling  the  entire  hatching  by  her 
capricious  conduct.  A  couple  or  so  of  old 
eggs  should  first  be  put  into  the  nest,  upon 
which  she  should  be  induced,  by  meat  and 
water  beside  her,  to  sit  for  two  or  three 
days,  to  warm  the  nest  thoroughly,  before 
the  eggs  she  is  to  hatch  are  placed  under 
her.  After  she  shows  a  disposition  to  sit, 
and  the  nest  has  become  warm,  the  old 
nest-eggs  are  taken  away,  and  the  selected 
eggs  are  put  into  the  nest — 11,  as  I  said 
before,  being  quite  enough — and  the  hen 
allowed  to  go  upon  them  in  her  own  way, 
and  to  manage  the  eggs  as  she  chooses ; 
which  she  will  do  with  her  bill  and  body, 
and  feet,  spreading  herself  out  fully  to  cover 
all  the  eirgs  completely.  The  time  chosen 
for  setting  the  hen  should  be  in  the  even- 
ing, when  a  natural  desire  for  roosting 
and  rest  is  evinced  ;  antl  by  next  morning 
it  will  be  found  that  the  hen  has  taken  to 
the  nest  contentedly. 

2888.  It  is  not  unusual,  with  some 
people,  to  set  a  hen  at  any  time  of  the 
day,  even  in  daylight,  when  she  is  almost 
certain  to  come  ofi'and  desire  to  wander; 
and,  to  curb  the  disposition,  a  tub  is  placed 
over  her  to  keep  her  in  the  dark.   The  con- 


sequent fright,  upon  such  treatment,  not 
only  prevents  her  attending  to  the  eggs, 
but  some  of  them  may  be  broken  in  her 
attempts  to  get  out  of  confinement.  In 
the  desire  to  keep  the  creature  in  the  dark, 
it  might  suggest  itself  to  a  considerate 
person,  one  should  suppose,  that  darkness 
is  more  easily  and  naturally  found  at  night 
than  in  the  day,  and  that  natural  darkness 
is  better  than  artificial. 

2889.  While  sitting  upon  her  nest,  the 
hen  should  be  looked  at  regularly  every 
day,  and  supplied  with  fresh  food,  corn,  and 
clean  water.  She  will  not  consume  much 
food  during  the  time  of  incubation,  which 
is  3  weeks.  Every  two  or  three  days,  the 
dung,  feathers,  &c.  about  the  nest  and  on 
the  floor  should  be  swept  and  carried  away, 
and  the  place  kept  clean  and  dry. 

2890.  In  about  3  weeks  a  commotion 
among  the  eggs  may  be  expected  ;  and 
should  the  hen  have  proved  a  close  sitter, 
and  the  weather  mild,  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  heads  of  2  or  3  chickens  will  be 
seen  peeping  out  below  her  feathers  before 
that  period.  The  hen  should  not  be  dis- 
turbed during  the  time  the  chickens  are 
leaving  the  eggs,  or  until  they  are  all  fairly 
out  and  dry.  Any  attempt  to  chip  an  ^gs^ 
infallibly  kills  the  chick;  and  every  at- 
tempt to  remove  pieces  of  a  chipped  ^g'g 
causes  the  chick  to  bleed. 

2891.  Cock  chicks,  just  out  of  the  &^^ 
may  be  distinguished  fnmi  hen  chicks  by 
their  larger  heads  and  stronger  legs. 

2892.  A  good  plan  is  to  give  the 
chickens,  when  fairly  out,  a  drink,  by 
taking  them  one  by  one  and  dipping  their 
bills  in  clean  water.  Food  is  then  set 
down  to  them  on  a  flat  plate,  consisting  of 
crumbled  bread  and  oatmeal,  and  a  flat 
dish  of  clean  water.  The  hen's  food  con- 
sists of  corn,  or  thick  oatmeal  porridge, 
boiled  potatoes,  and  water.  The  chickens 
should  be  visited  every  3  hours,  and  a 
variety  of  fresh  food  ])resented,  so  as  to 
induce  them  to  eat  it  the  more  frequently 
and  heartily — such  as  picks  of  hard  oat- 
meal porridge,  crumbled  boiled  potatoes, 
rice,  groats,  pearl  barley;  taking  care  to 
have  the  food  always  fresh,  and  the  water 
clean,  however  small  the  quantity  may 
be  taken.     The  hassock,  or  b(jx,  or  basket, 


662 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


should  now  be  removed,  and  the  true 
neht  :?ct  down  on  the  floor,  with  a  sh>pe  of 
straw  frotii  it,  that  the  chickens  may  walk 
up  to  the  nest  to  be  brooded  at  night. 
In  the  course  of  24  hours  after  all  the 
chickens  are  on  foot,  the  hen  will  express 
a  desire  to  go  out,  which  she  should  l>e 
indulged  in,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  and 
especially  when  the  sun  is  out  ;  but  if  it 
rain,  she  had  better  be  kept  within  doors, 
unless  a  convenient  shed  is  near,  in  which 
she  may  remain  with  her  brood  for  a  short 
time.  Visited  every  3  hours  during  the 
day,  and  supplied  with  a  change  of  food 
such  as  I  have  mentioned,  and  clean  water, 
for  about  a  fortnight,  or  rather  until  the 
feathers  of  the  tails  and  the  wings  begin 
to  sprout,  chickens  may  then  be  considered 
out  of  danger,  and,  of  course,  become  less 
of  a  charge. 

2893.  During  the  remainder  of  the  sea- 
son, the  chickens  should  receive  food  3 
times  a-dav,  consisting  of  porridge  or  boiled 
potatoes,  as  long  as  they  last.  When 
potatoes  fail,  hard-made  oatmeal  porridge 
is  the  best  food  for  fowls  at  any  time,  when 
given  in  small  bits  at  a  time. 

2894.  It  is  not  expedient  to  set  a 
number  of  bens  at  one  time,  but  in  suc- 
cession every  3  weeks  or  a  month  ;  for 
a  few  chickens,  ready  for  the  table  in 
succession,  are  of  greater  value  than  a 
large  number  of  the  same  age. 

2895.  As  the  season  advances  into 
summer,  hens,  as  they  become  fat  by  pick- 
ing up  food  in  the  fields,  have  a  predilec- 
tion to  select  places  in  them  for  nests  to  lay 
eggs,  and  bring  out  chickens.  And  it  must 
be  owned  that  this  is  a  most  natural  pre- 
dilection ;  but  no  dei>endence  can  be  placed 
in  it  for  a  regular  supply  of  young  fowls. 
The  weather  may  not  suit  hens  sitting  in 
the  open  air ;  and  the  hens  have  not  the  dis- 
position to  sit  in  the  most  desirable  periods 
of  the  year,  namely,  at  an  early  and  a  late 
period.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  regular 
6U{)ply  of  eggs  or  chickens,  unless  pro- 
vision is  made  for  collecting  the  one,  and 
hatching  the  other,  in  a  systematic  manner. 

2896.  Chickens  go  6  weeks  with  their 
mother.  A  good  hen  that  has  brought 
out  an  early  brood  will  become  so  fat  while 
rearing  them,   that  she  will   soon  begin 


again  to  drop  egga,  and  of  conrse  again 
become  a  clucker,  and  may  then  be  em- 
ployed to  bring  out  a  late  brood. 

2897.  Turkeys.— The  hatching  and 
rearing  of  turkeys  is  universallv  said  to 
be  a  difficult  matter  to  accomplish  ;  an 
opinion  I  am  not  disjK)sed  to  acquiesce  in, 
and  I  maintain  they  are  as  easilv  reared 
as  chickens.  When  a  turkey-hen  is  seen 
disposed  to  lay,  a  nest  should  be  made  for 
her  in  the  hatching-bouse.  It  may  con- 
sist of  the  same  materials  as  the  hen's  nest, 
but,  of  course,  of  a  larger  size  to  suit  that  of 
the  bird.  A  box  or  basket  is  an  excellent 
thing,  w^ith  the  corners  filled  up. 

2898.  When  once  the  turkey-hen  lays 
an  egg,  and  a  nest-egg  is  placed  in  the 

est,  she  will  use  it  regularly  every  time 
she  requires  it,  which  will  be  once  in 
about  30  hours.  As  the  eggs  are  laid, 
they  should  be  removed,  and  placed  gently 
in  a  basket  in  the  house,  in  a  dry  place, 
and  turned  with  caution  every  day. 

2899.  When  she  has  done  laying,  which 
may  not  be  till  she  has  laid  12  or  13  or 
even  15  eggs,  she  will  be  disposed  to  sit, 
when  the  eggs  should  be  placed  under  her, 
to  the  number  of  11  or  13,  the  former 
number  being  the  most  certain  of  succeed- 
ing, as  a  turkey  cannot  cover  a  greater 
number  of  her  own  eggs  than  a  hen  can  of 
hers;  and  a  brood  of  10  poults  is  an 
excellent  hatching.  A  turkey  need  not 
be  confined  within  the  apartment  she 
occupies,  as  she  is  not  disposed  to  wander, 
nor  is  she  jealous,  like  a  hen,  of  another 
one  sitting  in  the  same  apartment  with 
her.  A  turkey  sits  4  weeks,  and  is  pro- 
verbially a  close  sitter.  During  the  incu- 
bation, corn  and  water  should  be  supplied 
to  her  fresh  and  clean  daily,  and  the  dung 
and  feathers  removed  from  the  nest  every 
two  or  three  days. 

2900.  When  the  poults  are  expected  to 
make  their  appearance,  the  turkey  should 
be  frequently  looked  at,  but  not  disturbed, 
until  all  the  poults  are  fairly  hatched. 

2901.  It  is,  I  believe,  a  common  prac- 
tice to  put  a  peppercorn  down  tlie  throat 
of  every  ponlt  a  short  time  after  it  is 
batched.  How  the  practice  originated,  I 
cannot    say ;    but   as    turkeys,    when  at 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


663 


liberty,  Lave  a  great  relish  for  ants,  and 
seem  to  possess  an  instinctive  faculty  in 
discovering  tlieir  hills,  and  so  has  the 
pheasant,  it  is  possible  that  the  peppercorn 
may  operate  as  a  substitute  for  the  ant. 
It  is  known  that  ants  yield  a  peculiar  acid 
called  formic  acid  ;  and  it  is  not  impro- 
bable that  the  pungency  of  the  peppercorn 
may  act  as  a  stimulant  on  tlie  stomach  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  acid  in  ants.  Dr 
Thomson,  in  speaking  of  the  nature  of  the 
formic  acid,  says,  that  "  it  is  secreted  by 
the  Formica  riifa  or  red  ant,  and  is  the 
liquid  that  renders  the  bites  of  these  insects 
so  painful.  It  was  first  publicly  noticed 
by  Mr  Ray  in  the  year  1670.  .  .  . 
Mr  Fisher  had  stated  to  Mr  Ray,  several 
years  before,  that  '  if  yon  stir  a  heap  of 
ants  so  as  to  rouse  them,  they  will  let  fall 
on  the  instrument  you  use  a  liquid  which, 
if  you  presently  smell,  will  twinge  the 
nose  like  newly-distilled  oil  of  vitriol.' 
Mr  Fisher  farther  stated,  that  '  when  ants 
are  distilled  by  themselves  or  with  water, 
they  yield  a  spirit  like  spirit  of  vinegar, 
or  rather  like  spirit  of  viride  ceris.  It 
dissolves  iron  and  lead.  When  you  put 
the  animals  into  water,  you  must  stir  them 
to  make  them  angry,  and  then  they  will 
spit  out  their  acid  juice.'  Margraaf  ob- 
tained this  acid  in  1749,  by  distilling  ants 
mixed  with  water,  and  rectifying  the  liquid 
that  came  over.  The  acid  obtained  had  a 
sour  taste  and  smell.''* 

2902.  While  referring  to  this  acid,  I 
can  hardly  fail,  in  the  circumstances,  noti- 
cing the  constitution  of  pepper.  "  Piper 
nigrum  is  the  name  of  the  plant  which 
produces  common  pepper.  It  is  a  shrub 
which  grows  in  India.  The  seeds  are 
berries,  round,  hard,  having  an  aromatic 
smell  and  a.  hot  acrid  taste.  These  berries 
constitute  pepper.  The  unripe  berries  are 
tlie  common  black  pepper;  while  the  ripe 
berries,  deprived  of  their  epidermis,  con- 
stitute white  pepper.  .  .  In  1821  M. 
Pellctier  published  an  elaborate  examina- 
tion of  pepper.  He  showed  that  it  con- 
tained the  following  constituents  : — 

Piperin. 

A  svlid  very  acrid  oil. 

A  balsamic  volatile  oil. 

A  gummy-coloured  matter. 

Extract  similar  to  that  obtained  from  legu- 
minous seeds. 


Malic  and  tartaric  acida. 

Starch. 

Bassorin. 

Ligiiin. 

Earthy  and  alkaline  salts  in  small  quantities. 

M.  Pelletier  showed  that  piperin  did  not 
possess  alkaline  characters,  as  Oestedt  had 
supposed,  but  that  it  was  a  peculiar  prin- 
ciple. He  found,  too,  that  pepper  owed 
its  peculiar  ta^te  to  a  volatile  oil.  This  I 
had  shown  many  years  before,''  adds  Dr 
Thomson. t  From  this  account  of  it,  it  is 
not  im{)robable  that  the  solid  and  very 
acrid  oil  in  the  pepper  may  affect  the 
stomachs  of  turkeys  in  a  similar  manner 
as  does  the  formic  acid  in  ants;  and  this 
may  form  an  excuse  for  an  old  practice  for 
which  a  satisfactory  reason  cannot  be  given 
by  those  who  follow  it. 

2903.  After  the  peppercorn  is  given 
— and  it  may  be  given  or  not  as  the  per- 
son who  has  charge  may  choose,  and  I 
know  it  does  no  harm — the  poults  get  a 
drink  of  water,  and  are  returned  into 
the  warm  nest,  where  the  mother  re- 
ceives them  with  characteristic  fondness. 
But  before  leaving  the  turkey  for  that 
night,  the  box  or  basket  in  which  the  nest 
is  formed  should  be  taken  away,  and  the 
nest  formed  with  a  sloping  face  towards 
the  floor,  to  enable  the  young  poults  to 
gain  the  nest.  For  24  hours  the  poults 
will  eat  nothing,  though  the  turkey  her- 
self should  be  provided  with  corn,  firm 
oatmeal  porridge  or  potatoes,  and  water. 
Next  morning  the  young  creatures  will 
be  quite  astir  and  ready  to  eat  food, 
which  should  now  be  given  them.  Tt 
should  consist  solely  of  hard-boiled  eggs^ 
yolks  and  ichite  shredded  down  very 
small,  and  put  on  a  flat  plate  or  small 
board. 

2904.  In  one  respect  turkey-poults  dif- 
fer in  their  nature  from  chickens,  inas- 
nmch  as  they  are  more  apt  to  purge  for 
the  first  fortnight  of  their  existence,  and 
when  purging  does  overtake  them,  it  is 
difficult  of  cure,  and  generally  proves 
fatal ;  but  hard-boiled  eggs,  forming  an 
astringent  and  nourishing  food,  entirely 
prevent  purging,  better  than  some  other 
things  T  have  seen  tried.  For  the  sake  of 
experiment,   firm  oatmeal    porridge    was 


Thomson's  Chemistry  of  Animal  Bodies,  p.  7. 


+  Thomson's  Chemistry  of  Vegetables,  p.  895. 


«64 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


given  instead  of  lianl-boiled  eggs,  and  in 
a  short  lime  two  ponlts  took  the  flux  and 
died,  tlie  rest  having  been  saved  by  a  re- 
turn to  the  egg.  With  c<:g  not  a  single 
death  lias  occurred  among  two  hatchings 
every  year  for  upwards  of  20  years,  and 
that  is  sulHcient  experience  to  justify  the 
reooniniendatiou  of  any  practice. 

290.>.  Let  the  poults  be  visited  every  3 
or  4  hours,  supplied  with  hard-boiled  egg 
and  clean  water.  Let  this  food  be  re- 
moved after  the  poults  are  served,  other- 
wise the  turkey  will  devour  it ;  for  she  is 
a  keen  feeder,  and  not  so  disinterested  a 
bird  in  regard  to  food  as  a  hen.  Let  them 
remain  two  nights  and  a  day  in  the  house, 
and  afterwards  let  them  go  into  the  open 
air  and  enjoy  the  sun  and  warmth,  of 
which,  it  is  hoped,  there  will  be  plenty  in 
the  month  of  May.  In  wet  weather,  they 
fihould  be  confined  to  the  house,  or  allowed 
to  go  into  a  shed.  When  the  birds  become 
strong  and  active  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days,  let  the  turkey  be  placed  in  a  coop 
on  tlie  green  to  curb  her  wandering  pro- 
pensity, until  the  poults  can  follow  her, 
which  they  will  be  able  to  do  after  they 
have  been  supported  on  hard-boiled  eggs 
for  a  fortnight.  This  should  be  put  upon 
a  plate  on  the  green  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  coop,  and  where  the  poults  can  help 
themselves;  whilst  the  food  of  the  turkey 
is  placed  within  reach  of  the  coop,  con- 
sisting of  corn,  porridge,  boiled  potatoes, 
and  water.  After  the  feathers  in  the  tails 
and  wings  of  the  poults  have  fairly 
sprouted,  the  egg  may  be  gradudUi/  with- 
drawn, and  hard-boiled  picks  of  porridge, 
with  a  little  sweet-milk  in  the  dish,  to 
facilitate  the  swallowing  of  the  porridge, 
should  be  given  them  at  least  4  or  5  times 
a-day  at  stated  hours ;  which  wholesome 
food  will  support  them  until  the  mother 
can  provide  insects,  and  other  natural  food 
for  them,  as  a  variety  along  with  it.  They 
will  now  thrive  apace,  and  grow  amazingly 
fast  as  the  weather  becomes  warm.  Should 
the  grass  be  <lamp,  let  the  coop  be  j)laced 
on  the  gravelled  walk  or  road,  as  damj)- 
ness  is  injurious  to  all  young  birds  of  the 
gallinaceous  tribe,  especially  in  brood- 
ing. After  the  egg  is  withdrawn,  the 
poults  are  fond  of  a  little  shredded  cress 
and  mustard,  and,  when  at  liberty,  will 
pick  the  tender  leaves  of  nettles  with 
avidity.     The  predilections  for  ants,  cress, 


and  nettles,  show  that  turkeys  enjoy  sti- 
mulating condiments  with  their  food. 

2906.  Turkeys  are  sometimes  extraor- 
dinary layers.  One  season  a  hen-turkey 
of  my  own,  after  bringing  up  1 1  poults 
till  they  were  8  weeks  old,  made  a  nest 
in  the  middle  of  a  large  bush  of  nettles  at 
the  edge  of  a  young  plantation,  which  she 
visited  by  contriving  to  slip  away  un- 
noticed from  her  brood  to  lay  an  cggetery 
day.  The  nest  was  soon  discovered,  the 
egg  taken  away  every  day  ;us  it  was  laid, 
and  a  nest-egg  left  in  it,  and  tiius  she  con- 
tinued to  visit  it  daily  till  she  had  laid 
the  extraordinary  number  of  90  eggs. 
The  consequence  of  this  oviparous  fecun- 
dity was,  tliat  the  turkey  did  not  moult 
till  the  depth  of  winter,  and  the  moulting 
was  so  very  bare  that  she  had  to  be  con- 
fined to  the  house  ;  and  whether  the  mis- 
fortune which  befell  her  before  spring  was 
owing  to  the  severity  of  the  late  moulting 
I  do  not  know,  but  an  inflammation  and  a 
consequent  swelling  seized  one  of  her  eyes, 
and  she  was  dei)rived  of  its  sight.  By 
spring,  however,  she  recovered  from  the 
moulting,  Avas  furnished  with  a  comj)letely 
new  plumage,  the  wound  on  the  eye  healed, 
but  she  died  a  short  time  after. 

2907.  Turkey-hens  are  most  watchful 
protectors  of  their  young,  and  are  j)articu- 
larly  wary  of  birds  of  proy,  which,  when- 
ever observed,  even  at  the  greatest  height 
in  the  air,  they  will  utter  a  peculiar  cry, 
which  the  poults  understand,  and  will  hide 
themselves  instantly  amongst  the  longest 
grass  and  other  plants  within  reach. 

2908.  Another  peculiarity  affects  the 
turkey-hen;  one  impregnation  from  the 
cock  fecundates  all  theeggsof  the  ovarium; 
and,  on  account  of  this  property,  I  am  told 
it  is  not  uncommon  in  spring  in  Ireland 
for  people  to  carry  about  turkey-cocks 
and  ofl'er  their  services  at  farm-steads, 
as  those  of  a  stallion  are  profl'ered.  It  is 
perhaps  to  this  peculiar  constitutional 
habit  of  the  turkey  that  make^  the  cock 
so  regardless  of  his  own  progeny,  and 
which  leads  the  hen  voluntarily  to  shun 
his  attentions  as  long  as  she  has  charge  of 
the  brood  The  brood  goes  with  her  for 
an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

2909.  Geese.     Geese    make  early  pre- 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


665 


paration  for  incubation.  They,  however, 
seldom  lay  eggs  in  Scotland  till  the  end 
of  February. 

2910.  The  goose  and  gander  cannot 
embrace  but  in  water,  and  if  the  pond 
which  they  frequent  be  covered  with  ice, 
it  should  be  broken  to  allow  them  to  get 
to  the  water,  as  every  egg  requires  a  sepa- 
rate impregnation. 

2911.  An  attentive  observer  will  know 
when  a  goose  is  desirous  of  laying,  by  her 
sitting  down  amongst  straw  and  picking 
up  and  placing  one  on  this  side  and  one 
on  that  side  of  her,  as  if  making  a  nest. 
Whenever  this  is  noticed,  or  an  embrace 
on  the  water  with  the  gander,  a  nest 
should  be  made  for  her  to  lay  in  in  the 
batching-house,  and  to  which  she  should 
have  easy  access,  for  she  cannot  leap  or 
fly  up  with  the  niuibleness  of  a  hen  or 
turkey,  though  her  nest  may  also  be  made 
in  a  box  or  basket,  of  a  size  to  suit  the 
bird. 

2912.  It  is  improper  to  confine  a 
goose  a  long  time  before  laying  her 
first  egg ;  but  when  symptoms  of  laying 
are  observed,  she  should  be  caught  in 
the  morning,  when  let  out,  and  the  lower 
portion  of  the  soft  part  of  the  abdo- 
men felt,  where  the  egg  may  be  easily  as- 
certained to  be  in  a  position  to  be  imme- 
diately laid;  and  if  it  feel  hard,  she  should 
be  put  in  her  nest  and  confined  until  she 
lays  the  egg  in  the  course  of  the  day,  after 
which  she  is  let  out,  the  egg  taken  away, 
kept  dry  in  a  basket,  and  turned  every 
day,  until  the  entire  number  laid  are 
placed  under  her. 

2913.  Every  other  day  after  the  first, 
the  goose  will  visit  her  nest  and  lay  an 
egg,  and  the  number  she  may  lay  will 
seldom  exceed  12,  ti)ough  18  have  been 
known  to  be  laid ;  so,  by  the  time  she  is  done 
laying,  it  will  be  about  the  end  of  March. 
Considerable  diS'erence,  however,  in  this 
respect,  exists  amongst  geese,  they  laying 
on  Slime  farms  considerably  earlier  than 
on  others.  This  may  arise  from  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  as  it  is  pnibable  that  a  dry, 
sharp,  early  soil  for  grass  and  grain,  will 
promote  the  functions  of  poultry,  as  well 
as  the  vegetable  economy,  loan  earlier  de- 
velopment. 


2914.  After  the  goose  has  finished  lay- 
ing her  eggs,  she  will  incline  to  sit,  and 
she  should  receive  her  eggs  ;  and  the  best 
time  for  placing  them  in  the  nest,  as  I 
have  said  of  the  hen,  is  in  the  evening, 
that,  by  the  arrival  of  the  morning,  the 
nest  will  be  so  wanned  and  made  comfort- 
able, as  to  induce  her  to  keep  possession 
of  it.  The  number  of  eggs  given  to  be 
hatched  should  be  11,  which  is  as  many  as 
a  goose  can  easily  cover.  The  goose  plucks 
the  down  off  her  body  to  furnish  her  nest 
with  the  means  of  increasing  its  heat ;  and 
one  great  use  of  the  down  is,  that  when 
she  leaves  her  nest  at  any  time  she  covers 
them  with  it,  and  thus  eftectually  prevents 
the  external  air  cooling  them.  A  little 
clean  water  and  a  few  oats  are  put  beside 
her  while  she  is  sitting ;  but  she  will  eat 
very  little  food  all  the  time  she  sits. 

2915.  A  feed  of  good  oats,  such  as  is 
given  to  a  horse,  will  serve  a  sitting  goose 
for  a  month  ;  yet  this  little  handful  is  ac- 
tually grudged  the  poor  patient  goose, 
and,  instead  of  good  corn,  the  lightest  corn 
blown  from  the  fanners,  only  a  degree  bet- 
ter than  chaff,  is  allowed  her  by  many 
farmers  who  consider  themselves  good 
rearers  of  live  stock. 

2916.  Some  will  not  allow  the  goose  to 
go  abroad  as  long  as  she  is  sitting;  but 
this  is  imposing  an  unnecessary  constraint 
upon  her.  Let  her  go  off  whenever  she 
plmses,  and  there  is  no  fear  but  that  she 
will  return  to  her  nest  in  tiuie  to  maintain 
the  heat  preserved  by  the  down.  Most 
people  will  not  then  allow  her  to  go  to 
the  water  at  all,  alleging,  that  if  she  re- 
turns wet  upon  the  eggs,  they  will  become 
addled  ;  but  this  is  a  mistake.  Let  her  go 
to  the  pond  if  she  wishes  to  wash  hei'self, 
and  depend  upon  it,  she  will  not  continue 
longer  there  than  merely  to  refresh  herself. 
The  feathers  will  not  become  icet ;  it  is 
not  their  nature  to  become  so ;  and  after 
the  relaxation  she  evidently  so  much  en- 
joys, she  will  sit  the  closer. 

2917.  Geese  are  liable  to  become  cos- 
tive while  sitting  and  eating  nothing  but 
corn,  and,  to  counteract  which  tendency, 
they  should  be  supplied  now  and  then  with 
a  little  boiled  potato  in  a  dry  state;  and 
every  fowl,  while  sitting,  should  receive  a 
little  of  this  uieful  iugrtdient. 


666 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


29 1 8.  The  fjander  usually  takes  up  with 
one  iiKite,  hut  if  theie  are  only  two  geese, 
be  will  pay  attention  to  both  ;  and  his  re- 
gard for  his  mate  is  so  strong,  that  he  will 
remain  at  the  door  of  the  hatching-house 
like  a  watch-dog,  guarding  her  from  e\eTy 
danger,  and  ready  to  attack  all  and  sundry 
that  a[»i>roach  her  sanctuary. 

2919.  At  the  end  of  a  calendar 
raonth  the  eggs  may  be  expected  to  be 
hatched  ;  and  during  this  process  the  goose 
should  be  left  undisturbed,  but  not  unob- 
served. 

2920.  After  the  goslings  are  all  fairly 
out  of  the  shell,  and  Iwfore  they  are  even 
dry,  they  may  be  taken  in  a  basket  with 
straw  to  a  sheltered  dry  spot  in  a  grass 
field,  the  goose  carried  by  the  wings,  and 
the  gander  will  follow  the  goslings'  soft 
whistling.  Here  they  may  remain  for  an 
hour  or  two,  provided  the  sun  shines,  and 
in  sunshine  goslings  pick  up  more  strength 
in  one  hour  than  from  the  brooding  they 
receive  from  their  mother  for  a  day.  The 
goslings  will  endeavour  to  balance  them- 
selves on  their  feet  and  pluck  the  grass :  the 
goose  will  rest  beside  them  ;  and  the  gander 
wiil  proudly  protect  them  all.  Watershould 
be  placed  beside  them  to  drink.  Should  the 
sky  overcast,  and  rain  likely  to  fall,  the 
goslings  should  be  immediately  collected, 
and  carried  with  the  goose  to  the  nest ; 
for  if  they  get  their  backs  wetted  with 
rain  or  snow  in  the  first  two  or  three  days 
of  their  life,  they  will  lose  the  use  of 
their  legs,  never  became  strong,  and  will 
inevitably  die.  Should  the  weather  be 
wet,  a  sod  of  good  grass  should  be  cut  and 
placed  within  their  house,  beside  a  shallow 
plate  of  water.  In  setting  down  a  com- 
mon plate  to  goslings,  it  should  be  pre- 
vented from  upsetting,  as  they  will  put 
their  feet  upon  its  edge,  and  spill  the 
water.  After  two  days'  acquirement  of 
strength,  in  sunny  weather,  the  goslings 
may  venture  to  the  pond  to  swim  ;  but  the 
horse-]K)nd  being  frequented  by  so  many 
kinds  of  animals,  is  too  dangerous  a  place 
for  tlicm  as  vet.  A  ])ond  in  a  grass-field 
woiihl  be  the  best  place  for  them.  For 
the  first  few  days  after  goslings  go  about, 
they  should  be  particularly  observed  ;  for, 
should  they  fall  upon  their  backs  on  the 
grass,  or  into  a  hardened  hoof-print  of  a 
Lorse,  or  a  wheel-rut  in  the  ground,  they 


cannot  recover  their  legs,  will  be  de- 
serted by  their  dam  and  all  the  rest,  and 
will  certainly  perish.  After  three  or  four 
days,  however,  in  dry  sunny  weather,  and 
on  good  grass,  they  will  become  so  strong, 
grow  so  fast,  as  to  be  past  all  danger.  It 
is  surprising  how  rapidly  a  young  gosling 
grows  in  the  first  month  of  its  life. 

2921.  After  that  time  they  begin  to 
tire  of  grass,  and  go  in  search  of  other 
food  ;  and  this  is  the  time  to  supply  them 
daily  with  good  oats,  if  you  wish  to  have 
a  flock  of  fine  birds  by  Michaelmas;  any 
other  grain  will  answer  the  pur}»ose,  as 
rice  and  Indian  corn,  let  it  be  but  com, 
though  oats  are  their  favourite  food.  Even 
light  com  will  be  better  than  none  ;  and 
if  they  get  corn  until  harvest,  they  will 
have  passed  their  fastest  growing  period, 
and  will  then  be  able  to  shift  for  them- 
selves, first  in  the  stack-yard,  and  after- 
wards on  the  stubbles. 

2922.  The  sex  of  the  gosling  may  be 
easily  ascertained  after  the  feathers 
begin  to  sprout — the  ganders  being  white, 
and  strong  in  the  leg,  head,  and  neck; 
the  geese  gray,  and  having  a  gentler 
asjject. 

2.92.3.  Goslings  go  with  their  parents 
for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

2924.  Geese  are  in  general  close  sitters; 
but  sometimes  they  are  capricious  enough 
to  forsake  their  eggs  after  a  number  of  the 
goslings  have  been  hatched.  I  have  wit- 
nes.'^ed  an  instance  of  this  sort  of  desertion. 
A  goose  after  hatching  five  goslings,  de- 
serted her  nest,  and  would  no  longer  sit  on 
the  other  six  eggs  to  bring  them  out, 
though  one  of  them  was  chipped.  Fear- 
ing that  the  deserted  eggs  would  perish 
from  cold,  my  housekeeper — who  took  the 
charge  of  all  the  poultry,  cows  and  calves, 
besides  the  house — brought  the  eggs  into 
the  house,  put  them  in  a  basket  amongst 
flannel  "And  wool,  caused  the  oven  to  be 
gently  heated.  j>laccd  the  ba.-sket  with  the 
^izg>  in  the  oven,  and  continued  the  heat 
in  it  night  and  day  until  all  the  goslings 
were  hatched,  which  they  were  one  by  one, 
excepting  one  in  which  the  bird  had  <lied. 
They  occupied  some  days  in  leaving'  their 
eggs,  and  longer  than  they  would  have 
done  under  the  goose.     They  were  care- 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


667 


fully  attended  to,  and  were  taken  out  to 
the  grass  in  the  best  part  of  the  day,  kept 
warm  in  the  house  at  night,  and,  when  the 
weather  was  such  that  they  could  not  get 
out,  a  grass  sod  was  brought  to  them  into 
the  house.  The  goose  refused  to  take  this 
part  of  her  own  brood  when  offered  to  her, 
after  they  had  gained  sufficient  strength 
to  go  about ;  which  being  the  case,  they 
were  brought  up  without  her  aid,  and  be- 
came as  strong  birds  as  the  rest  of  the 
brood.  I  consider  this  as  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  the  resources  of  a  humane  mind, 
and  of  a  disregard  of  personal  trouble ;  and 
it  is  an  encouraging  example  of  persever- 
ance in  the  preservation  of  the  lives  of  use- 
ful animals  under  unfavourable  and  even 
provoking  circumstances. 

2925.  Ducks — Ducks  begin  to  lay  eggs 
early  in  the  season,  as  early  as  January,  so 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  an  early  hatching  of 
ducklings,  if  desired  ;  but  early  ducklings 
are  not  desirable,  as,  during  an  unnatu- 
ral period  for  them,  they  do  not  acquire 
much  flesh,  even  with  the  utmost  care  ; 
their  bills  and  bones  growing  disproportion- 
ately large,  and  they  never  become  fine 
birds.  It  is  early  enough  to  set  duck  eggs 
in  Scotland  by  May,  and  by  April  in 
England.  It  is  customary  to  place  duck 
eggs  under  hens,  owing,  I  believe,  to  the 
difficulty  of  making  a  duck  take  to  a  nest 
she  has  not  herself  made. 

292fi.  Hens  make  tolerable  foster- 
mothers  to  ducklings,  though,  in  becoming 
so,  the  task  is  imposed  upon  them  of  a 
week's  hmger  sitting  than  is  in  conformity 
with  their  own  nature ;  and,  after  all,  the 
natural  plan  is  for  ducks  to  bring  out  their 
own  kind  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that, 
when  a  duck  does  choose  a  nest  for  her- 
self, lines  it  with  her  own  down,  and  brings 
out  a  brood,  that  the  ducklings  are  better 
than  any  reared  under  the  care  of  a  hen ; 
the  instinct  of  the  duck  being  more  con- 
genial to  ducklings  in  leading  them  to 
places  in  search  of  food  peculiar  to  their 
tastes,  as  well  upon  land  as  upon  water. 
Still  the  entire  production  of  ducklings  on 
a  farm  should  not  be  left  to  the  chance  of 
ducks  setting  themselves  on  eggs,  for  they 
are  proverbially  careless  of  where  they 
deposit  their  eggs,  and  on  that  account 
hens  must  be  employed  to  hatch  at  least  a 
few  broods  of  ducks. 


2927.  As  in  the  case  of  her  own  eggs, 
a  hen  can  only  cover  11  duck  eggs  with 
ease  ;  and  she  requires  the  same  treatment 
as  when  sitting  on  her  own  eggs.  A  cal- 
endar month  is  required  to  bring  out  duck- 
lings ;  and  during  the  actual  hatching,  the 
heu  shouhl  be  left  undisturbed  until  all 
the  brood  comes  out. 

2928.  Ducklings  should  be  kept  from 
water  for  a  couple  of  days,  until  their  navel 
string  is  healed ;  and  the  food  which  they 
receive  should  be  soft,  quite  the  opposite 
of  that  given  to  turkey-poults — such  as  bits 
of  oatmeal  porridge,  boiled  potatoes,  bread 
steeped  in  water,  barley-meal  brose,  and 
clean  water  to  drink  in  a  flat  dish  in  which 
they  cannot  swim.  On  this  treatment,  3 
or  4  times  at  least  every  day,  they  will 
thrive  apace,  and  become  soon  fledged  over 
the  body,  when  they  are  fit  for  use ;  but 
their  quill-feathers  do  not  appear  for  some 
time  after.  In  this  state  wild  ducklings, 
under  the  name  oi  Jiaffers,  make  excellent 
sport. 

2929.  A  great  number  of  ducklings  are 
bred  and  reared  every  year  in  the  Vale  of 
Aylesbury  in  Buckinghamshire,  for  the 
London  market,  by  people  of  the  poorer 
class.  The  eggs  are  hatched  by  hens,  and 
3  or  4  broods  are  put  together  into  one 
division ;  whilst  other  divisions  contain 
them  in  a  different  state  of  growth,  some 
half-grown,  others  full  fledged,  and  all  are 
fed  alike.  In  this  way  one  person  has 
SOO  or  400  ducklings  feeding  about  the 
house,  and  perhaps  under  the  same  roof 
with  the  family.  A  great  many  are 
housed  in  little  space,  and  never  allowed 
to  go  at  large ;  but  permitted  to  wash 
themselves  every  day  in  a  pond  made  on 
purpose  near  the  house.  They  are  fed 
three  times  a-day  on  potatoes,  barley-meal, 
bran,  greaves,  &c.,  and  receive  as  much  as 
they  can  eat  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  they 
eat  an  incredible  quantity  of  food  while 
thus  forcing  for  the  market.  When  full- 
feathered  they  are  sent  to  London,  where 
they  find  a  ready  sale,  at  from  6s.  6d.  to 
8s.  a  pair.  As  the  season  advances,  prices 
fall,  till  they  reach  3s.  a  pair,  when  the 
breeding  is  given  up  for  the  season.  Those 
people  allege  that  they  are  not  remunerated 
for  their  trouble  even  at  the  highest  prices; 
and  yet  I  have  seen  it  lately  stated  on  the 
testimony  of   a  poulterer,    that   J30,000 


668 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


are  annually  sent  out  of  London  for  the 
purcliajc  of  Aylesbury  ducka. 

2030.  Pea-fotcls. — Pea-hens,  in  tlieir 
liatcliing,  will  not  be  subjected  to  control, 
Tlie  lieu  selects  a  secluded  spot  for  her 
nest,  not  unlikely  in  a  garden,  wbere  she 
feels  herself  secure  from  the  attentions  of 
the  cock,  whom  she  avoids  at  this  season 
with  marked  assiduity.  She  takes  care 
that  he  shall  not  know,  not  only  where 
her  nest  is,  but  when  the  pea-fowls  come 
out;  and  it  is  alleged,  that  the  cock  de- 
stroys them.  A  pea-hen  in  this  country 
seldom  brings  out  more  than  three  or  four 
birds,  though  usually  laying  five  eirgs ; 
and  these  she  tends  with  great  care,  taking 
them  to  places  where  wild  food  can  be 
found  in  greatest  abundance,  such  as  in- 
sects of  various  kinds  and  in  different 
states ;  and,  besides  this,  thev  are  fed  as 
3'oung  turkeys  are.  She  continues  her  care 
for  her  young  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

2031.  Pigeons. — Pigeons,  when  their 
dove-cot  is  favourably  situated  for  heat, 
begin  to  lay  in  February,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so  until  December. 

2032.  They  make  their  owa  nests,  which 
are  of  the  simplest  materials  and  rudest 
conr-tructi(m,  and  the  same  nest  will  be 
used  by  the  same  pair  season  after  season, 
if  permitted,  even  after  it  has  been  much 
elevated  by  the  dunjri.f  the  young  pigeons. 
A  fine  ne^t  is  not  required  by  pigeons, 
which  only  laying  two  eggs  at  a  time, 
one  of  each  sex,  the  hen  can  easily  cover 
them ;  ancl  to  afford  to  them  stijl  more 
heat,  she  pushes  them  below  her  with  her 
bill,  amongst  the  feathers. 

29o3.  What  I  have  said  on  the  mode  of 
hatching  the  different  s<»rts  of  fowls  usually 
reared,  is  suitable  to  every  sort  of  farm, 
and  may  be  acquired  by  any  domestic  of 
the  farm  house  ;  and  that  it  is  quite  prac- 
ticable, my  own  experience  of  it  for  years 
has  proved.  Other  schemes  are  recom- 
mended in  books,  and  large  establish- 
ments, consisting  of  buildings  and  ponds, 
and  spare  ground,  are  erected  and  laid 
out  in  the  parks  and  farm-courts  of  coun- 
try gentlemen  ;  but  let  any  other  plan  be 
what  it  luav,  and  its  erections  and  ajipli- 
ances  of  whatever  magnitude,  there  is  no 


one.  I  feel  confident,  will  afford  poultry  at 
all  tiiiies  in  a  higher  degree  of  perfection 
and  health  than  the  simjile  one  I  iiave 
just  described,  and  recommended  for  your 
adoption — and  exf)erience  is  the  Itest 
test  to  which  any  plan  can  be  subjected. 
I  do  not  say  that  it  is  a  very  cheap  plan, 
that  it  will  suj)ply  pood  })ouliry  for  the 
table  at  little  or  no  cost — the  idea  of  cheap- 
ness entertained  by  farniers,  when  tliey 
condescend  to  cast  a  thought  on  the  poultry 
of  their  farms.  I  do  not  believe  that  fowls 
can  be  reared  upon  the  refuse  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  a  farm  more  than  any  other  sort 
of  stock  ;  and  when  I  see  that  the  best 
oats,  the  best  turnips,  and  the  best  grass 
that  a  farm  can  raise,  are  required  to  rear 
such  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  as  pur- 
chasers desire  t<>  have,  I  must  also  believe 
that  poultry  require  the  best  food  to  make 
them  as  acceptable  ;  but  this  I  can  say 
for  the  plan,  that  as  a  practicable  tne  for 
an  ordinary  farm,  it  requires  no  costly 
buildings,  and  that  it  will  assuredly  yield 
poultry  in  good  condition  at  all  seascms,  in 
return  for  the  food  and  trouble  bestowed 
upon  them — and  w  hat  more  can  a  reason- 
able farmer  desire  ( 

2934.  Poultry  in  toirns. — Fowls  are  kept  in 
towns  in  places  quite  uiisuited  to  their  liabits  ; 
most  frequently  in  a  small  court,  surroumied  by 
a  high  rail  except  on  the  side  in  which  ihe  hen- 
house is  situated  ;  and  this  consists  of  a  flatti^h- 
roofed  out-house,  pervious  to  rain  and  redolent 
of  moisture,— a  condition  the  very  worst  for 
fowls.  The  floor  ot  the  court  is  generally  covered 
with  dirt,  aiil  the  small  vessel  which  is  intendeJ 
to  contain  water  is  as  often  dry  as  pleuished  with 
clean  water,  while  llie  food  is  thrown  upon  ihe 
dirty  court  floor.  Add  to  these  sources  of  dis- 
comfort, the  sun,  probably,  never  shines  upon  the 
town  heu-house,  or  only  for  a  few  minutes  in  the 
afternoon,  when  the  fowls  are  about  to  retire  to 
roost.  Ducks  are  treated  in  even  a  ]e^s  cere- 
monious tnanner  than  hens  ;  having  no  water, 
theirfeathersbecome  begrimed  with  dirt,and  their 
food  is  given  to  them  iu  a  state  little  else  than 
a  dirty  puddle.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  tliat 
fowls  can  thr'tre  in  such  circumstances  ;  and,  in- 
deed, a  sight  of  the  poor  creatures  excites  nothing 
but  commi^eration  for  their  fate.  What  c:ia  in- 
duce people  to  keep  animals  in  such  a  state  of 
filth  and  discomfort,  1  cannot  conceive. 

29.'?5.  One  cause  of  sufi'ering  to  hens  in  such 
situations,  is  the  want  of  sand  or  gravel  to  assist 
the  tritnritioH  of  food  in  the  stomach.  It  is 
found  tliat  gallinaceous  binls  require  a  -upply  of 
quar'zy  sub-tau<-e — and  these  they  find  on  any 
farm,  as  al>o  calcareous  matter,  such  as  liiue— to 
assist  in  the  formation  of  the  t-hell  of  tie  ci:g] 
without   which,  hens  will  lay  what  are  called 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


Kind  eggs,  that  is,  eggs  without  a  hardened  sheW. 
In  tlie  case  of  the  fowls  on  board  a  certain 
East  Iiidiaman  getting  unwell  iu  their  ooops, 
notwitlistanding  the  attention  daily  bestowed, 
and  tlie  good  food  allowed  them,  it  was  dis- 
covered by  the  surgeon,  on  dissection  of  some  of 
the  birds  which  had  died,  that  tlie  cause  of  death 
was  the  want  of  gravel  to  assist  tiie  digestion  of 
food.  A  supply  of  stones  to  beat  down  small 
was  obtained  at  a  convenient  port,  and  the  fowls 
becajne  healthy,  and  continued  so  afterwards. 
Auother  source  of  suffering  of  a  similar  nature 
to  hens,  is  the  want  of  dust  to  burrow  in,  and  to 
scatter  it  amongst  their  feathers,  in  order  to  de- 
stroy the  vermin  which  annoy  their  skin  ;  and  the 
ducks  suffer  equally  much  from  the  want  of 
water  to  wash  in  and  clean  themselves. 

2936.  The  Greeks  exhibited  much  superstition 
and  absurdity  in  the  management  of  their  poultry. 
"  When  we  wish  fowls  to  lay,  we  are  to  set 
clean  straw  under  them,  and  to  lay  an  iron  nail 
in  it,  for  this  seems  to  be  of  service  against  everj' 
evil.  Columella  mentions  the  same  thing.  More 
than  28  eggs  are  not  laid  under  a  good  hen,  and 
fewer  under  one  that  is  not  a  good  one,  according 
to  the  natural  power  of  each  bird.  (Columella 
recommends  2]  eggs — Varro  went  so  far  as  to  men- 
tion "25 — which  might  not  seem  so  extraordinary 
in  a  warm  climate,  and  when  we  know  that,  even 
in  this  country,  hens  will  bring  out  as  many  as 
20  chickens,  in  nests  provided  by  tliemselves  in 
the  fields.)  The  number  must  always  be  uneven  ; 
and  you  must  set  them  under  the  hen  when  the 
moon  is  increasing,  that  is,  after  the  new  moon, 
to  the  fourteenth  day  of  its  age.  Those,  indeed, 
that  are  set  before  the  new  moon  become  abortive. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  set  the  eggs  chiefly  that 
were  laid  from  the  blowing  of  Favouius  to  the 
autumnal  equinox,  that  is,  from  the  7th  of  Feb- 
ruary to  the  22d  of  September  ;  wherefore  you 
are  to  set  them  apart  in  the  breeding  season, 
that  a  young  brood  may  be  raised.  But  you  are 
not  to  set  the  eggs  laid  before  this  season  or 
afterwards  ;  and  all  the  first-laid  eggs  are  not  to 
be  set,  for  they  are  stale  and  imperfect.  Let  the 
keeper  turn  the  eggs  every  day,  tljat  they  may 
be  equally  cherished  on  every  side.  It  is  also 
proper  not  to  set  one  hen  only  the  same  day,  but 
three  or  four,  and  you  are  immediately  to  take 
the  chickens  that  are  hatched  from  every  hen, 
and  to  bc't  them  under  one  that  has  few:  and  you 
are  to  divide  the  eggs  that  are  not  hatched  be- 
tween the  hens  that  are  still  sitting,  that  being 
cheri.~lied  by  them  they  may  come  to  life  ;  but 
you  are  not  to  set  under  a  hen  that  has  a  small 
brood  more  than  30  chickens.  Cold  is  inimical 
to  the  race  of  fowls. 

2937.  "  You  will  thus  prove  if  eggs  are  good  : 
put  them  in  water,  for  one  that  is  faulty  swims, 
as  being  useless,  but  that  which  is  fully  perfect 
will  sink  to  the  bottom  ;  nor  is  it  proper  to  shake 
the  eggs  in  proving  them,  that  the  vital  principle 
in  them  may  not  be  destroyed  ;  and  as  some  per- 
sons set  heterogeneous  eggs  under  domestic  fowls, 
you  are  to  know  that  a  hea  hatches  the  eggs  of  a 


pheasant  in  the  same  manner  as  its  own  in  21 

days,  but  the  eggs  oi"  a  pea-fowl  and  of  a  goose 
in  29  days.  (Varro  says  in  27  days,  and  Pliny 
from  the  twenty-seventh  to  the  thirtieth  day.) 
Calculate,  then,  and  set  these  according  to  those 
already  mentioned,  that  they  may  be  hatched  7 
or  8  days  afterwards.  But  there  are  in  Alexan- 
dria, belonging  to  Egypt,  hens  called  monosyri, 
from  which  game  cocks  may  be  raised,  which 
sit  on  two  or  three  sets  of  eggs  successively, 
so  that  chickens  that  are  hatched  are  taken 
away  and  bred  apart,  and  the  bird  sits  42  or  63 
days. 

2938.  "  The  chickens  being  indeed  first  put 
in  a  basket,  are  suspended  over  a  little  smoke, 
but  they  take  no  nourishment  during  two  days. 
Secure  the  vessel  from  which  food  is  given  them 
with  cow-dung.  .  .  .  The  house  is  also  fumi- 
gated with  one  of  the  things  that  drive  away 
reptiles.  .  .  .  There  have  indeed  been  found 
certain  antidotes  wliich  preserve  hens.  If  rue  is 
tied  under  the  hen's  wings,  neither  a  cat  nor  a 
fox,  nor  any  other  noxious  animal,  will  touch 
them  ;  and  especially  if  you  give  them  food  with 
which  the  gall  of  a  fox  or  of  a  cat  has  been 
mixed,  as  Democritus  positively  afiirms."* 

2939.  Few  eggs  are  worth  the  trial  of  hatching 
if  more  than  a  month  old  ;  their  condition,  how- 
ever, is  greatly  influenced  by  the  season  and  the 
state  of  the  weather.  An  egg  retains  its  freshness 
longest  in  moderately  cool  weather  ;  very  hot 
weather  destroys  vitality  in  a  few  days ;  and 
an  egg  having  been  frozen  is  also  useless  for 
hatching.  Failures  in  hatching  arise  from  want 
of  impregnation  in  the  egg — from  age,  commonly 
called  staleness,  whereby  life  has  become  extinct 
• — from  weakness  of  the  vital  energy  of  the  eggs, 
produced  by  age,  lowness  of  keep,  or  ill  health  of 
the  parent,  in  which  cases  the  chick  partially  de- 
velops itself,  but  dies  before  the  full  period  of 
incubation.  Eggs  may  be  brought  to  life,  but 
unless  the  process  of  incubation  be  properly  exe- 
cuted, the  birds  will  be  weakly,  ill-conditioned, 
and  die  in  a  short  time  afterwards.  To  prevent 
the  yolk  of  weak  eggs  from  settling  by  its  specific 
gravity,  and  adhering  to  the  shell,  it  is  useful  to 
pass  the  hand  over  tl)em,  so  as  to  change  tlieir 
position  every  24  hours.  The  egg  of  a  strong 
healthy  bird,  at  the  time  of  its  protrusion  from 
the  body,  is  completely  filled  with  yolk  and  albu- 
men. If  examined  a  few  days  after,  by  hoMiiig 
it  toward  the  liiiht,  a  small  cell  of  air  will  be 
discoverable  at  the  larger  end,  which  increases 
with  the  age  of  the  egg.  This  waste  of  its  in- 
ternal substance  is  occasioned  by  absorption  of 
the  atmosphere,  through  the  pores  of  the  shell, 
of  the  more  volatile  parts  of  its  contents.  When 
the  cell  is  large  in  any  egg,  't  is  unfit  for  incu- 
bation ;  nevertheless,  in  a  good  egg,  as  incuba- 
tion proceeds,  this  cell  becomes  considerable, 
produced  probably  both  Irora  evaporation  by 
heat,  and  the  vital  action  going  on  within  the 
shell.  It  al.>o  serves  an  important  purpose  in 
the  economy  of  this  mysterious  process.  An  egg 
will  not  hatch  in  vacuo. 


•  Owen's  Geoponika,  vol.  ii.  p,  167-72. 


«70 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


2940.    The  progressive  series   of  phenomena, 
daily   observable  during  the  process    of  incuba- 
tion in  the  egg  of  a  common  fowl,  are  curious  and 
instructive.     In  an  impregnated  egg,    previous 
to  the  commencement  of  incubation,  a  small  spot 
is  discernible  upon  the  yolk,  composed  of  a  mem- 
branous sac  containing  fluid  matter,  in  which  the 
embryo  of  the  future  chick  swims. 
1st  day. — At  the  expiration  of  12  or  14  hours 
after  incubation    has   commenced,    the 
matter    within    the    embryo    evidently 
bears  a  resemblance  to  a  head — vesicles 
assume  the  shape  of  the  vertebral  bones 
of  the  back. 
2d  day. — In  39  hours  the  eyes  make  their  ap- 
pearance— vessels  joiu  together  indicate 
the   navel — the  brain,    spinal  marrow, 
rudiments  of  the  wings,  and   principal 
muscles — the   heart    is    evidently   pro- 
ceeding. 
3d  day. — At  its  commencement  the  beating  of 
the  heart  is  visible — some  hours  after, 
two   vesicles   containing   blood   appear, 
one  forming  the  left  ventricle  and  the 
other  the  great  artery — the  auricle  of 
the  heart  is  next  seen,  and  pulsation  is 
evident. 
4th  day.— Wings  assume  a  defined  form — the 
brain,  the  beak,  the  front  and  hind  parts 
of  the  head  visible. 
Sth  day. — Liver  seen — circulation  of  the  blood 

evident. 
6th  day. — Lungs  and  stomach  distinguishable — 
full  gush  of  blood  from  the  heart  distinct. 
7th  day. — Intestines,  veins,  and  upper  mandible 

visible — brain  becomes  consif^tent. 
Sth  day. —  Beak  opens — formation  of  flesh  on  the 

breast. 
Sth  day. —  Ribs    formed  —  gall    bladder    per- 
ceptible, 
loth  day. — Bill  formed — first  Toluntary  motion 

of  the  chick  seen. 
11th  day. — Skull    becomes    cartilaginous  —  pro- 
trusion of  feathers  evident. 
12th  day. — Orbits   of  sight   appear  —  ribs   per- 
fected. 
13th  day. — Spleen  in  its  proper  position  in  the 

abdomen. 
I4th  day. — Lungs  enclosed  within  the  breast. 
1.5th  day.  " 
16th  day. 
17th  day. 

18th  day. — Audible  sign  of  life  outside  the  skull 

— piping  of  the  chick  heard. 

")  Increase  of  size  and   strength — yolk 

19th  day.  j       eucl..sed   within  the   body  —  chick 

20th  day.  i-      liberates  itself  by  repeated  efi"orts 

2l8t  day.  i      made  by  the  bill,  seconded  by  mus- 

J      cular  exertion  of  the  limbs. 

2941.  The  embryo  of  the  chick  is  not  in  every 
egg  placed  precisely  in  the  same  situation,  but 
varies  considerably.  Generally  it  develops  itself 
within  the  circumference  of  the  broadest  part  of 
the  egg  ;  sometimes  it  is  found  higher,  sometimes 
lower;  and  when  held  before  a  strong  light,  has 


Mature   state   approached — yolk   of 
the  egg  still  outside  of  the  body. 


an  appearance,  when  a  few  days  old,  somewhat 
resembling  the  meshes  of  a  spider's  web,  with 
the  spider  in  the  centre.  As  it  increases  in  size, 
the  bulk  of  the  contents  of  the  egg  decrease,  so 
that  when  the  bird  is  completely  matured,  it  has 
ample  space  to  move,  and  to  use  its  limbs  with 
sufflcient  efiect  to  insure  its  liberation.  The  po- 
sition of  the  chick  in  the  shell  is  such  as  to  occupy 
the  least  space.  The  head,  which  is  large  and 
heavy  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  is 
placed  in  front  of  the  belly,  with  its  beak  under 
the  right  wing  ;  the  feet  are  gathered  up  like  a 
bird  trussed  for  the  spit,  yet,  in  this  singular 
manner,  and  apparently  uncomfortable  position, 
the  bird  is  by  no  means  cramped  or  confined,  but 
performs  all  the  necessary  motions  and  efforts 
required  for  its  liberation  with  the  most  perfect 
ease,  and  with  that  consummate  skill  which  in- 
stinct renders  almost  infallible.  The  chicken, 
when  it  breaks  the  shell,  is  heavier  than  the  whole 
egg  was  at  first. 

2942.  In  regard  to  the  original  formation  of 
feathers  in  the  chick  of  a  bird,  M.  Raspail  has 
the  following  observations  : — "  If  we  examine," 
he  says,  "  the  epidermis  of  a  fparrow,  as  it  comes 
from  the  egg,  we  shall  find  that  we  can  isolate 
each  of  the  small  bottles,  which  the  vesicles  that 
form  the  rudiments  of  hairs  assume  the  shape  of, 
as  well  as  the  nerve  of  which  it  seems  to  be  the 
terminal  development.  It  might  almost  be  sup- 
posed that  the  object  viewed  was  the  eye  of  a 
tnoKusca,  with  its  long  optic  nerve.  The  summit 
of  this  vesicle  is  open,  even  at  its  early  period, 
to  afford  a  passage  for  a  cylindrical  bundle  of 
small  fibres,  which  are  also  cylindrical,  and  which 
are  nothing  else  than  the  barbs,  as  yet  single,  of 
the  feather.  If,  afterwards,  we  examine  a  feather 
at  a  more  advanced  period,  we  may,  by  a  little 
address,  satisfy  ourselves  that  its  tube  is  formed 
and  grows  by  means  of  spalha;,  one  within  an- 
other, of  which  the  external  ones  project  over 
the  inner  ones,  so  that  the  tube  seems  as  if 
divided  by  so  many  diapliragms.  The  inter- 
stices of  these  diaphragms  are  filled  with  a  fatty 
liquid,  which  condenses  in  them  gradually,  as 
the  summits  of  the  spathae  approximate  and 
adhere  to  each  other."* 

2943.  The  hatching  of  fowls  naturally  leads 
the  mind  to  the  curious  artificial  system  of  hatch- 
ing which  the  ancient  Egyptians  practised,  and 
which  afforded  them  an  immense  supply  of  poultry 
every  year.  It  is  unnecessary  to  detail  the  an- 
cient mode  of  hatching,  as  it  is  unsuited  to  this 
country,  our  climate  being  much  too  unsteady  for 
the  purpose ;  but  particular  accounts  of  it  may 
be  found  detailed  by  authors.f  The  modern 
Egyptians  still  practise  the  system,  and  as  the 
results  exhibit  some  extraordinary  facts,  I  am 
tempted  to  give  the  following  account  of  it  from 
Mr  Mowbray  : — "  Sicard,"  he  says, "  gives  an  idea 
of  the  immense  quantities  of  chickens  hatched  in 
his  time  in  Egypt.  The  number  of  oveus  for 
hatching  the  eggs,  dispersed  in  the  several  can- 
tons of  the  country,  was  no  less  than  38ti.     The 


•  Raspail's  Orcjank  Chemistri),  p.  283. 
t  Wilkinson's  Manticrs  and  Faslnvns  of  the  Ancient  Etfyptians,  vol.  i.  p.  134. 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


671 


business  seems  to  be  monopolised  by  the  Agas  or 
government,  and  therefore  cannot  be  varied  in 
extent  but  by  their  permission.  Each  mamal  or 
oven  has  one  managing  Bermean,  a  native  of  the 
village  of  Berme  in  the  Delta,  by  whom  the  art 
of  managing  it  has  been  retained,  and  is  taught 
to  his  children.  These  managers  cannot  absent 
themselves  from  duty  but  with  leave  obtained 
from  the  Aga  of  Bernie,  never  obtained  but  at  the 
expense  of  6  to  10  crowns.  The  Aga  constantly 
keeps  a  register  of  these  fees,  which  to  him  is  a 
sort  of  rent-roll.  The  above  number  of  ovens  is 
kept  at  work  in  Egypt  annually  during  4  to  6 
months,  allowing  more  time  than  is  necessary  to 
hatch  8  successive  broods  of  chickens,  ducks,  and 
turkeys,  making  in  the  whole,  yearly,  3088 
broods.  The  number  in  each  hatching  is  not 
always  equal,  from  the  occasional  difficulty  of 
obtaining  a  sufficient  number  of  eggs,  which  may 
be  stated  at  a  medium  between  the  two  extremes 
of  40,000  and  80,000  to  each  oven.  The  Ber- 
mean contracts  to  return  in  a  living  brood  to  his 
employer,  two-thirds  of  the  number  of  eggs  set  in 
the  oven;  all  above  being  his  own  perquisite,  in 
addition  to  his  salary  for  the  season,  which  is  30  to 
40  crowns,  exclusive  of  his  board.  According  to 
report,  the  crop  of  poultry  thus  artificially  raised 
in  Egypt  was  seldom  or  never  below  that  ratio, 
making  the  enormous  annual  amount  of  92,640,000. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  apparent  grand  difficulty  of 
obtaining  a  sufficient  number  of  eggs  must  sub- 
sist chiefly  or  entirely  in  the  infancy  of  such  an 
undertaking,  and  that  its  progress  must  infinitely 
extend  that  supply,  as  has  been  the  case  in  Egypt, 
where  the  breeding  stock  has  been  so  multiplied, 
and  where,  in  consequence,  the  commodity  is  so 
cheap  from  its  superabundance,  that,  in  the  time 
of  Sicard,  1000  eggs  were  sold  for  30  or  40 
medims,  making  3s.  or  4s.  English  money.  In- 
deed, the  chickens  were  not  sold  from  the  stores 
by  tale  but  by  measure  ;  according  to  Raumeur, 
by  the  bushel  !  And  it  appears,  from  travellers 
of  the  present  day,  to  be  the  custom  in  Egypt  to 
purchase  chickens  by  the  basketful."* 

2944.  M.  Ilaumeur,underthe  French  Academy, 
instituted  experiments  to  prove  that  eggs  could 
be  hatched  in  France  as  well  as  in  Egypt;  but  it 
was  soon  discovered  that  the  two  countries  were 
placed  in  difi'erent  circumstances  in  regard  to 
climate,  and  the  project  was  abandoned  as  being 
impracticable.  Plans  of  artificial  hatching  were 
tried  with  better  success  by  M.  Bonuemain,  by  a 
system  of  supplying  heat  from  hot  water  in  pipes; 
but  the  French  Revolution  put  an  end  to  the 
experiment.  It  is  worth  observing,  in  passing, 
how  strange  it  is  to  hear  of  the  circulation  of 
hot  water  in  pipes,  as  a  steady  source  of  heat, 
recommended  at  the  present  day  as  a  rwveltt/. 
"  The  theory  and  practice  of  hot  water  circula- 
tion," observes  Dr  Ure,  "  were  as  perfectly  un- 
derstood by  M.  Bonnemain  fifty  years  ago,  as 
they  are  by  any  of  our  stove-doctors  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  They  were  then  publicly  exhibited  at 
his  residence  at  Paris,  and  were  afterwards  com- 


municated to  the  world  at  large  in  the  interesting 
article  of  the  Dictionuaire  Technologique,  entitled 
Incubation  Artificielle." 

2945.  M.  Felgeris,  proprietor  of  the  baths  at 
Chaudes-Aigues,  (Cantal,)  followed  the  plan  of 
hatching  eggs  by  means  of  hot  mineral  waters,  as 
recommended  by  M.  d'Arcet.  "  Tins  consists  of 
putting  tlie  eggs  into  a  small  basket,  suspending 
it  in  one  of  the  stove-rooms  heated  by  the  hot 
mineral  water,  and  turning  round  the  eggs  every 
day.  The  very  first  trial  was  attended  with 
success,  and  no  failure  was  experieuced  in  four 
repetitions  of  it."t 

2946.  To  supply  the  inhabitants  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  with  fowls  as  the  Egyptians 
are — namely,  at  the  rate  of  46  J-  fowls  to  each  per- 
son every  year — the  number  required  to  be 
hatched  would  be  1,109,000,000  of  fowls  ! 

2947.  Some  years  ago  a  machine  for  hatching 
eggs,  called  the  Eccaleobion,  was  in  operation  in 
London  where  I  saw  it.  It  was  the  contrivance 
of  Mr  William  Bucknell,  who  published  an  in- 
teresting statement  of  his  experience  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  eggs,  and  his  observations  on  the 
habits  of  young  chickens.  The  machine  I  saw 
was  capable  of  containing  2000  egg-,  open  to 
sight  through  glazed  doors,  in  different  states  of 
incubation,  from  the  first  hour  in  which  the  egg 
was  deposited  in  the  machine,  until  the  last 
when  the  bird  left  the  shell.  The  sight  was 
highly  interesting,  and  I  could  have  spent  hours 
in  observing  the  gradual  mutation  assumed  by 
the  egg.  I  presume  the  cost  of  supporting  the 
heat  in  the  machine  had  not  been  repaid  by 
the  sale  of  birds,  as  I  have  heard  nothing  of 
its  existence  for  several  years. 

2948.  At  present,  in  1848,  is  a  machine  in 
operation  in  London,  named  the  H}dro- Incu- 
bator, belonging  to  Mr  Cantelo.  I  do  not  know 
the  particular  construction  of  the  apparatus,  but 
presume  from  its  name,  that  the  heat  required  by 
it  is  generated  by  warm  water.  Mr  E.  Hulme 
of  Clapliam,  says,  in  regard  to  this  machine — 
"  the  first  thing  1  saw  in  July  last,  was  a  four- 
tray  incubator  in  operation.  One  of  the  trays 
was  taken  out,  and  I  could  hear  numbers  pecking 
at  their  prison-walls.  Next  was  the  drying  nest, 
with  numbers  of  chicks  hatched  that  day.  I  felt 
the  degree  of  heat  on  the  under  side  of  the  water- 
proof cloth,  and  thought  it  admirably  adapted.  I 
next  saw  the  different  broods  with  their  hydro- 
mothers,  from  a  day  old  until  they  ranked  as 
roosters.  Next  were  the  out- door  runs,  where 
there  were  hundreds  of  full-grown  fowlj,  and 
the  whole,  from  the  smallest,  looked  in  perfect 
condition.  Yet  it  struck  me,  that  the  place  out- 
doors was  altogether  unsuitable  for  the  fuU 
development  of  the  system."  J 

2949.  I  lately  saw  an  advertisement  from 
Norfolk,  offering  for  sale  an  i«c«6u^yr  of  so  small 


*  Mowbray's  Practical  Treatise  on  Domestic  Poultry,  p.  81-90. 

t  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts  and  Manufactures — art.  Incuhation,  Artificial. 

1  Gardener's  Chronicle  for  21st  October  1848. 


672 


TRACTICE— SPRING. 


dimensions. that  it  could  stand  in  any  room,  and 
not  only  there  liatch  et'K?,  but  brood  and  rear 
chickens.  Such  a  machine  bids  fair  to  outdo 
the  feats  of  hatching  actually  accomi)li?hed  by 
James  Sandy,  the  bedridden  cripple  of  Aiyth,  by 
the  heat  of  his  own  person.* 

2n50.  Mr  Fortune  Pay?,  in  reference  to  the 
hatching  of  ducks  in  Ciiina,  "  One  of  the  greatest 
lions  in  Chusan  is  a:i  old  niinaman,  who  every 
spring  hatches  thousands  of  ducks'  eggs  by  artifi- 
cial lieat.  His  establishment  is  situated  in  the 
valley  on  the  north  side  of  the  city  of  Tinghae, 
and  is  much  resorted  to  by  the  officers  of  the 
troops,  and  strangers  who  visit  the  island.  The 
first  question  put  to  a  sight-seer  who  comes  here, 
is,  whether  he  has  seen  the  hatching  process ;  and 
if  he  has  not,  he  is  always  recommended  to  pay 
a  visit  to  the  old  Chinaman  and  his  ducks.  ,  .  . 
The  Chinese  cottages,  generally,  are  wretched 
buildings  of  mud  and  stone,  with  damp  earthen 
floors,  scarcely  fit  for  cattle  to  sleep  in,  and  re- 
mind one  of  what  Scottish  cottages  were  a  few 
years  ago,  but  which  now,  happily,  are  among 
the  things  that  were.  My  own  friend's  cottage 
was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule  ;  bad  fit- 
ting, loose,  creaking  doors;  paper  windows,  dirty 
and  torn  ;  ducks,  geese,  fowls,  dogs,  and  pigs, 
in  the  house  and  at  the  doors,  and  apparently 
having  equal  rights  with  their  masters.  Then 
there  were  children,  grand-children,  and,  for 
aught  I  know,  great  grand-children,  all  together, 
forming  a  most  motley  group  ;  which,  with  their 
shaved  heads,  long  tails,  and  strange  costume, 
would  have  made  a  capital  subject  for  the  pencil 
of  Cruikshank. 

2951.  "  The  hatching-house  was  built  at  the 
side  of  the  cottage,  and  was  a  kind  of  long  shed, 
with  mud  walls,  and  thickly  thatched  with  straw. 
Along  the  ends,  and  down  the  sides  of  the  build- 
ing, are  a  number  of  round  straw  baskets,  well 
plastered  with  mud,  to  prevent  them  from  taking 
fire.  In  the  bottom  of  each  basket  there  is  a  tile 
placed,  or  rather  the  tile  forms  the  bottom  of  the 
basket;  upon  this  the  fire  acts— a  small  fire- 
place being  below  each  basket.  Upon  the  top  of 
the  basket  there  is  a  straw  cover,  which  fits 
closely,  and  which  is  kept  shut  while  the  process 
is  going  on.  In  the  centre  of  the  shed  are  a 
numberof  large  shelves,  placed  one  above  another, 
upon  wiiich  the  eggs  are  laid  at  a  certain  stage 
of  the  proces.s.  When  the  eggs  are  brought,  they 
are  put  into  the  baskets,  the  fire  is  lighted  below 
them,  and  a  uniform  heat  kept  up,  ranging,  as 
nearly  as  I  could  ascertain  by  some  observations 
which  I  made  with  a  thermometer,  from  95°  to 
10"2';  liiit  the  Chinamen  regulate  the  heat  by  their 
own  fei-lings,  and,  therefore,  it  will  of  course 
vary  considerably.  In  four  or  five  days  after 
the  eggs  have  been  subject  to  this  temperature, 
they  are  taken  carefully  out,  one  by  one,  to  a 
door,  in  which  a  number  of  holes  have  been 
bored  nearly  tlie  size  of  the  eggs  ;  they  are  then 
held  against  these  holes,  and  the  Chinamen  look 
througli  them,  and  are  able  to  tell  whether  they 


are  good  or  not.  If  good,  they  are  taken  back 
and  rej'laced  in  their  former  quarters;  if  bad, 
they  are  of  course  excluded.  In  nine  or  ten 
days  after  this,  that  is,  about  fourteen  days  from 
the  commencement,  the  eggs  are  taken  from  the 
baskets,  and  spread  out  in  the  shelves.  Here  no 
fire  heat  is  applied,  but  they  are  covered  over 
with  Cotton,  and  a  kind  of  blanket,  under  which 
they  remain  about  fourteen  days  more,  when  the 
young  ducks  bur-t  their  shells,  and  the  shed 
teems  with  life.  These  shelves  are  lari.'e,  and 
capable  of  holding  many  thousands  of  eggs : 
and  when  the  hatching  takes  place,  the  sight  is 
not  a  little  curious.  The  natives  who  rear  the 
young  ducks  in  the  surrounding  country,  know 
exactly  the  day  when  they  will  be  ready  for  re- 
moval, and  in  two  days  after  the  shell  is  burst, 
the  whole  of  the  little  creatures  are  sold,  and 
conveyed  to  their  new  quarters. "+ 

2952.  "  If  chickens  about  2  months  old  and 
upwards,"  says  Mr  Bucknell,  "  are  turned  in 
among  a  brood  of  young  birds  that  have  no 
mother,  they  will  sometimes  take  to  brooding 
and  tending  them  with  the  delight  of  natural 
parents.  The  gratification  being  quite  mutual, 
the  young  chicks  run  after  and  strive  with  each 
other  for  their  favours  whh  the  most  untiring 
perseverance.  Although,  probably,  it  is  simply 
the  pleasurable  sensation  derived  from  the  genial 
warmth  communicated  by  the  yonng  birils  nest- 
ling under  them  which  induces  them  to  do  it,  it 
is  nevertheless  a  striking  and  highly  interesting 
picture  to  witness  these  mimic  mothers  acting 
the  part  of  foster  parents  with  so  much  ajiparent 
satisfaction,  yet  with  the  awkwardness  with  which 
a  girl,  in  similar  circumstances,  fondles  her  doll." 
1  never  witnessed  such  an  instance  of  afiectionate 
regard,  possibly  because  I  never  saw  a  brood  of 
chickens  deprived  of  their  mother,  but  the  senti- 
ments conveyed  in  the  following  sentence  I  have 
frequently  seen  realised,  and  can  testify  to  the 
accuracy  of  observation  and  the  correctness  of 
the  conclusions  of  Mr  Bucknell  : — "There  is  no 
difficulty,"  he  says,  "  in  teaching  the  yonng  of 
the  various  tribes  of  gallinaceous  fowl  to  eat  and 
drink  ;  they  perform  these  operations  spontane- 
ously, or  from  observation,  as  appetite  prompts 
them.  Are  not  the  facts  of  the  extraordinary 
fecundity  of  these  tribes,  their  requiring  no  assis- 
tance in  hatching,  and  their  being  self-instructed 
in  the  manner  of  taking  their  food,  abundant  evi- 
dence that  an  All-wise  Providence  ordained  these 
peculiarities  expressly  fov  man's  advantage  ;  nS 
in  all  those  families  of  birds  not  so  fitted  for  his 
use  they  do  not  exist,  and  consequently  cannot 
be  rendered  by  artificial  means  available  for  his 
benefit  I  Food  is  not  necessary  for  the  chick 
until  12  or  24  hours  after  leaving  the  shell. 
Sickly  and  badly  hatched  birds  seMom  can  be 
induced  to  eat,  and  die  from  inanition.  Birds 
but  a  few  hours  old  recogni.-e  the  person  who 
feeds  them  ;  and  in  a  few  days  evince  so  many 
and  such  ple.nsing  traits  of  confiilence  in  her  as 
their  protector  and  friend,  following  her  steps, 
and  clamorously  repining  at  her  absence,  as  must 


*  Mention  is  made  of  this  extraordinary  mechanical  genius  in  the  Nfte  StatiMicnl  Account  of 
Scotland. — i*«t/isAir<r,  p.  1117.  f  Fortune's  Wanderingt  in  China,  f.  80. 


HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 


673 


Induce  in  the  most  callous  breast  a  delightful 
sensation  of  regard  for  their  welfare." 

2953.  It  is  of  some  importance  to  farmers  to 
have  the  question  answered  in  a  practical  sense, 
Whether  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  chickens  is 
profitable  ?  Mr  Bucknell's  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion, in  reference  to  artificial  hatching  is  tliis — 
"  Mr  Mowbray,  in  his  standard  work,  gives  the 
consumption  of  food  by  birds  in  the  highest  state 
of  condition  as  follows: — '  By  an  experiment  made 
in  July  1806,  a  measured  peck  of  good  barley 
kept  in  a  high  style  of  condition  the  following 
stock,  confined,  and  having  no  other  provision  : 
1  cock,  3  hens,  3  March  chickens,  6  April,  and  6 
May  chickens,  during  8  clear  days,  and  one  feed 
left.'  Here,  then,  are  19  birds,  varying  in  age 
from  2  months  to  their  full  size,  consuming  I  peck 
of  corn  in  8  days,  which,  at  Is.  per  peck,  gives  a 
cost  of  Ig  halfpenny  per  head,  which,  however, 
is  considerably  above  the  cost  of  chickens  for  the 
first  8  weeks  of  their  existence.  But,  taking  it  at 
this  high  average,  it  gives  an  expense  of  each 
bird  of  9d.  all  but  a  fraction  for  14  weeks'  keep, 
at  which  age  they  are  in  the  highest  perfection, 
being  the  most  delicate  and  easy  to  digest  of  all 
other  animal  food.  Where  they  can  enjoy  the 
advantage  of  a  good  run,  the  expense  would  still 
be  lessened  perhaps  one-third.  Now,  what  is 
the  price  at  a  poulterer's,  or  in  the  London 
inark-^ts,  of  a  fine  fat  chicken  14  weeks  old  of 
nearly  its  full  size  ?  Never  less  than  2s.,  and  for 
6  months  in  the  year,  or  during  the  dear  season, 
4s.  or  5s.  ;  which,  adding  to  9d.  an  additional 
3d.  for  the  value  of  the  egg  and  extras,  gives  the 
enormous  profit  of  from  400  to  500  per  cent, 
divided  between  the  trader,  the  middleman,  and 
the  retailer.  It  need  not  be  wondered  at  that 
such  is  the  case,  nor  can  it  be  otherwise  while 
tlie  present  system  continues.  A  poulterer  whose 
sale  is  not  more  than  10  dozen  per  week,  must 
keep  a  man  and  a  horse  and  cart,  and  attend  the 
different  markets  for  his  purchases.  All  these 
things,  with  incidental  expenses,  will  amount  at 
least  to  2  guineas  per  week,  which  2  guineas 
must  be  spread  over  the  10  dozen  birds  before 
he  derives  any  profit  for  himself.  Upon  any 
artificial  system,  these  expenses  would  be  saved, 
and  tlie  2  guineas  thus  thrown  away  would  keep 
1000  birds,  averaging  all  ages,  1  whole  week. 
Buildings  and  machinery,  and  other  necessary 
apparatus  being  provided,  no  objection  exists  as 
to  the  expenses  of  hatching.  An  eccaleobion 
machine  might  be  constructed,  only  requiring 
regulation  once  in  24  hours,  capable  of  hatching 
throughout  the  year  10,000  eggs  per  month,  (a 
week  being  allowed  for  removing  and  refitting,) 
while  the  cost  for  hatching  during  the  month 
would  probably  be  a  half  chaldron  of  coke  at  £1 
per  chaldron,  which  would  be  the  one-twentieth 
part  of  one  farthing  per  bird.  The  expense  for 
artificial  warmth  during  the  time  the  birds  might 
'•equire  it,  would  be  somewhat  more — perhaps  1 
farthing  per  bird." 

2954.  Diseases  of  Poultry. — With  the  diseases 


of  chickens  or  other  young  fowls,  such  as  the  pip 
or  chip,  I  am  not  acquainted,  not  having  seen 
any  such  disease  after  an  experience  of  many 
years  in  rearing  every  species  of  fowl  on  a  farm; 
and  am  therefore  inclined  to  maintain,  that  were 
others  to  follow  a  similar  course  to  the  one  I 
have  described  above,  they  would  be  equally  un- 
acquainted with  diseases  amongst  their  poultry. 
1  am  corroborated  by  a  writer  on  the  rearing  of 
domestic  poultry,  whose  experience  I  know  is 
considerable, — who^e  attention  I  am  sure  is  un- 
remitting,— and  whose  good  sense  is  evident. 
"  Of  the  diseases  of  which  poultry  are  liable,  we 
are  practically  ignorant,"  says  the  writer,  a  lady 
of  my  acquaintance,  "having  been  for  many 
years  here  so  fortunate  as  to  experience  few  or 
no  instances  of  disease  among  our  stock  ;  and  we 
attribute  the  health  of  our  various  animals  in 
the  farm-yard  entirely  to  strict  attention  to  clean- 
liness, diet,  and  rational  treatment.  Those  who 
listen  to  the  advice  of  the  ignorant  and  the  preju- 
diced, nay,  they  who  seek  from  books  remedies 
for  disorders  which  may  appear  among  their 
live-stock,  will  have  to  contend  with  monstrous 
absurdities,  excessive  ignorance,  and  barbarous 
cruelty,  in  the  quackeries  recommended.  Nature 
will  generally  efi'ect  a  cure,  if  her  efforts  are 
seconded  by  simple  means  on  our  own  part. 
Calomel,  sulphur,  rue,  pepper,  and  gin,  are  all 
absurdities,  though  all  recommended  for  the  ail- 
ments of  poultry."  Another  writer  thus  ex- 
presses himself  on  the  same  subject  :  "  With 
regard  to  medical  treatment  applied  to  the  dis- 
eases of  poultry,  but  little  regarding  its  efficacy 
is  known.  The  nostrums  and  mode  of  treatment 
adopted  throughout  the  country,  together  with 
the  greater  part  that  has  been  written  upon  the 
subject,  is  a  farrago  of  nonsense  and  absurdity. 
If  shelter,  irarmth,  food,  and  cleanliness,  congenial 
to  their  habits,  icill  not  preserre  them  in  health, 
hit  little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  medicine. 
Most  good  wives,  however,  possess  an  insatiable 
itching  to  be  considered  skilful  doctors.  From 
among  some  thousand  birds  that  have  come  under 
my  observation,  /  ncrcr  could  discover  that  com- 
mon and  universal  disease  called  the  ^ pip.'  Yet 
show  any  farmer's  wife  a  sickly  chicken,  and  she 
immediately  opens  its  moutli,and  with  her  needle 
tears  ofi"  the  cartilage  from  the  under  part  of  the 
bird's  tongue,  to  sjiow  it  is  afflicted  with  it  ! 
When  will  the  light  of  knowledge  banish  these 
absurdities  ?"* 

2955.  Thp  former  writer,  however,  alludes  to 
an  ailment  among  chickens  which  I  have  never 
seen,  arising,  it  would  appear,  from  their  being 
hatched  at  a  particular  period  of  the  year.  After 
adverting  to  the  tender  state  of  chickens  super- 
induced by  both  early  and  late  hatching,  the 
writer  particularises  the  period  of  the  year  when 
the  disease  alluded  to  makes  its  appearance  . — 
"  There  is  yet  another  time,  during  which  it  is 
absolutely  indispensable  that  hens  be  prevented 
from  sitting,  and  that  is  the  month  of  June.  Close 
observation  (after  having  suffered  at  that  season 
numerous  failures  most  unaccountably)  enabled 


*  Bucknell's  Eccaleobion,  p.  1-17. 


VOL.  1. 


2v 


67-1 


PRACTICE— SPRING. 


us  to  discover  the  cause,  and  thereby  Terify  the 
truth  of  ail  old  saying,  which  we  have  since  met 

with — 

Between  the  sickle  and  the  scythe. 
What  you  rear  will  seldom  thrive. 
We  had  noticed  that  chickens  which  were  hatched 
during  the  month  of  July,  were  almost  all  at- 
tacked about  the  time  of  their  first  moulting  (a 
period  always  attended  with  much  suffering  to 
them)  with  a  fatal  disorder,  the  symptoms  of 
which  are  unvarying.  The  chickens  appeared  to 
collapse,  and  moved  about  wiih  difficulty,  as  if 
their  joints  were  stiffened,  or  rather  as  if  the 
skin  liad  become  tight  and  tender;  their  feathers 
became  rough  and  stood  out  ;  their  wings  drooped 
and  dragged  on  the  ground  ;  they  refused  suste- 
nance ;  and  becoming  more  and  more  weak  and 
torpid,  they,  in  a  day  or  two,  died  off  in  great 
numbers.  Every  rational  means  were  resorted 
to  in  order  to  arrest,  or  even  account  for  the  dis- 
order ;  at  length  it  was  discovered  that  they 
were  in  a  high  state  of  fever,  and  that  the  ex- 
treme redness  of  the  skin  was  caused  by  the  irri- 
tation of  hundreds  of  that  minute  pest,  the  har- 
vest-bug. Some — very  few — were  recovered  by 
anointing  them  all  over  with  oil  and  vinegar 
(which  is  also  the  best,  nay,  the  only  remedy  for 
the  annoyance  which  human  beings  experience 
from  the  same  source ;)  but  the  receipt  is  too 
rough  for  little  delicate  creatures  already  endur- 
ing the  pain  attendant  on  the  season  of  moult- 
ing. It  became  obvious  that  the  period  during 
which  harvest-bugs  are  most  numerous  and  tor- 
menting, must  be  inimical  to  the  rearing  of 
chickens;  and  that  if  hens  were  not  allowed  to 
sit  in  June,  or  rather,  if  the  chickens  were  either 
strong  enough  to  cope  with  the  evil,  or  were  not 
hatched  until  the  season  for  the  pest  had  passed 
by,  the  destruction  might  be  prevented; and  so  it 
has  proved."* 

2956.  Harvest-bu^.^Thia  is  a  short  account 
of  the  harvest-bug.  "  You  have  already,  per- 
haps, been  satiated  with  the  account  given  of  our 
enemies  of  the  Acarvs  or  mite  tribe,"  says  Mr 
Kirby  or  Mr  Spence  ;  "  there  are  a  few,  however, 
which  I  could  not  with  propriety  introduce  here, 
as  they  do  not  take  up  their  abode  and  breed  in 
us,  which  nevertheless   annoy   us  considerably. 


One  of  these  is  a  hexapod  so  minute,  that,  were 
it  not  for  the  uncommon  brilliancy  of  its  colour, 
which  is  the  most  vivid  crimson  that  can  be  con- 
ceived, it  would  be  quite  invisible.  It  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  harvest-bug  {Acarut  aiitum- 
nalis,  Shaw,)  and  is  so  called,  I  imagine,  from 
its  attacking  the  legs  of  labourers  employed  in 
the  harvest,  in  the  flesh  of  which  it  buries  itself 
at  the  roots  of  the  hairs,  producing  intolerable 
itching,  attended  by  inflammation  and  consider- 
able tumours,  and  sometimes  even  occasioning 
fevers. "t 

2957.  Capong. — Capons  of  the  common  fowl  are 
formed  both  of  the  cock  and  lien  chickens,  when 
they  are  fit  to  leave  the  hen,  at  about  (5  weeks  old. 
Chickens  are  transmuted  into  capons  by  de.-troy- 
ing  the  testicles  of  the  male  and  the  ovaries 
of  the  female.  The  testicles  are  attached  by  a 
membrane  to  what  is  called  the  hack  b(/ne  of  the 
carved  fowl.  They  are  destroyed  by  laying  the 
bird  on  its  near  side,  keeping  it  down,  removing 
a  few  feathers,  and  making  an  incision  through 
the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  and,  on  introducing  the 
fore-finger  through  the  incision,  first  the  one  and 
then  the  other  testicle  is  obliterated  or  removed 
altogether  by  it.  In  the  case  of  the  hen,  the 
ovary  is  nipped  off  by  the  thumb-nail,  or  cut  off 
by  a  knife.  The  incision  is  stitched  up  with 
thread,  and  little  danger  is  apprehended  of  the 
result.  The  effect  of  castration  is  enlargement 
of  the  body  of  the  fowl,  an  increased  delicacy  of 
its  flesh,  but  its  flavour  is  in  no  way  improved, 
at  least  in  none  of  the  capons  I  have  tasted. 
Time  was  when  capons  were  more  plentiful  at 
the  table  than  chickens,  so  that  even  kain-rent 
was  paid  in  them  ;  but  the  conversion  of 
fowls  into  capons  is  now  abandoned  iii  S<'otland, 
as  an  unnecessary  and  troublesome  operation, 
and  will  not  probably  be  resumed  as  long  as  a 
well-fed  delicate  chicken  can  be  procured  with 
little  trouble,  although  the  London  market  ia 
always  well  sujiplied  with  them. 

2958.  Pou/lards. — Turkey  poults  are  con- 
verted into  pouUards  by  the  same  operation  as 
described  above,  to  convert  the  common  fowl 
into  a  capon,  and  it  produces  similar  effects  upon 
the  turkey. 


•  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  viii.  p.  515-2.3. 

+  Kirby  and  Spence's  Introduction  to  Entomology,  vol.  i.  p.  103. 


END  OF  TOLCMB  L 


APPENDIX    TO    SPKING. 


BY   JOHN    P.    NORTON,   M.A 


PROFESSOR  OF  SCIENTIFIC  AGRICULTURE  IN  YALE  COLLEGE,  NEW  HAVEN. 


The  first  weeks  of  this  season,  in  the 
climate  of  the  New  England  and  other 
Northern  States,  are  not  ordinarily  of  such 
a  nature  as  will  permit  the  farmer  to  pursue 
his  various  avocations  in  the  open  air.  In 
these  latitudes  on  our  continent,  although 
they  correspond  nearly  with  the  Soutli  of 
France,  where  the  climate  is  almost  tropical, 
winter  continues  its  reign  far  into  the  spring 
months.  Snow  often  lies  on  the  ground  until 
April,  and  in  some  seasons  much  later.  Even 
when  the  severity  of  the  season  rcl:i.\es  in 
Miirch,  it  is  but  for  a  brief  period  ;  frowns 
and  dark  storms  soon  obscure  the  smiling 
face  of  nature,  which  seems  to  have  trenche- 
rously  allured  birds  from  their  southern  winter 
residence,  and  caused  little  early  plants  to 
show  their  budding  flowers,  only  to  over- 
whelm them  by  the  severity  of  a  second 
winter.  A  warm,  open  March,  in  the 
Northern  States,  generally  indicates  a  back- 
ward, stormy  April. 

S'.ill  these  are  interesting  months  ;  for  it  is 
delightful  to  watch  the  struggles  of  the  com- 
ing summer  with  the  reluctant  departing 
winter.  It  is  pleasant  to  see,  that  amid  all 
its  apparent  reverses,  spring  miikes  a  steady 
and  sure  advance:  now  it  is  proclaimed  by 
the  charming  song  of  the  first  bluebird, 
breaking  forth  when  some  hour  of  sunshine 
lights  up  the  yet  wintry  landscape,  with  a 
warmer  glow  than  the  pale  beams  which 
have  before  seemed  to  harmonize  vvith  snow 
and  ice :  now  by  the  mezereon  and  the 
crocus  showing  their  blossoms  hardily  from 
beneath  a  sudden  dash  of  snow,  as  if  they 
felt  that  its  reign  was  almost  over,  and  its 
power  to  freeze  their  vitals  gone. 

When  the  final  triumph  of  spring  does 
come,  it  is  sudden  and  beautiful,  even  glo- 
rious, in  the  quick  development  of  luxuriant 
verdure.  Often  within  the  space  of  a  single 
fortnight,  the  great  majority  of  the  trees  burst 
forth  into  full  leaf:  flowers  bloom  on  every 
side  ;  and  it  is  difticult  to  recall  the  wintry 
aspect  of  a  few  days  before,  when,  looking  at 
nature  under  the  inflaence  of  a  gloomy  day, 
scarcely  any  progress  seemed  to  have  been 
made.  But,  in  reality,  the  preparations  for 
this  seemingly  almost  instantaneous  change 


have  been  long  maturing :  for  weeks  before 
the  final  time  of  opening,  careful  observers 
might  have  discerned  a  gradual  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  leaf  buds,  and  a  loosening  of 
their  outer  envelopes  :  for  weeks  before  this 
even,  an  incision  into  the  trunk  would  have 
sliown  that  the  bosom  of  mother  earth  was 
beginning  to  throb  again,  to  send  the  life- 
blood — the  sap — once  more  through  the 
limbs  of  her  children  ;  thus  connnencing 
anew  a  series  of  mysterious  eii.-iiige.s,  to 
result  as  always  before,  in  the  fulfilment  of 
the  promise,  "  that  while  this  w<>rld  lasts, 
seed-time  and  harvest,  summer  and  winter, 
shall  not  faW 

It  is  at  this  early  period,  when  the  sap  first 
begins  to  ascend,  that  the  making  of  innple 
sug.ir  commences  in  the  Northern  States. 
Twelve  or  more  species  of  the  maple  are 
indigenous  to  the  North  American  continent, 
but  of  these  only  the  Acer  Saccharinum 
(common  sugar  maple),  and  the  Acer  Ni- 
grum  (black  sugar  maple),  yield  a  sap  sufB- 
ciently  saccharine  for  manuiacturing  purposes. 
This  sap  vaiies  in  strength,  but  is  generally 
considered  to  contain  about  half  as  much 
sugar  as  the  sap  of  the  sugar  cane.  The  sap 
begins  its  upward  flow  in  the  latter  part  ol 
February,  or  early  in  March,  while  the  frosi 
is  still  severe,  and  snow  on  the  ground.  It 
runs  most  freely  when  the  days  are  bright 
and  sunny,  with  sharp,  clear,  frosty  nights. 

The  trees  are  not  usually  tapped  regularly 
until  they  are  at  least  thirty  years  old.  Many 
are  accustomed  to  do  this  by  cuiting  out  a 
kind  ot  bo.\  wi  h  an  a.\e,  but,  as  ordinarily 
managed,  this  puts  an  end  to  the  life  of  tho 
tree  much  more  quickly  than  any  other  way. 
The  |ilan  generally  recommended  is,  to  bore, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  tree,  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  small  auger  holes,  and  into 
these  insert  tubes,  which  conduct  the  sap 
into  wooden  buckets  or  troughs  placed 
beneath.  These  small  auger  holes  soon 
fill  up  in  the  t  atural  growth  of  the  tree,  and 
many  instances  are  known  of  such  tapping 
during  a  period  of  thirty  years  without  per- 
ceptible injurious  effects.  It  is,  however, 
supposed  tiiat  the  trees  last  longer,  and 
yield  better,  for  an  occasional  year  of  rest 


82 


A^rERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


When  the  trees  stand  closely  topether,  as 
in  the  forest,  about  4  lbs.  of  sugar  per  tree  is 
considered  the  average  yearly  product ;  but 
where  tliey  are  more  widely  separated,  as  in 
pastures,  the  average  is  often  as  liigli  as  6  or 
7  lbs.  When  a  large  tree  is  tapped  in  many 
places,  a  mueii  greater  product  is  often  ob- 
tained. An  instiince  is  recorded  of  22  lbs. 
from  a  single  tree,  and  anotlier  of  ISG  lbs. 
from  twelve  trees.  Sucli  a  draught  as  this  is 
too  much,  and  no  tree  can  endure  a  repetition 
of  it  for  many  years  in  succes-ion. 

The  process  of  maiiuficture  is  not  unlike 
that  pursued  with  the  juice  of  the  sugarcane, 
and  with  proper  care  a  sugar  may  be  obtained 
fully  equal  in  every  respect  to  the  finest  cane 
sugar.  There  are  some  fanners  in  Vermont 
who  make  three  or  four  tons  annually.  The 
Patent  Otlice  Report  for  1«48  estimates  the 
maple  sugar  crop  of  the  Union  at  30,000,000 
pounds.  There  is  scarcely  any  branch  of 
agriculture  more  worthy  of  attention  tiian 
this,  in  many  portions  of  our  Northern  States. 
When  the  trees  are  once  planted,  and  grow- 
ing, very  little  further  attention  is  required. 
They  may  be  grown  on  rough,  otherwise 
unprofitable,  land,  and  with  proper  manage- 
ment will  last  a  century. 

If  we  allow  one  tree  to  each  square  rod, 
or  160  to  an  acre,  and  4  lbs.  of  sugar  from 
e^icli  tree,  we  liave  640  lbs., — worth,  when 
well  made,  864:— 8-0  would  fully  cover  the 
expense  of  manuficture,  leaving  8-i-l  :'s  profit. 
This,  too,  is  from  land  that  as  unimproved 
pasture,  would  do  little  more  than  pay  for 
fencing.  The  labor  comes  at  a  season  when 
the  farmer  has  little  else  to  do. 

Old  maple  orchards,  well  cared  for.  usually 
produce  more  than  4  lbs.  to  the  tree.  The 
Patent  Office  Report  for  1845  mentions  a 
product  of  1500  lbs.  from  250  trees,  or  6  lbs. 
per  tree.  During  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  ywirs 
the  value  of  the  land  for  pasture  would 
scarcely  be  diminished  :  indeed,  if  very  poor 
previously,  it  might  improve  by  the  annual 
top-dressing  of  leaves. 

2137  to  2141.  The  phenomena  of  easterly 
winds  are  as  well  known  on  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  this  continent  as  in  Scotland.  The 
character  of  this  wind  is,  however,  diflferent 
here.  To  Scotland  the  east  wind  comes  over 
tlie  continent  of  Europe,  and  consequently  is 
a  dryer  wind  than  any  that  they  have,  for  in 
all  other  directions  the  winds  come  oft"  from 
the  broad  Atlantic — charged,  of  course,  with 
vapor  and  moisture. 

Here  our  west  winds  proverbially  bring 
fine  weather,  and  are  dry.  With  us  also  the 
easterly  winds,  in  spring,  seem  for  a  time  to 
diminish  the  force  of  the  westerly  currents 
which  prevail  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 
In  par.  2140  is  mentioned  the  fact  that  the 
north-east  and  south-west  are  the  two  lead- 
ing currents  of  the  globe.     In  the  region  of 


the  Northern  States  then,  if  this  be  true,  we 
are  in  a  minor  current,  for  our  prevailing 
wind  is  nortli-west. 

A  Report  of  the  Regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York  for  1843  nun- 
tions,  as  the  result  of  a  table  compiled  from 
observations  during  seven  years,  in  fifty 
towns,  that  tlie  prevailing  wind  of  the  State, 
during  each  of  tliose  years,  was  nortli-we?t. 

The  southerly  and  easterly  winds  are,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, the  only  winds  that  bring  ram,  with 
the  exception  of  passing  showers  from  other 
directions.  The  fact  then,  that  the  north- 
west wind  is  a  land  wind,  and  that  it  is  the 
prevalent  one,  seems  to  explain  satisfactorily 
the  great  number  of  clear  days  which  we 
enjoy  in  every  season. 

In  consequence  of  the  general  clearness  of 
our  atmosphere,  we  are  accustomed  to  con- 
sider our  climate  dry  in  comparison  with  that 
of  Great  Britain,  and  without  doubt  we  are 
correct ;  yet  it  is  a  singular  fnct  that  the  mean 
amount  of  water  which  falls  here  as  rain, 
snow,  or  hail,  considerably  exceeds  the  me^ui 
estimated  for  England  and  Wales,  by  Dr. 
Dalton.  He  gives  34  inches  per  annum,  and 
Dr.  Kane  mentions  the  same  depth  as  the 
mean  for  Ireland. 

Observations  during  a  period  of  sixteen 
years  at  Yale  College,  Newhaven,  Ct.,  indi- 
cate the  total  amount  of  water  that  has  fallen 
during  that  time  as  712ifo  inches.  This  gives 
the  very  high  average  of  44,^  inches.  The 
largest  quantity  in  any  one  year  was  51  inches. 
The  depth  of  snow  v;.ried  still  more  than  that 
of  rain  water.  In  the  winter  of  1846-7  the 
quantiiv  measured  was  61  inches,  in  that  of 
1847-8"  but  20  inches.  The  depth  of  water 
obtained  by  melting  the  snow  seldom  exceeds 
6  or  7  inches. 

In  the  Stiite  of  New  Y'ork  an  average  is 
found  a  trifle  lower  than  that  of  Great  Britain. 
This  is  shown  by  a  mean  of  the  observations 
made  during  a  period  of  ten  years,  at  fifty 
different  points.  The  mean  thus  obtained  is 
35;^  The  lowest  mean  of  any  single  year 
was  SO,"^  in  1833,  and  the  highest  44,t  in 
1827.  At  one  place  the  fall  for  a  single  year 
was  as  high  as  55,"  inches ;  at  another,  as 
low  as  17,0). 

Tl\e  State  of  New  York  may  be  considered 
an  example  of  the  inland  or  middle  States,  its 
extent  of  territory  being  about  the  same  as 
that  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  The 
annual  fall  in  Newhaven  probably  does  not 
vary  greatly  from  that  in  most  parts  of  the 
New  England  States  that  border  on  the  sea. 
In  some  sections  of  Ohio  the  annual  fall  of 
rain  is  more  than  40  inches ;  the  mean  of  the 
State,  however,  for  a  series  of  years,  is  con- 
sidered to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  New 
York. 

But  though  our  mean  amount  of  rain  is  thus 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


23 


shown  not  to  be  in  any  case  niat'erially  less, 
and  often  mucli  more  than  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  Irehmd,  our  chmate  and  soils  are 
really  much  dryer,  for  the  reason  that  our 
rains  fall  in  a  different  manner.  The  same 
amount  of  rain  vvhicli  falls  in  the  United 
States  in  tlie  space  of  two  or  three  hours, 
or  at  most  in  half  a  day,  in  England  spreads 
itself  leisurely  over  perhaps  a  fortnight.  Our 
rains  are  usually  heavy,  but  not  of  long  con- 
tinuance. Excepting  the  periods  of  the  equi- 
noctial storms,  and  in  some  particular  locali- 
ties, rain  storms  seldom  conjinue  more  than 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours — rarely  so 
long  as  the  latter  period.  Tlie  meteorological 
reports  of  New  York  for  1842,  from  forty- 
four  points,  show,  in  about  half  of  the  reports, 
a  decisive  preponderance  of  the  clear  days 
over  the  cloudy ;  ordinarily  not  much  more 
than  half  of  these  cloudy  days  were  rainy. 
On  an  average,  snow  or  rain  would  seem  to 
have  fallen  in  greater  or  less  quantities  during 
from  80  to  100  days  of  the  year.  It  is  to  be 
remembered,  also,  that  the  rain  on  very  many 
of  those  days  was  merely  in  the  form  of  pass- 
ing showers. 

If  we  compare  this  statement  with  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  England  that  are  rainy  during 
the  year,  as  mentioned  by  Mr.  Stephens — 
178 — it  becomes  quite  plain  that  the  popu- 
lar opinion  as  to  the  superior  dryness  of  our 
climate  is  correct.  The  rain  falls  heavily,  but 
then  the  sun  comes  out  and  dries  it  up,  so 
that  the  soil  is  in  most  cases  soon  freed  from 
its  surplus  water.  Early  in  spring,  and 
usually  till  July,  showers  and  rains  are  fre- 
quent ;  but  at  or  about  that  period  we  gene- 
rally have  some  weeks  of  fine  clear  weather, 
frequently  almost  uninterrupted. 

2170  and  2171.  The  recommendations'  as 
to  cottage  gardens  are  well  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. Whenever  a  laboring  man  can  procure 
a  small  plot  of  ground  for  his  own  cultiva- 
tion, no  labor  that  he  expends  will  afford  him 
so  much  gratification.  It  is  not  to  l)e  expected, 
however,  that  a  taste  for  gardening  should 
become  very  wdely  diffused,  until  the  farmers 
themselves,  as  a  class,  show  more  interest  in 
the  subject  than  they  do  at  present.  In  tra- 
velling through  our  country  villages,  we  here 
and  there  see  a  neatly-kept  garden,  with  a 
fine  show  of  fruit  and  flowers,  and  bearing 
evidence  of  care.  But  the  great  majority  of 
the  so-called  gardens  are  neglected  looking 
places,  where,  in  the  early  part  of  the  season, 
are  planted  a  few  potatoes,  squashes,  and 
beets,  some  hills  of  sweet  corn,  and  perhaps 
a  root  or  two  of  dill  and  fennel.  Here  and 
there  may  perhaps  be  seen  a  few  common 
lilies  or  poppies,  memorials  of  some  transi- 
tory visitor,  or  of  some  passing  hour  of  floral 
enthusiasm.  Towards  the  close  of  summer, 
the  weeds,  which  were  at  first  partially  kept 
down,  obtain  the  advantage,  and  finally  be- 


come the  prominent  feature  of  these  gardens. 
It  is  actually  the  case,  that  the  inhabitants  of 
many  country  villages  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
enjoy  the  luxuries  of  the  country.  Their 
strawberries,  raspberries,  peaches,  plums, 
grapes,  »fec.,  are  neither  so  fine,  so  abundant, 
nor  so  cheap,  as  in  the  large  cities.  There 
are  hundreds  of  formers'  families  where  fruit, 
excepting  a])ples,  and  perhaps  wild  berries,  is 
almost  unknown. 

This  is  simply  because  they  will  not  devote 
the  small  amount  of  time  that  is  required  for 
the  cultivation  of  good  fruit.  It  is  astonish- 
ing how  little  exertion  is  necessary  :  three  or 
four  hours  during  each  week,  early  in  the 
morning,  or  just  at  dusk,  will  keep  a  family 
amply  supplied  with  delicious  fruit,  thus  add- 
ing most  materially  to  the  comfort  and  the 
attractions  of  their  home.  Even  if  profit  is 
the  only  object,  a  small  space  of  ground  care- 
fully cultivated  in  fruit  will  pay  better  than 
many  a  large  farm,  exhausted  by  constant 
drafts  upon  its  resources  with  small  returns. 
I  have  seen  farmers  in  the  country  who  had 
large,  rich  gardens,  neglected  and  overgrown, 
eagerly  paying  handsome  prices  for  fruit  to 
some  one  who  had  the  enterprise  to  pursue  a 
different  course,  and  attend  to  a  species  of 
cultivation  which  they  probably  con^'id-.-red 
beneath  them,  or  had  not  sufficient  energy  to 
undertake. 

2176.  The  advice  here  given,  as  to  the  im- 
provement of  every  moment  in  winter,  and  in 
early  spring,  for  the  advancement  of  work, 
will  apply  to  the  milder  climates  only  of  this 
country  :  in  the  whole  northern  part  all  that 
can  be  done  is,  to  finish  threshing  and  every 
species  of  in-door  work,  and  to  see,  as  before 
advised,  that  every  tool,  implement,  harness, 
cart,  wagon,  &c.,  is  in  order  for  the  approach- 
ing season  of  activity. 

2181  to  2244.  The  remarks  and  directions 
by  Mr.  Stepiiens,  relative  to  the  calving  of 
cows,  and  the  accidents  and  diseases  to  which 
they  are  liable  at  this  period,  constitute  an 
important  practical  treatise,  which  will  be 
attentively  studied  by  the  owners  of  particu- 
larly valuable  animals. 

The  system  pursued  is,  it  will  be  seen, 
much  more  defined  and  elaborate  than  any- 
thing known  in  this  country.  So  far  as  my 
experience  and  observation  go,  cows  in  calf, 
when  their  milk  fails,  are  placed  with  the 
young  stock  on  some  distant  pasture.  The 
general  intention  is  to  bring  them  home  a 
few  days  before  the  time  of  calving;  but  it 
often  happens  that  the  calf  is  born  in  the 
field,  and  nothing  known  of  its  appearance 
for  some  time.  If  it  is  in  a  wild  mountain 
pasture,  the  cow  is  almost  sure  to  hide  her 
calf,  and  does  this  so  skilfully  that  I  have 
occasionally  known  many  days  to  pass  be- 
fore it  could  be  found.  In  most  cases,  or  at 
least  in  very  many  cases,  when  at  home,  the 


24 


AMERICAN   APPENDIX— SPRING. 


cow  is  left  to  the  unnssisted  operation  of 
nature,  and  instnnces  of  fatal  results  are,  I 
think,  rare.  In  times  of  difficulty,  a  council 
of  villajje  authorities  generally  devises  some 
means  of  relief. 

The  subject  of  milking,  also  included  under 
these  paragraphs,  is  doubtless  deserving  of 
more  attention  than  it  has  ordinarily  met 
with  in  this  country.  Tnis  important  opera- 
tion i-.  frequently  kft  at  night  to  hired  men, 
who  have  already  done  a  fatiguing  day's 
work,  and  who.  under  such  cireurastanee*, 
hurry  through  with  the  business  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  oft*n  losing  their  good  temper, 
and  abusing  the  cows,  thereby  rendering  them 
in  many  c;ises  permanently  wild  and  vicious. 

2252.  The  milk  pail.  Fig.  197,  does  not 
seem  to  me  of  so  convenient  a  pattern  as  the 
common  pail,  with  a  movable  handle  to  fold 
down  upon  the  top.  The  upright  handle 
would  be  often  in  the  way,  and  is  extremely 
inconvenient  when  it  is  necessary  to  carrv 
the  pail  full  of  milk.  It  would  be  excessively 
fatiguing  to  carry  two  pails  of  this  kind  at 
the  same  time  for  any  distance.  Tin  is  very 
commonly  used  in  tiiis  country,  and  is  per- 
fectly convenient :  it  is  light,  easily  kept  clean, 
free  from  all  taste  or  injurious  properties, 
and,  with  care,  quite  lasting. 

2268  and  2269.  The  operation  mentioned 
in  these  two  paragraphs  is  one  which  is  novel 
to  me,  but  which  is  recommended  by  a  high 
authority  as  practicable.  In  many  cases,  as 
for  the  supply  of  families,  for  the  purposes  of 
city  dairies,  &,c.,  cows  of  th!s  kind  would  be 
extremely  valuable. 

2302.  The  sowing  of  spring  wheat.  This 
follows  soon  after  the  disappearance  of  snow, 
whenever  the  ground  is  found  to  be  in  a  fit 
state  for  working.  This  period  extends  from 
the  1st  of  April  into  May.  The  culture  of 
this  variety  of  wheat  has  become  quite  ex- 
tended in  this  country  ;  but  the  quantity 
is  still  very  small,  when  compared  with  that 
of  winter  wheat ;  on  soils  where  this  latter 
variety  succeeds,  spring  wheat  is  rarely  culti- 
vated. Tlie  advantage  which  it  has  over  the 
autumn-sown  grain,  is  that  of  escaping  the 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter, 
always  so  destructive  on  many  soils,  and 
which  occasionally  cuts  off  a  great  portion  of 
the  crop  in  the  best  wheat  districts.  It  also, 
in  most  cases,  escapes  the  Hessian  fly  and 
other  dangerous  insect  enemies. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  crop  is  not  usually 
so  large  as  that  of  winter  wheat,  nor  the  flour 
of  so  handsome  quality.  It  has  much  gluten, 
and  makes  excellent  bread,  but  is  of  too  yel- 
lowish a  tinge  for  superfine  flour.  The  crop 
is  also  very  liable  to  rust  in  some  sections. 

These  reasons  have  been  sufficient  to 
banish  it  from  many  farms,  where  it  was  first 
in  high  favor,  and  1  am  inclined  to  think  that 
its  culture  is  not  increasing. 


The  districts  where  it  has  been  principally 
sown,  are  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  the  States  of  Vermont,  of  Maine, 
and  of  New  England  generally. 

There  is  a  great  number  of  varieties ;  those 
most  prominent  are  the  Italian,  the  Tea 
wheat,  or  Siberian  bald,  and  the  Black  Sea. 

2327.  The  broadcast  sowing  machine,  Fig. 
204,  and  the  drill  machines,  Figs.  205  and  206, 
will  not,  in  the  Eastern  States,  supersede 
hand  sowing  for  a  long  time  to  come  ;  but  in 
the  Western  States,  where  a  farmer  sows 
immense  fields  of  grain  on  level  mellow  land, 
they  are  adapted  exactly  to  his  use,  and  have 
indeed  already  begun  to  make  their  appejir- 
ance.  I  have  noticed  specimens  of  such  ma- 
chines at  agricultural  fairs,  and  have  found 
that  a  conviction  of  their  value  was  gradually 
spreading.  Those  that  I  have  seen  have 
been  close  imitations  of  some  English  or 
Scotch  machines,  though  somewhat  more 
simple  in  form,  and  much  cheaper  in  price. 

The  practice  of  drilling  wheat  and  grain 
generally,  is,  I  think,  decidedly  gaining  in 
favor ;  the  results  of  a  trial  commonly  being 
quite  satisfactory.  Some  fiirmers,  indeed,  I 
am  happy  to  s;iy,are  even  beginning  to  think 
of  weeding  wheat  in  connexion  with  drilling 
it.  A  few  years  ago,  and  even  now  in  many 
places,  the  mention  of  weeding  a  grain  crop 
would  have  excited  the  most  unmixed  ridi- 
cule  and  contempt  to  be  poured  upon  the 
unlucky  innovator. 

2345.  The  wooden  rhomboidal  harrows, 
Fig.  207,  recommended  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
have  become  very  generally  known  in  this 
country;  they  have,  to  a  great  extent,  dis- 
placed the  rude  triangular  and  square  imple- 
ments, with  six  or  eight  huge  teeth,  wiiich 
may  still  be  seen  in  many  places,  caricaturing 
the  process  of  pulverization  by  harrowing. 
I  am  not  aware  that  the  iron  rhomboidal  har- 
rows. Fig.  208,  have  been  introduced  to  any 
extent ;  indeed,  while  wood  is  so  cheap,  and 
will  make  so  durable  an  implement,  this 
variety  is  not  likely  to  prove  successful. 

Wiihin  a  few  years,  a  new  description  of 
folding  harrow  has  met  with  very  general 
favor.  It  is  known  as  the  Geddes  harrow, 
from  the  name  of  its  inventor,  Mr.  George 
Geddes,  of  Onondaga  Co.,  New  York.  Cuts 
of  it  may  be  found  in  all  of  our  leading 
agricultural  papers. 

This  implement  appears  to  posse&s  several 
advantages  over  the  rhomboidal  harrows 

1.  It  draws  easier;  bi'cause  the  line  of 
draught  passes  through  the  centre,  and  there 
is  none  of  the  hitching  vibrating  motion  which 
the  double  rhomboidal  harrow  always  lias, 
particularly  in  rough  ground. 

2.  It  is  also  more  readily  cleared  from  any 
foul  stuff,  as  either  side  may  be  easily  lifted 
while  the  harrow  is  in  motion. 

3.  It  accommodates  itself  more  completely 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


25 


to  unevenness  of  surface ;  and  on  new  land, 
where  there  are  stumps  and  stones  yet  re- 
maining, its  shape  permits  it  to  ghmce  off 
without  being  entangled  or  broken.  In  some 
cases,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  accomplish 
anything  with  other  double  harrows  in  such 
places. 

The  teeth  of  this  liarrow  are  usually  made 
so  as  to  track  two  inches  apart,  from  centre 
to  centre ;  on  new  rough  land,  tlie  distance 
should  be  about  four  iiiclies.  Some  farmers 
use  a  single  rhomboidal  liarrow,  or  a  simple 
square  drawn  by  one  corner.  These  must  be 
made  large  to  do  much  work,  and  being  all 
in  one  piece,  are  consequently  heavy  and 
cumbrous.  Being  perfectly  stitl"  and  unyield- 
ing, they  cannot  accommodate  themselves  to 
inequalities  of  surface,  and  only  work  well 
wh'Te  the  ground  is  very  smooth  and  mellow. 
Where  there  is  much  foul  stutf  to  clog 
their  teeth,  or  where  there  are  stones,  stumps, 
and  roots,  the  management  of  them  becomes 
extremely  laborious,  and  their  operation 
quite  imperfect. 

2353.  In  this  paragraph  is  a  hint  well 
worthy  of  notice.  It  is  quite  obvious  that  a 
quick  motion  of  the  harrow  will  pulverize  and 
stir  up  the  soil  more  effectually  than  a  slow 
dragging  one.  For  this  reason,  horses  usually 
make  better  work  in  harrowing  than  cattle. 
A  thorough  and  complete  performance  of  this 
work  is,  as  Mr.  Stephens  says,  of  more  im- 
portance than  is  generally  uuagined  ;  and  in- 
creased attention  to  the  harrowing  is  always 
to  be  seen  on  farms  where  the  work  of  im- 
provement has  commenced  in  earnest. 

2367.  The  Presser  Roller,  Figs.  211  and 
212.  This  is  an  implement  highly  approved 
of  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  doubtless 
is  of  much  value  for  light  land.  I  doubt, 
however,  if  it,  will  be  introduced  here  to  any 
extent,  in  the  present  state  of  our  farming; 
there  are  many  more  important  improvements 
for  us,  which  will  be  adopted  first.  Such 
slow  and  expensive  operations  will  never  pay 
on  land  that  has  not  previously  been  well 
manured  and  enriched.  All  the  pressing  in 
the  world  cannot  make  a  poor  worn  out  soil 
produce  a  heavy  crop.  It  may,  in  conse- 
quence, yield  more  than  it  would  otherwise 
have  done,  but  the  increase  will  not  be 
enough  to  pay  for  the  extra  expense.  We 
must  bring  up" our  soils  to  a  fair  state  of  fer- 
tility, before  we  launch  deeply  into  what  may 
be  called  the  /Ma-Mnes  of  farming. 

2380.  I  can  add  nothing  in  the  way  of  di- 
rection to  the  fall  instructions  and  descriptions 
given  here. 

This  point  of  particidarity  and  of  finish  in 
ploughing  has  met  with  much  attention  of 
late, ''and"  in  consequence,  the  improvement 
has  been  very  marked  and  encouraging.  The 
character  of  our  ploughs,  and  of  our  plough- 
ing, compared  with  what  both  these  were  hut 


a  few  years  ago,  is  sufficiently  decisive  as  to 
the  change  that  has  taken  place.  All  of  our 
reasonable  and  inquiring  farmers  have  become 
convinced,  that  ploughing  does  not  mean 
simply  turning  up  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  an 
irregular  and  slovenly  manner,  with  a  plough 
that" bobs  in  and  out  of  the  ground  a  dozen 
times  in  the  course  of  each  furrow  ;  but  that 
it  is  an  operation  to  be  performed  with  a  good 
implement,  and  with  great  care  ;  the  intention 
of  which  is,  to  leave  the  field  in  a  thoroughly 
lightand  pulverized  state, to  as  great  adepth  as 
possible  or  advisable. 

On  reading  such  directions  as  these,  evi- 
dently drawn  from  everyday  practice  on  the 
best  "farms,  we  see,  that  notwithstanding 
our  great  advance,  we  have  still  much  to  do. 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that,  in  the  extrenie 
Northern  States,  the  drilling  of  land  to  lie 
through  the  winter,  although  beneficial,  is  not, 
owing  to  the  difterence  hi  climate,  efficacious 
to  the  same  degree  as  in  Great  Britain.  There 
the  ridges  are  exposed  to  successive  frosts 
and  thaws  during  the  whole  winter,  so  that 
tlie  lumps  and  clo\ls  are,  by  the  alternate  ex- 
pansion and  contraction,  thoroughly  broken 
and  crumbled  down  :  here  the  frost,  once  set 
in,  often  remains  unrelaxed  till  far  into  the 
spring,  so  that  its  action  upon  the  land  ia 
comparatively  quite  limited. 

The  double  mould  board  plough,  Fig.  214, 
must  be  an  excellent  implement  for  forming 
drills,  and  worthy  of  adoption. 

If  the  cultivation  of  root  crops,  as  turnips, 
carrots,  &,c.,  gain  ground  in  this  country^ 
drilling  will  become  a  more  important  opera, 
tion  than  it  is  at  present,  particularly  where 
the  portable  mannres,  as  guano,  poudrette, 
bone  dusL  &e.,  are  used.  Many  fanners  are 
now  practising  drilling  in  their  potatoes  after 
the  Scotch  fashion.  All  those  who  have 
ti-ied  this,  will  perceive  from  the  result  of 
their  own  experience,  fh;it  the  precautions  and 
the  nicety  of  work  recommended  here  are  not 
superfluous,  but  absolutely  necessary  to 
insure  a  full  and  even  growth  of  the  crop. 
The  great  dltficnlty  in  most  fields  of  drilled 
potatoes  that  I  have  seen  among  us,  has  been 
irregular  covering,  so  that  the  crop  came  up 
unevenly.  This,  of  course,  is  only  to  be 
obviated  by  following  these  very  direction* 
iust  referred  to,  which  may  have  seemed  at 
first  ridiculously  precise  and  notional. 

2407.  Beans,  of  the  kinds  grown  in  Great 
Britain  so  extensively  as  a  field  crop,  are 
almost  unknown  in  this  country,  for  the 
reason  that  both  beans  and  bean  meal  are 
scarcely  ever  fed  to  stock.  They  are,  as 
analyses  already  cited  have  shown,  an  ex- 
ceedingly nutritious  food  for  working  animals  ; 
but  while  we  can  grow  Indian  corn  with  so 
much  greater  facility,  it  is  not  probable  that 
we  shall  find  any  advantage  in  their  cultivar 
tion  on  an  extended  scale. 


96 


AMERICAxN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


The  small  white  bush  bean,  grown  so  ex- 
tensively tor  the  table,  and  which  is  capable 
of  flourishing  on  the  poorest  lii'ht  soils,  is  an 
entirely  difl'erent  crop.  The  English  horse 
bean  rtn^uires,  as  mentioned  in  par.  2410,  a 
rich  mellow  soil.  It  has  a  strong  straight 
upright  stalk,  requiring  no  support,  and  these 
stalks,  under  the  name  of  be;in  straw,  are, 
mnlike  any  ot  ours,  valued  for  foilder. 

The  powerful  grubliers.  Figs.  '215  and  2 1 6, 
may  very  probably  be  viewed  with  much 
astonisliment  and  suspicion  by  many  nf  our 
farujers :  indeed,  Fii:.  216  looks  like  a  new 
variety  of  locomotive  engine,  that  would  work 
of  its  own  accord,  and  tear  up  everything  in 
its  path.  I  can  say,  from  personal  ob-ervii- 
tion,  that  these  machines  make  excellent 
work:  but  think  that,  like  the  presser  before 
meniiuned.  they  belong  to  a  higher  stage  of 
cultivation  than  has  been  attained  on  mosr  of 
our  land.  Strong  as  they  are,  they  would  not 
bear  the  work  of  newly  cleared  forest  land, 
even  if  a  team  powerful  enough  to  draw  them 
through  could  be  found;  and  the  long  cleared 
farms  must  be  brought  up  by  cheaper  means, 
before  we  can  afford  to  employ  machines 
costing  about  S"5  each,  and  requiring  very 
heavy  teams  to  drag  them  even  at  a  slow 
motion. 

The  operation  of  these  large  grubbers,  it 
will  be  perceived,  is  a  sort  of  subsoiliiig ;  it 
being  intended  to  stir  up  and  mellow  tiie 
lower  soil,  without  affecting  the  upper.  The 
tines  are  so  shaped  in  both  tigures,  that  roots, 
bunches  of  weeds,  &.C.,  will  gradually  work 
their  way  up  to  the  surface,  and  be  left  there. 
They  are,  indeed,  sometimes  used  for  the 
especial  purpose  of  cleaning  land  that  is 
foul. 

It  would  be  very  difficult  to  work  them  on 
land  that  had  not  been  already  ploughed 
deeply  and  subsoiled  ;  at  least  they  could  not, 
on  most  soils,  be  worked  under  such  circum- 
stances to  their  full  depth. 

2433.  An  implement  like  Fig.  218  would 
be  quite  useful  for  the  purpose  which  is  here 
assigned  to  it,  of  spreadiii?  the  manure  in  the 
bottom  of  the  drills.  It  is  far  inferior  to  our 
more  elegant  and  convenient  fork  for  all 
other  purposes,  and  in  fact  is  quite  as  heavy 
as  one  of  the  largest  sized  six-tined  forks  now 
used  here.  The  siiort  siraiirht  stilf  prongs 
are,  however,  very  useful  for  the  purpose  re- 
ferred to  above. 

2434.  Implements  like  the  drill  barrow 
here  figured.  Fit'.  219.  have  been  largely  in- 
troduced. The  difficulty  with  most  of  them 
is,  that  they  will  only  drop  seeds  well  in  a 
continuous  stream.  They  also,  for  the  most 
part,  are  found  defective  when  ii  is  attempted 
to  sow  large  seeds,  such  as  corn,  or  beans,  or 
peas.  With  seeds  that  are  rough  and  rather 
bristly,  such  as  those  of  the  beet,  they  almost 
invariably   fail,     I   have   seen  a  number   of 


them  tried  with  beet  seed,  but  never  knew 
one  succeed  in  dropping  them  evenly.  With 
the  small  .«eeds  too.  such  as  those  of  turnips, 
there  are  few  of  them  that  work  well.  They 
are  apt  to  drop  the  seeds  irregularly,  now 
leaving  blanks,  and  then  dropping  twenty  or 
thirty  at  a  time.  The  dis;ippoiniment  in  the 
turnip  and  other  crops,  arisiiiij  from  the  u>»' 
of  thest^'  imperfect  drill  barrows  with  which 
the  country  nas  been  overrun,  has  led  many 
farmers  to  entire  discouragement  in  the  culti- 
vation of  roots. 

Another  obstacle  to  the  very  extensive 
use  of  drill  barrows,  is  the  fact  that  few  of 
them  will  drop  seeds  otiierwise  than  in  a  con- 
tinuous line.  The  favorite  way,  and  probably 
the  best  way  of  planting  Indbn  corn,  is  in 
drills,  and  therefore  most  of  the  barrows  are 
useless  for  this  exceedingly  important  crop. 
The  drill  here  figured  would  not  answer  such 
a  purpose,  nor  do  any  of  the  common  ones  of 
other  constructions  that  I  have  seen. 

There  is,  however,  one  barrow  to  which  mv 
attention  has  been  lately  called,  the  principle 
of  which  is  evidently  valuable  and  correct.  I 
have  seen  it  under  the  name  of  ~  Page's  Im- 
proved Seed  and  Corn  Planter."  but  there 
may  be  other  names  and  other  inventors  of 
the  same  principle.  The  part  which  drops 
the  seed  is  an  endless  belt  with  cups  on  it  at 
certain  distances,  of  different  sizes  for  differ- 
ent seeds.  In  planting  corn,  each  of  these 
cups,  in  passing  through  a  reservoir  of  seed, 
takes  up  five  or  six  kernels,  and  drops  them 
at  intervals,  regulated  by  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  maciiine  is  driven,  and  the  distmce 
between  the  cups  on  the  belt.  A  small 
coulter  runs  ju^t  before  the  tin  tube  into 
which  the  cups  discharge  their  loads.  This 
excavates  a  furrow  deep  enough  for  the  seed 
bed,  and  a  broad  rather  heavy  wheel  running 
behind,  covers  the  seed  when  dropped.  It  is 
said  that  one  of  these  barrows  will  plant  ten 
acres  in  a  day,  but  I  have  no  experience  as  to 
the  accuracy  of  the  statement.  There  is  no 
doubt  but  it  would  go  over  the  ground :  but  I 
should  fear  that  with  so  swift  a  motion  as 
would  be  necessary,  the  work  might  be  im- 
perfectly done. 

The  principle  of  this  barrow  is  unques- 
tionably a  good  one,  and  capable  of  being 
brought  to  great  perfection.  There  is  no 
liability  to  choke,  and  there  are  no  small 
holes  to  be  stopped  by  a  sudden  rush  of  seed. 
Tlie  upper  part  of  the  belt,  too,  may  be  left 
uncovered,  so  that  the  person  who  has  the 
handles  can  always  see  if  the  cups  are  running 
full,  and  if  they  discharge  themselves  pro- 
perly. The  conducting  tube  can  be  made  so 
large  at  the  bottom,  as  to  obviate  all  danger 
of  its  choking  there.  I  suppose  that  belta  are 
made  for  this  barrow  in  sets,  leaving  different 
sizes  of  cups  for  the  various  kinds  of  seeds 
tliat  are  to  be  sown. 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


27 


2436.  Iilonot  see  that  any  particular  advan- 
tage \v\iuUl  ari>e  from  attacliin<^  a  seed  sow- 
ing apparatus  to  a  plough ;  as  described  here, 
it  would  embarrass  and  hinder  the  plough- 
man in  various  ways,  and  I  should  think  that 
the  consequence  of  adding  so  much  ma- 
cliinery  would  be,  that  neither  the  sowing 
nor  the  ploughing  would  be  etiectually  done. 
I  have,  however,  never  seen  tliis  apparatus  at 
work,  and  it  may  go  better  than  I  have 
thought. 

2443.  The  drill  harrow,  Figs.  220  and  221, 
is  an  implement  that  I  have  never  seen  or 
heard  of  in  this  country,  and  I  am  inclined  to 
think  tliat  it  is  by  no  means  universally  em- 
ployed, even  in  Great  Britain.  I  have,  how- 
ever, seen  it  there  on  many  farms,  and  heard 
it  highly  spoken  of.  The  form  will  at  once 
explain  its  object ;  it  is  intended  to  run 
lengthwise  on  the  drills,  and  by  its  semicir- 
cular shape  to  embrace  and  pulverize  every 
portion  of  them,  the  sides  and  hollows,  as 
well  as  the  tops.  It  is  run  along  the  drills  of 
potatoes,  as  well  as  beans,  soon  af;er  they 
first  come  up.  One  mi^'ht  naturally  suppose 
tliat  injury  would  be  done  to  the  young 
plants,  but  on  the  contrary,  they  seem  to 
flourish  under  this  rough  treatment.  The 
earth  around  them  is  thoroughly  broken  and 
loosened,  and  weeds  are  also  in  a  great  mea- 
sure destroyed.  A  work  is  thus  done  by 
this  harrow  which  could  not  be  done  by  a  flat 
one,  the  use  of  wliich,  under  such  circum- 
stances, would  be  destructive  to  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  crop. 

2452.  Peas  are  a  much  more  common  crop 
in  the  United  States  than  beans,  but  still  have 
not  usually  been  considered  of  suflicient  im- 
portance for  insertion  in  the  Patent  Office 
Reports,  among  the  statistics  of  other  crops. 

A  variety  called  the  cow  pea  has  been 
much  recommended  at  the  South  and  West 
for  fodder.  It  is  often  cut  green,  and  stacked 
in  layers  of  about  one  foot  in  thickness,  with 
some  dry  straw  or  common  fence  rails  be- 
tween each  layer;  a  plentiful  sprinkling  of 
salt  is  necessary  at  the  same  time.  It  is 
almost  superfluous  to  state  that  the  rail  prac- 
tice is  not  recommended  where  straw  can  be 
had.  If  great  care  is  not  taken  in  the  curing, 
when  this  is  attempted  to  be  done  in  the 
ordinary  way,  the  leaves  drop  off,  and  nothing 
but  dry  stalks  remains.  When  cut  at  ihe  right 
time,  and  properly  saved,  it  is  a  fodder  of 
much  value,  and  the  produce  per  acre  is  very 
large. 

This  plant  is  also  extensively  employed  as 
a  fertilizer  at  the  South,  where  the  summer 
heat  is  too  intense  to  allow  the  growth  of 
heavy  clover  crops.  Its  vine  berftg  large  and 
long,  a  great  bulk  of  organic  matter  is  added 
to  the  soil  when  it  is  ploughed  in.  Two 
crops  may  be  turned  under  during  a  single 
season.     Some  planters  pasture  stock  upon 


the  second  crop.  The  increased  weight  of 
the  animals  while  feeding  is  thus  lost  to  the 
land,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vines  are 
trampled  down  and  consolidated,  so  that  they 
are  more  easily  covered  by  the  plough  :  the 
droppings  of  the  stock  also  constitute  a  dress- 
ing of  manure  immediately  available  for  the 
next  crop. 

In  the  North,  a  favorite  mode  of  cultivating 
peas  is  to  sow  them  with  oats,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  third  to  two  thirds.  A  variety 
which  has  a  light  vine  should  be  selected,  as 
that  is  not  so  likely  to  overrun  and  bear 
down  the  oats. 

When  peas  are  cultivated  alone,  they  are 
got  into  the  ground  as  early  as  the  season 
will  permit.  From  three  to  four  bushels  per 
acre  is  the  quantity  usually  sown.  Small 
light  ploughs,  sometimes  arranged  in  echelon, 
or  gangs,  are  preferred  for  covering  them. 
When  it  is  attempted  to  cover  so  large  a  seed 
with  the  harrow,  many  are  unavoidably  left 
upon  the  surface  and  lost. 

In  the  statistics  of  the  State  of  New  York 
for  1846,  I  find  that,  while  the  whole  number 
of  acres  under  cultivation  in  the  State  was 
11,737,276,  there  were  117,379  acres  in  peas, 
and  but  16,232  acres  in  beans.  The  largest 
crop  of  peas  per  acre  was  66  bushels,  the 
largest  crop  of  beans  114  bushels  The 
average  product  of  all  the  acres  si/wn  to  both 
crops  was  small.  There  are,  in  fact,  very  few 
cultivators  who  do  justice  to  either  of  these 
crops;  the  bean  particularly  is  sown  upon 
land  which  will  scarcely  bear  anytliing  else, 
and  which,  therefore,  goes  by  the  opprobrious 
name  of  white  bean  land.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  crop  is  naturally  small  and 
insignificant.  If  the  treatment  were  such  as 
has  been  described  to  be  the  practice  in  Great 
Britain,  and  some  of  their  varieties  tried,  the 
result  would  doubtless  be  very  difleient  ; 
and  the  crop  would  rise  into  more  estima- 
tion, as  one  to  be  occasionally  grown  with 
advantage. 

A  mixture  of  peas  and  beans,  sown  as 
recommended  in  par.  2455,  would  doubtless 
be  successful.  I  should  like  to  see  this  crop 
tried,  and  the  whole  mown  and  cured  like 
hay,  while  the  stalks  were  yet  quite  green, 
and  the  seeds  um-ipe.  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  such  hay  would  prove  extremely  nutri- 
tious, and  that  the  produce  per  acre  would  be 
quite  heavy.  The  stalk  of  both  the  bean  and 
the  i>ea,  cut  in  the  state  just  mentioned,  would 
doubtless  be  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  also,  as  we 
know  from  examinations  of  their  ash,  in  the 
most  valuable  inorganic  substances. 

Probably  the  cow  pea  of  the  South,  noticed 
in  a  preceding  paragraph,  furnishes  a  hay 
much  similar  to  what  this  might  be.  In  sow- 
ing for  such  a  purpose,  it  would  be  better  to 
sow  broadcast  than  with  the  drill  barrow  :  as, 
in  the  first  case,  the  stalks,  growing  thickly, 


28 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


would  run  up  tall,  and  thus  furnish  a  ^eater 
bulk  of  fodder. 

As  to  the  varieties  of  peas  sown  in  field 
culture  I  can  say  little,  and  I  sutiptct  that 
there  can  be  little  said  by  any  one,  as  all 
evidence  of  any  pure  variety  has  long  since 
been  lost  from  the  samples  that  we  ordinarily 
Bee,  although  they  frequently  have  some  local 
name. 

2464.  Tares  are  little  known  in  this  coun- 
try, although  the  purpose  to  which  they  are 
applied,  that  of  summer  forage,  is  one  which 
should  command  the  attention  of  our  farmers. 
We  all  know  that  during  the  last  months  of 
midsummer  there  are  very  commonly  a  few 
weeks  of  dry  weather,  during  which  the 
pastures  dry  up,  and  feed  of  every  dcf^crip- 
tion  becomes  scarce.  The  cows  give  little 
milk,  as  the  best  pasture  is  necessarily 
reserved  for  the  working  cattle  and  horses. 
In  many  cases  these  last  have  to  be  even  fed 
on  grass  from  the  meadows,  which  should 
have  been  made  into  hay  for  the  winter's 
supply.  It  is  well  worth  considering,  if  a 
small  plot  of  ground  in  a  convenient  situa- 
tion, sown  with  tares,  or  some  other  prolific 
green  crop  of  the  same  nature,  and  which 
came  into  its  full  size  at  about  the  proper 
period,  would  not  pay  very  handsomely  for 
the  trifling  investment  which  would  be  neces- 
sary. Tares  are  said  to  be  an  extremely 
nutritious  food,  and,  when  given  with  a  little 
grain,  will  keep  stock  in  excellent  order.  The 
oats  that  are  recommended  to  be  sown  with 
tares  as  a  support,  are  in  themselves,  when 
cut  green,  a  highly  valuable  article  of  food. 

I  am  not  aware  how  far  this  plant  would 
flouri.sh  in  our  country,  but  .sliould  think  it 
Worthy  of  a  fair  trial,  among  other  green 
crops  intended  to  serve  the  same  purpose. 
To  some  of  these  I  shall  call  attention  in 
connexion  with  their  proper  paragrapiis. 

2473.  The  roller  is  an  implement  which 
has  long  been  known  in  tiiis  country,  and 
extensively  used  upon  fartns  scattered  here 
and  there;  still  the  full  extent  of  its  bene- 
ficial effect  is  not  even  yet  known  as  it  ought 
to  be. 

On  all  light  land  it  is  valuable  for  the  pur- 
pose of  consolidation  ;  the  earth  is  rendered 
80  compact  by  its  pressure,  that  it  affords  a 
firm  support  to  the  roots  of  i)lants.  If  seed 
has  already  been  sown,  it  presses  the  whole 
of  it  beneath,  or  at  least  even  with,  the  sur- 
face, and  compresses  the  earth  around  each 
seed,  so  that  it  is  kept  moist,  and  takes  root 
speedily.  On  stiff  soils  the  same  effect  is  to 
be  perceived,  although  in  a  less  marked 
degree,  as  they  are  naturally  compact.  The 
chief  good  on  such  soils  is  the  crushing  and 
pulverizing  of  hard  lumps,  which  would 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  plants,  and  with 
every  subsequent  process  of  cultivation.  The 
best  time  to  use  it  upon  such  ground,  is  as 


soon  as  possible  after  ploughing;  the  lumps 
are  then  not  too  wet,  and  have  not  att;iined 
the  degree  of  hardness  which  they  afterwards 
do,  under  the  heat  of  the  sun.  On  land  that 
is  to  be  seeded  down  to  grass,  a  rolling  after 
the  grass  seed  is  sown  is  of  great  iniiiortunce, 
both  in  the  in)mediate  consequences  connected 
with  the  taking  of  the  seed,  and  as  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  surface  for  mowing  and  raking 
during  haying.  The  small  stones  are  pressed 
down  even  with  the  surface,  the  little  inequal- 
ities are  smoothed,  and  the  scythe  can  be 
laid  close  to  the  ground  without  fear  of  injury. 
For  this  same  reason  it  is  well  to  roll  meadows 
in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  they  become  hard 
after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  This 
operation  presses  the  soil  firmly  around  the 
roots  of  the  plants  that  have  been  thrown  out 
ty  frost,  or  disturbed  in  any  way — benefiting 
the  solidity  and  evenness  of  the  turf,  and  its 
subsequent  growth.  It  also  in  this  case 
smoothes  the  surface  and  presses  down  small 
stones,  as  mentioned  before.  Every  pr.nctical 
mower  will  recognise  the  advantage  of  this 
procedure,  for  there  are  few  who  have  not 
execrated  the  small  stone,  or  j)rojcction  of 
earth,  whicli  has  dulled  their  scythe  effec- 
tually, perhaps  in  the  very  first  swathe ;  and, 
if  there  were  no  grindstone  near  by,  condemned 
them  to  labor  all  day  with  a  disabled  tool. 

The  wooden  roller,  although  cheap,  has 
still  other  objections  than  those  nientioned 
by  Mr.  Stephens:  it  soon  wears  uneven  and 
splintery,  and  in  consequence,  whenever  the 
ground  is  rough,  dogs  badly  with  dirt.  This 
renders  it  hard  to  draw,  and  at  the  same  time 
interferes  niateriallv  with  its  beneficial  action. 
The  iron  roller  can  W  arranged  with  a  scniper 
running  close  to  its  surface,  so  as  to  take  ofT 
all  of  the  dirt  as  it  revolves.  This  would 
wear  away  a  wooden  roller  too  rapidly. 

The  iron  rollers  are  now  made  and  sold  in 
this  country  at  very  reasonable  rates.  Some 
of  those  I  have  seen  are  too  great  in  diameter 
to  produce  the  best  effect:  the  diameter  of 
two  feet,  given  by  Mr.  Stephens,  has  been 
well  established  as  the  best  under  most  cir- 
cumstances. The  frame  built  over  the  roller, 
as  in  Fi<r.  222,  has  an  advantage  in  permitting 
the  weight  of  the  roller  to  be  iiidetinitely  in- 
creased by  loading,  if  necessary.  This  plan 
is  vastly  superior  to  one  which  I  have  occa- 
sionally seen,  of  having  a  box  in  front  of  the 
roller,  bearing  upon  the  tongue,  and  conse- 
quently upon  the  horses.  The  weight  of  the 
driver,  also,  in  Fig.  222,  may  be  added  to  the 
roller  without  distressing  the  team.  The 
cast-iron  rollers  made  here  have  all,  I  believe, 
from  two  to  four  segments.  That  these  are 
necessary,  all  will  believe  who  have  seen  the 
hole  mac^e  by  the  near  end  of  a  long  undivided 
roller  when  turning  a  .short  corner  in  the  field. 
So  far  as  my  knowledge  extends,  the  horses 
are  always  driven  abreast  in  a  roller,  and  not 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


&* 


as  in  Scotland.  I  cannot  discover  any  advan- 
tage in  attachinir  the  iiorses  one  in  front  of 
another  to  the  roller.  They  require  more 
attention  to  make  them  draw  evenly,  more 
room  to  turn  in  at  the  ends,  and  are  not  by 
any  means  so  easily  manajjed,  particularly  if 
the  driver  sits  upon  the  roller. 

2476.  A  remark  or  two  is  suggested  by 
this  and  succeeding  paragraphs,  relative  to 
the  care  which  is  shown  by  farmers  abroad 
in  the  selection  of  seed,  and  in  its  preserva- 
tion when  they  have  obtained  good  varieties. 
How  often  do  we  see  here  a  season's  labor  in 
a  considerable  degree  lost,  owing  to  the  use 
of  bad  or  imperfect  seed!  When  the  dealers 
in  seeds  are  honest,  tiiey  may  not  grow  all  of 
their  seed  themselves — indeed  they  rarely  do 
so — and  are,  of  course,  liable  to  injure  tiieir 
customers  by  selling  a  bad  article  uncon- 
sciously. If  the  farmer,  on  the  contrary, 
grows  his  seed  carefully  on  his  own  land, 
watches  its  ripening,  and  cuts  it  at  the  proper 
time, — afterwards  takinu  due  care  for  its  pre- 
servation, he  is  sure  of  his  crop,  so  far  as  the 
important  item  of  good  seed  is  concerned. 
There  is  another  point,  too,  that  may  be 
brought  into  the  account.  It  is  not  every 
farmer  who  undertakes  it,  that  will  or  can 
exercise  the  care,  perseverance,  and  skill, 
necessary  to  produce  uniformly  reliable  seed. 
Whenever  a  man  can  establish  a  reputation 
on  this  point,  his  seeds  will  meet  with  a  ready 
sale  at  high  prices,  and  thus  prove  a  remune- 
rating article  ;  indeed,  scarcely  anything 
would  pay  so  well.  Seed  wheat,  seed  corn, 
seed  oats,  seed  peas,  of  good  and  fure  varie- 
ties, known  to  be  such,  are  always  readily 
sold  far  above  the  market  prices.  A  person 
who  wishes  to  succeed  permanently  in  this 
business  must  not  deal  in  foncy  seeds,  with 
long  tlourishing  names,  but  confine  himself 
to  varieties  of  known  excellence  ;  never  lend- 
ing his  name  to  a  variety  because  it  is  new, 
but  trying  everything  for  himself.  In  this 
way  a  reputation  may  be  built  up  which 
would  inspire  confidence  among  the  farming 
community,  and  lead  to  their  purchasing  from 
such  a  person  at  his  own  prices,  in  preference 
to  all  others.  It  would  require  time  and 
patience  to  accomplish  this,  but  such  a  repu- 
tation once  established  would  Inst. 

2484.  On  the  sowing  of  oats.  Oats  con- 
stitute one  of  the  most  important  crops  in 
the  New  England  and  some  other  Northern 
States.  After  Indian  corn,  in  those  States 
where  wheat  is  not  a  leading  crop,  comes 
oats.  In  going  south  their  quahty  deterio- 
rates, and  in  many  places  their  weight  is  said 
to  be  no  more  than  from  20  to  25  lbs.  per 
bushel.  The  reasons  for  this  deterioration 
I  have  already  given,  so  far  as  my  opinion 
goes.  The  climate  seems  to  be  too  dry  and 
hot,  and  the  trrowth  too  sudden,  for  the  full 
and  perfect  development  of  the  seed  as  we 


find  it  in  Great  Britain.  This  difference  may 
probably  be  lessened,  certainly  in  a  degree, 
by  more  care  in  the  selection  of  varieties  and 
of  seed — perhaps  by  importation  frequently 
of  heavy  samples.  I  have  known  instances 
where  one  or  two  crops  at  least,  grown  on 
good  land  from  a  heavy  English  variety, 
equalled  the  original  seed  in  weight. 

As  to  the  varieties  of  oats  ordinarily  used, 
there  is  not  much  to  be  said;  for  the  seed 
usually  sown,  if  selected  at  all,  is  simply 
bcause  of  its  being  a  good  sample.  By  far 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  oats  sold  in  our 
markets  is  without  a  name,  except  perhaps 
that  of  the  district  whence  they  come.  Im- 
proved varieties  are  now  being  gradually 
introduced,  and  are  gaining  some  favor.  Tliey 
will  doubtless  be  preferred  when  their  merits 
come  to  be  understood.  This  point  demands 
attention,  and  is,  at  present,  more  worthy  the 
consideration  of  skilful  farmers  than  any 
other  in  the  cultivation  of  this  grain.  If  we 
can  gain  a  few  pounds'  weight  per  bushel, 
such  oats  will  soon  command  a  uniformly 
higher  price  than  the  lighter  samples,  and  so 
will  compel  a  general  efibrt  .at  improvement. 
Many  of  the  choicest  English  varieties  have 
already  been  brought  to  this  country,  but,  as 
a  general  rule,  they  soon  become  mixed  and 
lost.  The  potatoe,  barley,  and  a  kind  called 
the  imperial  oats,  have  been  much  ncom- 
mended  ;  also,  the  horse  mane,  or  black  and 
vvliite  Tartarian.  The  last  seem  to  have 
found  much  favor  in  some  parts  of  New 
York,  although  they  are  fast  becoming  mixed. 
This  mixture  is  in  many  cases  intentional. 
I  notice  one  account  of  a  premium  crop, 
where  black  and  white  oats  were  sown  in 
equal  proportions.  One  or  two  varieties  of 
skinless  oats  were  grown  to  a  certain  extent 
a  few  ycnrs  since,  but  I  believe  that  they 
were  not  found  an  advantageous  variety  for 
general  purposes,  and  that  they  have  now 
almost,  if  not  wholly,  disappeared. 

2487.  My  remarks  as  to  the  probable  ad- 
vantage of  introducing  new  varieties,  are 
supported  by  the  opinion  of  jMr.  Stephens 
in  this  paragraph,  as  he  thinks  that  the  oats 
at  present  in  highest  favor  in  Scotland,  are  so 
because  they  are  recent  kinds,  and  therefore 
more  luxuriant,  hardy,  and  productive. 

Oats  are  got  into  the  ground  in  this  coun- 
try, at  as  early  a  period  as  the  season  will 
allow ;  that  is,  as  soon  as  the  fields  are  in  a 
proper  condition  for  working.  One  good 
ploughing  is  generally  thought  sufficient.  The 
seed  is  sown  broadcast,  and  three  bushels  an 
acre  has  ordinarily  been  considered  quite 
enough.  Many  excellent  practical  writers 
are  now  recommending  three  and  a  half  to 
four  bushels ;  and  in  some  reports  on  pre- 
mium crops  I  have  lately  seen  it  stated,  that 
rather  more  than  five  bushels  were  sown. 
This    approaches    nearly  to    the   quantities 


30 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


mentioned  by  Mr.  Stephens,  par.  2493 — five 
to  six  Itushols. 

I  ;iin  iiifliiicd  to  think  that  such  heavy  sow- 
ing would  prove  injuri<nis  rather  than  bene- 
ficial on  viTV  liiJfht  land,  or  on  exhausted 
soils,  where  little  manure  had  been  applied, 
much  of  this  crop  being  unfortunately  grown 
upon  such  land.  In  these  c.-ises  there  is  not 
Buflicient  strength  to  mature  so  many  stalks 
of  full  growth  as  come  up;  consequently  at 
harvest  the  straw  is  short  and  slender,  while 
the  grain  is  thin  and  scanty.  On  rich  land, 
thick  sowing  as  above  would  succeed ;  thin 
sowing  of  oats  there  would  not  answer  so 
well  as  thin  sowing  of  wheat ;  the  time  occu- 
pied In  the  growth  of  the  former  crop  is  so 
short  comparatively,  that  there  is  little  oppor- 
tunity, except  in  the  case  of  some  particular 
varieties,  for  tillering,  or  throwing  out  more 
than  one  shoot  from  the  same  root  The 
potato  oats,  and  some  other  kinds,  are  said 
to  tiller  on  rich  land  almost  as  much  as 
wheat. 

Mixtures  of  oats  with  other  seeds  have 
lately  come  much  into  vogue  in  many  parts 
of  the  country:  oats  with  barley,  oats  with 
r}'e,  oats  with  wheat,  &c.  Oats  with  peas 
have  already  been  mentioned.  Some  of  the 
agricultural  societies  give  premiums  for  these 
crops,  and  they  seem,  particularly  in  some  of 
the  Eastern  States,  to  be  gaining  in  public 
favor. 

2501.  The  broadcast  .nnd  the  drill  so^\•ing 
machines  alluded  to  here,  have  already  been 
noticed.  I  may  mention  among  those  that 
have  been  introduced  more  or  less  exten- 
sively, Pennock's  Patent  Seed  and  Grain 
Planter,  Sinclair  and  Co.'s  Patent  Grain  Drill, 
and  Peir-son's  Patent  Seed  Drill.  As  I  have 
before  observed,  neitlicr  these  nor  the  broad- 
cast sowing  machines  difier  materially  from 
tlie  Scotch  and  English  machines.  Machines 
of  a  construction  so  simple  and  efficient  as 
those  described  by  Mr.  Stephens,  will  soon 
find  their  way  to  the  farms  of  our  most  enter- 
prising improvers.  In  the  east,  where  farms 
are  small,  or  rather  the  breadtJi  cultivated  in 
grain  is  small,  they  will  probably  travel  from 
one  iarm  to  another — a  single  machine  suffic- 
ing for  the  sowing  of  a  dozen,  or  at  least 
for  a  number  of  farms. 

Their  use  will,  however,  be  limited,  until 
ihe  farmers  get  into  the  habit  of  finishing  and 
clearing  the  surface  more  perfectly  tlian  they 
do  at  present;  unbroken  clods,  bunches  of 
grass  or  roots,  and  fixed  stones,  interrupt  and 
render  imperfect  the  action  of  all  machinery 
for  sowing.  Until  such  obstacles  are  removed, 
it  is  probably  more  economical,  and  certainly 
less  trying  to  the  patience,  to  sow  by  hand 
entirely.  I  have  myself  seen  enough  machines 
tried  upon  rough  and  poorly  cultivated  land, 
to  comprehend  the  many  vexations  attendant 
upon  their  almost  invariable  failure,  and  to 


understand  the  feelinp  of  mingled  mortifica- 
tion and  relief  with  which  the  f^irmer  returns 
to  his  old  methods,  amid  the  ridicule  of  his 
less  enterprising  neighbors.  Tlie  fact  is,  th.at 
no  one  should  attempt  to  use  a  machine  until 
his  land  is  thoroughly  prepared  ;  until  it  is 
mellow  and  smooth  in  every  portion  of  its 
surface.  The  mention  of  six  harrowings  by 
Mr.  Stephens,  in  Par.  2496,  shows  the  care 
which  is  taken  in  this  respect  abroad ;  the 
liint  about  sharp  teeth  to  the  harrows  is  also 
well  worthy  of  notice.  It  should,  moreover, 
be  remembered,  that  the  mere  use  of  the 
machine  will  not  produce  a  good  crop  upon 
poorly  manured,  exhausted  land,  let  it  be  ever 
so  finely  cultivated.  If  all  these  points  had 
been  attended  to  in  the  instances  mentioned 
above,  the  laughter  and  ridicule  might  have 
been  transferred  to  the  other  side,  and  the 
farmer  would  have  soon  seen  his  neighbors, 
one  by  one,  silently  following  his  example. 

2504.  I  am  not  aware  that  the  Jleadow 
Crane  Fly,  the  insect  figured  here,  ever  effects 
any  such  injury  in  this  country,  as  is  ascribed 
to  it  in  the  above  paragraph.  If  not  the  same 
insect,  we  have  one  of  the  same  family,  and 
much  resembling  this ;  but  it  is  not  very 
abund.int,  and  never  seems  to  do  any  notice- 
able liarm,  either  in  the  perfect  or  the  larva 
state.  No  mention  is  made  of  it  in  our  agri- 
cultural reports,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  we  are  exempt  from  this  insect  enemy. 

2512.  The  wild  mustard  (Raphanus  Rjv- 
phantstrum)  is  not  so  common  in  our  grain 
fields  as  the  charlock  (Sinapis  Arv»  nsis), 
which  is  very  abundant ;  in  some  parts  of  the 
countrj-  it  seems  to  cover  whole  fields  when 
in  tlower.  Perhaps  the  method  here  men- 
tioned for  destroying  the  wild  mustard  would 
prove  equally  efti'ctual  in  the  case  of  charlock. 

2513.  Of  Lucerne.  It  is  said  by  some  ot 
tlie  best  English  authors  that  their  cUinate  is, 
with  few  exceptions,  not  sufficiently  dry  and 
warm  for  Mie  cultivation  of  this  plant,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  south 
of  Europe.  It  is  a  deep-rooted  pereimial, 
with  tall  stems  much  like  clover,  and  fiowers 
ill  violet-colored  spikes. 

It  requires  a  mellow,  rather  light  soil,  with 
a  dry  subsoil,  and  of  very  good  quality. 
When  s6wn  broadcast,  as  recommended  in 
par.  2516,  there  is  much  less  trouble  in  keep- 
ing it  clean,  but  Loudon  says  that  the  yield  is 
not  by  any  means  so  great.  It  is  throe  or 
four  years  before  it  comes  into  full  bearing, 
but  al\erthat  it  lasts  for  a  number  of  sea.sons 
with  very  little  diminution.  It  may  be  cut 
five  or  si.x  times  in  a  season,  and  yields  an 
immense  weight  of  fodder,  which  is  very 
nutritious. 

I  find  in  the  Albany  Cultivator,  and  divers 
other  agricultural  periodicals,  .accounts  of  the 
cultivation  of  Lucerne  in  various  parts  of  this 
country  with  success :  in  New  York,  Massa- 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


31 


chusctts,  Ohio,  and  Alabama.  Most  of  those 
wlio  have  tried  it  speak  well  of  it,  and  the 
dry  warm  climate  of  our  country  must  be 
adapted  to  its  growth.  Its  cultivation,  how- 
ever, does  not  spread,  and  it  is  very  uncom- 
mon to  see  even  a  small  field  of  it.  The 
rea-ons  for  this  are  probably  to  be  found  in 
the  fact,  that  the  ground,  to  insure  success, 
needs  careful  preparation  and  enriching,  and 
frequent  doses  of  manure  afcrwanis,  to  keep 
up  the  production.  Then  it  is  also  a  long 
time  in  coming  to  its  full  size,  and  requires 
much  labor  to  keep  it  clear  from  weeds. 
True,  the  crop,  when  once  obtained,  is  heavy  ; 
but  the  same  labor  and  manure  bestowed  on 
other  crops  that  fall  better  into  a  rotation, 
would  prohably  produce  f;;r  greater  returns. 
From  the  operation  of  these  causes,  the  cul- 
ture of  Lucerne  has  not  extended  itself 
greatly,  and  probably  will  not  do  so.  It 
may,  at  the  same  time,  be  found  highly 
advantageous,  where  soiling  is  practised  at 
all,  to  have  from  half  an  acre  to  an  acre  in 
some  convenient  place  near  the  farm  build- 
ings, where  a  free  application  of  manure 
would  produce  a  supply  of  excellent  green 
food  on  all  occasions  during  the  summer. 
When  sown  broadcast,  the  quantity  of  seed, 
according  to  Mr.  Stephens,  is  20  lbs.  to  the 
acre  :  when  drilled,  it  requires  but  about  half 
of  that  weight. 

Loudon  says  that  there  are  no  varieties  of 
Lucerne,  besides  the  Medieago  Sativa,  that 
are  worthy  the  adoption  of  the  cultivator. 
He  mentions  three  or  four  other  varieties 
which  are  known  in  Switzerland  and  the 
south  of  France,  but  seems  to  think  that 
they  have  no  properties  of  great  importance. 
One  of  these  is  Medieago  Falcata,  named  in 
par.  2521. 

2524.  Sainfoin  is  another  deep-rooted  pe- 
rennial, with  branching  spreading  stems,  and 
very  showy  red  flowers.  The  appearance  of 
a  field  of  it,  when  in  bloom,  is  very  beautiful. 
It  is  said  that  light  calcareous  soils  are  best 
for  this  plant,  and  that  upon  such  soils  it  will 
yield  well,  in  situations  where  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  produce  good  clover,  or  good 
pasture  of  any  other  kind.  It  is  mown  and 
made  into  hay  like  clover,  and  is  well  worthy 
of  a  trial  among  us  in  suitable  land,  as  it  is  said 
to  be  remarkably  nutritious.  It  does  not 
seem  to  require  so  much  care  as  Lucerne, 
and  comes  quicker  into  a  condition  for  use, 
although,  unless  under  very  high  cultivation, 
its  produce  per  acre  is  not  so  large.  It  will 
last  from  eight  to  ten  years,  if  necessary,  in  a 
profitable  state ;  although,  I  suppose,  it  would 
need  occasional  top-dressing  during  that  time. 
This  crop,  so  for  as  I  can  learn,  is  entirely 
unknown  to  the  farmers  of  this  country. 

In  Europe  a  variety  of  other  crops  are  cul- 
tivated for  forage,  which  are  not  mentioned 
here  by  Mr.  Stephens.     The  coamion  broom 


(Spartium  Scoparius),  parsley  (Apium  Pe- 
troselinum),  Semadilla,  and  many  others, 
have  been  occasionally  introduced,  and  with 
good  success.  Their  culture,  however,  has 
not  extended  greatly,  probably  for  the  reason 
that  they  possess  no  especial  advantages  over 
some  plants  already  in  cultivation. 

Si)urry  (Spergnla  Arvensis)  is  a  small 
annual  plant,  which  is  much  sown  on  poor, 
dry,  sandy  land  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  It 
will  grow  where  scarcely  anything  else  will 
flourish  at  all.  It  is  said  to  be  more  nutritious 
than  any  other  variety  of  forage,  and  may  be 
sown  and  cut  within  the  space  of  eight  or  ten 
weeks.  Several  crops  of  it  may  be  obtained 
in  the  course  of  a  single  season.  For  very 
poor,  light  soils,  this  seems  to  be  a  valuable 
crop,  as  it  will  afford  good  pasture  upon  tliem, 
and  if  turned  under,  may  bring  them  into  a 
condition  to  bear  more  profitable  crops. 

2538.  Of  the  lambing  of  ewes.  The  period 
for  this  event,  on  the  farms  of  England  and 
Scotland,  is  generally  much  earlier  than  that 
considered  advisable  by  our  best  farmers  in 
the  Northern  States.  The  spring  is  so  much 
later  here,  that  an  abundance  of  fresh  succu- 
lent food  for  the  ewes  cannot  be  relied  upon 
before  May.  The  early  lambs  are  also  ex- 
posed to  sudden  storms  and  cold  weatlicr, 
which  result  in  much  injury,  even  when  not 
absolutely  fatal.  Many  endeavor  to  defy 
the  season,  and  to  produce  early  lambs  for 
market,  by  providing  warm  close  sheds,  and 
by  feeding  the  ewes  on  succulent  food,  such 
as  turnips,  potatoes,  &c.  This  will  answer 
where  a  ready  market  and  high  prices  can  be 
obtained  ;  otherwise,  and  particularly  with  a 
large  .stock,  it  is  so  expensive  and  trouble- 
some, that  the  majority  of  farmers  prefer  to 
have  their  ewes  lamb  in  May,  as  most  conve- 
nient, and  at  the  same  time  most  profitable. 

The  care  of  ewes  previous  to  lambing,  and 
all  of  the  necessary  precautions  so  fully  de- 
scribed here,  indicate  a  degree  of  care  and 
watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd 
which  is  seldom  seen  in  America,  but  which  in 
a  valuable  flock  would  doubtless,  here  as  well 
as  there,  amply  reward  the  owner. 

As  to  any  comparison  of  the  number  of 
lambs  produced  by  difl'erent  breeds  of  ewes 
in  this  country,  it  is,  on  a  very  extended  scale, 
almost  entirely  out  of  the  question,  so  great 
has  been  the  intermixture  of  the  several 
varieties.  The  Merinoes  and  the  Saxons  seem 
to  have  been  most  abundant,  and  these  are 
to  be  found  in  every  grade  of  perfection  and 
purity,  as  well  as  in  every  grade  of  imperfec- 
tion and  impnrily.  The  two  last  words,  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  should  be  applied  much  more 
often  than  the  first.  It  is  owing  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  these  mixed  and  neglected 
breeds,  or  rather  crosses,  that  mutton  has 
been  considered  such  an  inferior  kind  of  meat 
in  this  country.     Now,  however,  there  is  a 


32 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


rapid  chanpe  going  forward  in  this  respect. 
Within  a  short  period  nearly  all  the  best 
Erij.'^lisli  breeds  have  been  infrodueed :  the 
Coiswoldd,  the  Leicesters,  the  South  Downs, 
and  the  Seotch  Cheviots.  These  are  finding 
tiieir  way  over  the  country,  and  are  highly 
prized  wlierever  the  production  of  mutton  is 
an  ohjeet  of  importance. 

Wliere  fine  wool  is  most  profitable,  the 
Sa.xons  and  Merinoes  will  continue  to  pre- 
vail. Of  these  breeds  we  have  had  for  many 
years  celebrated  Hocks,  kept  in  the  utmost 
purity,  and  from  time  to  time  improved  by 
irosh  importitions.  It  is  said  that  some  flocks 
of  Merinoes  now  in  this  country  are  equal,  in 
every  point  of  excellence,  to  the  finest  flocks 
of  Spain. 

Our  sheep  districts  are  usually  hillv  and 
bleak,  and  good  shelters  for  the  flock  during 
the  winter,  are  indispensable  to  their  well- 
being  ;  these  same  shelters,  if  properly  con- 
structed, are  found  amply  suflicieiit  for  the 
breeding  ewes  in  spring.  The  farms  not 
being  so  extensive,  nor  the  flocks  so  large, 
as  in  Great  Britain,  it  is  practicable  to  drive 
them  every  night,  or  at  least  always  in  bad 
weather,  to  these  indosures,  and  to  place  the 
feeble  tender  ones  under  a  warm  close  shed. 
Thi-;  is  particularly  necessary  for  tlie  fine 
woolled  varieties,  the  lambs  of  which  are  deli- 
cate, and  subject  to  injury  from  inclement 
storms. 

It  will  be  perceived  th.it  the  condition  of 
flocks  in  this  country  at  the  time  of  lambing 
is  quite  diflferent  from  that  of  those  described 
under  this  head  in  the  present  work.  Our 
flocks,  being  ordinarily  small,  are  easily  kept 
toirether  near  home,  and  arc  consequently 
more  easily  sheltered  and  attended  to  in  every 
way.  As  sheep  husbandry  extends  itself  into 
the  uncultivated  regions  of  the  north,  and  the 
wide  prairiesof  the  west,  flocks  will  be  larger, 
and  then  the  neces>ity  for  such  instructed 
careful  shepherds  as  are  here  described,  will 
become  more  apj)arent  than  it  is  at  present. 
]Men  will  be  needed  who  have  studied  this 
business  as  a  profession,  and  who  will  devote 
themselves  wholly  to  the  care  of  flocks. 

In  addi'.ion  to  the  methods  recommended 
by  Mr.  Stephens,  for  making  the  ewes  take 
strange  lambs,  I  have  seen  another  noticed  as 
worthy  of  attention  in  such  cases.  It  is  sim- 
ply to  sprinkle  fine  salt  over  the  lamb;  the 
ewe,  while  licking  this,  will  soon,  it  is  said, 
become  familiarized  with  the  stranger.  Rulv 
bin;,'  the  laiirb  thoroughly  with  warm  milk 
is  also  a  prescription  add  to  be  eflicicious. 

Figs.  2-27  and  228  represent  implements 
which  would  be  of  little  use  to  the  American 
sheep  farmer.  By  the  time  th.at  grass  has 
attained  a  sufticient  height  in  his  pa.stures  to 
justify  turning  out  the  sheep,  all  danger  of 
Lnsting  s-  ows  is  over.  In  case  of  a  squ.dl 
covering  the  ground  for  a  day  or  two,  the 


easiest  plan  is  to  bring  the  flock  back  to  the 
barn  and  sheds. 

2G15.  This  paragraph,  and  Fig.  229,  to 
which  it  refers,  are  especially  worthy  of 
notice,  as  showing  the  evil  of  irregularly- 
shaped  fields.  The  one  here  drawn  is,  how- 
ever, remarkably  regular  in  its  outline,  when 
compared  with  many  that  may  be  seen  diiily 
on  farms  in  almost  every  nei^diborhuod. 
The  time  lo.st  in  ploughing  crooked,  triangu- 
lar, and  rounded  lands,  becomes  quit*;  a  serious 
item  in  the  year's  work  ;  but  the  evil  does  not 
cease  with  the  ploughing.  If  it  is  a  crop  in 
which  the  culiivator  or  any  other  horse  imple- 
ment is  used,  the  same  dilfieulty  recurs  con- 
stantly;  the  turnings  cannot  be  made  without 
delay  and  injury  to  the  crop  at,  or  near,  each 
extremity  of  the  rows. 

2623.  This  is  a  very  good  method  for  exe- 
cuting a  species  of  suostdiiiig  If  the  second 
plough  be  a  large  and  heavy  one,  with  tlie 
mould  board  taken  ofl!",  it  will  answer  very 
well  for  a  subsoil  plough.  On  much  New 
England  land,  as  I  am  well  aware,  the  pro- 
gress of  the  second  plough  would  soon  be 
stopped  by  stones;  but  still  there  are  many 
districts  where  such  obstacles  do  not  exist, 
and  where  this  operation  is  perfectly  prac- 
lieable.  There  are  light  subsoil  ploughs  now 
made,  for  a  pair  of  horses  or  single  yoke  of 
cattle,  which  would  be  precisely  suitable  to 
use  in  this  way. 

2G30.  The  ribbing  coulters.  Fig.  231,  are 
evidently  upon  the  same  prineiple  jis  our  eulti- 
v.it^irs.  These  latter  would  do  the  same  work 
when  spread  to  their  full  extent,  and  all  fitted 
with  such  coulters  as  are  figured  here.  They 
would,  I  think,  be  more  convenient  in  every 
respect. 

2631.  Of  sowing  grass  seeds.  When  grass 
seeiis  are  sown,  either  with  oats,  barley,  wheat, 
or  any  other  cereal  crop,  the  white  and  red 
clover,  and  the  J'imothy  or  cat's  tail  (Phleum 
Prati  nse),  are  almost  universally  employed. 
This  last  is  also  extensively  known  under  the 
name  o{  herd's  grass.  It  is  a  prolific  and  h.irdy 
gra>.s,  making  excellent  hay  for  every  kind  of 
stock  when  mixed  with  clover,  and  the  various 
other  grasses  which  find  their  way  naturally 
into  almost  every  meadow. 

This  was  one  among  some  fifty  gras.sea 
experimented  upon  at  Woburn  in  England. 
These  experiments  were  made  with  great 
care,  having  in  view  the  determination  of 
numerous  points  relative  to  the  various 
grasses ;  such  as  their  prolific  qualities,  the 
soils  and  climates  ♦o  which  they  were  adapted, 
the  quantity  of  imtritive  matter  aflbrded  by  a 
certain  bulk  of  each,  &-c..  &c.  They  were 
very  elaborate,  and  have  become  quit^'  cele- 
brated. 

Timothy  was  assigned  a  high  rank  by  the 
Woburn  experiments,  as  being  among  the  most 
prolific  for  hay,  and  being,  aa  to  its  imtritive 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


33 


value,  comparatively  very  excellent.  Wlien 
growii  alone,  or  wi;h  but  a  small  proportion  of 
other  grasses,  its  hay  is  in  request  for  iiorses. 
In  Pennsylvania,  and  the  middle  States  gene- 
riilly,  there  is  a  grass  of  the  family  agroslis, 
also  known  by  the  name  of  herd's  grass,  but 
in  reality  quite  ditlerent. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  our  fanners  might, 
with  good  prospect  of  advantage,  try  the 
experiment  of  introducing  some  of  the 
stiuidard  English  varieties  into  tiieir  perma- 
nent meadows  and  pastures.  Where  one  or 
two  years"  grass  only  is  desired  before  break- 
ing up  again,  perhaps  tiie  present  system  will 
an>^wer  as  well  as  any  change. 

The  orchard  grass,  or  cock's-foot  grass 
(Dactylis  Glomerata),  has  become  somewhat 
known.  It  is  very  highly  spoken  of  in  the 
Woburn  experiments,  both  as  nutritious  and 
extremely  productive.  Some  cultivators  con- 
sider it  coarse,  but  the  general  voice  is  in  its 
fiuor,  particularly  for  pastures. 

The  perennial  rye  grass  (Lolium  Perenne) 
has  also  been  tried  occasionally  here,  but  I 
am  uiclined  to  think  that  there  are  better 
grasses  for  our  climate.  Its  yield  of  hay  is 
not  so  great  as  that  of  our  known  grasses, 
nor,  according  to  some  experiments,  is  this 
hay  remarkably  nutritious.  its  growth  is 
over,  I  should  think,  too  early  in  the  season 
for  the  purposes  of  our  pastures.  It  grows 
freely  on  almost  any  tolerable  soil. 

The  adaptation  of  grasses  to  soils  should 
also  be  studied.  Timothy,  for  instance,  is  not 
adapted  to  dry  and  light  soils,  but  clover  may 
be  made  to  flourish  perfectly  well  in  such 
situations.  Then  also  for  hay,  care  should 
be  taken  to  sow  varieties  that  ripen  about 
the  same  time. 

The  red  top  (Agrostis  Vulgaris)  is  by  many 
considered  a  good  mixture  with  clover  and 
Timothy,  altiiough  it  is  not  very  highly 
esteemed  by  many  of  the  English  autliors. 

The  varieties  of  the  fescue  grass  (Festiica), 
and  the  meadow  fox-tail  grass  (Alopecurus 
Pratensis),  are  among  tlie  most  esteemed 
of  British  grasses,  for  both  dry  and  wet 
meadows. 

The  xVmerican  spear  grass  (Poa  Pratensis) 
is  included  by  Loudon  among  what  lie  consi- 
ders six  of  the  best  British  grasses,  and  aUo 
stands  well  in  the  Woburn  experiments.  This 
is  a  natural  grass  in  most  of  our  best  perma- 
nent meadows. 

The  sweet-scented  vernal  grass  (Antho- 
xanthum  Odoratum)  is  also  found  naturally 
in  most  meadows,  and  communicates  its  well- 
known  delightful  odor  to  the  hay.  This 
flourishes  best  on  deep,  rather  moist  soils,  and 
is  valuable  in  such  situations  for  early  pas- 
ture. Its  hay,  however,  is  not  of  the  first 
quality.  I  have  had  samples  of  this  grass  sent 
in,  whh  the  inquiry  if  it  was  a  good  grass 
for  cultivation  alone,  and  have  for  the  above 


reasons  returned  a  negative  answer.  There 
may  be  one  exception  in  the  case  of  bogs,  or 
wet  land,  where  other  grasses  of  a  more 
valuable  nature  will  not  grow. 

The  quantities  of  grass  seed  sown  per  acre 
vary  so  much  in  ditlerent  parts  of  the  country 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  mention  any 
fixed  weight  or  measure.  Our  best  farmers 
fully  come  up  to  the  weights  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Stephens,  and  often  exceed  them :  but  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  by  far  too  little  is 
sown,  and  the  natural  result  of  this  false 
economy  is  poor  crops  of  grass. 

The  proportions  of  clover  and  Timothy  are 
equal,  or  varied  according  as  one  or  the  other 
is  desired  to  predominate.  Red  clover  is  in 
more  common  use  than  white ;  the  latter 
finds  its  way  naturally  into  good  pastures. 
Where  it  does  not  come  in  of  its  own 
accord,  there  should  be  a  small  quantity 
sown. 

Machines  for  sowing  grass  seed  are  as  yet 
little  known  among  us,  though  in  the  east 
there  are  few  farms  of  such  extent  as  to 
demand  their  employment,  but  in  the  south 
and  west  they  will  probably  soon  be  used 
with  advantage.  It  is  common  in  sowing 
grass  seed  to  mix  ashes  with  it ;  the  ashes 
in  still  weather  show  the  space  of  ground 
covered  by  each  cast,  and  are  at  the  same 
time  a  beneficial  top  dressing.  The  small 
quantity  of  seed  being  as  it  were  diluted 
by  the  ashes,  is  also  more  evenly  distributed. 

When  land  is  seeded  to  grass  on  winter 
grain,  the  seed  is  frequently  sown  on  the  melt- 
ing snow  in  spring,  and  wit  h  very  good  success. 
On  the  white  surface  of  the  snow  it  is  easy 
to  see  if  the  sowing  is  even. 

Some  farmers,  instead  of  sowing  the  grass 
seed  after  the  first  harrow  ing  of  spring  grain, 
recommend  the  practice  of  wetting  the  grain 
thoroughly  before  it  is  sown,  and  then  of  mix- 
ing the  grass  seed  with  it.  Some  of  the  dry 
seeds  adhere  to  each  grain,  and  thus  a  pretty 
equal  distribution  is  obtained.  I  have  never 
seen  this  plan  tried,  but  should  thitik  that  it 
would  save  little  time,  if  any.  and  that  the 
work  would  not  be  so  well  done  as  by  the 
connnon  way. 

In  place  of  employing  a  light  haiTow  as 
represented  by  Fig.  232.  for  covering  grass 
seed,  this  is  usually  done  by  means  of  a  thick, 
flat  evergreen,  about  ten  feet  in  length  by 
eight  or  ten  in  width.  Where  a  single  one 
of  sufficient  size  cannot  be  found,  three  or 
four  smaller  branches  are  fastened  together 
by  a  cross-piece.  If  tiiis  brush  is  carefully 
selected,  it  does  very  good  work,  and  leaves 
a  handsomely  finished  surface,  on  gr(»und  that 
has  been  previously  well  prepared.  It  is  a 
humble  imitation  of  Mr.  Smith's  iron  web 
harrow,  described  in  par.  2653. 

2683.  The  ophiions  hen'  given  as  to  the 
superior   advantage   of  sowing   clover   with 


34 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


buckwheat,  are  worthy  of  notice  by  farmers 
who  have  ditlioulty  in  niaki:i<j  clover  talie, 
when  sown  in  spring  with  the  u^ual  grain 
crops. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  say  much  in 
addition  to  the  account  Mr.  Stei)lieMs  lias 
given  of  tJie  different  varieties  of  Trifoliaj  or 
Clovers.  Must  of  tliose  described  by  him  are 
sub-varieties,  of  worthless,  or  comparatively 
worthless,  character.  We  often  see  in  our 
periodicals  ditl'erent  kinds  of  clover  men- 
tioned, but  ill  many  cases  the  fancied  diifer- 
ences  are  owing  to  variations  of  soil  or 
climate,  and  after  all,  tlie  true  old  red  and 
white  still  maintain  their  superiority  over  the 
new  comers. 

2685.  Of  sowing  barley.  This  has  never 
seemed  to  be  a  favorite  crop  in  the  United 
States.  The  principal  demand  has  always 
been  for  the  purpose  of  malting,  but  the  total 
abstinence  movement  has  so  greatly  dimi- 
nisiied  this  demand,  or  at  least  has  prevented 
its  increase  in  any  degree  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  population,  that  in  many  States 
the  quantity  grown  is  scarcely  worth  men- 
tioning. I  have  consulted  the  Patent  Office 
Report^  and  find  there  tabular  estimates  of 
the  crops  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union, 
extending  over  a  period  of  several  years.  In 
no  year  does  the  crop  of  barley  amount  to 
one  fifih  of  the  rye  crop,  or  to  more  than  half 
of  the  buckwheat  crop. 

The  State  of  New  York  grows  more  barley 
than  all  the  otiier  States  together,  and  it  is 
largely  e.vported  from  thence.  Its  use,  as 
food  for  man,  is  exceedingly  limited;  but  in 
some  districts  considerable  quantities  are  fed 
to  stock  with  advantage.  Our  agricultural 
papers  usually  say  little  about  this  grain,  and 
i]i  many  districts  one  may  travel  for  days 
without  seeing  more  than  half  an  acre  of 
barley  in  a  piece,  and  frequently  without 
seeing  any  at  all.  In  fact  the  only  reason 
for  wishing  its  more  general  introduction  is, 
that  it  might  occasionally  be  substituted  with 
advantage  for  some  other  grain  in  a  rotation. 
Perhaps,  after  all,  we  attain  the  same  end 
more  profitably  by  the  cultivation  of  Indian 
corn — a  much  more  valuable  crop,  and  one 
which  deprives  the  soil  of  the  same  class  of 
substances. 

The  Chevalier  barley,  and  various  other 
famous  English  varieties,  have  been  sown  in 
tJiis  country  with  success.  One  ploughing  is 
generally  thought  sufficient  for  barley,  but  I 
think  there  is  little  doubt  that  on  most  land 
the  crop  would  be  greatly  the  better  for  two. 
From  three  to  four  bushels  of  seed  per  acre 
are  used,  the  latter  quantity  being  considered 
preferable  where  the  land  is  in  fine  order. 
When  the  season  will  permit,  it  is  well  to 
have  the  land  prepared,  and  the  seed  sown, 
before  May. 

2712.  Of  the  treatment  of  dunffhills.     The 


remarks  under  this  head,  in  paragraphs  2714 
and  2715,  will  doubtless  recall  to  tiie  minds 
of  many  farmers,  as  they  do  to  mine,  fields 
overrun  with  weeds  from  the  use  of  long 
manure.  This  is  particularly  apt  to  be  the 
case  with  the  potatoe  crop.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  season  the  weeds  are  usually  kept 
down,  but  after  about  the  second  hoeing 
they  begin  to  be  neglected.  The  potatoes, 
unlike  Indian  corn,  do  not  shade  the  land 
sufficiently  to  keep  down  weeds ;  as  soon  as 
a  pause  in  cultivation  takes  place,  the  little 
weeds  which  have  escaped  notice  among  the 
potatoes  commence  growing  vigorously  :  as 
the  potatoe  tops  begin  to  die  they  flourish  still 
more,  and  hence  we  often  see  on  farms,  other- 
wise in  good  order,  fields  of  potatoes  in 
autumn  quite  overgrown  by  weeds. 

The  proceedings  in  making  up  and  turning 
dunghills  are  much  the  same  in  this  country 
as  those  recommended  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
except  that  they  are  scarcely  so  methodical, 
and  that  the  loomen  would  be  highly  indig- 
nant at  the  idea  of  their  taking  a  share  in 
such  an  employment,  even  if  they  were  to  be 
allowed  the  privilege  of  the  Berwickshire 
females  with  regard  to  their  petticoats. 

!Men  must  become  few  in  number,  and  defi- 
cient in  energy,  before  American  women  are 
driven  to  turning  over  our  dunghills  as  a 
means  of  earning  their  bread.  I  can  see 
women  employed  in  some  light  and  neat 
work  in  tiie  hay  field  or  corn  field  with  more 
patience,  though  not  even  then  with  approval ; 
but  such  an  occupation  as  this  seems  to  me 
calculated  to  destroy  all  remains  of  feminine 
delicacy,  and  all  of  that  natural  womanly 
refinement  which  we  expect  to  see  even  in 
the  wife  and  daughters  of  the  humblest  cot- 
tager, and  which  in  every  station  is  invaluable 
for  its  softening  and  civilizing  influence  upon 
the  other  sex.  If  our  women  are  to  become 
as  coarse  and  masculine  as  our  men,  which 
must  be  the  result  of  engaging  constantly  in 
such  employments,  we  may  bid  farewell  to 
that  remarkably  high  degree  of  cultivation, 
propriety,  and  intelligence,  for  which  ■  the 
poorer  classes  in  many  of  our  States  are  so 
justly  distinguished. 

The  practice  among  many  of  our  best 
formers  of  carting  weeds,  vegetable  mould, 
leaves,  earth,  &.c.,  into  their  yards,  and  spread- 
ing them  over  the  surface  before  winter  sets 
in,  has  been  already  alluded  to.  These  ma- 
terials, during  winter  and  spring,  become 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  straw  and  manin-e 
which  accumulate,  and  also  soak  up  a  great 
portion  of  liquid  which  would  otherwise  liave 
escaped,  and  run  away  from  yards  having  no 
tank.  If  a  portion  of  the  manure  is  carted 
out  to  make  a  heap  in  spring,  this  earth,  &,c., 
is  of  further  use  to  check  too  rapid  fermenta- 
tion. A  layer  of  fresh  earth  may  with  advan- 
tage be  applied  upon  the  top  of  the  heap  for 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


35 


the  same  purpose,  and  also  to  absorb  ammo- 
nia, wliich  might  otherwise  escape  during 
fermentation.  A  little  gypsum  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  mingled  with  the  outer  layer,  will  ma- 
terially aid  this  action.  It  would  be  found 
an  excellent  plan  to  pump  or  pour  the  liquid 
from  a  tank,  or  from  hollows  in  the  barn 
yard,  upon  the  surface  of  such  heaps. 

Tliey  ought  to  be  located  so  that  their 
di'ainings  could  not  run  away  from  the  land. 
Many  tarmers  make  the  top  of  their  compost 
heap  quite  flat,  or  even  a  little  inclining  from 
the  circumference  to  the  centre,  in  or(Jer  that 
the  rain  which  falls  may  soak  in  rather  than 
run  off.  In  the  climate  of  Britain  this  would 
probably  make  the  heaps  too  wet ;  but  here, 
where  we  have  so  much  dry  sunny  weather, 
after  the  period  at  which  sueli  heaps  are  made 
up.  I  do  not  think  that  any  injurious  result 
arises  from  such  a  practice. 

Where  dmig  is  thoroughly  fermented  in 
heaps,  unless  great  care  be  exercised,  there 
will  be  a  veiy  considerable  loss  during  the 
process,  both  by  drainage  and  evaporation. 
This  decrease  is  to  the  amount  of  nearly  half, 
unless  a  portion  of  the  escape  is  in  some  way 
intercepted.  The  various  methods  already 
indicated  will  preserve  mucli  of  it,  and,  of 
course,  increase  in  an  equal  degree  the  avail- 
able resources  of  the  farm.  Manure  will  not, 
oa  much  of  the  land  in  this  country,  bear  to 
be  applied  in  as  long  and  unfermented  a  state 
as  might  be  proper  and  advisable  in  Scotland 
or  England.  The  climate  there,  as  has  been 
explained,  is  damp  and  rainy,  and  for  this 
reason  the  fermentation  and  decomposition 
of  manure  goes  on  during  the  whole  season 
in  tlie  soil.  Here,  on  the  other  hand,  if  long 
manure  be  buried  at  tlie  usual  depth,  particu- 
larly if  it  is  dry  w'nen  applied,  it  will  fre- 
quently in  most  soils  remain  almost  entirely 
unclianged  through  the  whole  season,  particu- 
larly if  the  land  is  light.  On  heavy  land  such  a 
result  need  not  usually  be  apprehended ;  but  for 
light  land  in  this  climate,  yard  manure  is  most 
economically  and  advantiigtously  applied  in  a 
decomposi'd  condition.  Tiie  crop  then  re- 
ceives the  benefit  of  its  application  imme- 
diately, and  thus  it  is  plain  that  tlie  unavoid- 
able loss  which  must,  with  every  precaution, 
occur  during  fermentation,  is  after  all,  under 
certain  circumstances,  profitable. 

This  distinction  between  tlie  action  of  dif- 
ferent soils  on  rnnnure,  rendering  it  advisable 
to  apply  it  in  different  states  of  decompusi- 
tioii,  is  worthy  of  more  attention  than  our 
farmers  have  hitherto  bestowed  upon  it.  In 
close  connexion  with  this  subjecl  is  also  to 
be  studied,  with  prospect  of  advanfcige,  the 
state  in  which  manure  is  best  adapted  to  tlie 
several  crops.  Much  information  upon  both 
of  these  points  is  to  be  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  prasent  work. 

The  degree  of  care  in  the  preparation  of 


manure,  described  in  paragraphs  2727  to 
2730,  is  cci-t:iLnly  for  beyond  anytiiing  that 
we  see  in  this  country,  and  is,  I  rather  think, 
some  degrees  beyond  tlie  majority  even  of 
British  farmers. 

2732.  On  the  planting  of  potatoes.  The 
old  system  of  planting  potatoes  which  for- 
merly prevailed,  and  does  still  prevail  in  many 
districts,  was — to  excavate  a  h.rge  hole  with 
the  hoe  as  the  first  step ;  into  this  a  fork  full  ^ 
of  manure  was  dropped,  the  potatoe  deposited  ' 
on  the  manure,  and  the  whole  then  covered 
with  the  hoe  again.  This  way  of  planting  is  so 
tedious,  and  so  slovenly,  that  it  ouglit  at  once 
to  be  abandoned  wherever  any  oilier  mode 
is  practicable.  I  am  aware,  at  tJie  same  time,  " 
that  on  much  of  our  newly-c'.iared  land — 
abounding  with  stumps,  roots,  and  stones — 
the  highly-finished  methods  described  under 
this  head  cannot  be  adopted.  I  liave  repeat- 
edly seen  attempts  at  such  methods  fail, 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  covering  the 
potatoes  properly  and  equally. 

Even  on  very  rough  land,  however,  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Scotch  process  may  be  prac- 
tised with  advantage.  A  single  deop  furrow 
may  be  ploughed,  into  the  bottom  of  which 
the  dung  and  potatoes  are  dropped,  and  then 
covered  with  a  hoe.  The  soft  earth  from 
the  upturned  furrow  renders  the  covering 
both  quick  and  easy  work.  On  mellow,  clear 
land,  the  Scotch  method  is  now  in  common 
use.  I  have  never  seen  it  carried  out  in  such 
perfection  of  detail  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  236, 
but  have  no  doubt  that  such  an  arrangement 
and  subdivision  of  work  might  advant^:ge- 
ously  be  practised  for  planting  on  a  large 
scale,  always  substituting  men  and  boys  for 
women  and  girls. 

Shice  the  almost  universal  prevalence  of 
the  potatoe  disease,  it  has  not  been  the  pr  ic- 
tice  to  manure  very  highly  for  this  crop.  The 
general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  tlie  most 
luxuriant  crops  are  particularly  liable  to  suffer. 
Many  farmers  substitute  various  mineral  ma- 
nures, for  a  por.ion  of  the  whole  of  that  wiiich 
they  have  been  accustomed  to  apply  from  their 
barn  yards.  Some  have  thought  that  in  this 
way  they  had  discovered  an  infallible  remedy, 
and  accordingly,  lime,  gypsum,  cliarcoal,  com- 
mon salt,  &c.,  (fcc,  have  all  been  strongly 
recommended.  These  substances  do,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  seem  to  exert  a  modifying  influ- 
ence; but  it  is  none  the  less  estibli.-hed  that 
they  all  have  failed,  not  only  once,  but  many 
tunes. 

It  would  be  of  no  service  to  enter  further 
upon  this  much  vexed  question,  as,  aftex  all, 
we  must  end  with  tlie  confession,  that  our 
knowledge  of  it  is  quite  imperfect.  We  have 
been  for  a  time  comparatively  free  from  its 
r;'.vages,  and  may  hope  that  it  will  not  afgain 
become  generally  prevalent. 

2738.  The  practice  of  cutting  seed  potatoes, 


36 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


when  of  fair  size,  is  almost  universal,  but  there 
are  many  who  are  tempted  to  sell  otf  all  that 
are  marketable,  and  reserve  only  the  very 
small  ones  for  seed.  It  is  true  that  Mr. 
Stephens  pives  an  instance  where  such  plant- 
ing was  quite  successful,  but  I  think  that  the 
ex])L'rience  of  farmers  generally  would  be 
against  him  on  this  point,  and  would  decide 
that  it  is  with  the  potatoe  as  with  other  crops, 
— poor  seed  cannot  be  depended  upon  for 
good  crops. 

2741.  It  is  quite  common  to  defer  the  cut- 
ting of  seed  potatoes  until  the  very  day  of 
planting  ;  indeed  this  p;irt  of  the  work  is  fre- 
quently done  by  an  old  man  or  a  boy  in  the 
field  itself  I  think  that  such  a  practice  causes 
the  loss  of  many  j)lant8,  the  freshly  cut  sur- 
face afl'ording  a  ready  lodgment  for  decay. 
This  evil  influence  is  particulnrly  felt  wlien  a 
cold,  wet  season  after  planting,  retards  vege- 
tation, as  then  the  decay  has  more  time  to 
spread.  Even  when  it  does  not  quite  prevent 
the  young  shoot  from  putting  forth,  and  ap- 
pearing above  the  surface,  it  renders  the  sub- 
sequent growth  sickly  and  stinted,  because 
of  the  scanty  nourishment  which  is  received 
at  tirst  from  the  p.iriially  decayed  parent 
tuber.  When  the  |>otatoes  are  cut  a  few 
days  before  planting,  and  spread  as  recom- 
mended in  par.  2741,  the  water  evaporates 
from  the  freshly  cut  surface,  and  leaves  a 
white  coating  of  starch.  This  becomes  so 
thick  as  to  almost  equal  the  real  skin  of  the 
potato  in  its  protecting  powers;  and  the  cut 
piece  may  often  be  taken  u])  with  it  unbroken 
at  tlie  end  of  the  season,  when  the  crop  has 
ripened. 

I  believe  that  it  is  universally  conceded  at 
present,  that  the  rose,  or  the  crown  end,  of 
the  potatoe,  is  that  which  is  by  far  the  most 
valuable  for  planting,  and  that  the  usual  way 
of  cutting  is  to  divide  the  potato  lengthwise, 
rather  than  as  marked  in  Fig.  234. 

2742.  It  seems  necessary  to  enforce  Mr. 
Stephens's  caution  as  to  the  use  for  seed  of 
potatoes  that  have  already  sprouted.  I  have 
had  some  experience  with  such  seed  myself, 
and  have  frequently  seen  others  fall  into  the 
same  error.  Seed  potatoes,  and  in  fact  all 
others,  should  be  kept  in  some  place  where 
the  temperature  is  so  low  as  to  prevent  them 
from  sprouting,  and  growing  together,  in  such 
masses  as  may  frequently  be  seen.  It  is  not 
uiiconnnon,  in  some  cellars,  for  this  growth  to 
proceed  so  far  that  newpot;itoes  of  small  size 
are  found  among  the  old  on  removing  them. 
In  such  cases,  while  tearing  the  masses  of 
potatoes  apart,  in  cutting  them,  and  finally 
transporting  them  to  the  field,  these  long 
shoots  are  so  bruised,  broken  off,  or  wilted, 
that  they  will  not  grow.  But  their  produc- 
tion has  been  a  drain  upon  the  substance  of 
the  potatoes.  Tliey  are  no  longer  firm,  but 
soft,  and  as  if  withered ;  a  portion  of  their 


first  and   best   vital    energies  has   been  c.t- 

E ended,  and  a  considerable  time  must  elapse 
efore  there  is  sullieient  strength  to  put  forth 
new  shfiots,  if  indeed  they  accomplish  this  at 
all.  Every  one  who  has  seen  the  (juantiiy  of 
shoots  and  roots  that  are  removed  from  a 
bushel  of  potatoes,  when  they  have  grown 
badly  before  taking  out  to  plant,  will  under- 
stand that  the  loss  suffered  in  this  way  is  of 
a  serious  nature. 

It  is  rather  a  favorite  practice  in  this  coun- 
try to  plant  potatoes  on  the  first  breaking  up 
of  new  ground,  and  also  on  the  first  plough- 
ing of  tough  sward,  or  of  old  grass  land. 
The  cultivation  of  potatoes,  and  the  peculiar 
natural  growth  of  the  crop,  leaves  sueh  land 
in  a  fine  mellow  state.  In  some  cases  ma- 
nure is  spread  upon  the  turf,  and  then  turned 
under  by  the  plough.  Sometimes  the  manure 
and  the  potatoes  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
every  alternate  furrow,  and  then  covered  as 
before.  Very  good  crops  are  often  obtiiined 
on  turf  without  the  use  of  manure,  and  the 
potatoes  grown  in  this  way  are  frequently  of 
excellent  quality.  I  have  seen  notices  of  fine 
crops  where  the  furrow  slices  of  turf  were 
laid  over  quite  flat,  and  the  potatoes  then 
planted  in  holes  made  between  the  edges  of 
the  furrows,  so  that  they  were  actually  laid 
under  tiie  turf.  Crops  grown  in  all  of  the 
foregoing  ways  are  apt  to  be  very  grassy  and 
weedy,  and  are  moreover  extremely  difficult 
in  many  cases  to  clean. 

A  practice  pursued  in  some  of  the  Southern 
States  is,  to  plant  the  potatoe  in  the  usual 
way,  covering  it  very  lightly,  and  then  to 
strew  the  soil  with  straw,  or  young  fine 
branches,  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  It  is 
said  that  the  potatoes  produced  by  means  of 
this  singular  method  are  abundant.  No  cul- 
tivation  of  any  kind  is  required  after  the 
planting  and  covering  is  over,  as  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  the  growth  of  weeds. 

In  the  Northern  States  some  farmers  pur- 
sue a  practice  slightly  analogous  to  this,  in 
placing  the  manure  above  the  potatoes,  and 
then  covering  lightly  with  earth. 

These  methods  both  derive  a  considerable 
degree  of  theoretical  ])lausi])ility  from  the 
fact,  that  tlie  growth  of  the  potatoe  tubers 
seems  to  be  rather  towards  the  surface  than 
downwards.  The  original  tuber  or  set  planted 
is  usually  quite  as  low  in  the  earth  as  any 
that  have  grown  from  it.  Every  fixrmer  knows 
that  when  his  crop  is  heavy,  it  is  frequently 
difficult  to  prevent  entirely  the  protrusion  of 
some  of  the  potatoes  above  the  surface.  In 
an  account  of  one  of  the  southern  methods 
before  described,  I  have  seen  it  related  that 
the  new  potatoes  were  nearly  all  found  abotp 
the  inverted  turf,  while  the  original  set  had 
been  planted  brlotv  it. 

It  does  not,  therefore,  seem  unreasonable 
to  suppose  that  there  may  be  an  advantage, 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


37 


when  planting,  in  placing  at  least  a  part  of  the 
manure  above  the  potatoe.  Another  reason 
why  this  practice  may  be  a  good  one  in  dry 
soils  is,  that  the  manure  or  turf  above  tlie 
seed  is  more  ethcacious  in  keeping  it  always 
moist  during  the  enrly  part  of  its  growth,  and 
until  the  plant  is  large  enough  to  shade  the 
ground  for  itself 

2752  and  2753.  The  care  manifested  in 
these  and  other  paragraphs,  relative  to  the 
speedy  deposition  of  the  manure  and  cover- 
ing of  the  seed,  after  the  drills  are  opened, 
may  well  be  copied  among  us ;  for  witiiout 
doubt  the  growth  is  likely  to  be  more  ra])id 
and  vigorous  when  the  potatoes  are  planted 
in  a  fresh  warm  soil,  before  the  manure  has 
time  to  dry  up  and  lose  a  portion  of  its  value 
by  evaporation. 

It  is  very  extensively  the  custom  to  dust 
over  each  hill  of  potatoes  with  plaster,  often 
mixed  with  ashes,  soon  after  the  young  shoots 
appear  above  the  surface :  this  is  certainly  an 
excellent  application.  On  most  soils  the  con- 
stituents of  gypsum  (plaster),  and  of  ashes 
also  when  those  are  used,  are  directly  avail- 
able for  the  inorganic  part  of  the  potatoe. 
Where  these  chemical  ingredients  are  already 
present  in  the  soil,  this  addition  upon  the  sur- 
face is  still  of  use  by  attracting  moisture, 
thereby  keeping  the  earth  immediately  around 
the  tender  plant  in  a  mellow  and  soft  condi- 
tion. 

Nearly  all  of  the  improved  varieties  of 
foreign  potatoes  have  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  and  we  have  besides  these  an 
immense  number  of  kinds  resulting  from  seed 
in  our  own  soil. 

Perhaps  no  variety  has  been  more  exten- 
sively cultivated  at  the  north  than  the  Mercer, 
or  Clienango,  or  Neshannock  potatoe.  It  is  a 
rather  long,  white,  and  flat  tuber,  yields  well, 
and  is  excellent  for  the  table.  It  has  proved 
on  many  farms  more  than  usually  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  disease.  The  Carters  are  con- 
sidered unsurpassed  for  the  table. 

Tlie  Early  Shaw,  or  Mountain  June,  or 
Early  June  potatoe,  is  a  somewhat  celebrated 
early  variety,  of  remarkable  excellence  for 
eating.  It  is  not  a  great  bearer,  but  is  said 
almost  invariably  to  escape  the  attacks  of 
disease. 

The  Long  Red,  or  Long  John  potatoe,  also 
called  the  Merino,  attains  often  to  a  very 
great  size,  and  is  extremely  prolific ;  but,  like 
most  large  potatoes,  not  remarkable  for  the 
table.  It  has  a  very  long  tuber,  with  nume- 
rous eyes,  often  deeply  sunk. 

The  Cow  Horn,  Lady  Finger,  and  Western 
or  Buffalo  Red  potatoes,  are  not  very  gene- 
rally cultivated,  nor  are  they  very  desirable 
varieties  for  ordinary  cultivation. 

Beside  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Long 
Whites,  the  Blue,  White,  and  Red  Kidneys, 
the  Pink  Eyes,  the  Blue  Points  or  Blue  Noses, 


&c.,-&c.  Many  of  these  are  standard  varie- 
ties, but  I  can  only  mention  their  names 
here. 

The  coarse  varieties  are  not  general  favor- 
ites. A  French  potatoe  of  this  description, 
called  the  Rohan,  will  be  remembered  by 
many.  It  was  extremely  productive,  and 
caused  a  great  sensation.  Single  tubers,  or 
even  slices  with  one  or  two  eyes,  were  sold 
at  high  prices  for  a  time;  but  the  quality  was 
soon  found  to  be  very  inferior,  and  it  was  also 
discovered  that,  after  all,  its  ca[)acities  did  not 
extend  to  the  production  of  large  crops  on 
poor  or  unmanured  soil.  The  excitement 
consequently  died  away,  and  the  name  of 
Rohan  potatoe  is  now  seldom  heard,  unless 
coupled  with  some  epithet  of  disapproba- 
tion. 

2780.  I  do  not  think  that  any  such  degree 
of  despondency  as  is  here  expressed  by  Mr. 
Stephens,  is  felt  in  this  country.  The  dis- 
ease among  the  potatoes  has  prevailed  exten- 
sively, it  is  true,  but  never  so  extensively  or 
so  universally  as  in  Europe,  excepting,  per- 
haps, some  limited  sections.  For  several 
years  its  prevalence  seems  to  have  been 
rapidly  decreasing,  and  from  many  States  we 
hear  nothing  of  it.  Alarm  seems  to  have 
subsided  in  a  great  degree.  It  is  true  that  we 
may  be  attacked  again,  and  even  moi'e  fatally 
than  before ;  and  yet  there  is  good  reason 
to  think  that  our  knowledge  of  the  causes 
and  phenomena  of  disease  has  become  so 
extensive,  that  we  can  hope  to  combat  it  a 
second  time  more  successfully  than  at  first. 
Our  tarmers  at  present,  from  anything  that 
I  can  perceive,  cultivate  the  potatoe  crop  as 
extensively  as  they  have  ever  done. 

2797.  It  has  been  supposed  by  many,  that 
the  potatoe  became  diseased  from  the  effects 
of  too  long  cultivation  in  very  rich  soils,  and 
that  by  returning  to  its  native  country,  and 
bringing  thence  a  new  stock,  we  might  go  on 
again  with  the  crop  vigorous  and  healthy  for 
a  number  of  years.  In  several  instances 
potatoes  have  been  brought  from  South 
America;  but  I  have  been  unable  to  learn 
that  these  in  any  case  have  proved  more  free 
from  disease  than  the  varieties  originated 
here. 

The  same  result  seems  to  have  uniformly 
attended  the  efforts  to  raise  disease-proof 
varieties  from  the  seed.  In  numerous  cases 
new  and  seemingly  hardy  varieties,  produced 
freshly  from  seed,  have  failed  quite  as  badly 
as  any  others. 

2805.  The  general  remarks  in  this  and  the 
preceding  paragraph,  as  to  the  inferiority  ot 
street  manure  to  good  yard  manure,  are 
doubtless  correct  ;  such  an  inferiority  is 
what  we  shotild  naturally  expect,  from  our 
knowledge  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  the 
two  manures.  I  do  not,  however,  agree  with 
the  following  quotation  from  Professor  Low  . 


38 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


"  Lime  does  not  appear  to  :icf  in  a  beneficial 
manner,  and  is  ran-ly  ;ij>plied  directly  to  this 
crop." 

The  best  analyses  of  the  potatoe  tops,  leaves, 
and  stems  toj,'elher,  siiow  that  they  eont^iin  a 
very  considerable  proportion  of  lime  :  hence, 
althou<;h  there  is  not  a  large  quantity  m  the 
tuber,  this  substance  is  valuable  for  the 
growth  of  tiie  stem  and  leaves.  From  its 
action  upon  these  parts  of  the  potatoe  result 
the  good  effects  spoken  of  by  Professor 
Johnston,  as  known  to  be  produced  by  liming 
the  potatoe  crop  after  it  is  above  ground,  and 
before  it  is  earthed  up.  Much  of  the  benefit 
arising  from  the  application  of  plaster  in  this 
country,  probably  arises  from  tlie  lime  which 
it  contains.  It  is  also  on  many  soils  e.\treniely 
valuable  for  the  potatoe  crop,  on  account  of 
the  decomposing  influence  which  it  exerts  so 
powerfully  upon  every  kind  of  vegetable 
matter.  This  is  especially  true  when  pota- 
toes are  planted  upon  cold,  sour,  imperfectly 
drained  land.  Here  lime  sweetens  the  soil 
by  neutralizing  the  hurtful  vegetable  acids, 
and  forms  with  these  acirls  combinations 
that  ;ire  actually  nutritious  for  the  plant. 

•j810.  Tlie  quantity  of  nitrogen  here  said 
to  e.xist  in  the  potatoe  sprouts  is  to  be  noticed 
as  bearing  upon  what  I  have  already  stated, 
relative  to  the  injury  suffered  by  allowing  the 
shoots  to  grow  long,  and  to  be  broken  oft' 
before  planting. 

281.3.  On  paring  and  burning  the  surface. 
The  flancliter  spade,  Fig.  238,  I  have  never 
seen  in  this  country,  but  think  that  it  might 
be  used  occasionally  with  advantiige  where  a 
plough  could  not  do  the  work.  Thus,  in 
draining  a  bog,  where  the  surface  is  covered 
with  bunches  of  bent  grass,  and  otlier  sour 
wiry  grasses,  the  hummocks  forincd  bv  t!ie 
roots  of  which  are  almost  imlestructiijle.  it  is 
necessary  to  dispose  of  these  obstacles  to 
successful  cultivation  as  speedily  as  possible. 
If  the  bog  is  deep  and  soft,  it  is  not  probable 
that  the  drains  will  dry  it  sulHcienlly  during 
the  first  season  for  the  access  of  cattle  and 
ploughs ;  in  that  case  an  imjilement  of  this 
kind  would  save  much  time,  by  cutting  up 
the  lumps  and  bogs,  so  as  to  pnpare  the  land 
for  ploughing  at  an  early  period  in  the  next 
season.  These  bogs,  after  drying,  when  piled 
in  lii-aps,  will  burn  as  di-rcriUci  by  Mr.  Ste- 
phens. The  asiies,  spread  over  the  surfice, 
and  finally  ploughed  in,  form  one  of  the  best 
vju-ieties  of  manure  for  the  amelioration  of 
sucii  boggy,  peaty  land.  I  have  seen  cases 
in  Scotland  where  this  burning  was  repeated 
year  afier  ye;ir,  until  the  surface  of  the  field 
iiad  been  lowered  several  feet,  and  a  fine  rich 
soil  formed  from  the  mixed  peaty  substance 
and  the  ashes.  In  other  cases  they  take  off" 
several  crops  after  the  fir-t  burning,  and  then, 
when  its  effects  begin  to  fail,  burn  again. 
When  a  bog  is  formed  of  vegetable  muck, 


the  first  biirning,  destroying  the  bents  and 
bogs  on  the  surface,  will  be  found  siithcient ; 
for  this  material  comes  very  speedily  into  a 
state  fit  for  cultivation,  after  it  is  laid  dry. 
Put  where  a  real  peat  has  formed,  repeated 
burnings  may  be  necessary,  for  peat  nsists 
all  decomposuig  influences  with  great  obsti- 
nacy, particuliirly  when  once  dried.  If  it  has 
lain  in  the  sun  for  a  time,  no  amount  of  soak- 
ing seems  competent  afterwards  to  soften  or 
dissolve  it.  Among  stones,  unless  great  care 
were  exercised,  this  flancliter  spade  would 
sjieedily  become  dull  and  useless. 

I  do  not  think  that  in  our  climate  such  an 
expensive  implement  as  that  shown  by  Fig. 
240  is  at  ail  necessary.  Any  plough  which 
would  turn  a  wide  thin  tiuf  on  edge  \vould 
answer  the  purpose,  and  in  the  last  days  of 
summer  the  whole  surface  would  soon  be- 
come as  combustible  as  tinder.  In  fact  some 
bogs  can  be  burned  pretty  deeply  in  diy  sea- 
sons,  by  merely  setting  fire  to  the  untouched 
surface. 

In  most  situations  it  does  not  seem  to  me 
advisable  to  do  more  than  merely  bum  the 
surface  parings,  because  by  iroing  deeper  we 
destroy  organic  matter,  which,  if  not  valuable 
in  its  original  situation,  might  be  used  with 
great  advantage  in  forming  composts,  &c.,  for 
other  land. 

On  land  which  can  be  cultivated  without  it, 
as  is  said  in  par.  2840,  burning  should  not  be 
employed  at  all.  It  is,  I  think,  only  to  be 
advised  in  this  country  under  the  circum- 
stances already  de.>^cribed. 

2842.  I  must  confess  that  the  test  men- 
tioned here  is  a  strange  one  to  be  applied  in 
all  cases,  and  diubt  if  it  will  aflord  results 
which  are  so  infallible  as  the  author  seems  to 
consider  them. 

2843  to  29.58.  In  addition  to  these  con- 
cludin:,'  paragraphs  of  spring,  embr.icing  the 
farrowing  of  sows,  and  the  various  points 
connected  with  the  hatching  and  rearing  of 
fowls,  I  can  s;iy  little.  The  latter  is  a  sub- 
ject which  is  now  engaging  much  attention, 
particularly  among  amateur  farmers,  who  ftre 
importing  all  of  the  finest  foreign  varieties, 
and  are  making  improved  breeds  quite  com- 
mon in  the  Eastern  States.  'J'liere  has  been 
such  a  number  of  works  issued  within  the 
last  few  years,  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
who  are  new  in  the  management  of  this 
feather  d  stock,  that  any  observations  from 
me  would  seem  ut'erly  superfluous.  I  cannot 
help  thinking,  however,  ot  the  horror  and  dis- 
belief with  which  many  fowl  fanciers  will 
read  pjir.  2954,  wherein  Mr.  Stepliens  cou- 
rageously asserts  that  the  pip  and  other  like 
diseases  that  chickens  are  heir  to,  are  a  spe- 
cies of  popular  fallacy,  and  actually  calls  them 
absurdities.  I  am  convinced  that  .sundry 
zealous  advocates  will  immediately  tiike  up 
the  cause  of  the  pip,  and  mauitain  it  as  stoutly 


AMERICAN  APPENDLX— SPRING. 


39 


as  certain  of  our  farming  friends  do  the  trans- 
mutation of  wheat  into  chess,  perhaps  with 
more  truth. 

Any  notes,  however  brief,  upon  American 
agriculture,  would  seem  incomplete  without 
at  least  a  few  words  relative  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  our  greatest  national  crop — Indian 
corn.  This  is  a  chief  article  of  produce  from 
north  to  south,  and  from  east  to  west.  The 
varieties  cultivated  in  Canada,  and  the  North- 
ern States  generally,  while  less  imposing  in 
appearance,  produce  equally  well  with  the 
large  southern  varieties,  having  stalks  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  feet  in  length. 

Indeed  tlie  premium  crops  at  the  north  are 
usually  larger  than  those  that  we  hear  of  at 
the  soutii,  while  the  average  product  per  acre 
of  New  York,  Ohio,  and  other  Northern 
States,  is,  to  say  the  least,  quite  as  higli  as 
that  of  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
the  other  great  corn  growing  States  of  the 
south.  The  aggregate  amount  of  the  crop 
for  the  whole  Union  is  enormous,  being  pro- 
bably near  600,000,000  of  bushels  in  a  favor- 
able year. 

April  and  May  are  the  months  for  planting 
corn  at  the  north.  It  is  seldom  that  much  is 
done  before  the  15th  of  x\pril,  and  it  occa- 
sionally runs  rather  far  into  June.  The  pre- 
\ious  cultivation  should  not  differ  materially 
from  that  previously  described  as  best  for 
potatoes,  the  great  aim  being  to  secure  a 
deep  and  mellow  soil.  The  land  is  generally 
ploughed  during  the  preceding  autumn,  and 
then  cross-ploughed  in  spring.  Many,  how- 
ever, prefer  planting  immediately  upon  the 
turf,  turning  it  over  flat,  and  harrowing  until 
a  good  depth  of  tine  mould  is  secured.  Ex- 
cellent crops  may  be  grown  in  this  waj%  but 
if  the  turf  is  not  turned  entirely  over,  or  if  it 
is  disturbed  by  the  harrows,  the  tield  is  apt 
to  be  very  grassy  and  weedy.  On  the  western 
prairies  a  boy  is  sometimes  set  to  follow  the 
plough,  and  drop  seed  in  every  other  furrow; 
the  next  furrow  is  turned  over  upon  it,  thus 
layhig  the  grass  side  on  the  corn.  This  is 
called  a  sod  crop,  and  could  only  be  success- 
ful, even  in  an  ordinary  degree,  upon  land 
naturally  very  light  and  mellow.  In  some 
places  it  is  the  practice,  when  ploughing  grass 
land  for  Indian  corn,  to  turn  two  furrows  in 
opposite  directions,  so  that  they  meet  together 
and  form  a  broad  ridge,  leaving  the  turf  under 
them  undisturbed.  Tlie  corn  is  planted  on 
these  ridges,  and  is  often  quite  good,  but  the 
practice  is  extremely  slovenly.  The  crop  is 
inevitably  grassy,  unless  the  greatest  care  is 
taken  in  cleaning,  and  that  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected from  farmers  who  pursue  such  a 
system:  a  portion  of  the  ground,  nearly  half 
in  fact,  is  left  undisturbed,  so  that  the  roots 
only  penetrate  it  with  difficulty,  if  at  all. 

The  custom  of  manuring  corn  in  the  hill, 
after  the  same  manner  that  I  have  mentioned 


unde?  the  head  of  potatoes,  is  happily  fast 
becoming  obsolete.  The  manure  is  now 
either  spread  broadcast  before  ploughing,  or 
placed  in  drills,  the  former  being  the  preva- 
lent mode.  Heavy  manuring  is  essential  to 
this  crop  on  most  land  :  but  where  the  soil  is 
already  very  fertile,  there  is  some  danger  of 
forcing  too  luxuriant  a  growth  of  stalks  and 
leaves,  so  that  the  ears  are  small  and  ill 
ripened.  This  is  particularly  to  be  feared  on 
such  land  when  highly  nitrogenous  manures 
are  added;  inorganic  manures  might,  at  the 
same  time,  prove  beneficial. 

It  the  land  is  poor,  and  not  well  manured, 
a  distance  of  three  feet  between  the  hills 
seems  advisable.  In  the  opposite  case,  two 
feet  and  a  half  in  one  direction  by  two  in  the 
other,  is  not  uncommon  :  although  three  feet 
between  the  rows  seems  better,  as  admitting 
light  and  air  more  freely,  and  also  the  passage 
of  a  cultivator  between  the  rows  in  one  direc- 
tion. It  has  even  been  planted  at  distances 
of  a  foot  in  the  rows,  and  very  heavy  crops 
have  been  thus  obtained,  but  only  by  the  use 
of  a  variety  having  a  small  stalk,  upon  a 
remarkably  rich  soil,  and  with  the  concur- 
rence of  a  very  favorable  season.  In  all 
ordinary  cases,  such  thick  planting  only  pro- 
duces a  great  burden  of  stalks  and  leaves, 
with  little  corn,  pnd  that  of  an  inferior 
quality. 

Two  and  a  half  feet  in  the  rows,  and  three 
feet  between  them,  seem  proper  distances  to 
recommend  for  good  soils  at  the  north ;  the 
southern  varieties  are  so  large  that  three, 
fonr,  and  even  five  feet,  are  always  left 
between  the  hills  in  each  direction. 

Marking  the  rows  with  a  marker  is  fast 
becoming  universal ;  the  appearance  of  the 
crop  is  not  only  neater,  but  its  cultivation 
easier  and  more  effective,  for  the  reason  that 
all  horse  implements  pass  readily  through  tiie 
rows  at  a  gauged  width,  the  only  care  being 
to  keep  the  horse  in  a  straight  line. 

I  have  already,  under  the  proper  head, 
mentioned  the  necessity  of  a  good  machine 
for  dropping  corn  in  hills  at  equal  intervals, 
and  have  described  one  which  seemed  well 
adapted  to  the  correct  performance  of  this 
operation. 

The  soaking  of  Indian  corn,  for  twelve 
hours  before  planting,  promotes  the  rapidity 
and  certainty  of  its  vegetation.  If  left  in 
water  so  long  as  to  sprout,  there  is  danger 
of  its  perishing  in  case  a  few  days  of  dry 
weather  succeed  the  planting.  Various  steeps 
have  been  found  beneficial.  Nitrate  of  potash, 
or  saltpetre,  a  little  common  salt,  or  a  small 
proportion  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas, 
have  been  frequently  used  with  marked  efiect; 
muriate  of  ammonia  is  another  good  ingre- 
dient of  this  steep.  An  excellent  practice  is 
to  roll  the  seeds,  while  }n:it  moist  from  the 
steep,  m  plaster  of  Paris;  some  also  recom- 


^^ 


40 


AMERICAN  APPENDIX— SPRING. 


mend  a  covering  of  tar  pre\-iou8  to  applnng 
the  plaster,  in  order  to  keep  off  crows.  There 
is  some  danger  of  making  a  thick,  hard  coat- 
ing in  this  way,  tliat  will  prevent  the  seed 
from  sprouting,  being  both  water  and  air 
proof. 

A  small  quantity  of  plaster,  or  of  plaster 
and  ashes  mixed,  also  occasionally  a  little 
lime,  is  often  thrown  upon  each  liill  of  com 
after  the  first  hoeing,  in  the  same  manner 
and  with  the  same  effect  that  has  been  men- 
tioned under  the  head  of  potatoes.  About  a 
gill  is  applied  to  each  hill. 

Care  is  well  bestowed  in  the  selection  of 
seed  for  this  important  crop.  For  this  pur- 
pose early  and  well  formed  ears,  from  stalks 
having  at  least  two  each,  should  be  selected 
in  the  field,  picked,  and  kept  by  themselves 
in  a  dry  place,  until  required  for  use.  The 
seed  com  should  then  be  taken  from  the 
middle  of  the  cob  alone,  leaving  that  which 
covers  an  inch  or  two  on  each  end  as  inferior. 
This  latter  fact  has  been  proved  by  a  variety 
of  experiments. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  varieties  of  corn 
are  verv  numerous.  I  shall  only  notice  a  few 
of  tliose  that  are  most  prominent 

At  the  north,  yellow  varieties  greatly  pre- 
dominate, while  at  the  south,  we  find  more 
commonly  the  white,  having  seeds  of  superior 
size.  Many  varieties  are  only  designated  by 
the  number  of  rows  on  the  cob  :  there  is  the 
eight-rowed  white  flint,  the  eight-rowed  yel- 
low flint,  the  six-rowed,  the  twelve-rowed, 
(See. :  some  kinds  even  go  as  high  as  sixteen 
rows,  but  in  this  case  the  seed  is  small,  and 
the  cob  very  large  in  proportion. 

Other  kinds  are  named  from  the  shape  of 
their  seed.  Tlius,  a  number  of  varieties  of 
gourd  seed  corn  are  in  great  repute  at  the 
south  and  west.  These  have  a  remarkably 
lar?e  seed,  lighter  and  more  farinaceous  than 
the  flint  varieties  generally  cultivated  at  the 
north,  making  also  a  whiter  and  more  taste- 
less meal. 

A  variety  called  the  China  tree  com  has 
been  highly  spoken  of  at  the  south,  but  I 
liave  never  seen  iti  It  is  said  to  produce  a 
\ct\-  unusual  amount  of  leaves,  and  is  there- 
fore valuable  for  fodder.     The  small  Canada 


com  has  been  extensively  introduced  at  the 
north,  but  it  is  too  diminutive  a  variety  to 
compete  with  others  almost  cquallv  hardy 
and  early  in  ripening,  and  which  are  at  the 
same  time  far  more  productive :  such  are  the 
Button  and  the  Brown. 

The  Dutton  corn  is  extensively  cultivated, 
but  seems,  in  many  districts  at  least,  to  have 
passed  the  acme  of  its  popularity.  Its  cob  is 
verj'  large,  and  to  this  is  doubtless  to  be 
ascribed  a  part  of  its  present  disfavor.  These 
large  cobs  are  difficult  to  dry  tlioroughly 
when  the  com  is  stacked  before  husking,  or 
piled  in  the  crib  before  shelling. 

In  bad  seasons  tins  peculiarity  prevents  its  ^ 
early  drv'ing,  and  frequently  causes  it  to 
mould.  I  think  the  deterioration  in  this 
variety  is  owing  in  a  good  degree  to  care- 
lessness in  the  selection  of  seed,  and  to  mix- 
ture with  inferior  kinds.  It  is  probable  that 
careful  cultivation  for  a  few  years  would 
restore  much  of  its  original  celebrity,  as  I 
have  visited  many  farms  \diere  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  lost  ground  at  all. 

A  variety  which  has  gained  much  favor  in 
some  sections  within  the  last  few  years,  has 
been  called  the  Brown  com,  from  the  name 
of  its  originator,  a  drmer  on  one  of  the 
islands  in  Lake  Winipissiogee.  It  was  pro- 
duced by  careful  cultivation  in  a  high  lati- 
tude, and  for  successive  years,  of  selected 
seed  from  the  common  eight-rowed  yellowcorn. 
The  butt  ends  of  the  cobs  are  small,  and 
the  poiivts  entirely  covered  with  kernels.  The 
ears  are  from  ten  to  thirteen  inches  in  length, 
the  stalk  medium  size,  and  prolific.  More 
than  a  hundred  bushels  per  acre  have  been 
grown.  From  all  tliat  I  have  seen  and  heard 
of  this  variety,  I  am  inclined  to  tliink  that  we 
have  few  that  surpass  it 

The  Oregon  and  the  Baden  varieties  have 
been  cultivated  with  success  at  the  soutli. 
The  Golden  Sioux,  the  King  Philip,  and  the 
Yellow  Dent,  are  northern  vellow  varieties. 
The  Rhode  Island  white  flint  and  the  Tus- 
carora,  are  two  of  the  few  wliite  kinds  that 
have  found  favor  at  the  north.  The  Dutton 
corn  is  said  to  be  an  improved  variety  of  the 
Golden  Sioux. 


Libimiy 
K.  estate  College 


.^'■1 


Itk 


